2020 Special Education Research, Policy, & Practice

SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE

November 15, 2020 Volume 4, Issue 1 Table of Contents

Page

Editorial Board of Reviewers

3

Enhancing the Comprehension of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Teachers Share Their Experiences Gina Braun and Marie Tejero Hughes

6

Teachers as Behavior Professionals: Understanding the Experiences of Teachers as BCBAs Justin N. Coy and Jennifer L. Russell

27

An Exploratory Study of the Relationship between School Counselors and Special Education Teachers Marquis C. Grant

51

Special Education Law in the United States of America and the Sultanate of Oman Maryam Alakhzami and Morgan Chitiyo

62

Cultural Responsiveness in Reading Comprehension Interventions for English Learners with Learning Disabilities Sara Jozwik, Yojanna Cuenca-Carlino, Miranda Lin, April Mustian, and Stacey Hardin

74

Special Education Providers: Survey of Caseload Numbers, HQT, and Instructional Settings Patricia Prunty

95

1

Supporting Campus Navigation Knowledge via 3D Mapping Instruction among College Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Sharon Richter, Heather Hagan, and Cheryl Morgan

107

How are Functional Behavior Assessments (FBA) and Behavior Intervention Plans (BIP) Conducted in Public Schools? A Survey of Educators Andria Young and Terrisa Cortines

116

Evaluation and Practices of Mobile Applications as an Assistive Technology for Students with Dyslexia: A Systematic Review Nicole Bell and Julia VanderMolen

128

Behavior Management in the Early Childhood Classroom: Preschool Teachers’ Self-Reported Usage Prevention and Intervention Strategies Marla J. Lohmann

143

Author Guidelines

152

Publishing Process

153

Copyright and Reprint Rights

154

2

Editorial Board of Reviewers All members of the Hofstra University Special Education Department will sit on the Editorial Board for the SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE. Each of the faculty will reach out to professionals in the field whom he/she knows to start the process of building a list of peer reviewers for specific types of articles. Reviewer selection is critical to the publication process, and we will base our choice on many factors, including expertise, reputation, specific recommendations and previous experience of a reviewer.

Editor George Giuliani, J.D., Psy.D., Hofstra University Hofstra University Special Education Faculty Elfreda Blue, Ph.D. Stephen Hernandez, Ed.D. Gloria Lodato Wilson, Ph.D. Mary McDonald, Ph.D., BCBA Darra Pace, Ed.D. Diane Schwartz, Ed.D. Editorial Board Mohammed Alzyoudi, Ph.D., UAEU Faith Andreasen, Ph.D., Morningside College Vance L. Austin, Ph.D., Manhattanville College Amy Balin, Ph.D., Simmons College Dana Battaglia, Ph.D., Adelphi University Brooke Blanks, Ph.D., Radford University Kathleen Boothe, Ph.D., Southeastern Oklahoma State University Nicholas Catania, Ph.D. Candidate, University of South Florida Lindsey A. Chapman, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Miami Morgan Chitiyo, Ph.D., Duquesne University Jonathan Chitiyo, Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh at Bradford Heidi Cornell, Ph.D., Wichita State University Lesley Craig-Unkefer, Ed.D., Middle Tennessee State University Amy Davies Lackey, Ph.D., BCBA-D Josh Del Viscovo, MS, BCSE, Northcentral University Janet R. DeSimone, Ed.D., Lehman College, The City University of New York Lisa Dille, Ed.D., BCBA, Georgian Court University William Dorfman, B.A. (MA in progress), Florida International University Brandi Eley, Ph.D. Tracey Falardeau, M.A., Oklahoma State Department of Education Danielle Feeney, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Nevada, Las Vegas Lisa Fleisher, Ph.D., New York University

3

Neil O. Friesland, Ed.D., MidAmerica Nazarene University Theresa Garfield Dorel, Ed.D., Texas A&M University San Antonio Leigh Gates, Ed.D., University of North Carolina Wilmington Sean Green, Ph.D. Deborah W. Hartman, M.S., Cedar Crest College Shawnna Helf, Ph.D., Winthrop University Nicole Irish, Ed.D., University of the Cumberlands Randa G. Keeley, Ph.D., New Mexico State University Hyun Uk Kim, Ph.D., Simmons College Louisa Kramer-Vida, Ed.D., Long Island University Nai-Cheng Kuo, PhD., BCBA, Augusta University RenÊe E. Lastrapes, Ph.D., University of Houston-Clear Lake Debra Leach, Ed.D., BCBA, Winthrop University Marla J. Lohmann, Ph.D., Colorado Christian University Mary Lombardo-Graves, Ed.D., University of Evansville Pamela E. Lowry, Ed.D., Georgian Court University Matthew D. Lucas, Ed.D., Longwood University Jay R. Lucker, Ed.D., Howard University Jennifer N. Mahdavi, Ph.D., BCBA-D, Sonoma State University Alyson Martin, Ed.D., Fairfield University Marcia Montague, Ph.D., Texas A&M University Chelsea T. Morris, Ph.D. Candidate, University of Miami Gena Nelson, Ph.D. Candidate, American Institutes for Research Lawrence Nhemachena, MSc, Universidade Catolica de Mozambique Maria B. Peterson Ahmad, Ph.D., Western Oregon University Christine Powell. Ed.D., California Lutheran University Deborah Reed, Ph.D., University of Iowa Ken Reimer, Ph.D., University of Winnipeg Dana Reinecke, Ph.D., Long Island University-C.W. Post Denise Rich-Gross, Ph.D., University of Akron Benjamin Riden, ABD - Ph.D., Penn State Mary Runo, Ph.D., Kenyatta University Emily Rutherford, Ed.D., Midwestern State University Carrie Semmelroth, Ed.D.., Boise State University Pamela Schmidt, M.S., Freeport High School Special Education Department Edward Schultz, Ph.D., Midwestern State University Mustafa Serdar KOKSAL, Ph.D., Inonu University Emily R. Shamash, Ed.D., Teachers College, Columbia University Christopher E. Smith, PhD, BCBA-D, Long Island University Gregory W. Smith. Ph.D., University of Southern Mississippi Emily Sobeck, Ph.D., Franciscan University Ernest Solar, Ph.D., Mount St. Mary’s University Gretchen L. Stewart , Ph.D. Candidate, University of South Florida Roben Taylor, Ed.D., Dalton State College

4

Jessie Sue Thacker-King, Arkansas State University Julia VanderMolen, Ph.D., Grand Valley State University Cindy Widner, Ed.D. Candidate, Carson Newman University Kathleen G. Winterman, Ed.D., Xavier University Sara B. Woolf, Ed.D., Queens College, City University of New York Perry A. Zirkel, J.D., Ph.D., Lehigh University

5

Enhancing the Comprehension of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Teachers Share Their Experiences Gina Braun, Ph.D. Rockford University Marie Tejero Hughes, Ph.D. University of Illinois at Chicago Abstract Providing literacy instruction to students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can be challenging due to the students' wide range of unique learning needs. While their needs vary, many students with ASD often have difficulty building a deep understanding of complex texts.

In this study, special education teachers were interviewed to determine their perspectives and experiences, providing literacy instruction to students with ASD. Multiple findings emerged from the conversations with the special education teachers, including the instructional practices used during comprehension instruction, specific instructional considerations for students with ASD, and challenges to providing comprehension instruction to this population. The information gained from these teachers can guide future endeavors in designing preparation programs to meet the needs of teachers providing literacy instruction to students with ASD. Enhancing the comprehension of students with autism spectrum disorder: Teachers share their experiences Over the last 20 years, there has been a significant increase in the number of students receiving services for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which in turn increases the demand for educators to identify teaching strategies that lead to successful literacy outcomes for these students (Brock, Huber, Carter, Juarez, & Warren, 2014). Today 1 in 59 children in the United States (US) are diagnosed with ASD, compared to 1 in 150 two decades ago (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018). This rapid increase in children with ASD has undoubtedly transferred to the population of students receiving services for ASD in schools. Approximately 13% of students in US public schools receive services for their disabilities under IDEA, of these students, nearly 10% are identified with ASD (United Stated Department of Education, 2018). Therefore, there is a wide- range of diverse student needs, including social, emotional, behavioral, and academic challenges that educators need to be prepared to address.

Understanding Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism was initially defined by Leo Kanner, a US psychiatrist, in the 1940s. The profiles he developed emphasized that his participants tended to consist of more males than females.

Socially, they preferred to play alone as opposed to with peers or their parents, and many were nonverbal past infancy and into childhood. Likewise, they seem to be oblivious to the world around them. Behaviorally, the children engaged in repetitive behaviors and had frequent outbursts when their routines were disrupted (Kanner, 1943). Since Kanner's first description of autism, definitions of ASD have evolved helping to construct both medical and social models.

6

While the original medical models utilized a spectrum on which children either labeled "high incidence" or Asperger's Syndrome, and "low-incidence," the model has since evolved. Today the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Disorders - 5 (DSM-5; APA, 2013) indicates that children with ASD may display difficulty with communication and interactions, may have restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, and might have a difficult time successfully integrating into school, work, and other areas of life (National Institute of Mental Health, 2015).

Specifically, children with ASD show little interest in making friends, prefer their own company, fail to show interest in imitating the behaviors of others, often avoid eye contact, lack imagination, and typically do not empathize with others. Also, children with ASD often display aggressive or self-injurious behaviors (Kluth & Chandler-Olcott, 2008).

Though medical professionals and educators utilize the general medical definitions and profiles, the autism spectrum is vast, and individuals that fall on the spectrum have a wide variety of unique needs (Secan & Mason, 2013), making no two students alike. Therefore, recognizing the social model of ASD helps educators understand how best to adapt literacy instructional supports and strategies for instructing students with ASD. This means, going beyond the definition and considering how society has played a role in boxing-in students with these common characteristics and labeling them as having a disability rather than a neurodifferent way of being.

Thus, educators need to move beyond these definitions and consider the student with ASD as a whole person who approaches the world differently (Kluth & Chandler-Olcott, 2008).

Addressing the varied needs of students with ASD requires teachers to have a deeper understanding of their students' individual needs (Leblanc, Richardson, & Burns, 2009), as well as knowledge of evidence-based practices that meet their needs (Mitchell, 2007).

Several reviews of the literature have examined the effects of social, communication and behavioral interventions for students with ASD in schools (e.g., Bellini, Peters, Benner, & Hopf, 2007; Shukla-Mehta, Miller, & Callahan, 2010). Research has shown that practices such as video-modeling (Wang & Spillane, 2009) and including general education peers in social skills training (Hughes et al., 2011) can lead to positive learning outcomes for students with ASD. Other strategies, such as applied behavioral analysis (ABA), have been widely researched and have also shown to be successful for students with ASD (Pine, Luby, Abbacchi, & Constantino, 2006). Overall, the research strongly supports the use of evidence-based practices in and out of schools to support the social, emotional, and behavioral needs of students.

While not as abundant as social, emotional, and behavioral supports, researchers have examined some characteristics that explain the common academic needs of students with ASD (e.g., Fleury et al., 2014; Keen, Webster, & Ridley, 2016; McIntyre et al., 2017; Wong et al., 2015). Research shows that many students with ASD struggle with communication, tend to show challenges with auditory processing, focus on processing minute details, struggle with understanding the perspectives of others and determining bigger picture items, and have deficits in executive functioning and memory (Fleury et al., 2014). Furthermore, the most common characteristics that emerge in the literature when examining the academic performance of students with ASD is their difficulty in literacy (Brown, Oram-Cardy, & Johnson, 2012; Nation, Clark, Wright, & Williams, 2006). Although many students with ASD have strong decoding skills (Brown et al., 2012), they tend to struggle with comprehension (Nation et al., 2006; Ricketts, Jones, Happe, & Charman, 7

2013). A possible reason for this is partly due to challenges that derive from their disability, such as struggling to understand others point of view (Brown et al., 2012), an essential skill in reading comprehension.

Comprehension and Autism Spectrum Disorder Researchers have identified several characteristics related to literacy, many students with ASD exhibit. In particular, research shows that although many students with ASD tend to demonstrate strengths in reading accuracy and word recall, they often struggle to deeply understand complex texts (Nation et al., 2006), and they tend to have more difficulty with fictional texts as opposed to expository texts (Gately, 2008). Fictional texts typically require students to use inferential thinking, decipher the meaning of figurative language, and understand other points of view, such as the authors’ purpose or characters’ perspectives (Williamson, Carnahan, & Jacobs, 2012).

While students with ASD often show more difficulties in comprehending fictional texts, they are challenged in understanding most expository texts that require them to access their background knowledge (Williamson et al., 2012). Although there tend to be similar characteristics across this population of students, due to their varied cognitive abilities, there are diverse comprehension profiles for each student which requires teachers to provide various instructional supports for each student (Nation et al., 2006).

Though the research on comprehension instruction specifically focused on the needs of students with ASD is not as robust as other areas, several reviews have examined the previously completed work relative to strategies for improving comprehension (e.g., Chiang & Lin, 2007; El Zein, Solis, Vaughn, & McCulley, 2014; Finnegan & Mazine, 2016). Amongst these reviews the strategies that show consistent positive outcomes for students with ASD are the use of direct and explicit instruction (Flores & Ganz, 2007; 2009); cooperative learning (Kamps, Barbetta, Leonard, & Delquadri, 1994; Kamps, Leonard, Potucek, & Garrison-Harrell, 1995); and graphic organizers (Stringfield, Luscre, & Gast, 2011). Additionally, students with ASD show success in comprehension when texts are pairs with visual supports (Saldana & Frith, 2007). Students also demonstrate positive outcomes in comprehension when anaphoric cueing is used (O'Conner & Klein, 2004). Furthermore, when reciprocal questioning strategies are included during comprehension instruction, students with ASD tend to have more positive outcomes (Whalon & Hanline, 2008). While the reviews of literature demonstrate that some of the comprehension research for students with ASD follow a prescribed intervention (e.g., Flores & Ganz, 2009), many other studies do not adhere to one prescribed program, instead they are "packaged" providing multiple evidence-based strategies to support the unique styles of the learners (e.g., El Zein et al., 2014; Stringfield et al., 2011). Although there is promising research emerging comprehension instruction for students with ASD, the research provides little information on how teachers utilize these practices and adapt literacy instruction in schools to support the unique needs of students with ASD to enhance their comprehension (Huber & Carter, 2016).

Purpose of Study As the demand increases for providing all students with access to the general education curriculum, there is a pressing need to prepare educators to teach students with ASD in all academic areas (Loiacono & Valenti, 2010). This is especially true because teachers have indicated that they are not very confident in their ability to implement evidence-based practices and address critical issues for students with ASD (Brock et al., 2014). Though research 8

demonstrates that evidence-based practices increase positive outcomes for students with ASD, there remains evidence that there continues to be a significant gap in research and practice (Cook & Odom, 2013). Likewise, many teachers do not know how best to meet the needs of their students with ASD, and there is lack of research examining the strategies that teachers are using to support their students' literacy needs (Brock et al., 2014). Thus, the purpose of this study was to engage in conversation with special educators who have experience teaching literacy to students with ASD to obtain a better sense of what is working and what is not. We were interested in answering the following questions: 1) What instructional practices do special education teachers use when teaching comprehension to students with disabilities in grades 4-8?; 2) What do special education teachers indicate are effective strategies, practices, and tools for teaching comprehension to students with ASD?; and 3) Do special education teachers perceive any specific concerns or challenges in teaching comprehension to students with ASD? Methods Participants Twelve certified special education teachers who provided literacy instruction for at least one year to students in grades 4-8 with ASD, participated in the study. All teachers taught in schools located in a large Midwest metropolis area. All but one of the teachers had a master’s degree in special education. The average years of teaching experience was 5.8 years (range of 2-13 years), and the average years of teaching students with ASD was 4.8 years (range of 2-13). For this study, all the teachers had to have recently taught in grades 4-8 and where asked to specifically discuss their literacy instruction experiences involving students with ASD in these grade levels (seven of the teachers taught in grades 4-5, three teachers instructed grades 3-8 and two teachers taught grades 6-8.

Instrument Interview. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with the teachers to gauge their perspectives and experiences teaching literacy to students with ASD. During the interview, the teachers were asked to consider their instructional practices for their students with ASD in grades 4 to 8. Because the range of functionality for students with ASD varies, we asked the teachers to focus their responses on the students they teach or have taught that were considered the high-functioning, meaning that the students are verbal (speaks at least 2-3 word phrases) and that their instructional reading level was no more than three grade levels below their current grade.

The interview consisted of main questions with probes to help guide the conversation (see Appendix A). The questions for the interview were developed based on the researchers' experiences working with students with ASD, as well as coaching and preparing special educators. Before data collection, the researcher pre-viewed the interview questions with special education teachers and graduate students who have experience working with students with ASD. The researcher then refined the questions based on feedback. The first four questions unpacked the teachers' general knowledge and experience teaching comprehension. The teachers were prompted to consider all their students and the instructional practices used with each. The next six questions focused on the teachers' instructional practice for their students with ASD specifically discussing planning consideration, instructional strategies, and most significant 9

difficulties. The final six questions gathered information on the teachers' general background relative to teaching and educational preparation. The average length of each interview was 45 minutes.

Procedures Once the Institutional Review Board approved the study, the recruitment progress began. The use of purposive sampling for the recruitment of 12 special education teachers supported a strategic focus of aligning the research questions to the narrow population of educators in this field (Patton, 2015). As a former special education teacher, the first author contacted 15 teachers in her professional network, where an established email correspondence was already in place. Of the original 15 emailed, 12 responded; however, through a more in-depth eligibility screening phone call, only eight were found eligible to participate. To expand the search for teachers, snowball sampling was implemented (Goodman, 1961) by including in the recruitment email, a statement asking for referents who fit the criteria. The email recipient could forward the email on to them, and then additional interested teachers could inquire about the study. Through this method, the first four teachers who showed interest and qualified to participate were included in the study. For an initial, descriptive study that consists of an in-depth interview, a range of 6-10 participants provides a rich description of the investigated questions (Patton, 2015); therefore the 12 teachers who consented and participated in the study provide a strong sample to examine the research questions. Interviews took place over the phone at a time that was convenient for the teachers. All the conversations were digitally recorded and transcribed. Transcriptions of the interviews were sent to the teachers for members checking, and the teachers offered no changes.

Data Analysis Qualitative methods for analysis were used to analyze the interviews (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014), which included a multi-phase process that involved coding for themes and categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). During the first phase of the analysis, the researcher carefully read half of the interviews, using an open coding to process to make meaning. In open coding, the researcher forms categories of information about the phenomenon being studied by segmenting data (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Codes were constructed by the researchers utilizing academic terms aligned with the research questions (Saldana, 2015), such as discussing strategy instruction, selecting texts, and considering adaptations. Once created, the codes were combined, and common categories were determined based on identified themes emerging from the codes.

Upon the development of the categories, the second phase of the analysis consisted of coding all the interviews using the common categories, and further developing subcategories amongst them. Throughout the data analysis process, the researchers engaged in analytic memoing (Charmaz, 2014) to help draw connections between the codes to further understand the perspectives and experiences of the teachers (Saldana, 2015).

Results We identified three major themes from the teacher interviews, including (1) instructional practices during comprehension instruction, (2) instructional consideration for students with ASD, and (3) challenges to comprehension instruction. Below is a breakdown of the major themes. Pseudonyms have been used to discuss any information related directly to the participants in this study.

10

Instructional Practices during Comprehension Instruction Teachers were asked to describe their typical comprehension instruction to students with disabilities, not necessarily specific to students with ASD, to gain an understanding of the comprehension instruction that their students received. Four main categories emerged based on the frequency of teacher discussion in this area: established curriculum and programs; modeling and guided practice, small group instruction; and vocabulary instruction.

Use of established curriculum. Each of the teachers mentioned following a literacy curriculum for teaching comprehension. Curriculums and frameworks were not only used for the whole group but small groups as well. These included more widely known programs such as Leveled Literacy Instruction, to small curriculums such as Engage NY and Wonderworks. All teachers mentioned that they followed the curriculums to help them select instructional strategies to guide the scope and sequence for the school year. While many teachers said they began their instruction using an established curriculum or program, they made significant modifications, and embedded supplemental supports to it to align to their students' needs. All the teachers stated that they enjoyed following curriculums because they not only provided a scope and sequence for teaching comprehension skills and strategies, but they also offered support in helping to align instructional content to the students' general education peers. For example, Ms. Rizzo stated: "Our district just adapted WonderWorks, which is the general education curriculum, this year, and it came with an adapted version which is awesome!" While another teacher, Ms. O’Conner, did not mention a specific curriculum, though she stated she follows a “strategy-type curriculum… that utilizes short passages and its scaffolded throughout the week.”

Modeling and guided practice. All the teachers discussed their instructional strategy techniques for building their students' comprehension with all mentioning a similar framework for structuring their comprehension instruction which included modeling of a skill or strategy followed by guided practice and independent work. When discussing her framework for daily comprehension instruction, Ms. Griffin said, "So I do a reading workshop, where I will present specific reading comprehension skill with a read-aloud text. Then, practice with students ... I also do a lot of like, Think Pair Share, or conversations around it the new skill during this time."

When teachers described their modeling of skills and strategies, most discussed that it was done in the context of a book excerpt or a short text, usually on or near students' grade levels. For example, Mr. Russo stated that during "whole group, every day, we do like a higher-level read aloud, one that is closer to grade level, so that way they're accessing higher ideas and vocabulary and themes." Teachers also considered a specific strategy, such as visualization or summarization, and aligned the use of the strategy with the curriculums they were using. All the teachers mentioned modeling metacognition strategies such as stopping at signified spots in the book to "think aloud" to model for the students the way they make meaning of a text. To introduce comprehension strategies, the teachers pre-planned and implemented both a metacognitive model followed by guided practice, including in-the-moment feedback.

To engage in guided practice, many of the teachers mentioned they pre-plan comprehension questions around the modeled text such as- a simple call and response, or they may engage students in a partner turn and talk. Most teachers also mentioned embedding shared reading 11

during this time. To facilitate comprehension, many teachers also required the students to do some form of writing, usually through the use of a graphic organizer, as they followed along with the read aloud or shared reading of the texts. The writing typically aligned with the skill or strategy taught. Many of the teachers used this writing to help determine if students understood the skill. Though all teachers mentioned that modeling and guided practice were followed up with independent work, this work was significantly scaffolded and often supported by the teachers or a paraprofessional in the classroom in a center-like a format.

Small group instruction. Teachers discussed that students needed a lot of differentiated strategies and support to utilize the higher-order thinking skills required to access complex texts.

Although all teachers allowed time for independent work, many of them used this independent time to group students into small groups related to the individual needs of students to provide significant scaffolded instruction. The teachers formed small groups in a variety of ways; some teachers relied solely on district or classroom-based diagnostic assessments, while others mixed groups based on literacy skill deficits and even some considered behavioral needs amongst the students. Ms. Fernandez was adamant about the use of small groups to provide instruction that meets their students' needs: It's like you need to get them into that small group level time, where you can work with students even like one to two of them, and hone in on are their strengths or weaknesses and work from there because that's where everything happens.

The teachers discussed the importance of small groups as an opportunity for students to repeat and practice what they are learning and eventually transfer to independent practice. Mr. Russo stated, "And a lot of them it's giving them strategies that we just reinforce and practice so often, so over time it becomes intuitive to them when they are reading independently." During this group time, teachers would typically provide texts for students to choose at their reading level.

While this time was geared more for students to practice the skills on their own out of their instructional level books, all the teachers mentioned that they continued to provide a plethora of supports, strategies, and prompts to guide the students to work on the skills throughout their reading instruction. Ms. Roo mentioned this level of support is, "… just honestly like so second nature in special educations, it's like what does this kid need?"

Vocabulary instruction. During comprehension instruction, teachers reported spending a significant amount of time on developing students’ vocabulary. Though vocabulary instruction took on slightly different forms, each of the teachers spent a specified time teaching new words to their students. Many of the teachers identified "tricky words" that would appear in the text during the teacher’s model of skills or when reading a shared text. When discussing vocabulary instruction in context, Ms. Hayes stated, "I might be reading a page in a book. We'll come across a word that is an interesting word, so a word we don't know, or we'll try to use the context clues and the pictures to figure out what the word means.” Sometimes, teachers used direct instruction strategies to intentionally teach new academic vocabularies, such as author’s purpose or summarization. Those teachers typically provided a mix of both contextual and direct instruction.

Some of the teachers also taught vocabulary explicitly by giving definitions and providing visual examples, while others had students share out what they thought the meanings might be and then provided some direct instruction as needed. Other teachers identified vocabulary with similar 12

morphologies and would focus on a few prefixes or affixes and encourage students to find and use the vocabulary in context. Regardless of the strategy and context for instruction, all teachers found vocabulary instruction to be an integral part of developing students’ comprehension.

Instructional Considerations for Students with ASD Teachers talked about the importance of considering the unique needs of each student with ASD and how they made adaptations to their comprehension instruction in consideration of the students need. Teachers discussed the importance of developing lessons that helped students go beyond surface-level understanding and allowed them to show their understanding of the text in a variety of ways. They also mentioned that it was not only important to consider text selection and strategy instruction but to also meet their social, emotional, and behavioral needs. Teachers also mentioned that it was key for them to develop comprehension lessons that were explicit and systematic, as Ms. McCarthy said, “as much as I could provide a systematic structure to the lessons, the more success my students had.”

Going beyond explicitness. Teachers stated they expected students to go beyond the explicit meaning of a text and to provide evidence for their assertions. In her interview, Ms. Wilson summed this up perfectly, "just because your students can answer questions from a text, still doesn’t necessarily mean that they're understanding it." All teachers mentioned this is a crucial component to determining if students truly grasped the deep meaning of the text, but that going beyond the explicitness of the text was challenging for students. Teachers also discussed that it was not only about going beyond the text but that students needed to be able to use evidence from the text to explain their thinking. For example, Ms. Walsh discussed what she looks for in her students when determining if they understand the text: Basic level of comprehension is being able to retell the text. Like, you're following the plot, you're following who the characters are, and what the "events" of the text are… as we started to analyze a text, I’m determining somebody's ability to inference or somebody's ability to analyze a character's motivations with evidence to support…it shows somebody is interpreting a text rather than just something pretty concrete.

They are providing a variety of modalities. All teachers mentioned that they differentiated their expectations for how students show their understanding of a text. Teachers indicated that they understood that "showing what you know" may look different for each student and that they considered different modalities for how students demonstrate their comprehension of a text. The teachers mentioned practices such as asking students for verbal and recorded responses to questions, providing students with visuals or even objects to represent their understanding, using post-it notes and a variety of graphic organizers to jot down thoughts and keep track of thinking, and providing anchor charts with common prompts and sentence stems. Some teachers stated they have students act out the story from a text, such as Mrs. McCarthy does, “I had a costume box, so whatever book we are reading we transfer into like our own reader's theater and they would act it out.”

Setting students up for success. Throughout the interviews, there were commonalities that teachers mentioned as considerations for setting their students with ASD up for success. First, when considering the selection of texts, many teachers stated they would typically consider the 13

interest of the student with ASD, and even select texts with similar themes over several weeks.

Mr. Russo said, "But another thing I've found with a lot of my students whom I've worked with autism is using a book series, for example, student B, loved like a particular series. So, like finding books with obviously like reoccurring characters and stuff." When discussing independent reading time, teachers provided both independent level texts as well as texts that pique interest and give the students choices. For example, Ms. Griffin said, "... the books in their reading bins always consist of like a mixture of their instructional level, and texts not on their level focused on their interests.”

However, other teachers mentioned that rather than always relying on student interest to select texts, they plan to expand their students’ interests; therefore, once a text is selected, intensive planning went into pre-teaching and building background knowledge on the particular text topic to get the student excited. This could be in the form of showing videos, pictures, going on field trips such as museums, places in the community, or relating the new topics to something of interest. For example, Ms. Hayes stated, "We spend a large chunk of time building background knowledge…I show videos,” she also discussed the types of questions she asks students on a given book topic to help build up her students’ schema.

Strategy instruction. By far, the most used strategies implemented by the teachers were graphic organizers, visuals, and teacher prompting. The graphic organizers helped students write down their thinking, visuals such as anchor charts helped students refer back to previously learned skills or words and prompting while answering questions provided a way to stop, reorganize thoughts, and continue. Ms. Wilson discussed several times her use of graphic organizers to assist her students with ASD, stating “Sequence it, or organize information about characters or about the plot or anything like that.” When it comes to using strategies, the teachers mentioned it was often difficult for the students to "hold on" to the information and then refer back to it. Thus, the teachers discuss providing visual support that aids the student in “seeing” the pieces and putting them together to make meaning. All of the teachers mentioned intentionally using anchor charts to do this. Ms. O’Conner said, “I give hands-on examples when I'm able to, and then we write down the strategy on a big poster board in the front of the classroom so that they can use it as a reference sheet.” While many teachers considered the specific needs of their students when they are planning, others mentioned how sometimes strategies emerged during instruction. Either way, specific and common strategies for their students were embedded into all comprehension instruction. The teachers also all said that students benefitted from the practice and repetition of skills. Thus, many of them circled back to strategies previously introduced throughout the year as useful for their students with ASD. Supporting social, emotional, behavioral, and sensory needs. The teachers discussed supports and strategies that are needed for their students with ASD regarding their social, emotional, behavioral, and sensory needs. Specifically, they focused on needs for support in engagement and minimizing distractions; embedding structure or predictably of instruction; and support for social interactions. First, many of the teachers mentioned the use of individualized behavior charts to keep students motivated and engaged, typically including an incentive system.

Likewise, teachers said that their students with ASD are often and easily distracted because of overstimulation or they may fixate on something, in particular. Thus, to support disengagement or lack of interest during reading comprehension, many of the teachers mentioned reducing 14

distractions as much as possible. For example, Ms. Wilson stated: Minimizing distractions, which sometimes can be in the form of getting them in a smaller group, but sometimes can be in just the physical environment of the classroom, or time of day that I might do the comprehension lesson, because maybe at some points during the day they're a little bit more focused than others.

Also, teachers discussed that embedding structure and predictability in lessons is useful for students, and typically paired them with checklists used in various forms, such as tasks for independent reading, the entire reading block, or used during text-based discussions. When discussing a lesson, Ms. Cook stated, "if the lesson itself was in a simple structure, that set them up for success. The lesson went smoother if they could predict what was going to happen.”

When reflecting on literacy block, Ms. McCarthy said, “Making it so that we have a consistent routine and procedure, with a visual chart to support seems to help my students with ASD have more success.”

Finally, teachers often discussed the challenges students with ASD have with socialization, specifically understanding cues from others, accepting feedback from peers, or engaging in a discussion on a text with peers. Ms. McCarthy said, “I have one student, in particular, who's very sensitive to criticism so, if it requires somebody giving him feedback that's not a teacher, it's really tough for him to deal with that" Likewise, another teacher mentioned a particular student of hers has a difficult time picking up social cues of peers and shuts down during instruction. For example, the student thought his peers were laughing at him, so he fixated on it and struggled to reengage with the class. To help him understand and support his frustration the teacher prompted him to “look at the other people's faces, to figure out how they're feeling…I said, look at their faces, they're concerned about you. He's like, "Okay," and from there, I knew we could get back to work."

Challenges to Comprehension Instruction While the teachers have found several practices and strategies that work for their students with ASD, they all mentioned ongoing challenges and areas they needed continued support to enhance students’ comprehension.

Generalizing across texts. All the teachers mentioned the difficulty in having students with ASD generalize strategies and skills across texts. Although teachers scaffolded support by preteaching of skill and building of knowledge of a particular topic, a student might be able to pull out multiple inferences on the given text of instruction and support with evidence their responses; however, when asked to make inferences on a new text, many students were unable to utilize the strategies from the previously taught lessons and texts and transfer learning. When reflecting on their greatest challenge working with students with ASD, Ms. Rizzo said: The generalization part; taking a skill that they have learned and being able to apply it to different texts and being able to do it alone. For example, they're with me at our table, and we do our instructions, and then literally ten minutes later I'll ask them to do the same thing just at a different table, at a different story, and all of the sudden it's like, "I can't do this, I don't know

15

how to do this, what do I do?" It's also that anxiety. You know, maybe, "I don't know what to do, I can't do this, it's too hard. I can't remember. This isn't the exact wording.

Oral text-based discussions. Also, all the teachers mentioned that a large part of comprehending text is being able to engage in discussion with peers, but that this was a significant challenge for their students with ASD. As mentioned, many times by the teachers, students with ASD needed ongoing prompting from a teacher to continue to engage with their peers on a text-based discussion. Likewise, teachers stated that many students would say something completely off-topic and unrelated to the text. Others mentioned, that unless the book was on a topic of complete interest to the student with ASD, they were unlikely to participate in the discussion. Ms. O’Conner mentioned; "It's hard for students with autism to attend to texts when they can't attend to the world around them.” Most of the teachers indicated this is one of their most significant challenges, and many felt defeated and unsure of how to support their students with ASD. To sum up her challenges, Ms. Edwards stated, "sometimes they just come up with something that is just to me it seems non sequitur… and I'm like how do I get them back here? I don't know that I have an effective strategy for that yet."

Promoting independence. When discussing students’ independent practice, teachers were often at a loss on how to support their students with ASD. When reflecting on challenges, the teachers had little to say about how they support independence, tried to avoid giving students the time to work independently, or they used supportive measures that do not necessarily foster independence of the given skills. For example, Ms. Lee said, "giving students with autism too much independent time is difficult because often, there's comorbidity with autism and attention issues.” Similarly, Ms. Edwards said that during independent work time; “they are working with a computer-based program or with a paraprofessional because they are not able to complete the work independently."

Discussion This descriptive study drew upon special education teachers’ experiences teaching reading comprehension to students with ASD in 4th to 8th grade. The analysis the findings yielded three broad themes that included instructional practices teachers used during comprehension instruction, instructional considerations for students with ASD, and the continued challenges teachers providing comprehension instruction for students with ASD experience.

All of the teachers discussed in great detail their instructional strategies and supports when teaching comprehension to their students. First and foremost, common instruction for reading comprehension aligned with the general education curriculum but was often significantly adapted or differentiated. Curriculums used by the teachers focused on scope and sequences aiming at teaching comprehension strategies, which supports evidence-based practices. Research shows that teaching students to comprehend requires evidence-based practices such as the use of explicit instruction (Van Keer, 2004) strategy instruction (Gersten, Fuchs, Williams, Baker, 2001), building metacognition, and inferencing skills (Cross & Paris, 1988). The findings of this study demonstrate the special education teachers in this study used a variety of these strategies, including using explicit instruction through gradual release models, by first modeling new skills 16

and strategies with complex texts, providing opportunities for students to practice with feedback as well as embedding some independent practice opportunities.

Building comprehension does not stop at the strategies listed above; it also includes vocabulary instruction (Bos & Anders, 1990). Research shows the connection between vocabulary instruction and students' comprehension (Wright & Cervetti, 2017). Students need a robust vocabulary and to be able to pull from it to comprehend rigorous texts (Rimbey, McKeown, Beck, & Sandora, 2016). The interviews with these teachers demonstrated that all teachers in the study considered the development of their students’ vocabulary. Finally, whether a special education or general education teacher, differentiation strategies should be considered when teaching comprehension to students (Tomlinson, 2014). Each classroom has a diverse set of learners with a variety of needs; thus, teachers need to consider the wide range of needs in supporting their students. Differentiation is generally defined as accommodating students with different strengths and areas of need in all areas of reading including levels, learning style, interest, background knowledge, experiences, and culture, including ethnicity, race, economic level, and disability, thus teaching in the "middle" will not meet the needs of every learner regardless of the classroom setting (Valiandes, 2015). The special education teachers were adamant about the use of small groups as a way to differentiate instruction. Teachers used a variety of strategies for determining the nature of their small groups including, reading levels, specific skills students were working on, heterogeneous groups so students could support one another, and lastly groups were even designed based on behavioral or social needs to set students up for success. This practice aligns with research that shows that small group work is a successful tool for differentiating instruction and should be utilized as much as possible in all educational settings (Fisher & Frey, 2014).

Though not explicitly mentioned by the teachers, it is important to note the difference between listening and reading comprehension. While many of the teachers spoke about their reading comprehension instruction, the true focus of their instruction and even independent practice of skills and strategies was often focused on listening comprehension. Reading comprehension involves the interpretation of printed text (Israel & Duffy, 2017), while listening comprehension is the interpretation of the spoken text (Nadig, 2013). The bulk of the instructional practices discussed by the teachers in this study focused on their modeling of skills using short, yet complex text read aloud to students. Also, students were asked to discuss the meaning of a text with a partner after listening to the teacher read it aloud. As mentioned by the teachers, much of the independent practice opportunities were supported by the teachers themselves or a paraprofessional where the students were practicing these skills in a small group or one-on-one.

While the research on comprehension instruction for students with ASD is growing, this study found some similarities to current research in instructional practices for students with ASD. The teachers in this study all found common strategies that tend to work for their students with ASD to enhance their comprehension including the use of visual supports, graphic organizers, and prompting as some of the most prominently used. All these strategies noted have shown positive outcomes in improving reading comprehension for students with ASD (Knight & Sartini, 2015).

Also, many of the teachers in this study mentioned that building student background knowledge was a key strategy for supporting students with ASD. This is similar to research stating that background knowledge is a crucial component of reading comprehension. Going beyond this is 17

not only building knowledge but encouraging students to activate and use it. The teachers in this study said this required building up students’ interests in a topic in a variety of ways. Thus, teachers spent much time using a variety of modalities to get students excited about a given topic, especially those unfamiliar to the student. Research on students with ASD show that they perseverate on topics they are interested in (El Zein, Solis, Lang, & Kim, 2016), thus, to bring in new interests, teachers must go beyond basic background knowledge building to get students excited about new topics.

Similar to findings by Brock et al. (2014) teachers indicated that they were not completely comfortable teaching literacy to students with ASD; thus, educational leaders must consider how to prepare them better through teacher preparation programs. The findings in this study demonstrate that the special education teachers still have challenges helping students with ASD transfer and generalize their learning from one lesson or skill to the next. The teachers mentioned going beyond the explicitness of a text was important, but many teachers found it challenging to help students build up the skills needed to make meaningful inferences. Also, most of the teachers felt at a loss for how to support students with ASD to engage in discussions around a text and beyond the explicitness, or even on the task. Recent research demonstrates that educators typically face these types of challenges when working with students who have ASD (Emam & Farrell, 2009) and need support to provide them with the appropriate instruction. For example, teachers struggled to develop an understanding of the cognitive process students with ASD go through to develop a text, or they're developing not only the comprehension of individual words but a group of words together. Due to their unique social and communication deficits, teachers also struggled in having students with ASD use strategies that would develop their reading comprehension such as having them engage in meaningful discourse on text (Randi, Newman, & Grigorenko, 2010).

Implications for Practice Adaptations of reading instruction. Considerations for adaptations for reading instruction is crucial for all educators. Adaptations are defined as: (a) additional strategies implemented (e.g. modeling, direct instruction); (b) providing other supports (e.g. use of audio, chunking texts, offering choices in responses, applying behavior chart); or (c) omissions (e.g. reducing time on instructional tasks, removing unnecessary text, distracting images, or skills introduced) to the standard protocol intervention (Backer, 2001). In a recent study examining teachers’ comfortability in adapting instruction the results showed that teachers who were more comfortable with the key components of an intervention were also confident in their unique contextual needs (e.g. content area, instructional setting) and supports such as resources(e.g. collaborative partnerships with peers), provided instruction with more fidelity, and made appropriate adaptations to meet individual needs thus leading to more positive outcomes for the student (Leko, et al., 2014).

When considering students with ASD, teachers must be able to identify the specific needs of their students; thus, educators need to adequately assess their students, identify their strengths and areas of need and consider common characteristics for difficulties in reading for their students. Although we know there are some commonalities across reading behaviors, specifically for reading comprehension for students with ASD, we also know that certain oral language, 18

social, and emotional deficits can play a role in the difficulties students have with reading comprehension (Randi et al., 2010); therefore, educators must adapt instruction to meet the unique needs of each of their students. To do so, educators need appropriate preparation, tools, and resources (Brock et al., 2014). Adapting instruction to meet the unique needs of students is critical, especially for reading instruction for students with ASD. Research has demonstrated that adaptations to reading instruction often have a significant impact on outcomes for students, even if the implementation fidelity of the lesson is not intact, and teachers need support through professional development and contextual coaching to understand how to best adapt components to the interventions and instructional strategies used (Harn, Parisi, & Stoolmiller, 2013).

Enhancing literacy instruction for teachers of students with ASD. While having to cover a vast amount of content knowledge, pedagogy, and practice (Brownell, Sindelar, Kiely, & Danielson, 2010), teacher preparation programs often lack sufficient time or knowledge to adequately prepare teachers with all of the skills needed to meet individual student needs (Leko, Brownell, Sindelar, & Kiely, 2015). Much of the pre-service preparation for teachers working with students with ASD has focused on social and emotional learning (Barnhill, Sumutka, Polloway, & Lee, 2014) or legal requirements and eligibility classification (Morrier, Hess, & Heflin, 2011). Hence, teachers are often struggling to make the right instructional decisions for their students with ASD, specifically in reading. Researchers indicate that students with ASD need explicit implementations of complex teaching procedures (McGee & Morrier, 2005); however, there is little research on what teachers who work with these students need, and the research available focuses mostly on programs for social and behavioral development (Barnhill et al., 2014; Brock et al., 2014). As a result, many researchers (e.g., Barnhill, et al., 2014; Brewin, Renwick, & Schormans, 2008; Campbell, 2007; Carrington, Templeton, & Papinczak, 2003; Starr & Foy, 2010) suggest further investigations to help both general and special education teachers understand reading challenges and strategies for students with ASD including increasing the number of observational studies examining teacher practices (Brock et al., 2014).

Adequately preparing educators is a twofold process, first through appropriate pre-service education programs, and secondly through ongoing professional development and support. In recent years with the change of special education laws for teacher preparation, all educators must be well prepared to teach students with ASD, since more and more students are provided with literacy instruction in general education classrooms (Segall, 2012). Though it is crucial for preservice preparation programs to continue to refine their curriculum to align with updated policy and research (Brownell, Ross, Colón, & McCallum, 2005; DeLuca, & Bellara, 2013). There is also a continued need to provide teachers with support while in the classroom (Buell, Hallam, Gamel-Mccormick, & Scheer, 1999) and to continue to build skills and knowledge, and support unique and natural settings (Brownell et al., 2005).

References Adomat, D. S. (2012). Drama’s potential for deepening young children’s understandings of stories. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(6), 343-350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-012-0519-8 American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). Arlington, VA: Author.

19

Backer, T. E. (2001). Finding the balance: Program fidelity and adaptation in substance abuse prevention: A state-of-the-art review. Rockville, MD: Center for Substance Abuse Prevention.

Barnhill, G. P., Sumutka, B., Polloway, E. A., & Lee, E. (2014). Personnel preparation practices in autism: A follow-up analysis of contemporary practices. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 29(1), 39-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357612475294 Bellini, S., Peters, J. K., Benner, L., & Hopf, A. (2007). A meta-analysis of school-based social skills interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 28(3), 153-162. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325070280030401 Bos, C. S., & Anders, P. L. (1990). Effects of interactive vocabulary instruction on the vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of junior-high learning-disabled students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 13(1), 31-42. https://doi.org/10.2307/1510390 Brock, M. E., Huber, H. B., Carter, E. W., Juarez, A. P., & Warren, Z. E. (2014). Statewide assessment of professional development needs related to educating students with autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 29(2), 67 79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357614522290 Brown, H. M., Oram-Cardy, J., & Johnson, A. (2013). A meta-analysis of the reading comprehension skills of individuals on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(4), 932-955. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1638-1 Brownell, M. T., Ross, D. D., Colón, E. P., & McCallum, C. L. (2005). Critical features of special education teacher preparation: A comparison with general teacher education. The Journal of Special Education, 38(4), 242-252. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669050380040601 Brownell, M. T., Sindelar, P. T., Kiely, M. T., & Danielson, L. C. (2010). Special education teacher quality and preparation: Exposing foundations, constructing a new model. Exceptional Children, 76(3), 357-377. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291007600307 Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Cook, B. G., & Odom, S. L. (2013). Evidence-based practices and implementation science in special education. Exceptional Children, 79(2), 135-144. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900201 Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Autism Spectrum Disorder. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html Chiang, H. M., & Lin, Y. H. (2007). Reading comprehension instruction for students with autism spectrum disorders a review of the literature. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(4), 259-267. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576070220040801 Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Cross, D. R., & Paris, S. G. (1988). Developmental and instructional analyses of children's metacognition and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(2), 131-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.2.131 Emam, M. M., & Farrell, P. (2009). Tensions experienced by teachers and their views of support for pupils with autism spectrum disorders in mainstream schools. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 24(4), 407-422. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856250903223070 20

El Zein, F., Solis, M., Lang, R., & Kim, M. K. (2016). Embedding perseverative interest of a child with autism in text may result in improved reading comprehension: A pilot study. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 19(3), 141-145. https://doi.org/10.3109/17518423.2014.915893 El Zein, F., Solis, M., Vaughn, S., & McCulley, L. (2014). Reading comprehension interventions for students with autism spectrum disorders: A synthesis of research. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(6), 1303-1322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013 1989-2 Finnegan, E., & Mazin, A. L. (2016). Strategies for increasing reading comprehension skills in students with autism spectrum disorder: a review of the literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 39(2), 187-219. DOI:10.1353/etc.2016.0007 Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2014). Close reading as an intervention for struggling middle school readers. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57(5), 367-376. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.266 Fleury, V. P., Hedges, S., Hume, K., Browder, D. M., Thompson, J. L., Fallin, K., ... & Vaughn, S. (2014). Addressing the academic needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder in secondary education. Remedial and Special Education, 35(2), 68-79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932513518823 Flores, M. M., & Ganz, J. B. (2007). Effectiveness of direct instruction for teaching statement inference, use of facts, and analogies to students with developmental disabilities and reading delays. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(4), 244251. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576070220040601 Flores, M. M., & Ganz, J. B. (2009). Effects of direct instruction on the reading comprehension of students with autism and developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 39-53. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24233462 Gately, S. E. (2008). Facilitating reading comprehension for students on the autism spectrum. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40(3), 40-45. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005990804000304 Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Williams, J. P., & Baker, S. (2001). Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 279-320. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071002279 Goodman, L. A. (1961). Snowball sampling. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 32(1) 148170. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2237615 Harn, B., Parisi, D., & Stoolmiller, M. (2013). Balancing fidelity with flexibility and fit: What do we really know about fidelity of implementation in schools? Exceptional Children, 79(2), 181-193. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900204 Hibbing, A. N., & Rankin-Erickson, J. L. (2003). A picture is worth a thousand words: Using visual images to improve comprehension for middle school struggling readers. The Reading Teacher, 56(8), 758-770. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20205292 Huber, H. B., & Carter, E. W. (2016). Data-driven individualization in peer-mediated interventions for students with ASD: A literature review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 3(3), 239-253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-016-0079-8 Hughes, C., Golas, M., Cosgriff, J., Brigham, N., Edwards, C., & Cashen, K. (2011). Effects of a social skills intervention among high school students with intellectual disabilities and autism and their general education peers. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe 21

Disabilities, 36(1-2), 46-61. https://doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.36.1-2.46 Israel, S. E., & Duffy, G. G. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of research on reading comprehension.

New York: Routledge.

Kamps, D. M., Barbetta, P. M., Leonard, B. R., & Delquadri, J. (1994). Class-wide peer tutoring: An integration strategy to improve reading skills and promote peer interactions among students with autism and general education peers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 49-61. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-49 Kamps, D. M., Leonard, B., Potucek, J., & Garrison-Harrell, L. (1995). Cooperative learning groups in reading: An integration strategy for students with autism and general classroom peers. Behavioral Disorders, 21(1), 89-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874299502100103 Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2(3), 217-250.

Retrieved from: http://mail.neurodiversity.com/library_kanner_1943.pdf Keen, D., Webster, A., & Ridley, G. (2016). How well are children with autism spectrum disorder doing academically at school? An overview of the literature. Autism, 20(3), 276294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361315580962 Kluth, P., & Chandler-Olcott, K. (2008). A land we can share: Teaching literacy to students with autism. Baltimore, MD: PH Brookes Pub. Knight, V. F., & Sartini, E. (2015). A comprehensive literature review of comprehension strategies in core content areas for students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(5), 1213-1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803014-2280-x Leblanc, L., Richardson, W., & Burns, K. A. (2009). Autism spectrum disorder and the inclusive classroom: Effective training to enhance knowledge of ASD and evidence-based practices. Teacher Education and Special Education, 32(2), 166-179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932507334279 Leko, M. M., Brownell, M. T., Sindelar, P. T., & Kiely, M. T. (2015). Envisioning the future of special education personnel preparation in a standards-based era. Exceptional Children, 82(1), 25-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402915598782 Leko, M. M., Roberts, C. A., & Pek, Y. (2014). A theory of secondary teachers’ adaptations when implementing a reading intervention program. The Journal of Special Education, 49(3), 168-178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466914546751 Loiacono, V., & Valenti, V. (2010). General education teachers need to be Prepared to co-teach the increasing number of children with autism in inclusive settings. International Journal of Special Education, 25(3), 24-32.

McIntyre, N. S., Solari, E. J., Grimm, R. P., Lerro, L. E., Gonzales, J. E., & Mundy, P. C. (2017).

A comprehensive examination of reading heterogeneity in students with high functioning autism: Distinct reading profiles and their relation to Autism Symptom Severity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(4), 1086-1101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3029-0 Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

Metros, S. E. (2008). The educator's role in preparing visually literate learners. Theory into Practice, 47(2), 102-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405840801992264 Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook. 3rd. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

22

Mitchell, D. (2007). What really works in special and inclusive education: Using evidence-based teaching strategies. New York, NY: Routledge.

Morrier, M. J., Hess, K. L., & Heflin, L. J. (2011). Teacher training for implementation of teaching strategies for students with autism spectrum disorders. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 34(2), 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406410376660 Nadig, A. (2013). Listening comprehension. In Fred R. Volkmar (Ed.). The Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-16983_349 Nation, K., Clarke, P., Wright, B., & Williams, C. (2006). Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 911–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0130-1 National Institute of Mental Health. (2015). Autism Spectrum Disorder Retrieved from: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/strategic-planning reports/index.shtml O'Connor, I. M., & Klein, P. D. (2004). Exploration of strategies for facilitating the reading comprehension of high-functioning students with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 115-127.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pine, E., Luby, J., Abbacchi, A., & Constantino, J. N. (2006). Quantitative assessment of autistic symptomatology in preschoolers. Autism, 10(4), 344-352. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361306064434 Randi, J., Newman, T., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2010). Teaching children with autism to read for meaning: Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(7), 890-902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0938-6 Ricketts, J., Jones, C. R., Happé, F., & Charman, T. (2013). Reading comprehension in autism spectrum disorders: The role of oral language and social functioning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(4), 807-816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-16194 Rimbey, M., McKeown, M., Beck, I., & Sandora, C. (2016). Supporting teachers to implement contextualized and interactive practices in vocabulary instruction. Journal of Education, 196(2), 69-83. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741619600205 Saldaña, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Saldaña, D., & Frith, U. (2007). Do readers with autism make bridging inferences from world knowledge? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 96(4), 310-319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2006.11.002 Secan, K. E., & Mason, G. (2013). Services that span the autism spectrum. School Administrator, 70(2), 29-33.

Shukla-Mehta, S., Miller, T., & Callahan, K. J. (2010). Evaluating the effectiveness of video instruction on social and communication skills training for children with autism spectrum disorders: A review of the literature. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25(1), 23-36. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357609352901 Stringfield, S. G., Luscre, D., & Gast, D. L. (2011). Effects of a story map on accelerated reader post-reading test scores in students with high-functioning autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 26(4), 218-229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357611423543 23

Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners.

Alexandria, VA: ASCD. U.S. Department of Education, (2018). Digest of Education Statistics, 2016 (NCES 2017-094).

Retrieved from: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d16/ch_2.asp Valiandes, S. (2015). Evaluating the impact of differentiated instruction on literacy and reading in mixed ability classrooms: Quality and equity dimensions of education effectiveness. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 45, 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2015.02.005 Van Keer, H. (2004). Fostering reading comprehension in fifth grade by explicit instruction in reading strategies and peer tutoring. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(1), 37-70. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709904322848815 Wang, P., & Spillane, A. (2009). Evidence-based social skills interventions for children with autism: A meta-analysis. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44(3) 318-342. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24233478 Whalon, K., & Hanline, M. F. (2008). Effects of a reciprocal questioning intervention on the question generation and responding of children with autism spectrum disorder. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43(3), 367-387. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23879798 Williamson, P., Carnahan, C. R., & Jacobs, J. A. (2012). Reading comprehension profiles of high-functioning students on the autism spectrum: A grounded theory. Exceptional Children, 78(4), 449-469. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291207800404 Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K. A., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., ... & Schultz, T. R. (2015). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder: A comprehensive review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(7), 1951-1966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2351-z Wright, T. S., & Cervetti, G. N. (2017). A systematic review of the research on vocabulary instruction that impacts text comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(2), 203226. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.163 About the Authors Gina Braun, PhD., is a professor of special education at Rockford University in Rockford, Illinois. Dr. Braun teaches a wide range of special education courses such as Survey of Exceptional Children, Instructional Methods for Diverse Learners, and Positive Behavior Supports. The focus of her research is supporting early-career teachers’ instructional practices for enhancing reading comprehension skills to students with autism spectrum disorder.

Marie Tejero Hughes, Ph.D., is a professor of special education at the University of Illinois at Chicago. She is the director of graduate studies for the Department of Special Education and a Faculty Fellow in the Honors College. Dr. Tejero Hughes primarily teaches graduate courses in literacy designed for general and special education teachers working in urban communities. Her areas of expertise include learning disabilities, comprehension instruction for students struggling with reading, and Latino family engagement in education.

24

Appendix A Teacher Interview General Reading Comprehension 1. Could you describe the way you teach reading comprehension?

Probe: What is a typical day?

Probe: Do you include reading out loud? What does this look like?

Probe: What does vocabulary instruction look like in your classroom?

Probe: Do you teach comprehension strategies? Describe. (i.e., Summarization, questioning) 2. How do you know if students are comprehending a text?

Probe: what is a good response? What is a poor response?

3. What indicates to you that a comprehension lesson is going well?

Probe: poorly?

4. How do you adapt comprehension instruction for your learners?

Probe: Do you divide students into groups? On what basis? Why? Do you change the groups? Why? Autism and Reading Comprehension 5. When planning your reading comprehension lessons, how do you consider the needs of your students with autism? Compared to other students you have taught; do you find it easy or difficult to adapt your lesson plans to support students with autism? Why? Probe: How do you differentiate your plans for your students with autism?

6. Describe the types of reading/reading instructional strategies you utilize when teaching reading comprehension to students with autism.

Probe 1: What strategies and supports are most useful to teaching reading comprehension to students with autism?

Probe 2: What strategies and supports are least useful for teaching students reading comprehension to students with autism?

7. What works well for you when teaching reading comprehension to students with autism (Probe: educationally, and socially)? In thinking about social deficits for kids with autism?

What works well?

8. In your experience, what are the greatest difficulties encountered in teaching reading/reading instructional strategies to your students with autism?

9. Do you have any suggestions/advice on how to prepare educators to teach reading to students 25

with autism?

10. Is there anything else in regard to teaching reading instruction to students with autism that we haven't talked about that you would like to comment on?

Teacher Experience and Educational Background To end our interview, I will ask you a few questions that will assist me in describing the group of teachers I am interviewing.

What grades and subjects do you teach?

How many years have you taught?

How did you obtain your teaching certification? (i.e., 4-year university, alternative program) What is your current level of education (i.e., masters, bachelors, etc.)?

Tell me a bit about your coursework in your pre-service or Masters preparation program related to reading? Students with disabilities? Autism?

How long have you taught students with autism?

26

Teachers as Behavior Professionals: Understanding the Experiences of Teachers as BCBAs Justin N. Coy, M.Ed., BCBA Jennifer L. Russell, Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh Abstract Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a well-defined field and discipline recognized by both scientific and professional organizations. Since the establishment of our professional discipline, ABA has seen immense growth in university training programs, empirical research, and certified practitioners. Despite knowing the basic demographic information about behavior analysts (including employment status, type and areas of work, etc.), little work has examined the actual experiences of dedicated behavior professionals. This article presents in-depth, systematic qualitative data on the experience of teachers who returned to school for their certification, including their introduction to the field, training program experiences, supervision experiences, and actualized professional gains as a result of obtaining their BCBA. This work reports the experiences of behavior analysts and provides an initial behavior professional experience model.

The results of this exploratory study have implications for behavior professionals, the field as a whole, and programs responsible for training future behavior analysts.

Teachers as Behavior Professionals: Understanding the Experiences of Teachers as BCBAs Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a field, discipline, and practice honed since its founding in the 1950s-60s (Morris, Altus, & Smith, 2013). ABA uses unique and well-developed research methods, principles, and procedures to improve socially significant behaviors in individuals (Carr & Nosik, 2017; Dixon, Vogel, & Tarbox, 2012; Jacobson & Holburn, 2004). Researchers and practitioners use natural reinforcers, individualized interventions, and systematic instruction to change behavior and build skills (Carr & Nosik, 2017). These techniques are most commonly employed in educational or private settings working with students or clients.

Consistent with the growth of any profession, the field has seen increases in university training programs, experimental and applied research studies, and certified practitioners (Carr & Nosik, 2017). The recent rapid growth of our professional discipline is empirically established (Burning Glass, 2015; Carr & Nosik, 2017; Deochand & Fuqua, 2016). Since establishing the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACBÂŽ) in 1998, membership in professional organizations, conference attendance, and credentialing continue to increase (Association of Professional Behavior Analysts [APBA], 2015; Carr & Nosik, 2017; Deochand & Fuqua, 2016), mirroring increasing demand for credentialed behavior analysts (BACB, 2018). Recent analyses of BACB certification trends found continual increased growth in certificants, with a noticeable rate increase since 2010 (APBA, 2015; Deochand & Fuqua, 2016). There are now over 30,000 ABA professionals worldwide (BACB, n.d.); modeling predicts that number may surpass 42,000 by 2020 (Deochand & Fuqua, 2016). Additionally, only 1.5% of certified behavior analysts fail to complete the required continuing education credits and let their professional certification lapse (Deochand & Fuqua, 2016). These data highlight: (a) the number of certificants is growing 27

significantly, and (b) once obtaining their certifications ABA professionals dedicate themselves to the field and rarely leave. These are positive signs; the applied work of this field must be implemented by trained and dedicated professionals.

While there is strong evidence that the ABA field is expanding, there has been little research aimed at understanding the professionals that comprise it. Our field depends on highly trained and specialized professionals who complete multiple Master’s level courses, fulfill up to 1,500 hours of supervised internship, and pass a 150-question exam (BACB, 2018). By doing so, these professionals become Board Certified Behavior Analysts (“BCBAs”). Given that these BCBAs are the primary representatives and practitioners that bring ABA into practice, it is critical for the field to understand the experiences of our committed professionals. There is a tradition of research in education investigating the experiences of teachers and other educational professionals. Direct interviews, secondary analyses, and literature reviews have focused on understanding the professional experiences of teachers resulting in important research findings regarding: (a) methods for recruiting highly-qualified teachers (e.g., Johnson, 2006); (b) the effect of teachers’ working conditions, including physical features, organizational structures, and cultural and political factors (e.g., Johnson, Kraft, & Papay, 2012); and (c) the need for induction and mentoring supports to keep skilled educators in the field (e.g., Johnson, Berg, & Donaldson, 2005). Yet this work typically focuses on general and special education classroom teachers; the experiences of other education professionals may vary dramatically. Researchers have investigated the experiences of various educational professionals, including speechlanguage pathologists (e.g., Morrison, Lincoln, & Reed, 2011), school psychologists (e.g., Proctor & Steadman, 2003), and occupational therapists (e.g., Bose & Hinojosa, 2008).

However, to date limited work has investigated the experiences of behavior professionals (BCBAs).

The authors realize that a paper focused on professional experiences is unusual for the field.

However, recent original articles, subsequent commentaries, and special issues have focused on important professional experiences (including training and supervision). Behavior Analysis in Practice (BAP) published a series of 15 articles (beginning with an original article by Dixon, Reed, Smith, Belisle, and Jackson, 2015) discussing quality assessment of ABA training programs. A recent special issue discussed aspects of professional supervision, including supervision ethics, structures/models, and conflict management (LeBlanc & Luiselli, 2016).

Original research (Becirevic, 2014) and a set of four commentaries addressed how behavior analysts should combat misconceptions and discuss behavior analysis with outsiders of the field (Becirevic, 2015).

Most of the articles discussed above present the opinion and voice of research faculty members or university professors. These experts provide important, knowledgeable perspectives and should not be underappreciated. However, it is worth noting that the collective voices of practicing professionals have not yet entered into these debates. Iwata (2015) recognizes the importance of practitioner voices to address aspects of our field, including program quality.

Recent survey work has explored program information reported by approved training program directors (Blydenburg & Diller, 2016) and examined how program graduates should respond to misconceptions or misunderstandings about our field (Becirevic, 2014). This survey work provides an important starting point by gaining the general perspective of professionals in the 28

field. In-depth qualitative data collection and analysis can allow researchers to get a deeper understanding of behavior analysts’ experiences. This exploratory study focuses on the experience of behavior analysts who completed their training program requirements as full-time teachers – it is likely that these stakeholders offer substantial buy-in, and likely influence multiple groups including students, parents, paraprofessionals, and administrators, all of whom could end up researching or investing in ABA. The driving research questions included: (1) What brought these teachers to the field of ABA? (2) How would they describe their training program and supervision experiences? (3) What actualized gains resulted from their training?

Answering these questions provides meaningful insight into the training experiences of our behavior professionals and can help support the growth and dissemination of behavior analysis.

Method Recruitment The BACB® Certificant Registry was used to recruit participants. Email invitations were sent to 58 BCBAs in Southwestern Pennsylvania; 12 certificants responded to the invitation. Interested certificants responded to a set of basic professional/informational questions (length of time in the field, current job title, etc.) and confirmed they met inclusion criteria (taught while pursuing BCBA certification); in all, six current behavior analysts met inclusion criteria. The first author also recruited two students through their enrollment in a BACB ® verified course sequence to receive the perspective of current BCBA-seeking students.

Sample Six current BCBAs and two BCBA-seeking students participated in this study. Table 1 presents demographic information of the eight participants. The participants had an average of five years work experience in the field and an average age of 35. All of the participants described themselves as Caucasian/White; one was male. This study included only successful BCBA training program graduates or students about to complete their program requirements. This presents a limitation of the study because we inherently miss the experiences of non-successful students, those that complete some (or all) of the coursework/experiences but never take or successfully pass the exam. However, the experiences of successful students can provide meaningful information for future and current students, faculty members, and researchers.

Data Collection One-on-one in-person interviews were conducted with each participant, following a semistructured interview protocol (Figure 1). Each interview lasted approximately one hour and was conducted at a day, time, and location convenient for each interviewee. The interviews were audio recorded and subsequently transcribed for analysis. All transcripts were reviewed to ensure accurate and reliable audio transcription. The participants also completed a follow-up survey addressing specific themes and questions that arose from preliminary analysis. The 16item survey collected basic demographic information and asked the participants qualitative and quantitative questions regarding their training program and supervision experiences, test-prep behaviors, and intent to remain in the field of behavior analysis.

29

Table 1.

Participant Demographic Information BCBA Training Participant*

Age

Gender

Ethnicity

Current Work

Years

Bridget

58

Female

White

PreK T

2016-17

Julia

27

Female

Caucasian

Day care T

2015-19

Program Type In-Person BCBA only In-Person MEd & BCBA In-Person BCBA only In-Person MEd & BCBA Online BCBA only In-Person MEd & BCBA Online BCBA only

Work While PreK T Day care T

Lead therapist at APS for Teaching fellow & doctoral 2010-12 autism or related diagnoses student Preschool T at center-based Founder/CEO - ABA 2006-09 White Leah 34 Female school for autism service provider Co-founder – ABA service Autism classroom T at APS 2011-13 Caucasian Zander 32 Male provider Music T at APS (K-8 for autism SE T at center-based school 2007-10 White Jillian 31 Female and EBD) for students with EBD Classroom T at APS Internal coach, APS 2013-14 Caucasian Holly 31 Female (autism/MDs) (autism/MDs) Full-time sub (elementary Invention Specialist & In-Person autism support then secondary 2009-11 Consultant at regional White Melanie 35 Female MEd & BCBA emotional support) educational service agency Notes: *All participant names are pseudonyms; ABA: Applied Behavior Analysis; APS: Approved Private School; EBD: Emotional Behavior Disorders; MDs: Multiple Disabilities; PreK: Pre-Kindergarten; SE: Special Education; T: Teacher Rebecca

32

Female

White

30

Figure 1. Interview Protocol

Figure 1. Interview Protocol – This figure shows the interview protocol. The participants were asked about their educational and professional history, current teaching, their experience returning to school for their BCBA, and the application of their certification. Follow-up questions were asked as necessary for clarification or more information.

Data Analysis A combination of inductive and deductive coding was used to analyze the participant interviews, followed by systematic member checking to confirm the analysis. Figure 2 shows the general data analysis process.

First cycle coding. The analysis process began with the first interview transcript. The first author coded passages using inductive and holistic structural coding, applying a single code 31

(word or phrase) to entire passages (Saldaña, 2016). Initial codes for the passages were generated to reflect the participant’s response to the question being asked (‘question-based coding’; Saldaña, 2016). After this first round of structural coding, 57 individual codes remained. Many of these codes, however, were repeat or duplicate codes; when condensed, 25 unique codes remained. Additional groups/categories were established by taking the existing structural codes and examining them for commonalities and relationships (Saldaña, 2016). These initial codes and categories were then applied deductively to the remaining seven transcripts.

During this continued coding, new inductive codes were generated as necessary. As new codes were generated, all previous transcripts were reviewed for instances of the emergent codes.

Second cycle coding. After coding all eight interviews, the first author engaged in several methods of second cycle coding. Pattern coding allowed data segments to be grouped into fewer categories and themes based on patterns of responding, agreements, and similarities in experiences (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). Additionally, axial coding helped link categories to subcategories and identify other possible relationships between categories and subcategories (Miles et al., 2014).

Visual display. Taken in sum, the resulting data and codes represent a chronological professional experience timeline from pre-BCBA coursework through becoming a behavior professional (Figure 3). Four distilled categories (‘History and Experiences,’ ‘Decision to Pursue BCBA,’ ‘Engagement and Persistence in BCBA Program,’ and ‘Becoming a Behavior Professional’) anchor the network display across time. Experiences surrounding each category highlight important events described by the participants. For example, when making the decision to return to school for their BCBA, the participants described pivotal ABA experiences (such as working with a behavior analyst), barriers to returning to school (such as funding and childcare), and their perceived gains of obtaining their BCBA. The key in Figure 3 identifies the number of participants that described each experience or event. There was high convergence among the participants – most participants described similar experiences before, during, and after obtaining their BCBA. Member checking. A critical stage in our analysis was a systematic member checking process.

Member checking is one method for establishing the credibility, validity, and trustworthiness of qualitative results (Creswell & Miller, 2000; Doyle, 2007). During member checking, the researcher provides study participants with raw data, preliminary themes or analysis, and/or the final narrative (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Synthesized member checking (SMC) “enables participants to add comments which are then searched for confirmation or disconfirming resonance with the analyzed study data, enhancing the credibility of results” (Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell, & Walter, 2016, p. 1806). During SMC, quantitative measures of engagement (response rate) and agreement (yes/no responses to accuracy and applicability of themes) are analyzed using descriptive statistics (Birt et al., 2016). Quantitatively, there were only three instances of disagreement by the participants (141/144; 97.9% agreement). These disagreements were not the result of inaccuracy of the themes, but rather divergent professional experiences.

Any information or elaboration provided by the participants during SMC was incorporated into final narrative.

32

Figure 2. Data Analysis Process

Figure 2. Data Analysis Process – This figure shows the data analysis process for this study. The first round of coding included inductive, holistic structural coding (applying a single word or phrase to entire passages.

Duplicates were removed and larger categories were created. As new codes were generated, they were applied to previously coded transcripts. The second round of coding included identifying patterns, connections, and relationships between codes and searching for confirming and divergent experiences. A chronological display was generated (Figure 3). Finally, synthesized member checking systematically ensured the credibility, validity, and trustworthiness of the analysis and results.

Member checking was completed with each participant individually, lasting between 30 and 60 minutes. During each audio-recorded session, the first author reviewed the project, presented a copy of the network display (Figure 3), and provided a concise report that included synthesized data (analysis themes) contextualized with illustrative quotes. After discussing each theme, the first author asked the participants if the theme(s) made sense (logically and empirically) and fit within their own personal and professional experiences. All quotes included in the final narrative were provided to the participants for approval, clarification, or re-wording. All member-checking documents are available upon request.

Results The following results report the perceptions/experiences of current ABA practitioners and students. The participants described their personal and professional experiences surrounding returning to school for their BCBA certification. Taken in sum, these experiences led to the formation of a chronological experience model (Figure 3) from before returning to school, through engagement in coursework and supervision, and becoming a behavior professional.

33

Figure 3 Behavior Professional Experience Model

Figure 3. Behavior Professional Experience Model – This figure presents a chronological visualization of the experiences of teachers who returned to school for this BCBA. Three distilled categories (‘Decision to Pursue BCBA,’ ‘Engagement and Persistence in BCBA Program,’ and ‘Becoming a Behavior Professional’) anchor the network display. Experiences surround each category, contributing in some way. History and experiences seemed to play a role throughout the experience model and are shown as influencing each category.

34

History and Experiences Behavior analysts come from a wide array of fields and academic disciplines. As such, they each bring a unique set of professional and personal experiences. These experiences, including family connections to special education, prior work with people with disabilities, and their educational background and training likely play an important role in the analysts’ decision to pursue their BCBA, engagement during their coursework, and continued work as a behavior professional.

Familial connection to special education. Nearly all of the analysts described deep family connections to education, special education, and people with special/exceptional needs. Five analysts had family members working in education, including general education, special education, speech-language pathology, administration, advocacy, and mental health associations.

“I grew up with educators and I saw the stress” (Holly); “I have a big background from my family and special education” (Zander). These analysts had first-hand knowledge and experience with the unique and pervasive challenges that exist within education.

Analysts also described working with siblings and other family members with disabilities. These opportunities allowed them to learn and practice using positive strategies while working with them: “My aunt had a 1-year-old and a 3-year-old foster kids. I was working with them and I really enjoyed that. Because they had social and emotional delays, you had to use skills to not set them off” (Julia). “My uncle has, since like back in the 40s, a MR diagnosis. He definitely played a role in all this” (Holly).

When asked how she became interested in special education and working with this population of students, Melanie described her brother’s struggle in school: My brother who’s ten years younger than me has a learning disability, dyslexia probably.

I always remember him struggling. I’m like, “Well, why doesn’t this teacher just give him 10 math problems instead of 30 math problems?” Even as I was going through my coursework at [college], he was in high school, and he was struggling. A lot of the stuff, I would just be like, “I just don’t understand.” I just didn’t understand why people couldn’t make these little adaptations. If you want him to do this math fine, but 30 problems is not necessary. I think, even then, I was just kind of like, “That doesn’t seem right,” and so I just seemed drawn to [working with students with special needs].

This work with family members and siblings with disabilities may have pushed the analysts towards special education, and subsequently to ABA. When discussing the preliminary findings of the study, including the personal connection to the field, Leah agreed: “Siblings: A lot of people I see go back because they have siblings [or family members] on the [autism] spectrum.”

Prior work with people with disabilities. Each of the analysts described previous work with students and adults with disabilities. The certificants worked as paraprofessionals, Therapeutic Support Staff (TSS1), Registered Behavior Technicians (RBTs), or at inclusive summer camp programs. The certificants reported being drawn to the ABA field in part due to strong TSSs work directly with students and implement the behavior plans developed by Behavior Support Consultants (BSCs). BSCs do not often provide direct services to the child (Pennsylvania Health Law Project, 2011).

1

35

connections working with students with emotional or behavioral challenges during their early career experiences. During college, Rebecca worked with a student with autism: “I worked under a BCBA, and I loved it. The [student] was one of the best people I have ever met. I still talk with this mother. It was a wonderful experience for me.”

Jillian worked with a student with multiple disabilities, including autism: “I raised my hand. I was paired up with her and we just had—there was something there” (Jillian). Then during college, “there was an opportunity to provide ABA tutoring to a young girl with autism over the summer” (Jillian).

In the summers following high school, Zander often worked for a youth summer program.

During these programs: “I was drawn to those kids who had emotional issues. I was coming up with things on my own to coach them or help them” (Zander). Holly worked at an inclusive summer program at the YMCA throughout her undergraduate studies. She said most “were children with autism…. I learned a lot. It was interesting” (Holly).

Entered classrooms unprepared to address student behavior. Perhaps due to their early experiences with students with special needs, most participants pursued careers in special education. Two worked as TSSs or Behavioral Specialist Consultant (BSC); two worked in approved private schools (APS) for students with autism, emotional behavior disorders, and/or related disabilities; and one became a ‘supersub’ for public special education classrooms (within districts and regional educational service agencies). Prior to returning to school for their BCBA, most of the analysts (five of eight) worked in an APS; the other three worked in public elementary or secondary schools.

Those in public schools experienced ‘less intense’ behaviors, including non-compliance, defiance, and bullying, while APS teachers regularly dealt with ‘more intense’ and aggressive behaviors, including severe self-injurious behavior, biting, hair pulling, and property destruction.

Despite the setting, the participants described entering the teaching workforce unprepared to address student behaviors. Behavior management (specific training in how to address and prevent student problem behaviors), was the “missing piece” (Holly) of their teacher preparation programs. It was “the most underdeveloped part of my undergrad education was behavior management” (Julia). Even for a participant who went through teacher preparation several decades ago, behavior management “was not something they really went over” (Bridget).

The analysts describe the pre-service training they did receive as rather incomplete: We had one separate classroom management class, but that wasn’t related to special education at all and it was useless because it was with [pre-service teachers from different fields] and wasn’t really relevant to our field in particular… [We discussed] ways to structure the room, how to respond to talking out, but no serious behavior [management]. (Jillian) Some analysts recall specific types of strategies; token economies and similar group contingencies were commonly included. Generally, “basic full-classroom [techniques], nothing

36

individualized” (Melanie). Rebecca could remember some of the topics discussed during her behavior management training, but broadly: I think a lot of it was, in retrospect, a bit touchy-feely about making people feel included.

I guess that would be a part of classroom management, creating a cultural climate that is welcoming and appropriate. And while I appreciate those things now later in life, I can't pick out specific strategies that I was taught in order to do those things. I can just tell you what those buzzwords are and say that we learned about them, but that doesn’t mean we were really taught, “Okay, how do you do that?”

Despite a passion for working with students with disabilities, including those with challenging behavior, most participants felt unprepared to address students’ emotional and behavioral needs as they started their educational careers.

Decision to Pursue BCBA During a member-checking meeting, Zander highlighted a key aspect of our field: “The field isn’t new, but the professionalism [and credentialing] is relatively new… I don’t know many people who are like, ‘When I was 14 I wanted to be a BCBA.’ People are finding out about it, they’re stumbling across it.” When presented to other participants, they agreed: “Yeah, you have to come across it, know somebody, or have a sibling that has need of that sort of program. It’s not something you really think about becoming, unless you’re supposed to” (Bridget). “You have to be exposed to [the field of ABA] or you have no idea it exists” (Melanie). The analysts were introduced to the field through a range of serendipitous experiences. They then researched the field and profession, including possible in-person and online training programs.

Pivotal ABA Experiences. Most of the participants learned about ABA through work experiences working with students with emotional and behavioral needs and interactions with behavior professionals. Seven of the participants described learning about the field through their direct contact with ABA or a BCBA. The participants enjoyed these initial, hands-on introductions to ABA. “Once I started getting into the field and working with kids with autism, I just loved it” (Leah). Several provided services in the home and worked with families. They often recounted stories of positive interactions with students and families: “I actually learned a lot more about ABA from the individual’s mother than anyone else. She was a really active ingredient in his exposure to intervention” (Rebecca). Positive collaborative efforts among behavior professionals and families were critical: Then over the summer, there was an opportunity to provide ABA tutoring to a young girl with autism… It changed everything, because I had no idea what ABA was. The parent and the BCBA trained me and I wound up working a lot of hours a week. We were implementing the programs that the BCBA wrote and the parent was very familiar with the programs and was involved with training the staff. (Jillian) While working in these settings, colleagues and supervisors pushed the participants to pursue their BCBA. “One of my BSCs that was supervising me, she was like, “I think you’re really great at this” (Leah). Zander also recalled the support of his supervisors in pushing him to pursue his BCBA: 37

As soon as I got my job, and they were like, “You’re gonna be good,” I think we talked a little bit about there were some people who got it and some people that don’t. I was recognized by some people who were like, “Look. He gets it.” [Supervisor] really pushed, “Go do it online.”

Melanie worked with two behavior specialists, at least one of whom was a BCBA. During a long-term substitute position in an emotional support classroom, Melanie reached out for help working with a challenging student. The behavior specialist helped her with the specific student, but also helped her be “able to see the growth just in adding some reinforcement and being consistent and the right type of prompting” (Melanie). Later on, Melanie had the opportunity to work with a behavior specialist who formally introduced her to ABA: “She was ‘ABA certified,’ and I was like, ‘What does that mean?’ She explained it to me, and I looked into it.”

Returning to school: smooth transitions and perceived gains. The participants were asked about the process of returning to school. By and large, the participants described smooth transitions due in part to their active efforts to manage any potential barriers, including career, school, and partner/family commitments. Interestingly, none of the teachers working at an approved private school (APS) while returning to school for their BCBA noted significant barriers related to pursuing their BCBA, in part because ABA was already integrated into their work lives.

Participants took steps to ensure they were prepared to get through program successfully. For example, Leah described herself as “a very task-oriented person” who was “prepared and ready” for the program. Jillian and her husband discussed the idea of her returning to school shortly after graduating from college. While she was nervous at the time, she now is glad she decided to “go right away because now I have two young kids and I’ll be done with everything at a pretty young age” (Jillian).

Two participants, both paraprofessionals at an APS, completed their coursework online and reported easy transitions back to school. For these analysts, they saw real benefit in completing the coursework online; online programs tend to cost less than in person programs. Holly “knew [she] wanted to do online. It was significantly cheaper than the other schools, significantly.” For Zander, doing an online program was “a no-brainer. It is $900.00 a class. [Comparable program] is literally three times the cost.” On top of being financially smart, Holly wanted her greatest chance for success in passing the BCBA exam. “Somebody somewhere told me, ‘Hey, look up the pass rates,’ and [program] was really high, so I decided I’m just gonna go for that” (Holly).

The participants perceived meaningful gains from completing the coursework and obtaining their BCBA. These perceived gains likely motivated the future-analysts to persevere through their training programs. As full-time teachers, the participants perceived the coursework as an opportunity to better their practice or learn skills to help students. Rebecca had made the jump from a preschool classroom to an APS for autism and related disabilities, and reported: “I wanted to be better at what I was doing. I think that initially that’s all I wanted, was just to be better at my job.” Bridget “wanted to run my classroom positively and just feel like I was more in control 38

of the behaviors that were happening in my [Pre-K] classroom.” She believed the BCBA training would help “bring some sort of new life into my classroom.”

For several participants, obtaining their BCBA would help them better serve students and families. When Leah was introduced to the field, she “thought that the field would be very rewarding… I just wanted to make a difference, I guess, and be in a field that’s rewarding. [I enjoyed] interacting with families and different people and cultures.” Julia’s focus was on working with children: “I’m doing it to gain these skills so that I can help all different kinds of kids… Someday there will be somebody who needs me to have that skill in order to have a breakthrough.” Bridget was excited to learn more to help her teaching and others she works with: “What I learned was something I could really bring back to other teachers and share with them. It’s not just an improvement for me, but I can help a whole bunch of people.”

Engagement & Persistence in BCBA Program Once in training programs, participants had to balance coursework with work commitments.

This process was supported by the resonance between course content and their work, and positive supervision experiences.

Classes while working. The participants described the challenges associated with being a fulltime teacher and a student; however, they appreciated the practical applications of their coursework.

It was challenging, you know working full time and then come home and go to class usually two nights a week. I was a part-time student so it took me quite a while to finish up my coursework… The nights I was not in class, I was writing or reading research articles. (Leah) For Julia, a current student and full-time daycare teacher, “It’s a lot of time management, a lot of lists, a lot of sleepless nights, especially with two kids.”

The analysts found their program experience rewarding and benefited from supportive, knowledgeable professors. “They were supportive and engaging, and made the material accessible to all students… [They] kept us motivated by ensuring that we understood the materials” (Julia). Many analysts’ previous or current work experiences helped them connect with the content: I’m not saying it was easy stuff, but some of the coursework, I think because I already had such an experience in low incidence and in that population, that when in some of my classes they were like, “Hey, you have to write a plan,” I was like, “Here, I already have one.” (Melanie) I think that it was very helpful to be working in an APS as a music teacher when I was in my coursework. It was very helpful because I could immediately apply it to a situation that was going on with a student. I definitely think that working while taking coursework is the way to go… because you can apply it right away. Even if you’re not getting your

39

supervision officially yet, when you’re taking that coursework, if you’re working with kids you can say, “Oh, that’s just like what Johnny does.” (Jillian) Teachers working in public school settings benefited from real-life/practical examples provided during their courses. “My teacher used a variety of teaching methods, including visuals, repetition, and real-life examples” (Julia). Jillian’s professors “had high standards and practical examples that helped me understand the concepts.” These analysts were also able to try some of the skills they learned in their own classrooms: “I loved applying what I was learning in my practicum experiences… There is carryover [between coursework and current teaching], it’s just putting labels to some of the things I was already doing” (Julia).

Teachers working in an APS (where they also completed their supervised internship experience) found immense benefit in their ability to immediately implement the skills they learned in their coursework. “Yeah, the material was hard, but I think it was a lot easier for me because I was living and breathing it every day” (Holly). Rebecca described the process of being in school while working full time: “It was hell, but my coursework and supervision hours and working full time all in the same place afforded me the ability to do that across most of the concepts I learned.” These analysts benefited from being surrounded by knowledgeable and supportive staff and they saw great value in their experiences: The professors were people that I worked for so I had access to them every day… I think without that piece, I would not have been as successful… It’s a different level of practice that I am absolutely grateful for. It was hell, but grateful for it… I think that there was much less of a gap between this ‘concept’ and ‘practice,’ so the benefit and the strength there, in my opinion, was “Oh, you learned that yesterday, let’s do that today.” Or I could say, “I learned about this, I’ve never seen this type of programing, this schedule, whatever. Is there anybody I could work with that might give me that experience?” “Oh sure, take this hour with this student and then you will have done or seen that thing.” And that, to me, is the strongest link. (Rebecca).

Supervision. The analysts had a mix of supervision experiences: half (four) completed intensive practicum experiences, three completed supervised independent fieldworks (at their current APS), and one combined an intensive practicum experience and supervised independent fieldwork. Public school teachers (and a music teacher at an APS) were supervised by someone affiliated with the training program/university (or university-provided). Teachers working at an APS while taking courses were typically supervised by a professional in their school/program (or in-house). Each group described specific strengths and benefits of their supervisors and supervision experiences. The participants also described the importance of high-quality supervision.

University-provided supervision. Overall, the participants had positive experiences with university-provided supervision and supervisors. They appreciated their supervisors challenging them to see behavior in a different way, answering questions, and explaining how to apply ABA concepts into their day-to-day work.

40

Both Bridget and Julia described their supervision experience as “excellent.” Bridget’s supervisors: Were interested and always willing to discuss things that I was thinking about and grappling with. They had valuable input and challenged me to think about things from other perspectives… It really helped me think about how I look at things and how I approach a [behavior] problem.

Julia appreciated that her supervisors “allowed me to try different behavioral interventions, and come to conclusions regarding their efficacy on my own. I also had group supervision once per week, which was useful; it allowed us to hash out difficulties as a group.” Julia spoke very highly of her supervisor: “She encourages independent thought. I ask her a question, and she’s like, ‘Hm. What do you think? What procedures are in place?’ And she’s teaching me how to change [my] language to be more appropriate to non-BCBAs.” Melanie felt like her supervisor “was a great match” for her: He really let me guide supervision, which I liked. He was knowledgeable and fair, but I was like, “Here’s my question.” I’d come with the questions, and we’d talk about it, and then he’d apply it back to my classroom. Then he would come in the next time and do something on that, or talk about it or show it, which really worked for me, so that was really great.

Two participants mentioned specific missing components of their university-provided supervision experiences. As a music teacher in an APS while completing her coursework and supervision, Jillian saw groups of students for 45 minutes every three days: My supervisor found it a challenge to tell me what to do because it was just different than what you typically see for a BCBA. It was tough because I didn't have [the students] all day; it's hard to get any behavioral momentum going.

While Melanie really enjoyed her supervision experience, she felt it lacked a diversity of experiences: I think that one drawback to my supervision was that it was done in one setting. Because I was working full-time, I did not have much room for variety. I wish I could have had more opportunity to work with kids at different levels and explore [verbal behavior] more.

In-house supervision. Participants receiving in-house supervision found the experience incredibly rewarding. These supervisors were often program directors, instructors, or other behavior professionals that the participants were already interacting with frequently. In several cases, the BCBA supervisor was also the person who pushed them to pursue the certification.

For these in-house supervisees, direct and on-going access to seasoned behavior professionals allowed them to quickly understand and apply the material into their daily work.

41

Holly’s supervisor was “readily available to observe and to answer questions. She always gave appropriate feedback and thorough answers to my questions.” For Rebecca and Holly, immediate and continual access to their BCBA supervisor helped them review and practice skills described in their coursework: I think without that [in-house supervision], I would not have been as successful… My boss saw me doing work every day [not once or twice a week]… That meant that we could make changes to programming, and we could practice implementing different things rapidly and in the way that it’s designed to be done. We could problem solve on Tuesday after making a decision on Monday, because we saw each other every day… If your supervisor is your teacher, and there when you’re doing the thing you just learned, you have access to immediate, in-situ feedback from your supervisor. Not just once a week when they visit, but every day. If you look at the literature on when feedback is delivered and how it’s delivered, that’s the difference between immediate versus potentially days of delay. (Rebecca) [In-house supervision] made it so much easier, and it helped me understand how to apply what I was learning in class to what I was actually doing every day. It was just nice to have her there because she was there almost every day… It’s nice to have somebody who’s super available that can help you out and she was right there. (Holly) Although varied, the analysts’ supervision experiences highlight the importance of high-quality supervision. Put simply, “Someone who’s trained in behavior analysis and was a good supervisor not only shaped me but shaped so many other analysts. That’s, to me, what the biggest miracle is for good teaching – good supervision. Really, really good supervision” (Zander).

Becoming a Behavior Professional Once completing the course, supervision, and examination requirements, the participants become part of a growing group of passionate behavior professionals. The analysts saw important professional and philosophical gains from their coursework and experiences. Continued gains and a dedication to the field likely motivates analysts to remain in the field.

Obtaining certification. All of the current analysts (excluding the two BCBA-seeking students) in this study successfully completed the requirements to become a BCBA. Five out of six of those analysts passed the exam on their first try. Both BCBA students were in the middle stage of their training and supervision requirements. At the time of member checking, Julia had completed all but one course and nearly all of her supervision hours. She plans to sit for the exam in several months. Bridget completed the courses and a semester of supervised independent fieldwork in her classroom. She since decided not to pursue the certification, citing her “stress about the exam” and her own potential upcoming retirement: “the knowledge I have gained and learned has been invaluable. I decided to take the knowledge that I have and apply it to my work and hopefully to help colleagues” (Bridget).

Actualized gains. Prior to returning to school, the participants perceived important gains from gaining their BCBA. These gains were likely exchanged for actualized gains throughout their 42

training program experience and subsequent work in the field. Interestingly, participants described their actualized gains in two broad categories: gains in practice, and a change in professional philosophy.

“It made me a better teacher” – Gains in practice. The participants saw changes in their own behavior as they went through their training programs. Both current BCBA students experienced connections between their training programs and currently classroom teaching. Bridget also saw gains in her practice: I’m much more aware of being consistent… I definitely feel much more confident in the choices I make. And I feel like if I am going to put in place some sort of behavior change program, I feel much more confident, ‘Oh this is going to work.’ And I try to focus on the idea that you really need to think about what’s driving the behavior. Look at that behavior, see how you can change what happens before the behavior. Let’s get in there and if we know this is what’s motivating the behavior, what can we do to change it, stop it before it even happens? I really feel that is the best thing I learned: be proactive, stop it before it even starts.

Analysts recalled the professional gains they made during their training programs: I really saw the changes in the students. Working with them for so long, I could really see that applied behavior analysis was making a big difference in their lives. Just those little successes leading up to a bigger success was really satisfying for me as a clinician.

(Jillian) I think I just pick smarter strategies. It helped me realize to stop and think about why somebody’s doing what they’re doing and pick the function, treat the function. I didn’t really know how to do that before so that helped me. (Holly) Analysts also described long-lasting gains in professional practice: I mean just pairing, building rapport, relationships, making sure those are in place, and being able to manage in a classroom, group instruction and contingencies, and just the whole works. I mean, as a teacher, the systematic teaching and instruction, and analysis of goals and academics, and just the whole works. I mean managing classrooms, managing individuals on their own. (Leah) It made the way I viewed what I did much differently… I’m very much now focused on: You lack the skills. I need to teach you the skills, and how do I teach the skills? Your behavior doesn’t need to be necessarily punished. I need to teach you the skills to then learn to behave appropriately. (Melanie) During her interview, Leah recounted the things she has gained as a result of obtaining her BCBA:

43

[Gaining my BCBA] has allowed me to start a company, help more families, and do the right thing, the quality thing. I think it gives you a different perspective on the world and everything that’s going on around you… The BCBA certificate made me see that [ABA] is a super tool for teaching. (Leah) “Behavior [analysis] isn’t a type of teaching” – Changes in professional philosophy. Many analysts described additional philosophical changes as a result of their training. For Zander, “there was a method to the madness, and I saw the method to the madness… I just see things now through the lens of behaviorism.” Melanie said that pursuing the BCBA “opened up a whole new world of what was available; a new way of thinking and doing things.” For Julia, “ABA has taught me to analyze behaviors in a new way… ABA is a mindset, one cannot simply ‘unsee’ ABA” (Julia). Jillian saw multiple changes, “I look at everything through the lens of ABA both professionally and personally.” ABA brought clarity for Bridget: “It does change the way you look at how people behave and think about what’s causing it and what you can do to change it…

Things make a little more sense and you can actually do something about it.” Leah said it simply, “ABA is a part of everything that we do.”

Dedication to the Field During a post-interview follow-up survey, the analysts were asked to rate “On a scale of 1-10, with 1 being ‘not at all’ and 10 being ‘extremely,’ how dedicated/passionate are you to the field of ABA?” The analysts had a mean ‘dedication rating’ of 9.25 out of 10 (range: 8 – 10).

Importantly, the analysts were asked to operationalize what their ‘very dedicated’ to ‘extremely dedicated’ ratings meant to them. The analysts often described the effectiveness of ABA: “The strategies we're taught to use are scientifically valid, and this gives teachers the confidence to do their jobs more fully” (Julia). “I believe that ABA works and when applied properly can help kids improve behaviors, learn skills, and lead meaningful lives” (Melanie). “I believe in the power of the science to improve the lives of those I work with” (Zander).

During the follow-up survey, the participants were also asked about their intentions of remaining in the ABA field. Seven of the participants planned to remain in the field for the foreseeable future. Citing her own potential upcoming retirement, Bridget decided to use the knowledge she gains from her coursework to enrich her classroom and support other teachers. For Julia: “I plan to earn my BCBA by 2020 and possibly go on to teach at the university level and supervise other young aspiring BCBA's. The job security is also quite a perk.” Every certified analyst in the study planned to remain in the field for the rest of their professional careers. Rebecca said, “I will be here forever… it is what I love to do.” Zander said he would remain in the field of ABA “for life… I really love what I do.” Holly plans “on staying forever... I love the field and the population of individuals with whom I work. The science just makes sense to me - I see how it applies to all aspects of behavior.” Melanie said simply, "I love what I do!” She plans to work in ABA “for the rest of my career... I may not stay in the school systems or work in the same setting I am in now, but I do believe that will stay in the field of ABA for the remainder of my career” (Melanie).

Discussion

44

This article presents some of the first qualitative research about the experience of behavior analysts before, during, and after completing their training programs. Guiding this work were the following research questions: (1) What brought these teachers to the field of ABA? (2) How would they describe their training program and supervision experiences? (3) What actualized gains resulted from their training? A common narrative emerged describing the professional trajectory of BCBAs that came to the field after beginning their career in other educational positions. Prior to returning to school for their BCBA, the participants each described pivotal experiences with ABA or behavior professionals through their work as classroom teachers, paraprofessionals, TSSs, etc. These experiences allowed the future analysts to see its effectiveness first-hand or have their potential and skill set recognized by current behavior analysts. The participants described the process of completing their coursework requirements while working as full-time teachers. They acknowledged that it was a lot of work, but they appreciated the practical applications of the coursework within their own classrooms. The participants described their program experiences as worthwhile and benefitted from supported, knowledgeable professors. During both university-provided and in-house supervision, participants benefited from trying different behavior interventions, collecting data, and judging the effectiveness for themselves as well as incorporating ABA principles into their day-to-day work as teachers. As a result of completing their training programs, the participants described distinct gains in their knowledge of ABA skills and practice, including changes to professional identity.

Many of the participants described a history working with students with disabilities, including populations whom typically receive ABA services (autism spectrum disorders, etc.). Participants also described their desire to enhance and refine their professional knowledge/skills to better continue serving their clients, students, and families, enhance their own classroom teaching, and support other teachers. Teachers’ sense of success in working with their students, as well as school and classroom supports, influence their decision to remain in the field (Johnson & Birkeland, 2003). The participants’ prior experiences with students and teaching played an important role in how they discovered field. These historical, as well as current, experiences likely increase their dedication to the field. Increasing the visibility and accessibility of behavior analysis may provide an important tool for teachers who are actively considering leaving the field due to commonly cited concerns of student disruptive behavior (Little, 2005) as well a lack of training or support regarding classroom management (Johnson & Birkeland, 2003).

An important finding of this study was that behavior professionals are often “introduced” to the field through pivotal ABA experiences, including interactions with current behavior professionals. The participants also described receiving support and guidance from current behavior analysts, program supervisors, and others in pursuing and selecting training programs and support throughout their coursework and internships. Given the professional discipline of ABA is relatively new and not within every college or university, this provides some insight into how people come to find, or even stumble across, the field. Despite all being education professionals, each participant required an introduction to the field. Initial positive ABA experiences may influence program decision, engagement, and eventual success (obtaining a BCBA). While a poor ABA experience may lead to misunderstandings or misconceptions about the field. High-quality collegial relationships among educators and educational professionals can spur teacher development, and improve teacher knowledge, satisfaction, and classroom cultures 45

(Shah, 2012). Results from this exploratory study and existing literature promote the need for reflection and discussion on how to increase exposure of ABA to future clients and practitioners, supporting the current push of the field for the purposeful dissemination of our science.

The importance of these ABA experiences is also practically relevant. Current behavior professionals will likely interact with many potential future analysts over the course of their professional careers. These initial relational contacts with the field or other behavior professionals may promote future analysts to research the field and training options, ultimately becoming BCBAs themselves. Both these initial contacts and general day-to-day interactions with members outside our professional community have important implications. Behavior professionals should work as ABA ‘ambassadors’ – sharing the science thoughtfully and accurately while directly addressing misunderstanding or misconceptions. Current behavior analysts should also recognize good future practitioners, helping us grow our field with dedicated professionals. These two skills, dissemination and recognition, fit well within our ethical obligations as behavior analysts.

As our field experiences steady professional growth, important professional discussions have begun, including program quality and aspects of effective professional supervision. An important viewpoint missing is the collective voices and ideas of our practitioners. A recent special series on BCBA supervision recognized that good supervision is important for future analysts. This study is the first published data about supervision experiences directly from successful analysts. Results from this study show two divergent models of supervision: university-provided supervision (e.g., the training program provides a supervisor whom visits the supervisees’ assigned internship location) and in-house supervision (e.g., the student works within an ABA-service provider [APS, etc.] and is supervised by a behavior professional from that provider). Although varied, analysts’ supervision experiences highlight the importance of high-quality supervision. Given the results of this work and its connection to on-going conversations within our growing field, additional, focused research on the experiences of both supervisors and supervisees is warranted.

There are several limitations to the present study. First, this study included a small sub-set of behavior analysts, those that returned to school for their BCBA while teaching full-time and currently living within a small geographic region. Despite this, the convergence of responses/experiences as well as the intensive participant engagement helps the authors believe that program experiences are likely common for other BCBA-seeking students. While a survey would have likely produced a larger sample of successful analysts and BCBA-seeking students, one-on-one interviews allowed for the collection of in-depth, contextual information. Systematic qualitative research allowed for important clarification and follow-up questions regarding participant decision-making, as well as the ability to confirm and refine initial findings. This research established an initial behavior professional experience model (Figure 3), which can now be subjected to testing and refinement via large-scale follow-up work already underway.

Second, the six interviewed analysts successfully completed the training program and continuing education requirements to obtain (and maintain) their BCBA certification. As such, the present study does not include the experiences of those who, for whatever reason(s), did not successfully obtain their BCBA. Understanding the experiences around which these students were unable to earn their BCBA is a critically important next step for researchers and training programs.

46

Several factors lead to the need to understand the experiences of behavior analysts. As an emerging professional field, we have established formalized entry requirements (coursework, supervised internship, and examination), instituted task/skill requirements (and adapted them based on job analyses), and incorporated ethical training requirements for all analysts. These developments have occurred as the demand for behavior professionals, specifically BCBAs, continues to rise. In order to continue growing, the field should ensure we have skilled, passionate analysts in the field working with clients and disseminating our science – our dedicated professionals can provide an important voice often missing from the field. Continued conversations with practicing professionals may provide unique perspectives and solutions to the current and future challenges of our field. As the field continues to grow, professional needs and policy implications may be better understood through including practitioner voice and input.

While that happens, training programs may want to consider providing strategies or trainings to support future analysts’ thoughtful and purposeful dissemination, given the need for ABA ambassadors.

References Ahern, W.H., Green, G., Riordan, M.M., & Weatherly, N.L. (2015). Evaluating the quality of behavior analytic practitioner training programs. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8(2), 149-151. doi:10.1007/s40617-015-0085-9 Association of Professional Behavior Analysts (2015). 2014 U.S. professional employment survey: A preliminary report. Retrieved from http://www.csun.edu/~bcba/2014-APBAEmployment-Survey-Prelim-Rept.pdf Association for Science in Autism Treatment (n.d.). Applied behavior analysis. Retrieved from https://www.asatonline.org/ Behavior Analyst Certification Board (n.d). BACB certificant data. Retrieved from https://www.bacb.com/BACB-certificant-data Behavior Analyst Certification Board (2018). BCBA requirements. Retrieved from https://www.bacb.com/bcba/bcba-requirements/ Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2018). US employment demand for behavior analysts: 2010-2017. Littleton, CO: Author. Retreived from https://www.bacb.com/wpcontent/uploads/Burning_Glass_20180614.pdf Becirevic, A. (2014). Ask the experts: How can new students defend behavior analysis from misunderstandings? Behavior Analysis in Practice, 7(2), 138-140. doi:10.1007/s40617014-0019-y Becirevic, A. (2015). The experts have spoken!: A reply to four commentaries. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8(1), 113. doi:10.1007/s40617-014-0038-8 Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C., & Walter, F. (2016). Member checking: A tool to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation? Qualitative Health Research, 26(13), 1802-1811. doi:10.1177/104973231665487 Blydenburg, D.M. & Diller, J.W. (2016). Evaluating components of behavior-analytic training programs. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(2), 179-183. doi:10.1007/s40617-016-0123-2 Bose, P. & Hinojosa, J. (2008). Reported experiences from occupational therapists interacting with teachers in inclusive early childhood classrooms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62(3), 289-297. doi:10.5014/ajot.62.3.289 47

Bucklin, B.R., Alvero, A.M., Dickinson, A.M., Austin, J., & Jackson, A.K (2000). Industrialorganizational psychology and organizational behavior management: An objective comparison. Journal of Organization Behavior Management, 20(2), 27-75. doi:10.1300/J075v20n02_03 Burning Glass. (2015). US behavior analyst workforce: Understanding the national demand for behavior analysts. Retrieved from http://bacb.com/workforce-demand-report Carr, J.E. & Nosik, M.R. (2017). Professional credentialing of practicing behavior analysts.

Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 3-8. doi:10.1177/2372732216685861 Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC). (2015, February 24). Treatment | Autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/treatment.html Creswell, J.W. & Miller, D.L (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39(3), 124-130.

Deochand, N. & Fuqua, R.W. (2016). BACB certification trends: State of the states (1999 to 2014). Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(3), 243-252. doi:10.1007/s40617-016-0118-z Doyle, S. (2007). Member checking with older women: A framework for negotiating meaning.

Health Care for Women International, 8(10), 888-908. doi:10.1080/07399330701615325 Dixon, M.R., Reed, D.D., Smith, T., Belisle, J., & Jackson, R.E. (2015). Research rankings of behavior analytic graduate training programs and their faculty. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8(1), 7-15. doi:10.1007/s40617-015-0057-0 Dixon, D.R., Vogel, T. & Tarbox, J. (2012). A brief history of functional analysis and applied behavior analysis. In J.L. Matson (Ed.), Functional assessment for challenging behaviors (1st ed., pp. 3-24). Tarzana, CA: Springer Science and Business Media Franks, S.B., Mata, F.C., Wofford, E., Briggs, A.M., LeBlanc, L.A., Carr, J.E., & Lazarte, A.A. (2013). The effects of behavioral parent training on placement outcomes of biological families in a state child welfare system. Research on Social Work Practice, 23(4), 377382. doi:10.1177/1049731513492006 Geller, E.S. (2005). Behavior-based safety and occupational risk management. Behavior Modification, 29(3), 539-561. doi:10.1177/0145445504273287 Hagopian, L.P., Hardesty, S.L., & Gregory, M. (2015). Overview and summary of scientific support for applied behavior analysis. Retrieved from https://www.kennedykrieger.org/ Heinicke, M.R. & Carr, J.E. (2014). Applied behavior analysis in acquired brain injury rehabilitation: A meta-analysis of single-case design intervention research. Behavioral Interventions, 29(2), 77-105. doi:10.1002/bin.1380 Iwata, B.A. (2015). Metrics of quality in graduate training. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8(2), 136-137. doi:10.1007/s40617-015-0076-x Jacobson, J. W., & Holburn, S. (2004). History and current status of applied behavior analysis in developmental disabilities. In J. L. Matson, R. B. Laud, & M. L. Matson (Eds.), Behavior modification for persons with developmental disabilities: Treatments and supports (Vol. 1, pp. 1–32). Kingston: NADD Press.

Johnson, S.M. (2006). The workplace matters: Teacher quality, retention, and effectiveness.

Washington DC: National Education Association. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED495822 Johnson, S.M., Berg, J.H., & Donaldson, M.L. (2005). Who stays in teaching and why: A review of the literature on teacher retention. Boston: Harvard Graduate School of Education, Project on the Next Generation of Teachers 48

Johnson, S.M. & Birkeland, S.E. (2003). Pursuing a “sense of success”: New teachers explain their career decisions. American Educational Research Journal, 40(3), 581-617. doi:10.3102/00028312040003581 Johnson, S.M., Kraft, M.A., & Papay, J.P. (2012). How context matters in high-need schools: The effects of teachers’ working conditions on their professional satisfaction and their students’ achievement. Teachers College Record (Online), 114(10), 1-39. Retrieved from http://www.tcrecord.org/content.asp?contentid=16685 LeBlanc, L.A. & Luiselli, J.K. (2016). Refining supervisory practices in the field of behavior analysis: Introduction to the special section on supervision. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(4), 271-273. doi:10.1007/s40617-016-0156-6 Little, E. (2005). Secondary school teachers’ perception of students’ problem behaviours.

Exceptional Psychology, 25(4), 369-377. doi:10.1080/01443410500041516 Maguire R.W. & Allen, R.F. (2015). Another perspective on research as a measure of highquality practitioner training: a Response to Dixon, Reed, Smith, Belisle, and Jackson.

Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8(2), 154-155. doi:10.1007/s40617-015-0087-7 Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Morris, E.K., Altus, D.E., & Smith, N.G. (2013). A study in the founding of applied behavior analysis through its publications. The Behavior Analyst, 36(1), 73-107. doi:10.1007/bf03392293 Morrison, S.C., Lincoln, M.A., & Reed, V.A. (2011). How experienced speech-language pathologists learn to work on teams. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 13(4), 369-377. doi:10.3109/17549507.2011.529941 National Autism Center (2015). Findings and conclusions: National standards project, phase 2.

Randolph, MA: National Autism Center Pennsylvania Health Law Project (2011). Understanding “wraparound” services for children in HealthChoices. Retrieved from http://www.phlp.org/ Proctor, B.E. & Steadman, T. (2003). Job satisfaction, burnout, and perceived effectiveness of “in-house” versus traditional school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 40(2), 237-243. doi:10.1002/pits.10082 Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd edition). London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Shah, M. (2012). The importance and benefits of teacher collegiality in schools – A literature review. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 1242-1246. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.282 Silverman, K., Roll, J.M., & Higgins, S.T. (2008). Introduction to the special issue on the behavior analysis and treatment of drug addiction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41(4), 471-480. doi:10.1901/jaba.2008.41-471 Silverman, K., Wong, C. J., Needham, M., Diemer, K. N., Knealing, T., Crone-Todd, D., …

Kolodner, K. (2007). A randomized trial of employment-based reinforcement of cocaine abstinence in injection drug users. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(3), 387-410. doi:10.1901/jaba.2007.40-387 Slifer, K.J. & Amari, A. (2009). Behavior management for children and adolescents with acquired brain injury. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 15(2), 144-151. doi:10.1002/ddrr.60

49

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1999). Mental health: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health Volkmar, F., Siegel, M., Woodbury-Smith, M., King, B., McCraken, J., State, M., & the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Committee on Quality Issues (2014). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(8), 237-257. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.10.013 Wong, C., Odom. S. L., Hume, K., Cox, A.W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., ‌ Schultz, T.R. (2013). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, Autism Evidence-Based Practice Review Group About the Authors Justin N. Coy, M.Ed., BCBA is a Ph.D. Candidate and Graduate Student Researcher at the University of Pittsburgh. Justin is also a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA). Justin’s mixed-methods research explores the experiences of behavior professionals, effective dissemination of behavior-analytic practices, and pre-service teacher preparation in classroom management strategies. Prior to his doctoral studies, Justin was an inclusion special education teacher in Loudoun County, Virginia, working with students with and without disabilities from kindergarten through 4th grade.

Jennifer L. Russell, Ph.D holds a joint appointment at the University of Pittsburgh as associate professor in the School of Education and Research Scientist at the Learning Research and Development Center. Her research examines policy and other educational improvement initiatives through an organizational perspective. Her work examines issues such as the way schools and systems organize to support students with special needs and how networks and other forms of research-practice partnerships are organized to accelerate systemic improvements that help educators address persistent problems of practice.

50

An Exploratory Study of the Relationship between School Counselors and Special Education Teachers Marquis C. Grant Grand Canyon University Abstract Special education teachers are trained to support academic and behavioral needs but may not be able to fully meet the needs of students who have significant emotional or behavioral disabilities.

Students with emotional and behavioral disabilities (ED/BED) often have poor academic outcomes, are suspended or expelled at higher rates than any other disability category and have poor graduation rates. School counselors are often an overlooked resource when it comes to the provision of special education services. While many school counselors believe that their training has prepared them to work with students with emotional and behavioral disorders, factors such as high student-to-counselor ratios and more work responsibilities may limit counselors’ abilities to effectively collaborate with special education personnel. Results of this study indicated that school counselors may not be in the best position to collaborate with special education teachers because of their disproportionate counselor to student ratios. When looking at the American Psychological Association’s recommended student to counselor ratios most of the districts represented in the study were significantly exceeded the recommendation. As a result, school counselors have a somewhat limited availability when it comes to collaborating with special education teachers. Furthermore, special education teachers are viewed as the primary experts for serving students with disabilities, the role of the school counselor is not seen as necessary when it comes to supporting children with Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) Key Words: behavioral disabilities, emotional disabilities, mental health support, school counselors, special education teachers An Exploratory Study of the Relationship between School Counselors and Special Education Teachers With the increased demands faced by special education teachers to meet the requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) (20 U.S.C. § 1400), the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) ( Public Law 114–95) (formerly No Child Left Behind and The Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, Public Law 94-142), it is necessary to identify addition human resources that can help teachers meet these demands. In addition to school psychologists and behavior support specialists, the role of school counselor is being re-examined in the context of special education services (Romano & Paradise, 2018).

Counselors may offer a unique perspective regarding the needs of students and their families (Thornton, 2017). School counselors, who are charged with providing services to all students, will likely encounter students with disabilities in the school setting. In its position statement regarding students with disabilities, the American School Counselor Association encourages school counselors to include students with disabilities into the overall school counseling program by increasing their awareness of best practices that benefit students with IEPs and Section 504

51

plans (Buckley & Mahdavi, 2018). Therefore, consideration should be given to adding school counselors to the multidisciplinary IEP team (Coskun, 2010).

Students diagnosed under the category of emotional or behavior disturbance (ED/BED) make up six percent of the special education population nationwide (North Dakota Department of Education, 2016) (See Figure 1). African American males are more likely to be labeled as emotionally or behaviorally disturbed than any other their school-age peers (Scardamalia, Bentley-Edwards & Grasty, 2018). They also have the poorest trajectories compared to students with other disabilities (Gage, 2013). Students labeled as ED/BED are less likely to perform well in school, have low graduation rates and are more likely to be suspended or expelled from school compared to students of any other disability category (Gage, 2013). However, students classified under other disability categories may have co-existing emotional or behavioral needs. According to the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), the parents of 8 million children reported that their child as having emotional or behavioral issues (Nichy, 2010).

Students with Emotional Disabilities Compared to All Students with Disabilities

All SPED Students

Students Labeled ED

Figure 1. Students with Emotional Disabilities Graphic.

The information in this chart was adapted from data taken from the 39 th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of IDEA, 2017.

Common emotional and behavioral disorders include: “emotional-obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety, depression, disruptive (oppositional defiance disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) or developmental (speech/language delay, intellectual disability) disorders or pervasive (autistic spectrum) disorders� (Ogundele, 2018, para. 1).

The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which school counselors collaborate with special education teachers to support students with disabilities. While special education teachers have specific expertise regarding students with disabilities, there may be gaps in knowledge

52

related to how to best serve students with significant emotional, behavioral or mental health needs.

Methods Data was collected using a survey and results were analyzed based on percentages for two separate focus groups (special education teachers and school counselors). In addition, a secondary analysis of existing data was used to determine whether there were any related factors that might be a barrier to the successful collaboration between the two focus groups. Barrow and Mamlin (2016) recommended that such collaboration would include facilitating IEP meetings, providing students with behavior interventions, consulting special education teachers about student accommodations for there are IEPs, providing early identification of students at risk of academic failure and serving as a student advocate. Existing data from the American School Counselor Association, the Mental Health Association, and the National Center for Education Statistics was used in this secondary analysis.

Participants Elementary level special education teachers and school counselors were randomly selected to take part in a survey. There was an intentional focus on the top ten states identified by the National Center for Education Statistics as having the poorest outcomes for students with emotional disabilities. These states included Nevada, North Carolina, Alabama, Washington State, Arkansas, Utah, South Carolina, Louisiana, California and Tennessee (See Table 1).

Table 1.

Students Identified with Emotional Disturbance for an Individualized Education Program.

State Percentage Number of ED/BED Rank Students Alabama 1.97 1,333 51 Arkansas 2.09 918 50 California 4.29 24,460 44 Louisiana 2.74 1,746 49 Nevada 4.31 1,841 43 North Carolina 3.83 5,404 45 South Carolina 3.37 2,305 47 Tennessee 3.63 3,258 46 Utah 3.10 1,813 48 Washington 4.97 4,942 42 Note: Data was taken from a chart created by Mental Health America (2019), retrieved from https://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/issues/mental-health-america-youth-data. Low percentages were associated with poorer outcomes, including academic deficiencies, higher suspension and expulsion rates, lower probability of graduating high school and reduced quality of lifelong trajectories. All fifty states and the District of Columbia were represented in the original data chart.

Instrument A three-question survey was randomly emailed to special education teachers and four question survey was emailed to school counselors in ten states. The survey questions were different for 53

each group, measuring their individual perceptions of the collaborative role of school counselors and special education teachers working together to support students with disabilities.

Data Analysis Surveys were sent to elementary-level special education teachers and school counselors in ten states with the poorest outcomes for students emotionally disturbed on their IEPs. Of the 100 surveys, 20 school counselors (n=20) and 26 SPED teachers (n=26) responded. It should be noted that more surveys were sent to the SPED teachers, who comprised the largest numbers compared to counselors in the school settings. Some schools had one counselor, while others had two counselors on staff. There were also schools that did not have a counselor on staff but did have a psychologist or social worker. According to data collected by the American School Counselor Association, approximately 90 percent of school systems in the United States reported having at least one counselor on staff (University of New Hampshire, 2016). The results from the survey are included in Table 2 (Teachers) and Table 3 (Counselors).

Table 2.

Teacher Survey Results Q1. I see the school counselor as a resource to help support students with disabilities.

ANSWER CHOICES

RESPONSES

Strongly disagree

11.54% 3 15.38% 4 7.69% 2 38.46% 10 26.92% 7 26

Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Strongly agree Agree TOTAL *Numbers below the percentages represent raw scores.

Q2. I consult the school counselor as a resource when I am reviewing a student's IEP for behavioral or emotional needs.

ANSWER CHOICES RESPONSES

54

Strongly disagree

15.38% 4 19.23% 5 19.23% 5 19.23% 5 26.92% 7 26

Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Strongly agree Agree TOTAL

Q3. Mental health support should be added as a related service on the IEPs of students with behavioral or emotional disabilities.

ANSWER CHOICES RESPONSES Strongly disagree

7.69% 2 0.00% 0 3.85% 1 50.00% 13 38.46% 10 26

Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Strongly agree Agree TOTAL

Table 3.

Counselor Survey Results Q1. I feel confident that my training has prepared me to work with special education students with emotional and behavioral disorders.

ANSWER CHOICES

RESPONSES 35.00% 7 35.00% 7 10.00% 2

Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree

55

Disagree

20.00% 4 0.00% 0 20

Strongly disagree TOTAL *Numbers below the percentages represent raw scores.

Q2. I work collaboratively with special education personnel to address the needs of students with emotional and behavioral disorders.

ANSWER CHOICES RESPONSES Strongly agree

35.00% 7 35.00% 7 10.00% 2 20.00% 4 0.00% 0 20

Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree TOTAL *Numbers below the percentages represent raw scores.

Q3. I am consulted about best practices for students with emotional or behavioral disorders during the review of their IEPs. ANSWER CHOICES RESPONSES Strongly agree

10.00% 2 40.00% 8 5.00% 1 15.00% 3 30.00% 6

Agree Neither agree nor disagree Strongly disagree Disagree

56

TOTAL

20

*Numbers below the percentages represent raw scores.

Q4. Counseling should be added as a related service on the IEPs of students with emotional or behavioral disorders.

ANSWER CHOICES RESPONSES Strongly agree

10.00% 2 25.00% 5 35.00% 7 25.00% 5 5.00% 1 20

Agree Neither agree nor disagree Strongly disagree Disagree TOTAL *Numbers below the percentages represent raw scores.

Review of Existing Data

An additional review of existing data was initiated in hopes of shedding light on some of the factors that may affect school counselors’ abilities to collaborate with special education teachers.

A secondary analysis of existing data is both cost-effective and practical, allowing researchers to use data that has already been collected to provide a secondary analysis of the primary results (Cheng & Phillips, 2014). According to the American School Counselor Association, the recommended average ratio of counselors to students is 250 to 1. On average, the student to counselor ratio is 411:1 (University of New Hampshire, 2016), with only Vermont and New Hampshire having ratios that fall beneath the recommended ratio. However, when looking at the ten states with the poorest outcomes, the ratios are significantly higher (Table 4).

Table 4.

Student to Counselor Ratios (2016-2017).

State Alabama Arkansas Louisiana Nevada * North Carolina

Ratio 417:1 381:1 393:1 486:1 368:1 57

South Carolina 359:1 Tennessee 335:1 Utah * 648:1 Washington ** 499:1 Note: The data chart was adapted from information obtained from the American School Counselor Association. The recommended ratio for student to counselor is 250:1 (2017). *States with ratios that are in the highest percentiles of the recommended proportions. ** Some school districts in Washington State have mental health therapists on staff.

Discussion and Recommendations Further studies are needed about the relationship between school counselors and special education teachers. Because of their training in the mental health field, school counselors could serve as valuable members of the IEP team. School-based counseling is needed as a related service (Hott, Thomas, Abbassi et al., 2014). School counselors are in a unique position to support students with emotional or behavioral disabilities by providing counseling as a related service, much like physical therapy, speech therapy and occupational therapy.

While this study did not address the overrepresentation of African American males in special education, it is appropriate to discuss the potential impact that school counselors may have on reducing overrepresentation. Alazar (2015) referenced a study findings that teachers systemically referred African American students more so than Caucasian students ‘when asked to identify difficult-to-teach students in need of a psychological assessment and placement in special education” (p. 3). Teachers’ biases and beliefs may play an active role and how they perceive African American children, specifically males who may exhibit behaviors that are outside the norm of the school environment. The school counselor could serve as an impartial third party when students are referred for special education assessment and placement, conducting observations, interviewing referring teachers, reviewing multiple data sources and making recommendations based on their findings. Moreover, the school counselor may implement interventions aimed at reducing or eliminating emotional or behavioral problems that a student may exhibit prior to a teacher making a special education referral. With these safeguards in place, the number of African American males who receive special education services in the categories of emotional and behavioral disturbance may decline.

Study Limitations There are acknowledged limitations in this study that affects generalization. One such limitation is the small sample size, due to desire of the researcher to focus only on specific states based on the number of students with disabilities classified as emotionally or behaviorally disturbed.

However, results from the sample could be used as a foundation for more in-depth study of the relationship between special education (SPED) teachers and school counselors. A longitudinal study, for example, of the impact of SPED teachers-school counselors’ relationship on the outcomes of students with emotional disabilities may be beneficial in supporting an argument for districts to hire more school counselors. Another limitation is the focus at the elementary level without including middle and high school SPED teachers and counselors in the data collection. A more diverse study may offer additional insights and quite possibly yield different results.

58

Barrow and Mamlin (2016) noted that school counselors may not be in the best position to regularly collaborate in the IEP process due to disproportionate student to counselor ratios and increased work demands. However, both special education (SPED) teachers and school counselors agree that mental health support should be added as a related service on the IEP. Eighty-four percent of school counselors felt confident that their training prepared them to work with special education students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Interestingly, Hall (2015) stated that school counselors were not being adequately trained to serve students in special education programs. When looking at subsequent data, only 30% of SPED teachers viewed the school counselor as a resource to help support students with disabilities.

Sixty-seven percent of school counselors stated that they work collaboratively with special education teachers to address the needs of ED/BED students, but less than half the counselors reported being consulted about best practices regarding ED/BED students. In comparison, only 34% of SPED teachers stated that they consulted the school counselor as a resource when reviewing the IEPs of ED/BED students. As Quigney & Studer (2016) presented in their literature, special education teachers are often seen as the sole providers of services for students with disabilities. This would offer a reasonable explanation as to why SPED teachers are likely not to consult with school counselors during the IEP review process. Special education teachers may not be acutely aware of the favorable possibilities of working with counselors, failing to understand the roles and responsibilities of a school counselor. Defining school counselor roles and expectations may be necessary at the district and school levels in order to highlight the benefits of a special education and counselor relationship.

An appropriate starting point would be to add school counselors to the multidisciplinary IEP team for any student classified as emotionally or behaviorally disturbed. Since this population makes up only 6% of the overall speed school population, it may be feasible for counselors to work with these students where they could help with the creation of behavior goals more suitable for ED/BED students. The special education teacher would define specific academic goals for each student while the school counselor helps to create plans of action that target behavior goals.

SPED teachers have more of an academic base expertise but often struggle to find the appropriate level of academic, emotional and behavioral support to meet the needs of their students. Adding mental health support in the IEP as a related service will help ensure that counselors are working proactively with special education personnel to offer mental health services about which the special education teacher may not be knowledgeable.

References Alazar, G. (2015). Exploring trends in disproportionality of emotional disturbance classification after the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 13. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/13 American Counselor Association. (2017). Student-to-counselor-ratio. Retrieved from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/asca/home/Ratios16-17.pdf Barrow, J. & Mamlin, N. (2016). Collaboration between professional school counselors and special education teachers. Vista Online. Retrieved from

59

https://www.counseling.org/docs/defaultsource/vistas/article_427cfd25f16116603abcacff0000bee5e7.pdf?sfvrsn=e2eb452c_4 Buckley, M. &. Mahdavi, J.N. (2018). Bringing children from the margins to the Page: School counselors supporting students with learning disabilities. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1194637.pdf Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, Public Law 94-142 (1975).

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), Public Law 114-95 (2015).

Gage, N.A. (2013). Characteristics of students with emotional disturbance manifesting internalizing behaviors: A latent class analysis. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4). 127-145.

Hall, J.G. (2015). The school counselor and special education: Aligning training with practice.

The Professional Counselor, 5(2). Retrieved from http://tpcjournal.nbcc.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/03/Pages%20217-224.pdf Hott, B., Thomas, S., Abbassi, A., Hendricks, L. & Aslina, D. (2014). The role of school counselor. National Forum Journal of Counseling and Addiction, 3. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Hott,%20Brittany%2 0Roles%20of%20School%20Counselor%20NFJCA%20V3%20N1%202014.pdf Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).

Mental Health America (2019). Students identified with emotional disturbance for an Individualized Education Program. Retrieved from https://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/issues/mental-health-america-youth-data NICHY. (2010). Emotional disturbance. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED572713.pdf North Dakota Department of Education. (2016). Guidelines for serving students with emotional disturbance in education settings. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED594653.pdf Ogundele, M.O. (2018). Behavioural and emotional disorders in childhood: A brief overview for pediatricians. World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 7(1): 9–26. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5803568/ Quigney, T. A. & Studer, J.R. (2016). Working with students with disabilities: A guide for school counselors. Routledge: Abingdon, Oxon.

Romano, D.M., Louis V. & Green, E.J. Paradise. School Counselors’ attitudes towards providing services to students receiving Section 504 classroom accommodations: Implications for school counselor educators. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ886151.pdf Scardamalia, K., Bentley‐Edwards K.L. & Grasty K. (2018). Consistently inconsistent: An examination of the variability in the identification of emotional disturbance. Psychology in Schools, pp. 1–13. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22213 Thornton, F. (2017). Counselors and Special Educators in Rural Schools Working Together to Create a Positive School Community. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education. doi: 10.26822/iejee.2018336197 Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1172263.pdf University of New Hampshire. (2016). Most U.S. school districts have low access to school counselors. Carsey Research. Retrieved from https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1285&context=carsey

60

About the Author Dr. Marquis Grant is currently an adjunct professor at Grand Canyon University in the College of Education, where she teaches secondary reading courses. She is also a site supervisor, evaluating teacher candidates seeking their degrees in early childhood, elementary, middle and high school. In addition, Dr. Grant works as a special education teacher and department chairperson in a public school district in North Carolina. She has been an educator for 14 years, beginning her career as a reading teacher before transitioning to special education. Notable works include, Equity, Equality and Reform in Contemporary Public Education (2018).Publisher: IGI Global and IDEA and Inclusive Practices: Issues, Implications and Practices (in Epler, P. (2017). Instructional Strategies in General Education: Putting the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) to Work. Publisher: IGI Global. In addition, Dr. Grant has written numerous articles and presented at conferences around the state, focusing on issues in the field of special education.

61

Special Education Law in the United States of America and the Sultanate of Oman Maryam Alakhzami, Ph.D. Candidate Morgan Chitiyo, Ph.D. Duquesne University Abstract During the last decade, Oman has embarked on massive reforms of the country’s education system. Although the law in Oman mandates education for all children, individuals with disabilities still encounter difficulties in accessing appropriate education. Oman lacks adequate formal and structured systems of special education, which could be addressed with a comprehensive legal framework such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the United States. IDEA reflects the United States’ concern regarding how individuals with disabilities are treated as full citizens with the same educational rights and privileges as their peers without disabilities. In its efforts to promote the educational rights of individuals with disabilities, Oman could learn from the United States experience. This paper therefore, explores the special education legislation in the United States and Oman. Doing so may provide a benchmark for Oman to establish her own legal instruments to promote sustainable development of her special education system.

Special Education Law in the United States of America and the Sultanate of Oman Oman is a developing country located in the Middle East with a population of 4,687,839 people (National Centre for Statistics and Information, 2019). Since 1971 the country has witnessed rapid expansion of its education system. The rates of school enrollment increased from 900 students in 1970 to over 600,000 students in 2008/2009 representing around 70% of the total population (Ministry of Education & The World Bank, 2012). In 1998, a new basic education system was introduced to provide a unified program for grades 1 to 10, and in 2007, a new postbasic education system organized on a “core plus electives” model was introduced for grades 11 and 12 to improve the quality of education in Oman. Both reforms focus on changing the teaching profession, reducing class sizes, upgrading the qualifications and skills of teachers, updating the curriculum, adding new resources, and enhancing learning and assessment methodologies (Ministry of Education & The World Bank, 2012). Accordingly, the education participation levels in Oman are equivalent to or above other countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). According to data from the Ministry of National Economy (2011), there were 62,506 individuals with disabilities in 2010 representing 3.2% of the total Omani population; this number could have increased since then but there is no updated official data available after 2010. The individuals with disabilities fall into six recognized disability categories in the country including visual impairment, hearing impairment, physical disability, memory and attention deficits, cognitive impairments (i.e., intellectual disabilities), and communication disorders (speech and/or language impairments) (Ministry of National Economy, 2011). Obviously, there is need for the country to invest in special educational programs.

62

The last 40 years have been a period of rapid development in Oman, not only in terms of education but also economically and socially (Ministry of Education & The World Bank, 2012).

In the mid 1990s, Oman witnessed greater focus on ensuring access to education for all students and reforming the educational system was made a national priority to enable the country to transform into a knowledge-based economy (Ministry of Education, 2008). The educational policies in Oman are drawn based on the fundamental principles directed by His Majesty Sultan Qaboos, the ruler of the country, and in conjunction with other social and economic policies adopted by the government (UNESCO, 2010). The Ministry of Education is accountable for executing the education policy via ministerial and administrative decisions and circulars, declaring the educational objects and setting up the strategies to realize the objectives of the national education policy (UNESCO, 2010).

Efforts to expand the provision of specialized educational services to students with disabilities in regular school settings and the introduction of professional development programs in the area of special education are ongoing and gaining momentum (Ministry of Education, 2008). Despite the continuous attempt to reform education in Oman and the government’s efforts to promote education, the illiteracy rate among individuals with disabilities is considered to be significantly high compared to that of the population without disabilities (Al-Balushi, Al-Badi, & Ali, 2011).

According to the 2003 census results, 75% of people with disabilities were uneducated (Ministry of National Economy, 2010). This highlights that Oman still encounters some challenges in relation to providing special education services for individuals with disabilities, which might be attributed to absence of a national policy specific to special education.

The Rationale The purpose of this paper is to review the status of the national laws and policies related to special education in Oman. In doing this, the authors drew specific examples from special education legislation in the United States. The authors chose to do this for a couple of reasons.

First, the United States has a long-established experience of special education programs and the underlining special education law, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which was enacted in 1975 as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act made provision of special education compulsory for every child diagnosed with a disability (Friend & Bursuck, 2015). IDEA was enacted to ensure states met the individual learning needs of children with disability and guaranteed that all children, regardless of their differences, had access to free public-school education (Dunn, 2013). Since the passage of the law, notable progress had been achieved toward meeting the educational needs of individuals with disabilities in the United States. Therefore, other countries including Oman could learn from the United States experience and use that experience to develop their own legal instruments. Secondly, IDEA is a comprehensive piece of legislation, which covers almost every aspect of the special education process including funding, identification/diagnosis, placement, assessment, curriculum, access, service delivery, parental involvement, among others. Understanding the principles of IDEA therefore, helps to promote a holistic framework for the development of special education.

Finally, Oman lacks adequate formal and structured systems of special education, which could be addressed with a comprehensive legal framework such as IDEA. Oman could therefore, benefit from using the United States legislation as a benchmark to develop and expand its special education services provision and delivery for individuals with disabilities.

63

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in the United States IDEA is a civil rights law that serves as a foundation to provide assistance to more than 6.5 million children in the United States schools and ensures a free, appropriate public education for children with disabilities (American Psychological Association, 2011). Infants and toddlers with disabilities from birth to two years of age and their families receive early intervention services under IDEA Part C, and children and youth from three to 25 years of age receive special education and related services under IDEA Part B (American Psychological Association, 2011).

The principles that IDEA introduced have remained fundamentally unaltered since 1975 (Heward et al., 2017). These principles, which will be described later, are (1) free appropriate public education, (2) zero reject (3) nondiscriminatory evaluation, (4) individualized education (5) least restrictive environment (LRE), and (6) parent participation and due process (Friend & Bursuck, 2015).

Special Education Legislation in Oman On April 22nd, 2008, Oman issued the first legislation related to individuals with disability when the Disabled Persons Welfare and Rehabilitation Act (the “Law”) was issued via Royal Decree No. 63/2008. Subsequently, Oman ratified the UN’s Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) through the Royal Decree No. 121/2008, which was issued on November 5th, 2008 (Mohamed Emam, 2016). The UNCRPD calls for removal of all the restrictions to the education of individuals with disabilities and the provision of early intervention services within an inclusive setting from an early age; however, Oman did not adopt the UNCRPD appeals (Mohamed Emam, 2016).

A number of ministerial decisions were issued to ensure compliance with Oman’s obligations under UNCRPD and maintenance of consistent government policies under the law. These regulations include establishment of rehabilitation centers by Ministerial Decision No. 124/2008, promulgation of the rules governing issuance of status cards for people with disability by Ministerial Decision No. 94/2008, and establishing National Committee of Disabled Persons Welfare by Ministerial Decision No. 1/2009. The Ministry of Social Development is the entity accountable under the law to advocate for the rights of persons with disability. However, despite the huge leap forward achieved by the education sector in Oman, a number of challenges still exist including improving the quality of student learning outcomes, in particular for students with disabilities (World Bank, 2012). Also, Oman does not have a formal structured system for identifying and evaluating children with disabilities, and it is likely that the true requirement for special needs education provision is higher than what is currently available (World Bank, 2012).

The Six Principles of IDEA and how They Compare to the Law and Regulations in Oman Free Appropriate Public Education In the United States, students with disabilities regardless of the type or severity of their disability, are entitled to attend public schools and receive educational services that have been specially designed to meet their unique needs at no cost to their parents (Friend & Bursuck, 2015; Heward et al., 2017). In Oman, equality in accessing education has been recognized as one of the highest priorities by the government of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos. His Majesty the Sultan directed that all Omanis would be treated equally before the law and would receive equal rights 64

and opportunities. The Basic Statute of Oman, the constitution, states that one of the social principles is that the State guarantees aid for the citizen and family in cases of emergency, sickness, disability, and old age according to the social security scheme. The Basic Statute also provides that the State shall provide public education, work to combat illiteracy, and promote establishment of private schools and institution, which shall be supervised by the State in accordance with the provisions of the Law. Article 17 of the Basic Statute provides that, “All citizens are equal before the law and they are equal in public rights and duties. There shall be no discrimination between them on the ground of gender, origin, color, language, religion, sect, domicile or social status” (Ministry of Education, 2008, p. 47). Accordingly, the Ministry of Education in Oman announced its commitment that “all children must have access to education, regardless of their gender, social status, cultural group or area of residence” (Ministry of Education, 2008, p. 47). However, this commitment statement failed short of stating disability status as a factor that should not hinder access to education. Although education in Oman is free up to the end of high school (Ministry of Education, 2008), most of the public schools in Oman remain inadequately prepared to provide educational services to students with disabilities (Mohamed Emam, 2016). This is contrary to the provision of Article 7 of the Law, which provides that the State shall provide educational services to individuals with disabilities in a manner that addresses their sensory, physical, and cognitive capabilities (Ministry of Legal Affairs, 2008). These services are now mostly provided by private centers. Provision of free and appropriate public education in Oman is hindered by absence of evidence-based practices in teaching, limited consideration for the role of parents, and the necessity of in-service training, research, provision of assistive aids, and improvement of the quality of services (Alfawair & AlTobi, 2015). Additionally, the Law states that the obligations of the Ministry and other government agencies wherever mentioned in this Law should be within the limits of the funds included in the country's general budget (Ministry of Legal Affairs, 2008). As such, this limitation could prevent provision of appropriate special education instruction to students with disabilities.

Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) In the United States, all students who are eligible for special education and related services must receive an individualized education program (IEP; Bateman & Cline, 2016). An IEP should be written for each student identified as having a disability and should include a primary plan section and instructional guide to help teachers in planning and providing ongoing educational activities (Jaffe & Snelbecker, 1982). An IEP is developed by a multidisciplinary team and must include measurable annual goals and short-term objectives for the student (Wolfe, & Harriott, 1998). IDEA stresses the need for comprehensive IEPs that serve as useful working documents, which include behavior management plans, transition plans, related services, and any necessary accommodations and/or modifications. IDEA also emphasizes the importance of teacher training, which should take place at both preservice and in-service levels and provided by specially trained staff (Wolfe, & Harriott, 1998).

In Oman, the Ministerial Decision No. 2/2006 provides the legal framework to implement what is called “Self-management in all Public Schools”, including special education schools, in order to equip such schools to take their own decisions on administrative, financial, and technical issues. The central aim of the concept of self-management in schools is to delegate more responsibilities to the schools and their employees in planning, implementation, and follow-up of 65

activities as well as in introducing programs to enhance school performance (UNESCO, 2010).

The Law in Article 5 states that individuals with disabilities have the right to receive preventive and curative care as well as rehabilitation and adjustment devices that help them with mobility (Ministry of Legal Affairs, 2008). Yet both private and public schools in Oman lack the resources necessary to provide related services, community-based rehabilitation services (CBR; Alfawair & Al-Tobi, 2015), and services related to rehabilitation and vocational employment services that are offered only to adults with disabilities by the Ministry of Social Development through Alwafaa centers (Ministry of Social Development, 2008). Also, the law does not explicitly make it mandatory to have an individualized education program for students with disabilities. As already indicated, schools at local levels are authorized to make decisions in regard to certain issues related to students' education, including mainstreaming students with disability (Ministry of Education, 2008).

It should be highlighted that education is compulsory for all children and youth in Oman (UNESCO, 2004), and the Ministry of Education is responsible for developing the national curricula that is taught in all public schools (Ministry of Education, 2008). According to the Ministry of Education, the school curriculum should be relevant in its content to the age, background, and cognitive level of the learners (UNESCO, 2004). However, this does not necessarily include individualized education programs for individuals with disabilities. Students with disabilities are mostly educated in separate institutions/schools and the practice in mainstream schools is using the general curriculum for all students in the classroom regardless of whether they have a disability or not. As such, little attention is given to the provision of differentiated instruction or individualized education plans to meet diverse learners’ needs (Ministry of Education, 2008).

Nondiscriminatory Evaluation In the United States, students should be assessed using a battery of instruments that do not discriminate based on race, culture, or disability (Friend, & Bursuck, 2015). The IEP team has numerous responsibilities in the evaluation and reevaluation processes (Wolfe, & Harriott, 1998).

In Oman, the Law, in Article 3 states that the State shall work to prepare specialists in the area of disability and to train them to ensure early detection of disability and to provide appropriate assistance and services to people with disability (Ministry of Legal Affairs, 2008).

In spite of the clear and unequivocal mandate of the Law, there are limited early detection services, if any, in Oman. Therefore, most of the children with disabilities are placed in segregated special schools/centers (Ministry of Education & World Bank, 2012). Additionally, the Law does not explicitly address the need to have a comprehensive assessment/evaluation administered by a multidisciplinary team for children who might be identified as having disability. The Ministry of Education has developed a standardized battery of diagnostic tests to identify children who might have learning disabilities. A national team has been formed to formulate these instruments and provide teachers and school psychologists on applying these assessment tools and interpret their results to plan and develop appropriate programs to improve learning outcomes for their students (Ministry of Education, 2008). However, these standardized tests are mostly translated from English and are not based on scientific research that considers the cultural relevance of such tests. Therefore, one of the major concerns in Oman is availability of culturally sensitive assessment and diagnostic services (Alfawair & Al-Tobi, 2015). Currently, 66

the Ministry of Health in Oman administers its own medical-based tests to diagnose disability; but there are many private centers that provide assessment and diagnosis for disabilities though the outcomes of such assessment are not recognized by government bodies (Alfawair & Al-Tobi, 2015).

Zero Reject In the United States, IDEA requires schools to educate all children with disabilities; no child with disabilities should be excluded from free public education on account of type or severity of disability (Heward et al., 2017). Although education in Oman is free from grade 1 to 12 (Ministry of Education, 2008), several factors could limit the admission of students with disabilities in public or private schools including the inadequate facilities to provide educational services to students with disabilities (Mohamed Emam, 2016), the shortage of qualified Omani special education teachers (Ministry of Education, 2008), and the lack of awareness among parents and families in the Omani society about the right of children with disabilities to be fully included in their communities (Ministry of Education, 2008). These factors limit the full participation of children with disabilities in both school and social activities and events. Schools usually refuse to accept students with disabilities and end up referring them to segregated settings such as special needs centers/schools/institutions (Ministry of Education & World Bank, 2012). There is no law to stop schools from denying admission to students on account of their disability. As such, schools end up discriminating individuals with disability.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) In the United States, schools are obligated to educate children with disabilities with children without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate; children with disabilities can only be placed in separate environments, from their peers without disabilities, when the nature or severity of their disabilities is such that they may not benefit from instruction in a general classroom with supplementary aids and service (Heward et al., 2017). According to IDEA students with disabilities must not be placed in self-contained special classes or schools without access to their peers without disabilities unless it is the appropriate choice for them (Friend & Bursuck, 2015). Therefore, school districts should offer a continuum of alternative placements such as the regular classroom with consultation, resource room, special class, and special schools (Heward et al., 2017).

In Oman, the system does not support a continuum of alternative placements and service alternatives in public or private schools for individuals with disability. However, the country is attempting to integrate individuals with disabilities into mainstream schools and provide them with daily living skills to reduce the impact of their disability and improve their functioning (Alfawair & Al-Tobi, 2015). Unfortunately, these efforts are scattered and inconsistent because of the absence of a national policy; but the Ministry of Education began implementing integration programs in 2000/2001 resulting in students with learning disabilities, hearing impairment, and intellectual disabilities being integrated into the regular schools (Alfawair & AlTobi, 2015).

Special needs education programs in Oman are split into two—special education schools and mainstream schools (Omanuna, 2018). According to the National Center of Statistics and Information (2017), the number of public schools providing integration for students with 67

disabilities reached 218 schools in 2017, in addition to the three government special education schools. Public schools have not yet made full transition towards full inclusive education for all students (Mohamed Emam, 2016). A framework for action has not yet been developed and thus the assumption is that inclusive education systems require a long time to be implemented on a large scale (Alfawair & Al-Tobi, 2015; Mohamed Emam, 2016). However, currently, there are plans for more legislation in order to promote the inclusion of students with disabilities in regular schools (Mohamed Emam, 2016).

Parent Participation and Due Process In the United States, parents have the right to equal participation with teachers and to be part of the decision-making team for determining eligibility for special education services as well as the placement and LRE of their children (Friend & Bursuck, 2015). The parents’ and students' (whenever appropriate) suggestions/comments and goals need to be considered in preparing IEP goals, placement decisions, and related-service needs (Heward et al., 2017). When disagreements occur concerning a student's eligibility for special education, the student's educational placement, or the services that a student receives, IDEA provides a specific set of informal and formal procedures that need to be followed to resolve the disagreements through the due process provision (Friend & Bursuck, 2015).

In Oman, there seems to be no legislation guaranteeing participation of parents in the educational process of their children with disabilities. Parents of children with disabilities usually have limited information or lack of awareness about their rights and those of their children (Ministry of Education, 2008). Considering that special education services are not comprehensively defined in the Basic Statue of Oman and the Law, caregivers do not have a clear reference point of the standard against which special education services are to be delivered, which results in people with disabilities being unable to enjoy their educational rights on an equal basis with their peers without disabilities (United Nations, 2018). In addition, there is no law in Oman that guarantees parents' rights to contest any aspect of their children’s special education services delivery (United Nations, 2018). Please see Table 1 for a brief overview of this comparison of special education legislation in Oman and the United States.

Table 1 The Six Principles of IDEA and Special Education Regulations in Oman The Six Principles of IDEA Free Appropriate Public Education

Nondiscriminatory Evaluation

USA Regulations/IDEA

Oman Regulations

Students with disabilities regardless of the type or severity of their disability, are entitled to attend public schools and receive educational services that have been specially designed to meet their unique needs at no cost to parents

Equality in accessing education has been recognized by the Basic Statute of Oman. All children must have access to education, regardless of their gender, social status, cultural group or area of residence

Students should be assessed using a battery of instruments that do not

The Disabled Persons Welfare and Rehabilitation Act 2008, in Article

68

discriminate or result in discrimination based on race, culture, or disability

(3) of the Law provides that the State shall work to prepare specialists in the area of disability and to train them to ensure early detection of disability and to provide appropriate assistance and services to people with disability.

The Ministry of Education is responsible for assessment and LRE for students.

Zero Reject

Schools are required to educate all children with disabilities. No child with disabilities should be excluded from free public education on account of the type or severity of their disability.

Although education in Oman is free from grade 1 to 12, there is no national policy that ensures that schools are not denying admission to students with disability.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Schools are obligated to educate children with disabilities with children without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate and children with disabilities need to be removed to separate environments when the nature or severity of their disabilities is such that they may not benefit from instruction in a general classroom with supplementary aids and services

There is no flexible system to support continuum of alternative placements and service alternatives in public or private schools for individuals with disability. There is no national policy that promotes full inclusion in regular schools and classrooms; however, the Ministry of Education is implementing partial integration programs (selfcontained classrooms) for students with hearing impairment, learning and intellectual disabilities.

Parent Participation & Due Process

Parents have the right to equal involvement and to be part of the decision-making team for determining eligibility for special education services as well as the placement of their children.

Parents are protected by procedural safeguards; when disagreements occur concerning a student's eligibility for special education, the student's educational placement, or the services that a student receives,

There is no law in Oman that guarantees the parents' rights to contest any aspect of their children’s special education services. Parents of children with disabilities usually have limited information and awareness about their rights and those of their children

69

parents have the right to demand due process hearing Individualized Education Programs

All students who are eligible for special education and related services must receive an individualized education program (IEP). An IEP is developed by a multidisciplinary team and must include measurable annual goals, short-term objectives, and provide ongoing educational activities for the student

The Law in Article 5 states that individuals with disabilities have the rights to receive preventive and curative care as well as rehabilitation and adjustment devices that help them with mobility. However, the law does not explicitly make it mandatory to have an individualized education program for students with disabilities. Schools at local levels are authorized to make decisions in regard to certain issues related to students' education, including mainstreaming students with disability

Discussion and Recommendations Education is a foundation for the progress of a society and states shall promote and endeavor to expand and make education accessible to all (UNESCO, 2010). In the United States, IDEA has significantly impacted what happens in every school building in the country and has changed the roles and responsibilities of general and special educators in terms of serving children with disabilities (Heward et al., 2017). IDEA was enacted to ensure that schools and families learn how best to serve children with disabilities (Friend & Bursuck, 2015) and this has resulted in significant improvement in the special education delivery process in the country. In Oman, increasing equality to educational access has been a highest priority for the government.

Although all public and private schools in Oman are making efforts to provide comprehensive services to individuals with disabilities, there is still need to develop a legal framework that promotes sustainable development of special education in the country.

A national policy for special needs education must be developed to establish the scope of authority and accountability of various ministries and government bodies. In addition to this, enforcement of the currently existing laws and regulations is essential to guarantee the rights of people with disabilities to free appropriate special education, related services, and rehabilitation/vocational services. For example, in the United States, IDEA’s zero-reject principle allows provision of education to all students with disabilities, and protects their rights against practices that could diminish their right to have a free appropriate public education (Turnbull, 2005). Achieving such a goal in Oman requires that relevant authorities develop a comprehensive piece of legislation that guarantees and protects such rights.

Furthermore, in the United States, IDEA requires that schools educate children with disabilities with children without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate and that children with 70

disabilities need to be removed to separate environments when the type or severity of their disabilities prevents them from benefiting from instruction in a general classroom with supplementary aids and service (Heward et al., 2017). Though it is the policy in Oman to promote participation of individuals with disabilities in the educational system, inclusion of individuals with disabilities into the education system remains a challenge. Thus, enacting laws that provide mandatory access to education may be the most effective way to achieve accessibility to appropriate education for all individuals with disabilities in Oman. This will enable individuals with disabilities to have full access to school by providing them with appropriate accommodations and modifications to their educational programs in the LRE. Providing every child with disability with an individualized and appropriate education/intervention plan is an essential step to be taken by Oman to warrant its citizens the right to education as provided in its Basic Law. Conclusion IDEA completely changed the face of special education in the United States (Heward et al., 2017). Undoubtedly, IDEA is considered a core part of the education reformation in the United States (Yell et al., 1998); it reflects the country's concern in regard to how individuals with disabilities are treated as full citizens with the same rights and privileges as any other citizen (Heward et al., 2017). Oman needs to learn from this experience in its efforts to promote the educational rights of individuals with disabilities.

During the last decade, Oman has embarked on massive reforms of the country’s whole education system (UNESCO, 2004); the country is working to address the parallel matters of adult education, education of people with disabilities, pre-school education, gender and regional equity with regard to quality and access, along with the issues related to the quality and efficiency of the education system (Ministry of Education & The World Bank, 2012). Although the law in Oman mandates education for all children, individuals with disabilities still encounter difficulties in accessing appropriate education/services. The Government of Oman is making substantial efforts to meet these challenges; however, these efforts are considered insufficient and need to be reconsidered in any future plans (Alfawair & Al-Tobi, 2015).

References Al-Balushi, T., Al-Badi, A. H., & Ali, S. (2011). Prevalence of disability in Oman: statistics and challenges. Canadian Journal of Applied Sciences, 1, 81-96.

American Psychological Association. (2011). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Retrieved from: http://www.apa.org/advocacy/education/idea/index.aspx Bateman, D. F., & Cline, J. L. (2016). A teacher's guide to special education. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

Dunn D. (2013). Public Law 94-142. In: Volkmar F.R. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders (pp. 99-139). New York, NY: Springer.

Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, Pub. L. No. 94-142. 89 Stat. 773.

Retrieved from: https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-89/pdf/STATUTE-89Pg773.pdf

71

Etscheidt, S., & Curran, M. C. (2010). Reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA, 2004): The peer-reviewed research requirement.

Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 21(1), 29 -39.

Friend, M. P., & Bursuck, W. D. (2015). Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2017). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.) Boston, MI: Pearson Education.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. (2015). About IDEA. Retrieved from: https://sites.ed.gov/idea/about-idea/ Jaffe, M.J. & Snelbecker, G.E. (1982). Evaluating individualized educational programs: A recommendation and some programmatic implications. The Urban Review, 14(2), 73–81.

Ministry of Education. (2008). Inclusive Education in the Sultanate of Oman: National report of the Sultanate of Oman. Retrieved from: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ICE_2008/oman_NR08.pdf Ministry of Education, & World Bank. (2012). Education in Oman: The drive for quality.

Retrieved from www.moe.gov.om Ministry of Education Portal. (2011). Special Education. Retrieved from: http://portal.moe.gov.om/portal/sitebuilder/sites/EPS/Arabic/MOE/specialedu.htm Ministry of Legal Affairs. (2008). Legislation. Retrieved from: http://www.mola.gov.om/mainlaws.aspx?page=9 Ministry of National Economy. (2010). Oman Census Results 2003. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.

Ministry of National Economy. (2011). Disability Statistics in the Sultanate of Oman: The experience of data collection during 3 censuses, (1993, 2003, 2010). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ppt/citygroup/meeting11/wg11_session6_2_al-dagheishi.pdf Ministry of Social Development. (2008). Laws and regulations for the care and rehabilitation of disabled people. Retrieved: http://www.mosd.gov.om/rules_disable.asp Mohamed Emam, M. (2016). Management of inclusive education in Oman: A framework for Action. Support for Learning, 31, 296-312. doi:10.1111/1467-9604.12139 National Center of Statistics & Information (2017). Education. Retrieved from: https://data.gov.om/OMEDCT2016/education?regions=1000000oman&indicators=1000080-number-of-schools&lang=en National Centre for Statistics and Information. (2019). Oman Population. Retrieved from https://www.ncsi.gov.om/Pages/NCSI.aspx O’Connor, E., Yasik, A. E., & Horner, S. L. (2016). Teachers’ knowledge of special education laws: What do they know? Insights into Learning Disabilities 13(1), 7-18.

Omanuna. (2018). Disabled Children. Retrieved from: http://www.oman.om/wps/portal/index/cr/childcare/disabledchildren/ Simpson, R. L. (1995). Reauthorization of the individuals with disabilities education act: Effects on children and youth with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 10(5), 16 -19.

Turnbull, H. R. III. (2005). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act reauthorization: Accountability and personal responsibility. Remedial and Special Education, 26(6), 320326.

UNESCO. (2004). Education as a motor for development: Recent education reforms in Oman with particular reference to the status of women and girls. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001411/141188eo.pdf 72

UNESCO (2010). World data on education: Oman. Retrieved from: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/Oman.pdf U.S. Department of Education. (1997). IDEA'97 Speeches-Remarks by the President. Retrieved from: https://www2.ed.gov/policy/speced/leg/idea/speech-1.html Wolfe, P. S., & Harriott, W. A. (1998). The reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): What educators and parents should know. Focus on Autism and Other Development Disabilities, 13(2), 88-93.

World Bank. (2012). Education in Oman: the drive for quality. Washington DC: World Bank.

Retrieved from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/280091468098656732/Mainreport Yell, M., Rogers, D., & Rogers, E. (1998). The legal history of special education: What a long strange trip it's been. Remedial and Special Education, 19(4), 219-228.

About the Authors Maryam Alakhzami is a Ph.D. candidate in Special Education-Autism Spectrum Disorder at Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. Her research interests include applied behavior analysis, autism, challenging behaviors, self-injurious behaviors, functional communication training, severe disabilities, and inclusive education.

Dr. Morgan Chitiyo is Professor and Department Chair of Counseling, Psychology, and Special Education at Duquesne University. His research interests include positive behavior supports, autism, inclusive education, and special education professional development in developing countries.

73

Cultural Responsiveness in Reading Comprehension Interventions for English Learners with Learning Disabilities Sara Jozwik, Ed.D. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Yojanna Cuenca-Carlino, Ph.D. Miranda Lin, Ph.D. April Mustian, Ph.D. Illinois State University Stacey Hardin, Ph.D. Florida State University Abstract Students with learning disabilities who are learning English as a new language have unique and multi-faceted needs related to literacy development. One purpose of this systematic review was to update the knowledge base on effective reading comprehension interventions for English Learners with learning disabilities. A second purpose was to evaluate the extent to which the 10 selected studies incorporated the tenets of cultural responsiveness into the research process.

Results show that interactive dialogue, explicit strategy instruction, and peer tutoring contributed to gains on reading comprehension outcome measures. However, the extant research base represents a monolingual, monocultural approach to intervention. Discussion highlights pathways for infusing cultural responsiveness into effective interventions for English Learners with learning disabilities.

Cultural Responsiveness in Reading Comprehension Interventions for English Learners with Learning Disabilities The landscape of public schools in the U. S. reflect an increase in linguistic diversity. Nearly 4.6 million children speak a home language other than English, with Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, and Vietnamese, among the most common language groups (McFarland et al., 2018). Students who are in the process of learning English while using a home language other than or in addition to English are often referred to as English learners (ELs). Heterogeneity in terms of cultural background and patterns of home-language use contributes to a unique academic and languagelearning profile for students in this subgroup of the total school-age population.

In the context of U. S. public schools, where academic English is prioritized, students with EL status share a common need related to developing proficiency in reading, writing, listening, and speaking in English. However, disaggregated data on reading achievement reveal disparities between ELs and English-proficient peers. On the 2015 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in fourth-grade reading, ELs achieved average scale scores (SS =189) that fell significantly below peers’ scores (SS = 226); this widened to a 45-point gap in eighth grade

74

(NCES, 2015). Nevertheless, literacy ranks as one of the top predictors of academic achievement and, ultimately, of success in school (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2009).

Understanding literacy development for ELs is an essential part of teacher preparation. Yet, teachers often report a need for additional training to learn how best to support English language development in the context of literacy instruction (Khong & Saito, 2014). Reading is a complex skill that requires accessing prior knowledge about the world and language, activating interrelated strategies, and possessing the motivation to preserve when the text complexity increases (Bartoli & Botel, 1988). Moreover, skilled readers reign command over cognitive capacities, such as attention, memory, critical analytic ability, inference generation, and visualization ability; language skills, such as word-reading accuracy, vocabulary, or syntactic knowledge; and affective factors, including a sense of self-efficacy as a reader (Cain & Oakhill, 2006). Several factors (e.g., motivation and background knowledge) lie at the root of difficulties that students experience in comprehending written language. Yet, when an EL struggles to develop English-reading proficiency, school personnel presume frequently that reading difficulties signify the presence of an underlying learning disability (LD) (Hamayan, Marler, Sánchez-López, & Damico, 2013). By contrast, such “difficulties” may actually be indicators of second language acquisition and/or may reflect cultural mismatches between school and home.

Reading Comprehension and English Learners Background knowledge affects reading comprehension. ELs, compared to monolingual peers, demonstrate variance in their knowledge and experiences relevant to texts used in school (August & Hakuta, 1997). When texts encountered at school fail to reflect ELs’ background experiences, extracting meaning from the texts can be a challenge. Ebe (2010) illustrated this in a study where ELs read instructional-level passages from standardized assessments and evaluated the passages for cultural relevance. Participants rated each passage by comparing their own lived experiences against content presented in the narrative texts. For example, the familiarity of the setting and their own physical resemblance to characters in the text were rated. In addition, participants read aloud each of the rated passages. Ebe conducted miscue analyses followed by unaided retellings and found that higher levels of reading proficiency correlated with higher scores on the rating scale for cultural relevance.

In addition, skilled readers rely on their background knowledge related to the language (e.g., semantics and syntax) and to the structures used in text. Lack of familiarity with discourse features used in English-only text can impede text comprehension (August, Francis, Hsu, & Snow, 2006). Figurative language and idioms can cause confusion. Likewise, differences between syntactic patterns in English and the reader’s first language can pose a challenge (e.g., the apostrophe is not used to construct possessives in Spanish, articles are not used in Polish, and there is no present tense form of the verb “to be” in Arabic). Furthermore, ELs may struggle to decipher the structure of a text (e.g., the dramatic structure of narrative text or compare-andcontrast structure of expository text), which impedes reading comprehension.

With respect to the socio-affective aspects of learning, several factors influence reading comprehension. According to August and colleagues (2006), lack of interest in reading is a predictor of poor comprehension. For ELs, a seeming “lack of interest in reading” may be the result of culture-blind text, unclear task directions, or ambiguity surrounding the purpose for 75

reading. Moreover, learning academic content in a new language while still in the process of acquiring that language can be a frustrating experience. Frequent errors, although a viable sign of language learning, can compound frustration with feelings of anxiety. Further, the experiences associated with becoming bicultural and bilingual can provoke anxiety. Anxiety and low selfefficacy can undermine reading comprehension. Ultimately, knowledge about the process of second language acquisition and the patterns of literacy development can assist school teams in making decisions about how to support ELs. Making such decisions within a culturally and linguistically responsive multitier system of support (MTSS) (e.g., García & Ortiz, 2008), in part, contributes to disruption of the long-standing patterns of disproportionality.

English Learners with Learning Disabilities Within a culturally and linguistically responsive MTSS, an EL’s sustained difficulties with reading comprehension may warrant evaluation for a possible LD. Currently, ELs with disabilities comprise 14.7% of the English-learner population in U. S. public schools (McFarland et al., 2018). The majority of ELs with disabilities are eligible under the Specific Learning Disability category and have individualized needs in the area of reading (U. S. Department of Education & National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2003). Given patterns of disproportionate representation, the current population of ELs with disabilities likely includes students whose language acquisition was misperceived as a LD and excludes students whose LD was misperceived as language acquisition. Nevertheless, language-learning and disability-related needs intersect for members of the school-age population to warrant specially designed instruction (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act [IDEA], 2004). In the context of reading, specially designed instruction must meet a range of complex needs.

Characteristics of effective reading instruction for ELs with LD can be gleaned from 30 years of research in the field of bilingual special education. In 2006, as part of the National Literacy Panel’s work, August and Siegel (2006) found 13 studies, published between 1989 and 2002, in which researchers included ELs with disabilities. In two of the reviewed studies (Hughes, Schumm, & Vaughn, 1999; Ruiz, 1995), researchers focused on the learning environment in which literacy instruction took place, attending to supports for socio-affective aspects of learning and opportunities for oral language development. In the remaining 10 studies, researchers focused on instruction; only five studies included reading comprehension outcome measures.

Among the studies, effective literacy instruction took several forms (e.g., reciprocal peertutoring, constant time delay procedures, and cognitive strategy instruction) and were supported by behaviorist theory and/or sociocultural theories of cognitive development.

More recently, three research teams (Klingner & Soltero-González, 2009; Richards-Tutor, D. Baker, Gersten, S.Baker, & Smith, 2016; Snyder, Witmer, & Schmitt, 2016) reviewed 30 studies, published between 1990 and 2014, which focused on literacy interventions for ELs with and without disabilities. Across the three reviews, 24 studies focused on phonemic awareness, phonics, or fluency instruction for ELs “at risk” for LD. Only six studies focused on navigating text with metacognitive awareness and strategically processing print-based information (i.e., reading comprehension). The extant body of research offers that literacy instruction for ELs with LD should: (a) incorporate interactive dialogue within and across languages, (b) model use of effective strategies (e.g., cognitive strategy instruction), and (c) affirm ELs’ cultural and linguistic experiences (e.g., use culturally relevant text). Given the small number of studies (n = 76

11) that included reading comprehension as a focus in past reviews and the variability among participants’ characteristics (e.g., varying language backgrounds, varying levels of English proficiency, and varying levels of native-language reading proficiency), there is a need to update what is known about reading comprehension interventions for ELs with LD. Furthermore, there is a need to apply a lens of cultural responsiveness in evaluating the research that serves to offer guidance on how best to support literacy development for students with disabilities from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Cultural Responsiveness The tenets of culturally responsive instruction acknowledge that unconscious perspectives influence teachers’ views of the learning process. To practice cultural responsiveness, teachers must first develop an awareness of their own cultures and their own biases (Kalyanpur & Harry, 2012). Through self-examination of cultural beliefs and ongoing critical self-reflection, teachers can become sensitive to the ways in which their actions influence others’ behaviors. Extending from this commitment to self-reflection, culturally responsive instruction creates space for students to connect new learning to relevant background experiences. In the context of culturally responsive instruction, teachers view multilingualism and multiculturalism as an asset to the learning process.

In two qualitative case studies (Orosco & Abdulrahim, 2017; Orosco & O’Connor, 2014), researchers described evidence-based instruction led by special education teachers who applied culturally responsive practices in the context of literacy instruction for ELs with LD. Results affirmed that reading achievement was supported when special education teachers situated students’ cultural experiences at the center of classroom and curricular activities. Orosco and colleagues’ findings contribute initial insight that can address Trainor and Bal’s (2014) question, “Do evidence-based practices hold promise for youth with disabilities for whom we have yet to consistently and systematically help achieve optimal academic, behavioral, and positive post school outcomes?” (p. 203).

In seeking to meet the needs of ELs with LD through the use of evidence-based practices, educators can effectively implement culturally responsive practices (Orosco & Abdulrahim, 2017; Orosco & O’Connor, 2014). Therefore, scholars, who contribute to the development of evidence-based practices, can push past culture-blindness and embed cultural responsiveness into the research process. Indeed, research is not a culture-free event. According to Trainor and Bal (2014), “The significance and implications of research results can be fully understood only if/when the physical, sociocultural, and historical contexts of the researchers and the participants frame the work” (204). Ultimately, to promote equity and inclusivity, cultural responsiveness in research is necessary. To operationalize cultural responsiveness in research, Trainor and Bal published a rubric with 15 quality indicators that correspond with the research process from inception to dissemination. Given unique needs that reside at the intersection of language, culture, and disability, there is a need to review reading comprehension interventions research to evaluate the not only the effectiveness of instructional practices but also the alignment of the research with the tenets of cultural responsiveness.

In this systematic review, the purpose is twofold. First, we aimed to update the knowledge base on reading comprehension interventions for ELs with LD, specifically focusing on experimental 77

studies. Second, we sought to evaluate selected studies for alignment with Trainor and Bal’s (2014) indicators of culturally responsive research.

Method We conducted a comprehensive search to locate all potentially relevant studies and applied selection criteria to determine which studies to include. We attempted to locate studies using (a) electronic searches in educational databases, (b) browsing, and (c) citation searches.

Initial Selection First, we conducted a search of electronic databases (i.e., Academic Search Complete, Education Full Text, Educational Resources Information Center [ERIC], MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and SAGE Journals) to identify relevant studies. We used all possible combinations of the following sets of terms: (a) English Learner, limited English proficient, English as a second language; AND (b) reading comprehension, struggling reader; AND (c) learning disabilities. Second, we conducted searches of five refereed journals (i.e., Bilingual Research Journal, Exceptional Children, Learning Disability Quarterly, Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, and Reading Research Quarterly). We examined the tables of contents of each issue published from January 1, 2004 to February 15, 2019 to locate additional relevant articles. Finally, we searched reference lists to identify studies that electronic searches failed to generate.

Criteria-Based Selection From the 91 results yielded through our initial search modes, we established criteria to determine which studies to include in this review. We included experimental studies that: (a) were published in peer-reviewed journals, (b) were conducted with school-age ELs who received special education services for Specific Learning Disability, (c) included at least one outcome measure of reading comprehension, and (d) disaggregated results for ELs with LD. Finally, we applied methodological rigor as a fifth criterion.

To evaluate whether studies demonstrated methodological rigor, we used the eight quality indicators (QIs) listed in the Council for Exceptional Children’s (CEC) Standards for EvidenceBased Practices (EBP) in Special Education (CEC, 2014). In a 5-week period, the first author (a White female) and four graduate students read each of the studies and met weekly for 30 min to compare notes. We determined whether each QI was met and selected studies for which more than half of the possible indicators were met. Graduate students (one monolingual [English] White male, one bilingual [Spanish/English] Latina, and two monolingual [English] White females) held a Master’s degree and completed coursework on research methods.

Operational definitions. We defined ELs as students who were in the process of developing proficiency in English as a new or additional language and who used a home language other than English. We defined LD in congruence with the federal definition presented in IDEA. We defined reading comprehension as an active meaning-process that results from decoding, language comprehension, metacognitive awareness, and strategic processing of text.

Analysis Procedures

78

With the established base of relevant studies, our next step was to determine participants’ home language(s) and their levels of language proficiency in English and the home language(s). We identified the purpose, design, and key findings from each study. Further, we described topographical features of reading comprehension instruction in each study. Three of the study’s authors (one Black female, one bilingual [Mandarin/English] Asian female, and, one bilingual [Spanish/English] White female) independently applied Trainor and Bal’s (2014) culturally responsive research (CRR) rubric to evaluate the selected studies. The rubric included 15 items and used a 3-point scale to represent variance in the extent to which cultural responsiveness was engaged to satisfy each item (i.e., 0 = culture-blind; 1 = culture viewed as static; 2 = intersecting cultural and contextual factors were addressed). After scoring, we examined patterns of ratings, categorizing according to broad themes. We then identified subcategories. Our final categorization scheme included: (a) the instructional framework, (b) the techniques and tools applied to support students’ culture and language in the context of literacy instruction, and (c) the relational positions among the interventionists and participants.

Reliability In four 90-minute training sessions, the first author trained the same four graduate students to rate studies using Trainor and Bal’s (2014) rubric. After presenting the QIs and explaining their purpose, we collaboratively evaluated two studies not included in this analysis. Next, graduate students read and evaluated the 10 selected studies using the rubric. Each study had four sets of ratings. The first author compared score sets to determine interrater reliability using the procedures of Chard, Ketterlin-Geller, Baker, Doabler, and Apichatabutra (2009), which entailed dividing the number of exact matches for each component by the total number of exact matches and disagreements. This resulted in a reliability score of 0.78 for CRR ratings. The first author met with the evaluation team and discussed instances where there were differences in scores. The evaluators re-examined studies and negotiated evaluations until 100% agreement was reached.

Results Ten studies, published between January of 1992 and February of 2019, met criteria to be included in this review. Studies shared the purpose of evaluating the effects of instruction focused on reading comprehension for ELs with LD. Table 1 includes an overview of each study.

79

Table 1 Reading Comprehension Intervention Studies Study Target Participants Bos & Anders Phase 1: 42 students; (1992) Phase 2: 47 students; grades 4 to 6; intermediate English proficiency; Spanish as a first language (L1) Helman, Calhoon, 3 students; grades 9 to & Kern (2015) 10; intermediate English proficiency; Spanish as L1 Jozwik, Cuenca4 students; grade 5; Carlino, Mustian, late-intermediate levels & Douglas (2019) of English proficiency; 1 with Arabic as L1; 3 with Spanish as L1 Jozwik & Douglas 2 students; grade 4; (2016) intermediate levels of English proficiency; 1 with Spanish and 1 with Arabic as a L1 Jozwik & Douglas 4 students; grade 4; (2017) late-intermediate English proficiency; 2 with Spanish L1; 2 with Arabic as L1 Klingner & 26 students; grades 7 Vaughn (1996) and 8; intermediate English proficiency; Spanish as L1

Focus interactive teaching and learning model

Design Group experimental

Measures Curriculum-based assessments; standardized reading measure

Outcomes Dialogic instruction and peer interaction supported vocabulary and comprehension development.

Clue Word Strategy (CWS)

Multiple probe across participants

Test of Reading Comprehension (TORC-4)

Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD)

Multiple probe across participants

comprehension questions; strategy-use rating scale

explicit instruction in reading and writing riddles

Multiple probe across participants

maze; running record with retell and nativelanguage text

Participants improved strategy use and morpheme knowledge; mixed results on TORC-4.

SRSD instruction led to improved accuracy in comprehension-question answering and increased use of strategy steps Explicit instruction led to gains in comprehension across measures.

explicit instruction in strategy application

Multiple baseline across participants

comprehension questions; strategy-use rubric

reciprocal teaching with cross-age tutoring and cooperative grouping

Group experimental

Passage Comprehension Tests; GatesMacGinitie Reading Tests

80

Explicit instruction, peer interaction, and technology tools improved use of comprehension strategies.

Adequate decoders with low comprehension and oral proficiency in either language made gains and showed task engagement.

Landa & Barbetta (2017)

4 students; grades 3 to 5; intermediate to lateintermediate levels of English proficiency; Spanish as L1 Sรกenz, Fuchs, & 24 students; grades 3 to Fuchs, (2005) 6; intermediate English proficiency; Spanish as L1 Tam, Heward, & 2 students; grade 3 with Heng (2006) early-intermediate levels English language proficiency; 1 with Khmer as a L1 and 1 with Spanish as L1 Wanzek, Swanson, 56 students; grade 8; no Vaughn, Roberts, data on first languages & Fall (2016) or levels of English proficiency were reported.

vocabulary instruction, error correction, and repeated reading intervention Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)

Multiple probe across participants

Researcherdeveloped literal comprehension questions

Group experimental

vocabulary instruction, error correction, and fluency building procedures

Multiple baseline across participants

Comprehensive Reading Assessment Battery Researcherdeveloped literal comprehension questions

Promoting Adolescent Comprehension Through Text

Group experimental

Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests

81

Number of words read correct increased and accuracy in comprehension-question answering improved.

PALS led to improved strategy use and reading comprehension performance.

Number of words read correct per minute increased and accuracy in comprehension-question answering improved.

Instruction improved content acquisition, but not general reading comprehension.

Participants In 10 studies, researchers included participants who were ELs with LD enrolled in grades 3 through 10. In one study (Wanzek, Swanson, Vaughn, Roberts, & Fall, 2016), authors disaggregated results for ELs with disabilities (n = 52) and reported that many were eligible for special education services under the Specific Learning Disability classification; however, the exact number of ELs with LD was not reported. Across the remaining eight studies, 161 participants (41% of all participants) were ELs with LD. In seven studies (Helman, Calhoon, & Kern, 2015; Jozwik, Cuenca-Carlino, Mustian, & Douglas, 2019; Jozwik & Douglas, 2016, 2017; Landa & Barbetta, 2017; Sáenz, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005; Wanzek et al., 2016), researchers reported the school team’s adherence to state and federal eligibility criteria in making the Specific Learning Disability determination. Thus, a MTSS and a bilingual evaluation contributed to the eligibility determination for 44 target participants. In one study (Tam, Heward, & Heng, 2006), researchers used both the school team’s diagnosis and the research team’s follow-up evaluation of reading comprehension achievement to confirm that two target participants had LD. In two studies (Bos & Anders, 1992; Klingner & Vaughn, 1996), 115 target participants were reported to have a significant discrepancy of at least 1.5 standard deviations between standard scores on an intelligence test and an achievement test.

Language status. Each of the 161 participants used home languages other than English. Spanish was reported as the home language for 156 participants. Four participants reported Arabic as the home language; one participant (from Cambodia) reported Khmer as the home language. Of the 161 target participants, two were at an early-intermediate level of English proficiency, and 159 were at an intermediate- to advanced-level of English proficiency. Insufficient data were reported to analyze proficiency levels of participants’ home languages.

Settings In four studies (Bos & Anders, 1992; Klingner & Vaughn, 1996; Sáenz et al., 2005; Wanzek et al., 2016) researchers or trained teachers led whole-group instruction or facilitated peer tutoring in bilingual special education classrooms, special education resource classrooms, transitional bilingual classrooms, or the general education social studies classroom. In three studies, researchers (Jozwik et al., 2019; Jozwik & Douglas 2017, 2016) provided small-group instruction in general education classrooms. Finally, in three studies (Helman et al., 2015; Landa & Barbetta, 2017; Tam et al., 2006) researchers provided 1:1 instruction in a separate setting.

Designs In four studies (Bos & Anders, 1992; Klingner & Vaughn, 1996; Sáenz et al., 2005; Wanzek et al., 2016), researchers used a group experimental or quasi-experimental design. Of these, three studies used a pretest-posttest design, with whole classes randomly assigned to treatment conditions. One study contained reports of a series of four quasi-experimental group design studies. In six studies (Helman et al., 2015; Jozwik et al., 2019; Jozwik & Douglas, 2017; 2016; Landa & Barbetta, 2017; Tam et al., 2006), researchers used single-subject designs.

Dependent Variables In two studies (Helman et al., 2015; Jozwik & Douglas, 2017), “strategy use” served as the primary dependent variable. In three studies (Jozwik & Douglas, 2016; Landa & Barbetta, 2017; Tam et al., 2006), researchers administered curriculum-based assessments (i.e., oral reading 82

fluency probes or maze assessments) to evaluate participants’ progress in reading comprehension. In five studies (Jozwik et al., 2019; Jozwik & Douglas, 2017; Landa & Barbetta, 2017; Tam et al., 2006), researchers used comprehension-question answering assessments to evaluate participants’ use of reading comprehension skills and strategies. In five studies (Bos & Anders, 1992; Klingner & Vaughn, 1996; Sáenz et al., 2005; Helman et al., 2015; Wanzek et al., 2016), researchers used standardized assessments to measure reading comprehension achievement.

Independent Variables Strategy instruction was a focus of the intervention in five studies (Bos & Anders, 1992; Jozwik & Douglas, 2017; Klingner & Vaughn, 1996; Sáenz, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005). First, Bos and Anders used an interactive model to teach cognitive and metacognitive strategies to support vocabulary development and text comprehension. Instruction incorporated semantic mapping and semantic feature analysis. In addition, participants worked in cooperative learning groups and self-instructed using a strategy-prompting checklist. Jozwik and Douglas provided explicit instruction in applying comprehension strategies (i.e., questioning, making connections, and monitoring for meaning) embedded within the mnemonic TRACK, which stood for Think about what you are reading, React to the text, Ask questions, Connect, and Keep track of my thinking.

Participants practiced strategies in small collaborative groups. Subsequently, Jozwik and colleagues used self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) and TRACK to teach students to use strategies while reading fiction and informational texts. Finally, in two studies (Klingner & Vaughn, 1996; Sáenz, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005), researchers used interventions that incorporated peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) procedures or reciprocal tutoring. Participants took on the role of tutor and tutee, used oral language, and processed compressible input (within and across languages). Moreover, peer tutoring allowed participants to apply strategies (e.g., finding the main idea) and gain feedback during and after reading.

Strategic development of vocabulary knowledge, in conjunction with meaning-making aspects of reading, shaped the focus of two interventions. Helman and colleagues (2015) provided explicit instruction in using the Clue Word Strategy (CWS) to analyze morphemes of science-related vocabulary terminology. One-to-one instruction allowed for interactive dialogue between the interventionist and participant. Moreover, participants used CWS graphic organizers to support self-regulated application of the vocabulary strategy. In the second intervention, Jozwik and Douglas (2016) used explicit instruction to teach students to interpret and write semantically ambiguous riddles. Small-group instruction and intentional planning afforded opportunities to support oral language development. The intervention included visuals to support linguistic input and emphasized cross-linguistic connections.

In another category of interventions, multiple components (e.g., schema activation, vocabulary instruction, oral reading fluency procedures) promoted reading comprehension. In two interventions, researchers used a vocabulary flashcard drill or provided direct instruction on researcher-selected words and followed this with oral reading fluency procedures to support passage comprehension (Landa & Barbetta, 2017; Tam et al., 2006). In another intervention, Wanzek and colleagues (2016) implemented Promoting Adolescent Comprehension through Text (PACT), which involved: activating background knowledge, introducing target vocabulary, facilitating practice, supporting critical reading, conducting checks for understanding, and 83

promoting content knowledge application through team activities. Furthermore, videos, images, and graphic organizers facilitated necessary background knowledge for participation in classroom discourse. The topography of each intervention is summarized in Table 2.

84

Table 2 Topography of Interventions Study Focus of Intervention

Language(s) Used by Interventionist English and Spanish

Language(s) Used by Participants English and Spanish

Frequency, Duration, and Setting

English

English

Self-regulated strategy development instruction in reading comprehension strategy use

English and Spanish

Jozwik & Douglas (2017)

Explicit instruction in questioning, connecting, and monitoring for meaning

English

Jozwik & Douglas (2016)

Explicit instruction in reading and writing multi-meaning words and riddles Reciprocal teaching; and cross-age tutoring or cooperative learning

English

English and Spanish; English and Arabic English and Spanish; English and Arabic English

45 min for 9 to 12 sessions; 1:1 separate setting 32 min for 61 school days; 1:6 in general education classroom

Bos & Anders (1992) Helman et al.

(2015) Jozwik et al.

(2019)

Klingner & Vaughn (1996) Landa & Barbetta (2017)a; Tam, Heward, & Heng (2006)b Sรกenz, Fuchs, & Fuchs (2005)

Interactive teaching and learning, semantic mapping, activating schema, making and confirming predictions Clue Word Strategy Instruction

English

English and Spanish

Vocabulary instruction, error drill, and fluency building (repeated reading)

English

English

Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies

English

English and Spanish

85

50 min 3 days per week for 5 weeks; bilingual elementary classroom

30 min 5 days per week for 12 weeks; 1:6 in general education classroom 25 min 5 days per week for 9 weeks; 1:5 in general education classroom 40 min per day for 27 days; bilingual special education classroom 10 to 20 min 5 days per week for 12 weeksa; 35 min for 70-81 sessionsb; 1:1 separate settingab 35 min 3 days per week for 15 weeks; bilingual classroom

Wanzek, Swanson, Promoting Adolescent Vaughn, Roberts, Comprehension Through Text & Fall (2016)

English

86

English

25 to 40 min per day for 10 days; 25 min 3 days per week for 12 weeks; general education grade 8 social studies

Intervention Effects Among the six single-subject experimental design studies, data showed changes in the direction of improvement on dependent measures. In two studies (Landa & Barbetta, 2017; Tam et al., 2006), higher levels of accuracy with literal comprehension-question answering occurred after vocabulary instruction, error drill correction, and repeated reading fluency procedures. Likewise, in two studies (Jozwik et al., 2019; Jozwik & Douglas, 2017), increases in comprehensionquestion answering occurred when participants received strategy instruction. In these four studies, the small number of questions on each probe imposed ceiling effects, which diminishes the potential for observing gains in comprehension-question answering accuracy.

In two of the single-subject experimental design studies, researchers complemented formative assessments with pre- and posttreatment outcome measures related to reading comprehension.

Participants in Helman and colleagues’ (2015) study demonstrated gains in strategy-use scores following instruction but achieved mixed results on the Test of Reading Comprehension (TORC4) (Brown, Wiederholt, & Hammill, 2009). In Jozwik and Douglas’ (2016) study on semantic ambiguity detection, participants showed an increasing trend on maze assessments during instruction and demonstrated gains on posttreatment running records followed by unaided retells for English and native-language texts.

Three group-design studies reported improvements for ELs with LD on standardized reading comprehension outcomes. Bos and Anders (1992) reported moderate to large effect sizes on comprehension measures (ES = .78 to 1.51) after interactive teaching and learning strategies for vocabulary and comprehension. Klingner and Vaughn (1996) reported gains on the GatesMacGinitie Reading Tests (MacGinitie & MacGinitie, 1989) and passage comprehension tests (Palinscar & Brown, 1984) after reciprocal teaching with cross-age peer-tutoring or cooperative learning. SĂĄenz and colleagues (2005) reported large effect sizes on the comprehensive reading assessment battery (ES = 1.03 on comprehension question answering; ES = .75 on maze assessments) after PALS instruction. In one group design study, researchers (Wanzek et al., 2016) reported that implementation of PACT yielded significant gains in content acquisition but not in content-specific reading comprehension or general reading comprehension.

Cultural Responsiveness of Research Across the 10 studies, researchers met between 60 and 93% of the quality indicators to earn rubric scores of 1 (partial satisfaction) or 2 (full satisfaction). All studies earned scores of 2 on the presentation of findings, as results were disaggregated for EL and LD status. Table 3 displays total percentages and constellations of scores generated through the rubric.

87

Table 3 Cultural Responsiveness in Research Rubric Scores Rubric Item Bos & Helma Jozwi Jozwik Ander n et k et & s, al., al., Dougla 1992 2015 2019 s, 2017 Constructs 1 1 1 1 Relevance 1 1 1 1 Literature 1 1 1 1 Review Theoretical 1 0 0 0 Frame Participants 1 1 1 1 Interventionist 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sampling Setting 0 1 1 1 Data 1 1 1 1 Collection Intervention 2 0 1 1 Ecology Intervention 1 0 1 1 Design Intervention 2 1 2 2 Efficacy Findings 2 2 2 2 Analysis 1 1 1 1 Dissemination 0 0 0 0

Jozwik & Dougla s, 2016 1 1 1

Klingn er & Vaughn , 1996 1 1 1

Landa & Barbett a, 2017 1 1 1

Sรกen z et al., 2005 1 1 1

Tam et al., 2006 1 1 0

Wanze k et al., 2016 1 1 1

0

1

0

1

0

1 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1

1

0

1

1

2 2 1 0

0

Total (%) 1 2

0 0 11

100 100 89

0 0 0

1

56

44

0

1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 1

0 33 0 22 0

100 56 100 78 100

0 0 0 0 0

1

0

1

33

67

22

0

1

0

1

33

67

0

1

1

1

1

2

0

56

44

2 1 0

2 1 0

2 1 0

2 1 0

2 1 0

0 0 100

0 100 0

100 0 0

88

Discussion Using stringent search criteria, we found 10 studies in which researchers evaluated reading comprehension interventions for ELs with LD. Findings suggest that interactive dialogue, explicit instruction, self-regulated strategy development instruction, and peer tutoring contributed to gains on reading comprehension outcome measures for ELs with LD. Across the 10 studies, a majority of participants had intermediate- to advanced levels of English proficiency and Spanish as a native language. Further, researchers reported that many participants had adequate decoding skills but relatively weak comprehension. Therefore, we see a need for additional research to include ELs with LD whose English-proficiency levels fall at an early to intermediate range, whose native languages are other than or in addition to Spanish, and whose reading profiles include difficulties with decoding and comprehension. Moreover, all studies were conducted in U. S. public schools; yet, supporting literacy development for ELs with LD is a relevant area of focus worldwide. Thus, we see a compelling need to enhance the knowledge base by reciprocally exchanging information on an international level.

Instructional Framework Among the reviewed studies, the model of the intervention was structured by dialogic instruction (e.g., Bos & Anders, 1992), explicit instruction (e.g., Helman et al., 2015; Jozwik & Douglas, 2016; 2017), self-regulated strategy development (Jozwik et al., 2019), peer tutoring (e.g., Klingner & Vaughn, 1996; SĂĄenz et al., 2005) or a melding of these (e.g., Wanzek et al., 2016).

Some interventions included contrived tasks (e.g., flashcard drills) that adhered to behaviorist learning theories and left room for cultural responsiveness. For example, the ecology of a flashcard drill intervention, if melded with sociocultural learning theory, would allow space for tasks that align with the research design and tasks that align with participants’ real-life experiences.

Tools and Techniques to Support Language, Culture, and Literacy Self-instruction checklists, mnemonics to facilitate strategy application (e.g., TRACK; CWS), graphic organizers, collaborative learning, and opportunities for self-reflection emerged across eight studies. In the context of culturally responsive instruction, these tools and techniques promote self-regulated learning. Thus, there is a continued need to investigate self-regulated learning (e.g., self-regulated strategy development) as a model for future literacy interventions that include ELs with LD. Relational Positions In many of the reviewed studies, researchers neglected to describe relevant characteristics of interventionists. For example, we could not determine consistently whether interventionists were proficient in more than one language. Moreover, we could not discern easily the racial/cultural background and gender of many interventionists. Further, no attention was given to power differentials between researchers/interventionists and participants. Future research should provide context by describing characteristics of researchers/interventionists with respect to characteristics of participants.

Limitations One purpose of this systematic review was to update past literature reviews to identify researchbased practices relevant for supporting ELs with LD in reading comprehension. Therefore, we 89

included studies that used experimental, qausiexperimental, or single-subject experimental designs. Consequently, we excluded four qualitative or exploratory case studies (Bos, Anders, Filip & Jaffe, 1989; Jiménez, 1997; Jiménez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1995; López-Reyna, 1996) that contributed to knowledge reported by August and Siegel (2006) and Klingner and SolteroGonzález (2009). Our results are limited in that they reflect only experimental studies. In addition, publication bias imposes a limitation, as we excluded theses and dissertations.

In conducting this review, we sought to evaluate cultural responsiveness of research, using Trainor and Bal’s (2014) rubric. A possible limitation emerges in that the descriptors of the 15 quality indicators at each of the three levels reflect attributes of group design studies more so than single-subject experimental design studies. However, 60% of the studies we reviewed used single-subject experimental designs. Therefore, questions remain as to whether the pattern of results would differ if the culturally responsive research rubric differentiated criteria for singlesubject experimental design studies.

Directions for Future Research Based on the results generated through this systematic review, we see several directions for future research. To begin with, the 10 studies in this review earned scores of 0 on the indicator related to dissemination. We assigned scores based merely on what was included in the published reports. Given standard practices in formatting research reports, absence of information about plans for sharing knowledge with the larger community may reflect adherence to a page limit rather than lack of intention to disseminate beyond the article in print. We see benefits to the practice of sharing dissemination strategies within written reports. For example, doing so provides assurance that researchers will offer results and findings so that members in the larger community, potentially on a global scale, can interpret and offer their voices into the discussion on the significance or relevance of findings. In addition, other researchers can gain insight into effective ways to disseminate findings from their own studies.

In future studies, the design of reading comprehension interventions for ELs with LD should emphasize cultural responsiveness by focusing on academic and social outcomes, affirming participants’ cultural and linguistic identities, and cultivating participants’ critical perspectives so that they can challenge systemic inequities. This recommendation is grounded in findings from qualitative studies (e.g., Jiménez, 1997) and exploratory case studies (Orosco & Abdulrahim, 2017; Orosco & O’Connor, 2014) and is recommended due to the frequency of scores that suggested no or partial alignment with the Trainor and Bal’s (2014) intervention design indicator.

To address disparities and inequities while supporting literacy development for ELs with LD, we offer three ways for future researchers to incorporate cultural responsiveness. First, researchers can include a comprehensive discussion of the theoretical framework that guides the study and can juxtapose this with critical examination of the ways in which the framework limits what the research can contribute to the knowledge base. Next, researchers can examine how they describe study participants to consider whether characteristics are limited to the individual level (e.g., language background, special education eligibility) rather than contextualized by institutionallevel dimensions (e.g., “a hidden curriculum”). Finally, researchers can describe their own demographic characteristics as well as those of interventionists while attending to relational 90

positions (e.g., manifestations of power and privilege, having an “insider” or “outsider” perspective/position). In summary, the ideals of methodological rigor are compatible with cultural responsivity, and employing these three recommendations in concert may contribute to a rich, rigorous, and responsive research base to guide the development and practice of reading comprehension instruction for ELs with LD. References *Indicates article included in systematic literature review.

August, D., Francis, D. J., Hsu, H. A., & Snow, C. E. (2006). Assessing reading comprehension in bilinguals. The Elementary School Journal, 107, 221–238.

August, D., & Hakuta, K. (1997). Improving schooling for language-minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

August, D., & Siegel, L. S. (2006). Literacy instruction for language-minority children in special education settings. In D. August, & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in secondlanguage learners: A report of the National Literacy Panel on language-minority children and youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bartoli, J., & Botel, M. (1988). Reading/learning disability: An ecological approach. New York: Teachers College Press.

Brown, V. L., Wiederholt, J. L., & Hammill, D. D. (2009). Test of Reading Comprehension (4th ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. *Bos, C. S., & Anders, P. L. (1992). Using interactive teaching and learning strategies to promote text comprehension and content learning for students with learning disabilities.

International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education, 39, 225–238.

Bos, C. S., Anders, P. L., Filip, D., & Jaffe, L. E. (1989). The effects of an interactive instructional strategy for enhancing reading comprehension and content area learning for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(6), 384–390.

Cain K., & Oakhill, J. (2006). Profiles of children with specific reading comprehension difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 683–696.

Chard, D. J., Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., Baker, S. K., Doabler, C., & Apichatabutra, C. (2009).

Repeated reading interventions for students with learning disabilities: Status of the evidence. Exceptional Children, 75, 263–281.

Cloud, N., Genesee, F., & Hamayan, E. (2009). Literacy instruction for English language learners. A teacher’s guide to research-based practices. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Council for Exceptional Children: Standards for Evidence-Based Practices in Special Education. (2014). TEACHING Exceptional Children, 46(6), 206–212 Ebe, A. E. (2010). Culturally relevant texts and reading assessment for English language learners. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts, 50(3), 193– 210.

García, S., & Ortiz, A. (2008). A framework for culturally and linguistically responsive design of response-to-intervention models. Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 11(1), 24–41.

Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2000). What we know about effective instructional practices for English-language learners. Exceptional children, 66, 454–470.

Hamayan, E., Marler, B., Sánchez-López, C., & Damico, J. (2013). Special education considerations for English language learners: Delivering a continuum of services (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Caslon.

91

*Helman, A. L., Calhoon, M. B., & Kern, L. (2015). Improving science vocabulary of high school English language learners with reading disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 38, 40–52. Doi: 10.1177/0731948714539769 Hughes, M. T., Schumm, J., & Vaughn, S. (1999). Home literacy activities: perceptions and practices of Hispanic parents of children with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 224–235.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004).

Jiménez, R. T. (1997). The strategic reading abilities and potential of five low-literacy Latina/o readers in middle school. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 224–243.

Jiménez, R. T., García, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1995). Three children, two languages, and strategic reading: Case studies in bilingual/monolingual reading. American Educational Research Journal, 32(1), 67–97. *Jozwik, S. L., Cuenca-Carlino, Y., Mustian, A. L., & Douglas, K. H. (2019). Self-regulated strategy development reading comprehension instruction for emerging bilingual students with learning disabilities. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 63 (2), 121–132. doi: 10.1080/1045988X.2018.1523126. *Jozwik, S. L., & Douglas, K. H. (2017). Effects of a technology-assisted reading comprehension intervention for English learners with learning disabilities. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts, 56(2), 42–63. *Jozwik, S. L., & Douglas, K. H. (2016). Effects of semantic ambiguity detection training on reading comprehension achievement of English learners with learning difficulties.

Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 16(2), 37–57.

Kalyanpur, M. & Harry, B. (2012). Cultural reciprocity in special education: Building familyprofessional partnerships. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Khong, T. D. H., & Saito, E. (2014). Challenges confronting teachers of English language learners. Educational Review, 66(2), 210-255. Doi: 10.1080/00131911.2013.769425 Klingner, J. K., & Soltero-González, L. (2009). Culturally and linguistically responsive literacy instruction for English language learners with learning disabilities. Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 12, 4–20. *Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1996). Reciprocal teaching of reading comprehension strategies for students with learning disabilities who use English as a second language. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 275–293. *Landa, K. G., & Barbetta, P. M. (2017). The effects of repeated readings on the reading performances of Hispanic English language learners with specific learning disabilities.

Journal of International Special Needs Education, 20(1), 1–13.

Lopez-Reyna, N. A. (1996). The Importance of Meaningful Contexts in Bilingual Special Education: Moving to Whole Language. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 11(2), 120–131.

MacGinitie, W. H., & MacGinitie, R. K. (1989). Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests. Chicago, IL: Riverside.

MacGinitie, W. H., MacGinitie, R. K., Maria, K., Dreyer, L. G., & Hughes, K. E. (2006). Gates MacGinitie Reading Tests (4th ed.). Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.

McFarland, J., Hussar, B., Wang, X., Zhang, J., Wang, K., Rathbun, A., … & Bullock Mann, F. (2018). The Condition of Education 2018 (NCES 2018-144). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.

92

National Center for Education Statistics (2015). The Nation's Report Card: 2015 Mathematics and Reading Assessments. Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C. Orosco, M. J., & Abdulrahim, N. A. (2017). Culturally responsive evidence-based practices with English language learners with learning disabilities: A qualitative case study. Educational Borderlands: A Bilingual Journal, 1, 27–45.

Orosco, M. J., & O’Connor, R. (2014). Culturally responsive instruction for English language learners with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(6), 515–531.

Palinscar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and instruction, 1(2), 117-175.

Richards-Tutor, C., Baker, D. L., Gersten, R., Baker, S. K., & Smith, J. M. (2016). The effectiveness of reading interventions for English learners: A research synthesis.

Exceptional Children, 82(2), 144–169.

Ruiz, N. T. (1995). The social construction of ability and disability: II. Optimal and at-risk lessons in a bilingual. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 491–502. *Sáenz, L. M., Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2005). Peer-assisted learning strategies for English language learners with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 71, 231–247.

Snyder, E., Witmer, S. E., & Schmitt, H. (2016). English language learners and reading instruction: A review of the literature. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 61(2), 136–145. *Tam, K. Y., Heward, W. L., & Heng, M. A. (2006). A reading instruction intervention program for English-language learners who are struggling readers. The Journal of Special Education, 40, 79–93.

Trainor, A. A., & Bal, A. (2014). Development and preliminary analysis of a rubric for culturally responsive research. The Journal of Special Education, 47, 203–216. Doi: 10.1177/0022466912436397 U. S. Department of Education & National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2003). National symposium on learning disabilities in English language learners: Symposium Summary. Washington, DC: Authors. *Wanzek, J., Swanson, E., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., & Fall, A. (2016). English learner and nonEnglish learner students with disabilities: Content acquisition and comprehension.

Exceptional Children, 82(4), 428-442.

Author Note Sara Jozwik, Ed. D., Assistant Professor, Department of Teaching and Learning, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Phone (414) 229-4721, Email: jozwik@uwm.edu; Yojanna Cuenca-Carlino, Ph. D., Assistant Chairperson, Department of Special Education, Illinois State University, Phone (309) 438-8980, Email: ycuenca@ilstu.edu; Miranda Lin, Ph. D., Professor, School of Teaching and Learning , Illinois State University, Phone (309) 438-8980, Email: ymlin@ilstu.edu;

93

April Mustian, Ph. D., Associate Professor, Department of Special Education, Illinois State University, Phone (309) 438-8980, Email: amustia@ilstu.edu; Stacey E. Hardin, Ph. D., Teaching Faculty 1, Department of Special Education, Florida State University

94

Special Education Providers: Survey of Caseload Numbers, HQT, and Instructional Settings Patricia Prunty Ed.D. Bowling Green State University Abstract There is a dynamic shift in providing educational services for students with disabilities. The need to understand the services provided by special education personnel drove this research.

This work the duties and roles of both special education teachers and paraprofessionals in five Ohio counties. In this geographical region, 669 special education professionals were invited to participate in the survey, and 28% participated in the study. In the paraprofessionals subgroup only 12% had associate degrees in education, and the other 88% had little or no formal training in education. Intervention specialists reported that half of their day is spent in a special education classroom setting, while paraprofessionals report only 12% of their day in a special education classroom. Surprisingly, paraprofessionals are providing the most support for students with disabilities in inclusive settings.

Keywords: Special education personnel, paraprofessionals, caseloads, HQT, instructional setting Special Education Providers: Survey of Caseload Numbers, HQT, and Instructional Settings In the search for optimal learning settings, schools have placed more students with disabilities in general education classrooms. The crux of meeting the needs of the student with disabilities then requires educational supports, accommodations, and modifications in the general education classroom setting. The need for more educational assistance is apparent in inclusionary classrooms. More adults to assist students with disabilities is required in the classroom, and paraprofessionals are placed in inclusionary settings to address these needs. The United States Department of Education determined that the national average is close to one paraprofessional for every special educator (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2017). The employment rate of special education teachers has remained steady in the last twenty years; however, the employment rate of paraprofessionals has risen steadily both in Ohio and nationally.

Assistants for students with disabilities have many titles such as paraprofessionals, classroom assistants, one-on-one-aides, or paraeducators. This paper will refer to these providers as paraprofessionals. Dependence on paraprofessionals to deliver educational supports for students with disabilities has become more apparent in Ohio and in the United States as a whole. The primary support for students with disabilities are paraprofessionals in school settings (Fisher & Pleasant, 2012). Seventy-four percent of instruction is provided by paraprofessionals for students with moderate or severe intellectual disabilities (Suter & Giangreco, 2009).

Paraprofessionals do not have the same educational training and background as interventionists.

Other studies have documented that paraprofessionals lack the training needed to support students with disabilities, and on the job-training is the norm in most school districts nationally (Fisher & Pleasants, 2012; Carroll, 2001). On the job workshops, trainings, and meetings suggest that professional development for paraprofessionals is sporadic, unstructured, and does not 95

address best practices. What is more surprising, many paraprofessionals are not given any professional training on the job (Carter et al, 2009).

Students with disabilities are not accessing the general education curriculum in consistent or equitable ways (Olsen, Leko, & Roberts, 2016). Due to the lack of available special education teachers to co-teach in the general education classroom, the paraprofessional’s role often develops into more of a caretaker in the general education classroom. Paraprofessionals are the primary support for students with disabilities in general education classrooms (Fisher & Pleasants, 2012). The general education teacher becomes responsible for all parts of the educational lesson, including the scaffolding and differentiation pieces to meet the needs of special education and at-risk learners. This educational arrangement allowed the students with disabilities to remain in the general education classroom, but without intensive instructional supports they need.

It is plausible that special education teachers spend less time assisting students with disabilities due to other professional responsibilities. The role of the special education teacher continues to become more focused on managerial tasks and less on high-quality instruction. Suter and Giangreco’s study on Service Delivery in Inclusionary Schools concluded changes need to be made in practices that are compatible with inclusion. Too many special educators report caseloads that make it difficult for them to apply their knowledge and skills for the benefit of students with disabilities (Suter, & Giangreco, 2009). The focus to place students in general education classes is the priority, and remediation and interventions to meet the individual needs of the child may become less of the main concern.

Morningstar, Kurth, and Johnson (2017) researched access of students with cognitive disabilities to general education settings and determined time spent in learning settings during the school day. Their research also states learners with multiple disabilities access to the general education classroom has made little progress in the last decade (Morningstar, Kurth, & Johnson, 2017).

IDEA does not require all students with an IEP be placed in an inclusionary setting. IDEA builds upon older legislation that does require students with disabilities to be placed in Least Restrictive Environments (LRE). School districts must educate students with disabilities in the regular classroom with appropriate aids and supports with their nondisabled peers (IDEA, 20 USC Chapter 33, Subchapter II, 2004). The Reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 encouraged inclusionary practices based on LRE. Special education services are dependent on a foundation that the identified student will receive specially designed instruction in areas of need. The IEP is written to identify needed areas of instruction for an individual student. The push for inclusionary settings has had unintended effect of less specially designed instruction. Most students with disabilities will not learn to read, write or calculate if they are not explicitly taught these skills (Zigmond, 2003). Specially designed explicit instruction may be better suited to a resource room or tutoring setting than a general education classroom. The desire for an inclusive setting may not be the best educational environment for all instruction for students with special needs. IDEA states that schools must offer students with disabilities a continuum or range of services from more to less typical and inclusive: that is, from least to most restrictive or separated from the regular education classroom. IDEA does not require that a student with a disability be placed in a general 96

education classroom, but the general education classroom should be the first consideration with appropriate supports and services.

Research Questions 1. According to special education personnel in Ohio, who is serving our special education students, and what instructional settings are special education personnel serving students?

2. According to special education personnel in Ohio, how many students are being served, which students are being served?

Method Quantitative methods were used to examine the work roles paraprofessionals and special education teachers hold when serving students with disabilities. Data was collected between January and March 2018 from service providers for students with disabilities, after approval from the IRB at Bowling Green State University.

Data Collection & Analysis Bowling Green State University uses the secure research platform called the secure Qualtrics Survey System for collecting and analyzing survey data. Qualtrics invited participants (special education teachers and paraprofessionals) through email. The email invitation contained a description of the purpose of the study, contact information of the researcher, and the participants’ responses would be confidential. Possible participants were also informed that participation was voluntary, and that the survey could be stopped at any time. If needed, participants could skip questions completely or return to them at the end of the survey.

Qualitative data was compiled through the process of descriptive statistics and analytical deduction (Fink, 1995). The Qualtrics system compiled and analyzed the results using secure software systems. The survey data was analyzed using statistics, mathematical collections, and interpreting of such data (Fink, 1995). The questions came from two sources. The first article recently published by this researcher entitled, Special Education Personnel: Who is serving special education students in Ohio? The second piece or research used was by Howley, Howley, and Telfer in 2010 called Special Education Professionals in District Context.

Setting The sample for this analysis is composed of special education personnel in five counties in northern Ohio located between Cleveland and Toledo, which included thirty-one school districts.

The researcher was granted permission from the BGSU IRB to survey special education teachers and paraprofessionals in these five counties. In the ten-question survey, the researcher asked questions about the setting, the number of students served, and the professional backgrounds of special education teachers and paraprofessionals.

Participants The school districts in the geographical area selected by the researcher invited 669 special education personnel (teachers and/or paraprofessionals) to complete the survey. Of these surveys, 185 were opened and answered, but some surveys were not complete due to questions 97

being skipped or partially answered. Twenty-eight percent of invited participants answered the survey. The participants were 62% special education teachers and 38% paraprofessionals or oneon-one assistants. Of these participants, 75% worked in a public-school setting, 21% percent worked in an educational service center, and 4% are employed in a community, charter or private school setting.

Data Analysis & Results Research Question #1 According to special education personnel in Ohio, who is serving our special education students, and in what instructional settings are special education personnel serving students?

Then survey participants consisted of 62% special education teachers and 38% paraprofessionals or one-on-one assistants. Twenty-eight percent of invited participants answered the survey. The five school districts in the geographical area selected by the researcher invited 669 special education personnel (teachers or paraprofessionals) to complete the survey. 185 surveys were opened and answered, but some surveys were not complete due to questions being skipped or partially answered.

The researcher asked about educational backgrounds of special education personnel. Special education interventionists reported that 99% have earned bachelors or graduate degrees.

Paraprofessionals reported that 54% have earned only a high school diploma, 12% have earned an associate degree in education, and the 20% have an associate degree in other fields. The remaining 14% hold degrees higher than an associate degree. These numbers are distressing, because, the majority of paraprofessionals, classroom assistants, and one-on-aides are not trained in education. Despite federal laws like NCLB, IDEA, and ESSA addressing highly qualified special education personnel, 88% of paraprofessionals lack any formal training in education according to this survey. They are providing academic and behavioral assistance to students without training in educational pedagogy, behavioral systems, special education, or child development. These paraprofessionals are getting on the job training to serve special education learners. The types of training and professional development were not assessed.

Table 1 Education levels of Special Education Teachers and Paraprofessionals Interventionists Para-pros One-on-One Paras/Aides Aides together 60% High School Diploma 0% 52% 13% Associates Degree 0% 11% in Education Associates Degree in another Field

01%

26%

Bachelor’s Degree Graduate Degree

37% 62%

06% 06% 98

07% 13% 07%

54% 12% 20% 08% 06%

______________________________________________________________________________ Table 1 identifies education levels of special education intervention teachers and paraprofessionals and one-on-one assistants or aides. The final column is the data for any paraprofessional or classroom assistant added together regardless of assignment working with children with disabilities. The percentages were determined for special education teachers in each category by dividing by total teacher participants.

Federal laws have attempted to define the qualifications for paraprofessionals. According to IDEA (34 F R 300.136(f)) a state may allow paraprofessionals/assistants that are appropriately trained and supervised to assist in the provision of special education and related services to students with disabilities. In 2002, NCLB further defined, a paraprofessional must have an associate degree or a secondary degree diploma and/or its equivalent to serve students with disabilities. NCLB directly mandated that paraprofessionals must work under the supervision of a certified special education teacher. Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) 2015 requires that the state educational agency will ensure that all paraprofessionals working in a program supported with funds under Title I, Part A meet applicable state certification requirements (Section (1111 (g) (2) (J)). ESSA requires that each state has professional standards in place for paraprofessionals including qualifications that were in place on the day before the date of enactment of Every Student Succeeds Act (United States Department of Education, 2016).

The Ohio Department of Education issues three types of permits for assistants. The one- year student monitor permit is for non-instructional assistants to supervise playgrounds, lunchrooms, and other duties. This permit requires a high school diploma. The educational aide one-year permit requires a high school diploma. The four-year educational aide permit requires a high school diploma and successful completion of two one-year educational aide permits. Education assistants are required to meet HQT qualifications stated in The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) which requires schools receiving Title I funds to add the designation ESEA Qualified, one of two requirements must be successfully completed. The classroom assistant or paraprofessional must pass the ETS ParaPro assessment or complete an associate degree (Ohio Department of Education, 2016).

Special education teachers need to be highly qualified to serve students with disabilities. Federal legislation defines highly qualified in both No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and IDEA 2004.

IDEA (2004) requires special education teachers instructing academic subjects must be highly qualified to teach that subject area or areas. Each state sets caseload limits for special education service providers. The state’s caseload requirements also require all the state and federal paperwork for students with disabilities be completed by the special educator.

Table 2 Location of Services Provided by Special Education Personnel_ Special Educators Classroom Paras General Education Classroom 18% 22% Special Education Classroom 48% 24% Small Group Settings 0% 8% 99

One-on-One 53% 12% 0%

Combination of Settings 34% 46% 35% ____________________________________________________________________________ Table 2 determined the location of services provided by education special education personnel. Each category of provider was to identify the educational setting that the provider spent majority of time during their work day. The percentages were calculated by dividing the responses per category of educational providers.

When special education personnel were asked where they provided the majority of their services, the responses varied among special education teachers, paraprofessionals and one-on-one aides.

Forty-eight percent of special education teachers spend most of their day in special education classrooms, while 24% of classroom assistants and one-on-one aides spend only 12% of their day in special education classrooms. Only 18% of special education teachers reported spending the majority of the day in inclusionary general education classrooms, and 34% reported spending their time in a combination of both special education and general education classrooms.

Paraprofessionals spend 22% of their time in the general education classroom and 46% in a combination of the two settings. Fifty-three percent of one-on-one aides report spending the majority of their day in the general education classroom setting, while 35% report most of their day in a combination of settings.

The apparent conclusion is that paraprofessionals and one-on-one aides are providing most of the support to students with special needs in general education classes. While nearly half of all special education teachers report only spending half or less of their day in general education classes. Paraprofessionals are providing academic and behavioral supports but have the least amount of education and training in education. Nearly eight out of ten learners with disabilities are in the general education classroom setting for more than 80% of the school day in 2015-2016 (ODE, 2017). This data determines that students with disabilities are receiving more educational support services from paraprofessionals or classroom assistants than special education teachers.

Research Question #2 According to special education personnel in Ohio, how many students are being served, which students are being served?

Table 3 Number of Students Assigned to Work with Educational Setting_ Interventionists Para-pros One-on-One Aides Paras/Aides 1 student

All

0%

0%

23%

07%

2-8 students

24%

45%

65%

51%

8-16 students

38%

29%

06%

22%

More than 16 students 38% 26% 06% 20% ______________________________________________________________________________ 100

The researcher determined the percentages for each category of special education providers and in the last column both types of paraprofessionals calculated together. The percentages for paraprofessionals, one-on-one aides or assistants were calculated by the responses divided by the participants in each category.

In previous research, this author studied special education personnel ratios in these five counties in Ohio and compared the data with state data (Prunty, 2018). These results led the researcher to further study of the numbers of students that special education professionals served daily in schools in these same counties. When asked how many special education personnel served only one student, it was reported that 23% of one-on-one aides only serve one student. This type of paraprofessional is hired to work with one student with a significant disability, but only 23% only work with that student exclusively. No other subgroup reported working with only one learner with special needs.

Many special education units can serve no more than eight learners. The survey asked special education personnel served two to eight students, 24% percent of special educators, 45% of paraprofessionals, and 65% of one-on-one aides reported working this number of students.

Thirty-eight percent of special educators, 29% of paraprofessionals, and 6% of one-on-one aides reported working with eight to sixteen students daily. When asked who served more than sixteen students daily, 38% of special education teachers, and 26% of paraprofessionals work with more than sixteen learners with special needs every day.

Specially designed instruction occurs in three settings: the general education classroom, the special education classroom, and small groups in a variety of settings. The service delivery and program structures dictate the responsibilities of the special educator and paraprofessionals.

Historically, special education classrooms grouped students with similar disabilities for educational units. Appropriate placement and services for students with disabilities have been discussed in schools and courts. When special education services began in Ohio, the state philosophy was to separate handicapped children from regular classes and peers (US Department of Education, 1987). LRE was part of PL-94-142, required students to be placed in settings with non-disabled peers. Funding for special education services from the federal and state governments was distributed by special education units. Currently in Ohio funding is based on per-pupil formula, but Ohio’s laws set caseload limits for special education teachers based upon age and disability category of the learners.

The Ohio Operating Standards for the Education of Children with Disabilities, which are found in Ohio Administrative Code Rules 3301-51-01 to 09, 11 and 21, became effective on July 1, 2014. These operating standards outline the laws regarding caseloads for special education providers in Ohio. The standards call for a caseload dependent on category of disability, ages of students, the number of students receiving direct instruction and caseload number of students.

For example, Ohio Administrative Code 3301-51-09:2 lists caseload specifications, “a special education teacher serving students with multiple disabilities shall have no more than eight students with ages less than 60 months apart and the assistance of a paraprofessional�. (Ohio Administrative Code 3301-51-09-2e, 2014). The highest acceptable caseload is 24 at the high school level with no more than 16 students during an instructional period. The smallest caseload 101

is six students with Autism, TBI, or deaf-blindness. Ohio law sets caseloads for other providers such as speech-language therapists, school psychologists, adapted physical education teachers, and other related service personnel.

These numbers are staggering because they imply that special education personnel workloads are significantly higher than the caseloads mandated by law. The workload for special education teachers and related service providers is outlined by Ohio Administrative Code (3301-51-09(1).

In 2017, the Ohio Department of Education released a memo entitled Service Provider Ratio and Workload Clarification. This memo defined workload and caseload for special education personnel. The memo strongly urged school administrators to review specially designed instruction for students with disabilities in Ohio’s schools. No Child Left Behind, limits the duties and responsibilities of paraprofessionals. “A paraprofessional may not provide instruction to any student unless the paraprofessional is working under the direct supervision of a teacher according to NCLB� (US Department of Education, 2016). Nearly 80% of all special education teachers serve more than eight students daily, and 25% of them report working with other at-risk students in addition to their special education caseload.

Discussion Implications After reviewing the conclusions from the research questions, two major points stand out in this research. First students with disabilities are not receiving most of their specially designed instruction from highly qualified teachers. Interventionist specialists spend a great deal of time on other types of work, such as paperwork, training of paraprofessionals, and progress monitoring. Caseloads for all special education personnel are stretched to capacity.

Second, paraprofessionals appear to be providing the majority of academic and behavior instruction in both the general education and special education classroom settings. More paraprofessionals have been hired while the hiring of intervention specialists has remained stagnant in the last decade in Ohio and the nation. Special education teachers reported that they spend less than 20% of their workday in inclusionary settings, yet paraprofessionals spend nearly 90% in inclusionary settings. Paraprofessionals are providing more instructional and behavior services and supports in inclusionary settings. The impact of paraprofessionals delivering instruction needs to be studied.

Limitations Several limitations are noted by the researcher in this survey. More interventionists than paraprofessionals or one-on-one aides completed the survey. Several surveys were only partially completed were from paraprofessionals, while all teachers completed the survey. The researcher wonders if educational jargon limited the completion of the survey. Some surveys had one only question skipped, while others had several skipped. Another limitation is the online access of paraprofessionals. Some paraprofessionals are hired by educational service centers or educational temporary agencies and may have several email addresses. The researcher may not have had access to the email address that these professionals use daily. Furthermore, a survey specifically designed to meet the needs of paraprofessionals, classroom assistants, and one-onone aides might be the best way to gather data from these special education providers.

102

Further Study The role of the special education teacher and paraprofessionals has continued to be changed to fit more inclusionary settings. Special education policies have driven major changes in the structure of special education programming. This directly impacts all special education providers and the roles of special education interventionists with varying role changes to meet the needs of students with disabilities.

Special education providers have suggested a wide variety of service models and options to provide instruction to students with disabilities. One area of further research is to further explore is the professional development provided to paraprofessionals. The clear majority of these providers have no training in education. Only 12% held an associate degree in education and 54% had only graduated from high school. The training to work with students with disabilities is occurring on the job.

Does the lack of training in academic interventions, social skills, and behavior directly impacts students with disabilities? Paraprofessionals lack training in evidence-based practices to promote learning. Poor instruction can intensify behavior issues for students with disabilities. Behavior issues often interfere with learning in inclusionary settings (Harrison, Bunford, Evans, & Owens, 2013). Untrained paraprofessionals are more likely to provide poor instruction and poor-quality instructional supports, therefore, providing unaccommodating assistance and are not equipped to handle the behaviors that arise during instruction. The impact of instructional services and supports by paraprofessionals is virtually unknown. However, the Ohio Department of Education evaluates school districts in special education indicators to determine districts’ effectiveness and testing results in educating students with disabilities. From the Ohio Department of Education’s 2015-2016 Special Education Profiles for districts, gathered data from the same five counties.

Areas of need were graduation rates for students with disabilities, reading, and math proficiency scores, and service placement options. More than half of these districts did not meet requirements in students with IEPs passing reading assessments. According to the ODE, to meet these requirements, 24.18% of students with IEPs in any district needed to pass the reading proficiency tests (ODE, 2017). Yet, in this area, only 48% of districts could meet this requirement. More than half of the districts do not have one-fourth of students with disabilities reading on grade level (ODE, 2017).

The correlation between employing less special education teachers and more paraprofessionals have on academic outcomes of students with disabilities. Further study in this area would include a closer examination of instructional and remediation practices for students with disabilities in academic areas by all special education providers. The biggest question remains does instruction provided from an intervention specialist yield higher results for closing the gaps in academics for students with disabilities?

References Carlin, C., Watt, L., Fallow, W., Carlin, E., & Vakil, S. (2013). Caseload ratio study: Final report to the Ohio Department of Education (pp. 1-233, Rep.). Columbus, OH: ODE. Retrieved 103

from: https://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Special-Education/WorkloadCalculator/Caseload-Ratio-Study-Report.pdf.aspx Carter, E. W., O’Rourke, L., Sisco, L. G., Pelsue, D. (2009). Knowledge, responsibilities, and training needs of paraprofessionals in elementary and secondary schools. Remedial and Special Education, 30, 344–359. doi:10.1177/0741932508324399 Deardorff, P., Glasenapp, G., Schalock, M., & Udell, T. (2007). TAPS: An innovative professional development program for paraeducators working in early childhood Special Education. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 26(3), 3-15. doi:10.1177/875687050702600302 Downing, J. E., Ryndak, D. L., & Clark, D. (2000). Paraeducators in inclusive classrooms. Remedial and Special Education, 21(3), 171-181. doi:10.1177/074193250002100308 Etscheidt, S. (2005). Paraprofessional services for students with disabilities: A legal analysis of issues. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(2), 60-80. doi:10.2511/rpsd.30.2.60 Fink, A. (1995). The survey kit. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Fisher, M., & Pleasants, S. L. (2011). Roles, responsibilities, and concerns of paraeducators. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 287-297. doi:10.1177/0741932510397762 Giangreco, M. F., & Broer, S. M. (2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 10-26. doi:10.1177/10883576050200010201 Giangreco, M. F., Suter, J. C., & Hurley, S. M. (2011). Revisiting personnel utilization in inclusion-oriented schools. The Journal of Special Education, 47(2), 121-132. doi:10.1177/0022466911419015 Hamad, C. D., Serna, R. W., Morrison, L., & Fleming, R. (2010). Extending the reach of early intervention training for practitioners: A preliminary investigation of an online curriculum for teaching behavioral intervention knowledge in autism to family and service providers. Infants and Young Children, 23, 195–208.

Harrison, J.R. Bunford, N., Evans, S., & Owens J.S. (2013). Educational Accommodations for Students with Behavioral Challenges. Review of Educational Research, 83(4), 551-597.

Doi:10.3102/0034654313497517.

Howley, Howley, and Tefler. (2010). Special education paraprofessionals in district context.

Mid-Western Educational Researcher, 29(2), 136-165.

IDEA, 20 USC CHAPTER 33, SUBCHAPTER II (2004), Retrieved from http:// uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title20/chapter33/subchapter2&edition Morningstar, M. E., Kurth, J. A., & Johnson, P. E. (2017). Examining national trends in educational placements for students with significant disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 38(1), 3-12. DOI: 10.1177/0741932516678327 National Association of Private Special Education Centers (2016). Continuum of alternative placements and services. Retrieved from http://www.napsec.org/booklet.html#continuum National Center for Education Statistics (2017). The Condition for education: Teacher and pupil teacher ratios Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_clr.asp Ohio Department of Education (2014). Ohio operating standards for children with disabilities.

Retrieved from http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Special104

Education/Federal-and-State-Requirements/Operational-Standards-and-Guidance/2014Ohio-Operating-Standards-for-the-Education-of-Children-with-Disabilities.pdf.aspx Ohio Department of Education (2017). ODE-OEC MEMO #2016-2: Service provider ratio an workload clarification. Retrieved from https://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Special-Education/Service-Provider - Ratioand-Workload-Calculation/2016-2-3-ODE-OEC-Memo-2016-2-Service-Provider-Ratioand-Workload-Clarification.pdf.aspx Ohio Department of Education (2017). Educational aides and student monitor work permits Retrieved from http://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Teaching/Licensure/Apply-forCertificate/License/Educational-Aides-And-Monitors#Aide Ohio Department of Education (2017). FY2016 district profile report Retrieved from http://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Finance-and-Funding/School-Payment-Reports/DistrictProfile-Reports/FY2016-District-Profile-Report Prunty, P. (2018). Special Education Personnel: Who is serving special education students in Ohio? Special Education Research, Policy & Practice 2(1) 176-190.

Qualtrics Survey Platform. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.Qualtrics/com/research/core Suter, J. C., & Giangreco, M. F. (2008). Numbers that count. The Journal of Special Education, 43(2), 81-93. doi: 10.1177/002246690731335 United States. Department of Education. (1987). History of special education in Ohio 1803-1985. SuDocED 1.310/2:331206 United States Department of Education. (2010). Paraprofessionals employed (FTE) to provide special education and related services to children ages 6 through 21 under IDEA, Part B by qualifications and state: Fall 2010 [Data file].

United States Department of Education (2016). Special education paraprofessionals. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/edfacts/eden/non-xml/c112-13-0.doc United States Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics (2016). May 2016 state occupational employment and wage estimates Ohio Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_oh.htm United States Department of Education (2017). Every student succeeds act Retrieved from https://www.ed.gov/esea Vannest, K. J., Hagan-Burke, S., Parker, R. I., & Soares, D. A. (2011). Special education teacher time: Use in four types of programs. The Journal of Educational Research, 104(4), 219230. doi:10.1080/00220671003709898 Waitoller, F. R., & Artiles, A. J. (2013). A decade of professional development research for inclusive education: A critical review and notes for a research program. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 319-356. doi:10.3102/0034654313483905 Woodcock, S., & Hardy, I. (2017). Probing and problematizing teacher professional development for inclusion. International Journal of Educational Research, 83, (2) 43-54. doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2017.02.008 Zigmond, N. (2003). Where should students with disabilities receive special education services? The Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 193-199. doi:10.1177/00224669030370030901 About the Author

105

Dr. Patricia (Trisha) Prunty Ed.D. is an assistant professor at Bowling Green State University's Firelands campus in the Inclusive Early Childhood Education program. Currently, Dr. Prunty serves on two advisory committees at the Ohio Department of Education for exceptional children and is the Vice President of her local school board. She also does volunteer work advocating for children in foster care. Dr. Prunty is married to her husband, Scott, with seven children and three grandchildren.

106

Supporting Campus Navigation Knowledge via 3D Mapping Instruction among College Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Sharon Richter, Ph.D. University of North Carolina at Wilmington Heather Hagan, Ph.D. Cheryl Morgan, Ph.D. Coastal Carolina University Abstract Young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (I/DD) experience unique challenges as they transition to living and learning on a college campus, including independent campus navigation. The purpose of this article is to describe three-dimensional mapping instruction (3DMI), which was designed to improve navigation between campus locations among college students with I/DD. 3DMI included guided walks to identify salient characteristics of campus locations followed by creating 3D models using building bricks to represent campus locations. 3DMI was delivered by prospective special educators and designed to align with the geography standards included in the National Council for the Social Studies C3 Framework.

College students with I/DD gained knowledge of campus resources and navigation skills.

Limitations and suggestions for future research are provided.

Naomi Naomi is excited to begin her experience as a college student who will live, learn, and work on a college campus as part of a post-secondary education program for students with intellectual disabilities. In addition to living in the residence halls, Naomi will to intern part-time at the childcare center on campus and attend college courses related to early childhood education, theater, and volleyball. In her free time, she wants to use the climbing wall in the student recreation center, attend concerts in the performing arts center, swim at the indoor pool, try out the various cafeterias on campus, and simply hang out with other students.

College Inclusion for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities In the last five decades, individuals with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (I/DD) in the United States have largely moved out of institutions and into homes in their communities with varied residential supports, as needed. As a result, many skills that support community inclusion are widely recognized as valuable instructional targets for individuals with I/DD. In addition to enhanced community inclusion and participation, young adults with I/DD now have opportunities to participate fully in college communities. Currently, more than 260 college campuses across the nation provide specialized supports to include young adults with I/DD. Postsecondary educational programs designed to support students with I/DD as college students are currently available in 47 states in the United States (Think College, 2017).

Unique Skills Required for Campus Life Overall, college freshman experience challenges associated with the transition to college life.

According to Mental Health America (2016), a non-profit aimed at improving mental wellness 107

among people with and without mental illness, college freshman commonly encounter problems with organization, time management, budgeting, and interpersonal relationships with roommates.

Additionally, Cawthorn and Cole (2010) conducted a survey of 110 college students with specific learning disabilities and found that only approximately half of respondents received information about how to contact campus services related to their disability. College students with I/DD are likely to encounter these challenges as well as other barriers as they transition to college communities because of the impact of their disability. Some novel challenges for students with intellectual disabilities as they transition to living, learning, and working on college campuses are identified in Table 1.

Table 1 College Domains and Potential Challenges among Students with I/DD College Domain Potential Challenges Daily living skills Maintaining an organized dorm or bedroom Completing laundry Interpersonal skills Risks in use of dating Apps to meet unknown people Living with a roommate Campus rules Lack of knowledge of the university policies associated with excessive absences Little understanding of the impact of underage drinking, as well as personal and legal risks Financial Budgeting available money for semester or academic year Responsibilities Setting priorities with regard to purchasing needs and wants Managing campus meal plan

Campus Navigation Research Familiarizing oneself with the new college campus is important for all college students, so innovative practices to teach campus knowledge and skills to students with I/DD are especially important. Five studies have investigated the impact of interventions to improve pedestrian navigation skills on a college campus among college students with I/DD. First, Mechling and Seid (2011) taught three participants in their early 20s with moderate I/DD to walk to specific locations on a college campus using a handheld electronic device paired with student selfprompting. Similarly, Kelley, Test, and Cooke (2013) delivered picture prompts via an iPod, and successfully increased pedestrian navigation skills among four college students with I/DD. McMahon, Cihak, and Wright (2015) and McMahon, Smith, Cihak, Wright, and Gibbons (2015) each conducted studies to identify the most effective navigation intervention among three supports including a (a) traditional paper map, (b) handheld electronic device to access Google Maps, and (c) handheld electronic device to access an augmented reality application. Results of both studies indicated that the augmented reality was the most successful intervention among the three supports in increasing accurate directional actions. Recently, Smith, Cihak, Kim, McMahon, and Wright (2017) investigated the impact of a handheld device equipped with augmented reality software on wayfinding skills among college students with I/DD. Results 108

indicated that all students improved navigation skills. Overall, an emerging body of research supports the use of handheld electronic devices to navigate college campuses among students with I/DD. Naomi meets peer mentors as a part of the inclusive post-secondary education program. One of the peer mentors, Shay, is a senior majoring in special education who knows all about her college campus and the surrounding community. Although Shay has completed several schoolbased field experiences, her peer mentor role has provided her with additional opportunities to engage with faculty to design functional skill instruction aligned with academic curriculum areas. Further, her special education coursework has prepared her with knowledge that the Individuals with Disabilities Education Acts (1997; 2004) require all K-12 students with disabilities to learn grade-level academic content including literacy, math, science, and social studies. This semester, Shay will be teaching Naomi about campus navigation, which aligns with Social Studies standards related to geography, a subject she expects to teach as a special education teacher.

Three-Dimensional Mapping Instruction (3DMI) 3DMI was designed to teach campus locations and improve campus pedestrian navigation skills among college students with I/DD. It was designed to facilitate geographic understanding through engagement with unfamiliar campus locations. Frequently, students pass campus buildings and landmarks without notice, but these places are crucial in understanding how to navigate the college campus efficiently and effectively. As part of 3DMI, learners with I/DD were provided with guidance to (a) navigate to important campus locations; (b) attend to movement, location, and place relevant to the location; (c) build a model that depicts salient characteristics; and (d) determine the appropriate location for the model on a large campus map.

Finally, 3DMI was delivered by prospective special educators and designed to align with the geography standards included in the National Council for the Social Studies C3 Framework (NCSS C3; 2013).

Social Studies Standards The NCSS C3 Framework (2013) defines four areas of social studies content knowledge expectations for K-12 education, including civics, economics, history, and geography. With regard to the NCSS C3 geography standards, K-12 learners are expected to (a) create maps or other visual representations as a way to better understand a place; (b) communicate their knowledge of a place; (c) use knowledge for further inquiry or decision-making about the place; and (d) demonstrate how humans interact with their environment. The 3DMI was designed to enhance knowledge of geography standards among prospective special education teachers via their instruction to college students with I/DD. Learners’ Development of a Sense of Place One foundational element of geography knowledge is learners’ sense of place, or “the unique physical and human characteristics,” (Barry, n.d.) of an area. Several author groups recommend teaching geography through a small-world approach (e.g., Fertig & Silverman, 2007; Gandy, 2007; Sobel, 1998). Further, Sobel (1998) indicated that teaching mapmaking of small places allows learners opportunities to (a) explore places first-hand and (b) represent the places and related observations. Via mapmaking, students better understand their own interactions with the 109

space around them. Similarly, during initial formal geography instruction about using maps, students should begin working with large maps of small familiar places (Fertig & Silverman, 2007) in order to understand how the maps represent the world around them.

Benefits of 3D Models for Learners Making three-dimensional (3D) models is crucial to geographic understanding and offers benefits beyond two dimensional map-making alone (Fertig & Silverman 2007; Gandy, 2007; Sobel, 1998). Further, Hart’s 1979 work (as cited in Sobel, 1998) found that learners created 3D models that were more accurate and more detailed in comparison to two-dimensional (2D) maps that they created. 3D models also allow learners opportunities to use vocabulary related to location such as “next to,” or “behind” and better determine spatial relationships and relative location (Fertig & Silverman, 2007). Finally, building 3D models is an instructional technique that allows learners an opportunity to explore the environment from varying perspectives which further develops their understanding of the space. For example, models allow learners to view from above in order to develop their understanding of “bird’s eye view” which is used when reading 2D maps.

In summary, making maps and 3D models of the world are critical skills in developing learners’ geographic understanding. Given that (a) knowledge of campus locations and campus navigation among college students with I/DD is critical for safety and independence, and (b) prospective special educators must be prepared to deliver standards-based geography instruction, faculty developed 3DMI to meet both aims.

Delivering 3DMI Instruction Select Locations When designing the instruction it is imperative to consider locations for study. Select locations that are important to inclusion and engagement for learners with I/DD on the college campus. On our campus 3DMI, included campus locations such as the (a) public safety building, (b) building that houses the swimming pool, (c) performing arts theater, and (d) casual restaurant at the campus driving range. These locations were selected because they are popular among students and important to students’ effective use of campus resources. Each location must be photographed in a manner that depicts its salient characteristics. For example, if the building has a prominent stairwell and columns at the front entrance, include those in the photograph.

Gather Instructional Materials In addition to the photograph of each location, instructors will need several commonly available items for each student group. Each student used a digital camera in order to photograph the salient features that indicate movement, location, and place of each building or landmark.

Additionally, each group was provided with building bricks (e.g., Legos) to build a 3D model of the assigned building as well as a base plate on which to build. The base plate successfully used in this implementation was approximately 24” x 24”. Having a sturdy base plate allows the model to be moved onto a large map of the area when completed. This large map can be made on a large canvas such as a shower curtain or drop cloth by projecting the image onto the canvas and tracing it.

110

Design Assessment Materials To assess knowledge of the campus locations, the authors designed assessment questions and materials to determine knowledge of movement, location, and place relevant to the location among learners. Each of four locations were depicted on assessment cards. See Figure 1 for an example assessment card for one location. Next, a data collection sheet was created including five questions: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

What building is this?

Can you think of a reason you might visit this building?

Look at these pictures of places on campus. Which one is closest to the building?

Can you find this building on a campus map?

Can you take me to the building?

Figure 1. Example of an assessment card for one campus location.

Teach, Assess, and Repeat Next, the purpose and implementation of 3DMI was described to the prospective special education teachers who would deliver 3DMI. An Instructional Procedures Checklist which listed the steps for 3DMI for one campus location was also provided to 3DMI instructors. The instructors delivered instruction for each campus location, as described here in six steps, and repeated this sequence for each subsequent campus location targeted for instruction.

Step 1: Provide a description of the 3DMI to learners with I/DD. Instructors should explain that students will learn about important campus locations and introduce the first building by showing a photograph of the building, telling the name of the building, and writing the name on a whiteboard. Additionally, instructors should provide rationale for learning about campus locations, including safety, improved navigation, and independence.

Step 2: Walk with students to the campus location and explore. The instructor should lead the group to the location and verbally identify landmarks and turns along the way. Additionally, instructors should encourage students to take notes about how to get to the location. When the group has arrived at the location, the instructor should verbally state the name of the building and 111

ask learners to identify where they are and how they know. After this initial discussion, the group will walk around the building three times in order to name features of the location, photograph important characteristics, and discuss purposes of the location. The first time, the group will focus on movement. The second time, they will focus on location. Finally, they will consider place. Table 2 provides definitions, questions, and likely responses among learners with I/DD for each of three walks around the building.

Table 2 Instructional Guidance for Purposeful Exploration for Three Locations Questions to Ask Focus Definition Movement How things and people How do people get here? travel from one place to What clues tell us how people and things travel to another and from this building? (e.g.

Sidewalk, parking lot, bridge, bus stop) What is the address?

Location Where a place is as What landmarks or buildings determined by its are nearby and where is the address, latitude and longitude, or relative to building in relationship to that landmark? other places What around here makes this Place Physical and human building stand out? characteristics of a What does the building look location like?

Are there any special features?

What do people do here?

Why might I go to this building?

Response Examples I see a sidewalk that people walk on to enter the building.

Many bikes are in front of the building.

It is next to the cafeteria.

It is close to the golf course.

I see a hill (e.g., natural features).

I see a large staircase (e.g., architectural features) People swim in this place.

Step 3. Review and return. After exploring the location, the instructor should state important information about the location’s movement, location, and place. Next, the instructor will explain how to get back to the classroom while the group walks back to the classroom via the same route. The learners with I/DD should be asked to lead the group back to the classroom via the same route. If the student goes off the route, the instructor will lead the way and verbally identify landmarks and turns as they return.

Step 4. Build a model of the location. In the classroom, the instructor will provide building bricks and a building brick base plate. Instructors should ask learners with I/DD to use the building blocks to construct the location, depicting salient characteristics of the location such as architectural details (e.g., staircase, columns). The instructor will prompt learners with I/DD to use their notes and digital photographs as reminders of the location’s important characteristics.

112

See Figure 2 for side-by-side photographs depicting an actual campus location and the 3D building block depiction.

Figure 2. Photograph of actual location and the building block depiction Step 5. Place the models on the large campus map. Once the 3D models are complete, instructors should invite learners to place them on the appropriate area of the large campus map with verbal support as needed from the instructor. Then, the instructor will orally describe how to walk to that location from the classroom building, naming landmarks and turns, and depicting the route with a dry-erase marker to draw the route from the classroom to the building.

Step 6. Assess students’ knowledge and skills with the 3DMI Assessment. Using 3DMI assessment data collection sheets, the instructor should assess the learners’ knowledge of the location and ability to navigate to the location to determine the impact of instruction and determine next steps for instruction.

Benefits of 3DMI Instruction Learners with I/DD and pre-service special educators engaged in a number of beneficial experiences and outcomes as part of this project. Overall, all learners with I/DD improved in both knowledge of campus locations and navigation to targeted campus locations. Also, learners with I/DD indicated that the instruction was helpful and that they liked learning from a peer mentor.

Delivering 3DMI allowed peer mentors valuable teaching experience as they were the instructors. In addition to public school field-based experiences required of their undergraduate program, the pre-service special educators delivered this instruction under the supervision of special education faculty. They delivered instruction that met student’s individual needs and also aligned with standards-based geography content, which additionally developed their own understanding of academic content. Furthermore, because 3DMI is delivered through small group instruction, instructors gained experience teaching a few learners and addressing individual needs of individual students in the group, a common instructional format among special education teachers.

Discussion 113

The college students with I/DD who participated in the 3DMI were college freshmen who were invited to participate because they were new to the campus community. However, for students with I/DD, although consistent and rich participation in the campus community was an overarching goal among all involved in this study, it was also a threat to the internal validity of this study. Specifically, it is likely that participation in campus experiences would enhance students’ knowledge of campus locations. One way for future researchers to mitigate this threat is to deliver instruction via online modules in the month prior to start of the college experience.

In this way, researchers can diminish the likelihood that participants’ gains are attributable to typical campus engagement. An additional avenue for research would be to teach a strategy to support generalization of navigation to new locations, rather than location-specific content as in the 3DMI. For example, a researcher might teach learners with I/DD to collect information about new locations such as taking a photograph and recording a voice thread including purpose of campus resource and navigation tips. Finally, researchers recommend measuring knowledge of instructional methods among prospective teachers who deliver the intervention prior to and after the intervention.

College inclusion programs provide a unique opportunity to integrate skill development for both prospective special educators and learners with I/DD. By providing 3DMI, college students with I/DD included in this study were more knowledgeable about their campus community and independent in navigating from place to place. Additionally, prospective special educators gained instructional expertise in teaching students with I/DD and knowledge of Social Studies content, which will be valuable as they progress towards careers as professional special educators.

Naomi and Shay both learned valuable skills and knowledge via the 3DMI project. Naomi is more independent and confident in navigating her college campus. Shay has had an opportunity to directly teach geography in a community setting, which is an asset as she transitions from college student to special education teacher.

References Barry, Sharon L. (n.d.). Characteristics of Place. Retrieved from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/characteristics-of-place/ Cawthon, S. W. & Cole, E. V. (2010) Postsecondary students who have a learning disability: Student perspectives on accommodations, access, and obstacles. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 23, 112-128.

Fertig, G., & Silverman, R. (2007). Walking and talking geography: A small-world approach.

Social Studies and the Young Learner, 20(2), 15-18.

Gandy, S. K. (2007). Developmentally appropriate geography. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 20(2), 30-32.

Individuals with Disability Education Act Amendments of 1997. (1997).

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004. (2004) Kelley, K. R., Test, D. W., & Cooke, N. L. (2013). Effects of picture prompts delivered by a video iPod on pedestrian navigation. Exceptional Children, 79, 459-474.

McMahon, D., Cihak, D. F., Wright, R. (2015). Augmented reality as a navigation tool to 114

employment opportunities for postsecondary education students with intellectual disabilities and autism. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 47, 157-172.

McMahon, D., Smith, C., Cihak, D. F., Wright, R. & Gibbons, M. M. (2015). Effects of digital navigation aids on adults with intellectual disabilities: Comparison of paper map, Google Maps, and augmented reality, Journal of Special Education Technology, 30, 157-165.

Mechling, L. & Seid, N. (2011). Use of a hand-held personal digital assistant (PDA) to selfprompt pedestrian travel by young adults with moderate intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 46, 220-237.

Mental Health America (2016). Life on Campus. Retrieved on October 14, 2017 from http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/life-campus.

National Council for the Social Studies. (2013). The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K12 Civics, Economics, Geography, and History. Retrieved on October 14, 2017 from https://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/c3/C3-Framework-for-SocialStudies.pdf Smith, C., Cihak, D. F., Kim, B., McMahon, D. D., & Wright, R. (2017). Examining augmented reality to improve navigation skills in postsecondary students with intellectual disability.

Journal of Special Education Technology, 32, 3-11 Sobel, D. (1998). Mapmaking with Children: Sense of place education for the elementary years.

Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Think College. (2016). Find a college that’s right for you. Retrieved on July 12, 2017 from http://programs.thinkcollege.net/ About the Authors Sharon Richter, Ph. D. is an associate professor of Special Education at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, where she teaches classes in the Adapted Curriculum program. Her research is designed to improve independence among students with significant intellectual disabilities.

Heather Hagan, Ph. D., is an assistant professor at Coastal Carolina University. She specializes in elementary social studies with a focus on the integration of social studies with other content areas and inquiry. Her current research involves examining pre-service teachers’ understanding and use of a variety of tools and methods including peer supports for lesson planning, as well as digital literacy and source evaluation.

Cheryl L. Morgan, Ph. D., is the Director of the LIFE Program in the Spadoni College of Education at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, South Carolina. She focuses on providing inclusive post-secondary education opportunities for young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Much of her research addresses processes and partnerships for implementation of inclusive post-secondary education programs, instructional practices, and peer mentoring and tutoring for adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

115

How are Functional Behavior Assessments (FBA) and Behavior Intervention Plans (BIP) Conducted in Public Schools? A Survey of Educators Andria Young, PhD Terrisa Cortines, Med University of Houston-Victoria Abstract The functional behavior assessment (FBA) and function-based behavior intervention plan (BIP) are integral to the success of students with disabilities experiencing behavioral challenges. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act does not provide specific guidance regarding how an FBA is conducted or how a BIP is developed, nor is their guidance about the level of training one should have. To investigate how schools are conducting FBAs and developing BIPs, a survey was conducted with public school educators. Educators were queried about the types of functional behavior assessments, whether behavior plans are based on an FBA; and the level of training of those conducting FBAs and writing and implementing behavior plans. Results show a variety of methods to conduct an FBA are utilized and behavior intervention plans are based on the results of the FBA. Educators who are integral to the assessment and implementation process are not always adequately trained.

Keywords: functional behavior assessment, behavior intervention plan, IDEA How are Functional Behavior Assessments (FBA) and Behavior Intervention Plans (BIP) Conducted in Public Schools? A Survey of Educators Research has demonstrated that behavior intervention plans are most effective when they are based on findings from functional behavior assessments (Gable, Park & Scott, 2014, O’Neill, Bundock, Kladis & Hawken, 2015). Functional behavior assessment consists of a selection of processes designed to determine the function or purpose of behavior and identify antecedents and other environmental variables affecting behavior. The foundation of FBA lies in the idea that all behavior serves a function or purpose. There are two main functions of behavior; positive reinforcement in the form of access to activities, tangibles, attention or sensory stimulation; and negative reinforcement in the form of escape or avoidance of activities and sensory stimulation (Umbreit, Ferro, Liaupsin & Lane, 2007).

Functional behavior assessments include indirect and direct methods as well as functional analysis. Indirect assessment consists of record reviews, questionnaires, and surveys given to those familiar with the student. Rating scales and checklists are also used. Direct assessment consists of systematic direct observation of the behavior in various contexts, in the form of Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence (ABC) recording to determine the antecedents and the consequences of the behavior. Analysis of the patterns in the direct observation ABC assessment leads to a hypothesis about the function of the behavior and antecedents and other context 116

variables that affect and maintain behavior. Finally, functional analysis includes the experimental manipulation of various conditions to test hypotheses about the function of behavior (O’Neill, Albin, Storey, Horner & Sprague, 2015). A function-based behavior intervention plan (BIP) is developed based on the results of the FBA. The findings from the FBA allow practitioners to identify and alter specific aspects of the environment in which the behavior occurs. A BIP based on a functional behavior assessment will include techniques and strategies to address the challenging behavior by reinforcing replacement behaviors, altering antecedents that trigger behavior and changing the consequences of challenging behavior by withdrawing reinforcement (Umbreit, Ferro, Liaupsin & Lane, 2007).

Within the public schools, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires members of individualized education plan (IEP) teams to consider the use of positive behavior intervention and supports (PBIS) when students’ behavior interferes with their learning or the learning of others (Positive Behavior Intervention & Support, 2019). The PBIS model draws on principles from applied behavior analysis, the normalization and inclusion movement and the person centered approach. Inherent to the PBIS model are concepts and techniques from the field of applied behavior analysis such as fading, shaping, chaining and reinforcement contingencies as well as a focus on the functional behavior assessment (Carr, Dunlap, Horner, Koegel, Turnbull, Sailor, Anderson, Albin, Koegel, Fox, 2002). Within IDEA, funding is made available in the form of professional development funds to provide training to staff in order to promote the use of PBIS in the schools to enhance positive student behavior in the classroom (Positive Behavior Intervention & Support, 2019).

The adoption of PBIS does not however guarantee that an FBA will be completed prior to behavior interventions. The IDEA encourages formal functional behavior assessments and behavior intervention plans (BIP) for students who engage in challenging behavior but they are not required in instances where behavior interferes with learning. Von Ravensberg and Blakely (2015) indicate that the use of FBA is implied when challenging behavior interferes with learning and PBIS is being considered. However, every state has their own policies and most may follow the legal guidelines in IDEA. The decision to conduct FBAs and create BIPs is left up to the IEP team. The formal FBA and BIP are only required when behavior results in a disciplinary change of placement of 10 consecutive or accumulated days. Additionally, IDEA does not define the components of an FBA, the composition of the BIP or the level of training needed by those conducting the FBA and BIP. Districts and schools are left to develop their own processes for conducting FBAs and writing and implementing BIPs (Yell, 2016).

FBA and BIP in the Schools Weber, Killu, Derby and Barretto (2005) set out to determine if state education agencies (SEA) in the United States had developed guidelines and resources for completing FBAs. They developed criteria for standard practice for FBA completion based on the guidance provided by the US Department of Education PBIS model. They surveyed the SEAs in all fifty states and received a response from 48. They found 41 states had guidelines for completing an FBA and seven did not. Direct observation as a means to conduct an FBA was found in the majority of state resources. Steps involved in many of the resources resembled a standardized approach to FBA and intervention that did not take into account the context of behavior. The authors also suggested that even though states had written guidelines and resources there was no guarantee 117

that individual schools and personnel were aware of the guidelines and were using them. The authors also suggested that schools may be conducting FBAs to higher or lower standards than suggested in the resources available.

Blood and Neel (2007) conducted a file review in a school district in the mid-west. They were interested in discovering whether students with Emotional/Behavior Disorders (EBD) had functional behavior assessments as well as behavior intervention plans. For those students with FBAs and BIPs they also evaluated how the documents were developed and used by teachers.

They found that of 46 students in self-contained classrooms 43 had at least one behavioral goal in their IEP. Of those 43 students, 15 had a formal FBA and 14 had a behavior plan. For the 28 students who did not have an FBA, 23 had a behavior plan. They also found that the most prevalent among the BIPs was a stock list of consequences that could be chosen to follow behavior. The BIPs that were present, were not individualized and they did not include antecedent interventions. The authors also found that even those with FBAs did not have behavior plans that were individualized to their unique needs. For the FBAs themselves, assessment data came primarily from teacher interviews, with observation and rating scales used less frequently. Furthermore, teachers were not able to identify the goals in the BIP and often had their own interventions apart from the BIP and FBA on record. Blood and Neel suggested that the FBAs and BIPS were primarily compliance documents lacking individualization and implementation by personnel trained on running the specific plan.

Zirkel (2011b) analyzed state statutes and regulations to determine if regulations surrounding FBA and BIP exceeded what was in IDEA rather than just mirror it. He found 31 states with statutory or regulatory provisions for FBA and BIP that exceeded IDEA regulations; however most were very limited. For example, some states defined the FBA but not the BIP. Zirkel also found that none of the state special education laws required an FBA or BIP when behavior interferes with learning. Similarly, Collins and Zirkel (2017) evaluated what the law says must be done and what empirical evidence says should be done. They found that professional recommendations for conducting an FBA and implementing a BIP are proactive in that an FBA is conducted and behavior intervention implemented when challenging behavior first appears. In contrast, IDEA regulations are reactive, the FBA and BIP are only required when the behavior becomes so severe that it results in a change in placement for the student. Collins and Zirkel also found that professional recommendations based on the empirical research are specific regarding how an FBA and BIP should be completed. The FBA and BIP should be developed by an individualized team of professionals who are knowledgeable about the student in order to give a comprehensive picture of the student’s behavior. Members of the team should also be trained in the processes related to the various methods of FBA and writing and implementing BIPs. The FBA may include indirect and direct methods of behavior assessment and the BIP should be based on the findings of the FBA (Collins & Zirkel, 2017). In contrast, IDEA provides no guidelines for how to conduct FBA and develop BIPs nor does it designate required training for those involved in the process.

In Texas, the state in which the current research is based, there is some guidance regarding how to conduct an FBA and write a BIP using the ABC direct observation method. The Texas Education Agency provides a link to Texas Behavior Support (2019) that among other information, includes links and training related to the PBIS processes. The focus on PBIS is in 118

keeping with what Weber et al (2005) found in their study but as they suggested, does not guarantee that school districts are utilizing the processes or guaranteeing that all educators working with students with disabilities are specifically trained on the procedures. Consequently, the current authors set out to obtain information from those working in the schools regarding the FBA processes and BIP as well as the level of training of those involved. Specifically, the authors sought to discover what forms of FBA are conducted; who conducts FBA; how the behavior intervention plan is developed and whether it is based on the FBA; whether those conducting FBAs are formally trained, whether those running BIPs have training; and who monitors the BIP. Method Participants The authors of the study contacted school district administrators, Education Service Center administrators, professional education organizations, and regional special education cooperative directors in South Texas asking them to send an email with a link to a survey to those educators working with students receiving special education services. The survey was hosted on Survey Monkey an online survey tool. Over two hundred educators responded to the survey with 147 completing most of the survey. Those surveys marked incomplete in Survey Monkey were deleted. For incomplete surveys the respondent typically only answered the first two questions, one providing informed consent and the other indicating their professional role. The remaining 147 surveys were included in the results analysis. Participants were asked to indicate their professional role in the schools. The participants included two regular education teachers, 42 special education teachers, 22 administrators; 12 behavior specialists (not board certified behavior analysts), 3 behavior specialists (board certified behavior analysts), 23 Licensed Specialists in School Psychology (LSSP), and 43 diagnosticians. Fifty nine percent of these worked in elementary schools; 19% worked in middle/intermediate schools and 22% worked in high schools.

Survey The survey was developed using Survey Monkey. Questions in the survey included demographic questions regarding the respondents’ professional position in a school and the grade level of the school in which they were employed. To determine the level of training those tasked with completing FBAs and BIPs have, respondents were asked about who conducts the FBA and develops the BIP from a choice of teacher, licensed specialists in school psychology (LSSP), Behavior Specialist, consulting Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA), diagnostician and school behavior team. Respondents were also asked if behavior specialists were certified as BCBAs, LSSP or doctoral level psychologists.

The respondents were further queried about the type of FBA conducted in the school including indirect, direct (ABC) and functional analysis and how they were conducted. To determine how the behavior intervention plan (BIP) was developed and implemented a variety of questions regarding who writes the plan, the contents of the plan, training on collecting data and running the plan were asked. Finally, since many teachers are responsible for assessing behavior and writing and implementing behavior plans there was a question to determine if teachers have training in FBA and writing the BIP. The survey was developed and then piloted with educators 119

in a master’s level class offered by the first author. After feedback from the educators minor edits were made to the survey prior to sending it out to potential subjects.

Results Professionals conducting FBA Respondents were asked to indicate who conducts the FBA. Twenty percent indicated the behavior specialist; 53% indicated the LSSP; 3% indicated an outside consulting BCBA or psychologist; 13% indicated the school behavior team; 3% indicated the diagnostician; 6% indicated a teacher with training on FBA; and 2% indicated a teacher who has not had training on FBA. The authors were interested in the credential for the job title of behavior specialists.

Respondents were asked if there was a behavior specialist working in their school, and if the behavior specialist had some type of certification or license. Ninety-five responded to this question with 29% indicating the behavior specialist was a Board Certified Behavior Analyst.

Thirteen percent indicated the behavior specialist was engaged in preparations to become a Board Certified Behavior Analyst; and twenty-seven percent indicated the behavior specialist was an LSSP or licensed psychologist. Finally, 31% indicated the behavior specialist was not licensed or certified.

Forms of FBA Survey participants were asked to indicate the activities included in the functional behavior assessment. Activities included indirect assessments in the form of interviews or surveys, direct observation methods using the ABC descriptive approach, functional analysis or a combination of the different methods. Table 1 shows that 46% of the respondents indicated a combination of all three forms of functional behavior assessment were typically completed, with 26% indicating that the indirect and direct ABC method were the methods used for the FBA. Respondents who commented on this question indicated that the type of FBA depended on the type of student behavior. Another respondent stated that the three forms of FBA were used in the best of circumstances, but time was not always on their side, consequently it was not possible to conduct a comprehensive FBA. One respondent indicated that all three forms were completed if they were required as part of the individual evaluation by the LSSP and all other FBAs were conducted as indirect assessments.

Table 1 Types of FBAs conducted (N=143) _______________________________________________________ The functional behavior assessment consists of (choose one)_______________________ indirect assessment in the form of surveys or interviews as the only form of behavior assessment

3%

direct observation of student with collection of Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence (ABC) data to hypothesize function as the only form of behavior assessment

15%

120

functional Analysis-experimental manipulation of consequences to test hypothesized function as the only form of behavior assessment

2%

a combination of indirect assessment and direct observation (ABC)

26%

a combination of direct observation (ABC) and functional analysis

8%

a combination of indirect assessment and functional analysis

0%

a combination of all three forms of functional behavior assessment

46%

___________________________________________________________________________ To further clarify how the FBA is conducted participants were asked whether the indirect assessment included direct interviews or surveys for stake holders to fill out on their own. The purpose behind this question was to discover whether the person responsible for conducting the FBA was getting direct information from those involved with the student in order to ask followup questions. The results in Table 2 indicate that direct interviews as well as surveys for respondents to fill out on their own were typical practice. The exception was for students.

Surveys were not typically given to students to fill out on their own. Comments indicated that students were not given surveys primarily because not all students were able or willing to complete surveys on their own.

Table 2 Types of Indirect FBA (N=144) ______________________________________________________________________________ When an indirect assessment is completed as part of the FBA True False Don’t Know ______________________________________________________________________________ teachers are interviewed directly by the 73% 22% 5% person conducting the FBA parents are interviewed directly by the person conducting the FBA

53%

21%

26%

other school staff are interviewed directly by the person conducting the FBA

58%

23%

19%

the student (subject of the FBA) is interviewed directly by the person conducting the FBA

57%

19%

24%

a survey is given to teachers to fill out on their own

79%

12%

9%

a survey is given to parents to fill out on their own

63%

17%

20%

a survey is given to other school staff to fill out on their own

51%

25%

24%

121

a survey is given to the student to fill out 17% 47% 36% on their own ______________________________________________________________________________ Participants were also asked about time spent conducting a direct observation (ABC) assessment.

The idea behind this question was to discover how the ABC method was approached in terms of how much time was spent observing behavior. This question was especially important because in Texas the direct ABC method is recommended as part of the Texas Behavior Support Initiative (2019). As represented in Table 3, thirty one percent of the respondents indicated that two observation sessions were the norm with 26% indicating that four or more were typical. For those who commented on this question the basic consensus was that the number of observations depended on the student’s behavior. Although one respondent said that 10 consecutive days of data were required for their FBAs. Table 3 Time spent on direct observation (ABC) assessment (N=124) ______________________________________________________________________________ When direct observation Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence (ABC) assessment is implemented as part of the FBA (choose one) ______________________________________________________________________________ 23% It is completed after one observation session It is completed after two observation sessions

31%

It is completed after three observation sessions

19%

It is completed after four or more observation sessions

26%

the direct observation ABC assessment is not completed as part of the FBA 1% ______________________________________________________________________________ Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) The respondents were asked about who was writing the plan and if the plans were based on the result of the FBA. The majority of the respondents (95%) indicated that BIPs are based on the results of the FBA and 86% indicated that those writing the plan also conducted the FBA. The majority of the respondents indicated the behavior plan includes a functionally equivalent replacement behavior for the target behavior as well as a means to address antecedents and consequences of target behaviors. Seventy six percent indicated that there is collaboration with teachers and staff who will run the plans. Approximately 70% of the respondents indicated those responsible for implementing the plan were trained to implement or collect data for the behavior plan. Only 50% indicated that the data were monitored by those who wrote the plan, however nearly eighty percent indicated that plan was modified when necessary based on the data from the plan. See Table 4.

Table 4 122

Development and Implementation of the Behavior Intervention Plan (N=146) _____________________________________________________________________________ A behavior intervention plan True False Don’t Know _____________________________________________________________________________ is written by the person or persons who conducted the FBA

86%

11%

3%

is written based on the results of the FBA

95%

2%

3%

is written in collaboration with teachers and staff who will implement the plan

76%

19%

5%

includes a plan for a functionally equivalent replacement behavior for the target behavior

92%

5%

3%

includes a plan to change the consequences for the target behavior so it is no longer reinforced

82%

6%

12%

includes a plan to alter antecedent stimuli to reduce target behavior and support replacement behavior

83%

6%

11%

is implemented by teachers and staff who have received training on how to implement the plan

68%

19%

13%

is implemented by teachers and staff who have received training on how to collect data for the plan

61%

26%

13%

data are monitored by the person or persons who wrote the plan

50%

36%

14%

is modified when necessary based on data collected on the 79% 10% 11% plan ____________________________________________________________________________ Training for special education teachers Finally, the respondents were asked about the type of training special education teachers received since they are integral to the FBA process and the implementation of behavior plans. Over 50% indicated special education teachers were not adequately trained on conducting FBAs and writing intervention plans. However, over 50% indicated that special education teachers received training regarding data collection. See Table 5.

Table 5 Special Education Teacher Training (N=145) ______________________________________________________________________________ Special Education teachers in your district True False Don’t Know 123

______________________________________________________________________________ receive training on conducting functional behavior assessments.

23%

56%

21%

receive training on writing behavior intervention plans.

28%

55%

17%

receive training on collecting behavioral data.

59%

28%

13%

____________________________________________________________________________ Discussion The results of the study represent some promising practices. The majority of the respondents indicated that all three methods of FBA (Indirect, Direct ABC and Functional Analysis) were completed or a combination of the indirect and ABC method was completed. Fewer than 20% indicated that only one method was used to conduct an FBA with the majority of those indicating the direct ABC assessment was used alone. The research literature regarding the validity and reliability of various FBA procedures conducted in applied settings such as indirect assessment, direct systematic (ABC) observations and functional analysis has resulted in a mix of outcomes.

Results of indirect assessment alone, may not be consistent with results found when direct observation and functional analysis are completed. The use of a combination of FBA procedures is recommended to enhance confidence in assessment (Gable et al 2014). The survey responses indicate that there are efforts to include a variety of procedures in the functional behavior assessment and not rely on just one method. The combination of FBA assessments used may be attributed to the personnel who are conducting FBAs. Since the majority of the FBAs are conducted by LSSPs followed by behavior specialists and board certified behavior analysts most of which have formal training in behavior assessment, it is not surprising that a combination of methods are used in keeping with professional practice and empirical research in applied behavior analysis.

At the surface, the FBA processes appear to be quite exhaustive given the respondents’ indication that three forms of FBA are used. However, looking deeper at the responses regarding the number of observations for the direct ABC method, it seems that method may not typically be very thorough. The majority of the respondents indicated the direct observation ABC method was completed after two observation sessions. With a little less than half indicating the observations were complete after three or more observation sessions. In order to get a clear idea of patterns of behavior it is recommended that multiple observations are conducted over time and across contexts. For an initial FBA O’Neill, Albin, Storey, Horner & Sprague (2015) recommend observing 15-20 occurrences over two to five days. Of course, this may vary depending on the nature of the behavior. The finding in this study may be the result of LSSPs and behavior specialists with enormous caseloads having difficulty finding the time to do multiple ABC direct observations on one student.

124

According to over half the respondents, special education teachers were not adequately trained to conduct FBAs or write behavior intervention plans. However, when respondents were asked if teachers had training on running behavior intervention plans the majority indicated they did.

These findings are of concern. Given the important role special education teachers play in the completion of an FBA and development and implementation of the behavior intervention plan, the training they receive should be extensive. Even if teachers do not conduct an FBA or write a BIP themselves they should be knowledgeable about the processes so they can effectively contribute to them. Teachers are the professionals that have the most contact with the students and the most knowledge about the behavior in the schools. Teachers who understand functions of behavior and how an FBA is conducted can better participate in the FBA whether they are responding to an interview or gathering information for a direct ABC functional assessment.

Additionally, teachers should be consulted when BIPs are developed so the BIP can be written so it will integrate within the context of the teachers’ classroom routine (Young and Martinez, 2016). Furthermore, the social validity of the FBAs and the behavior plans must be considered from the perspective of the teachers. In this case, social validity refers to the teachers’ perception of the acceptability and effectiveness of the FBA and BIP procedures (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2007). Social validity can be enhanced when the teachers are knowledgeable about the concepts associated with FBA and BIP; have a voice in how and when to conduct an FBA; and they are invited to participate in the development of the BIP. When teachers are not part of the FBA process or the development of the BIP they may not find these procedures acceptable and may resist implementing them.

Regarding the behavior intervention plan, the majority indicated that the BIP is based on the functional behavior assessment and the function of the target behavior is addressed in the form of a replacement behavior. Additionally, antecedents and consequences were also modified. These results are in keeping with professional practice related to writing behavior intervention plans based on functional behavior assessment results (Umbreit et al, 2007). One area of concern was that only half of the respondents indicated that the data from the BIP was monitored by the person who wrote the BIP, however nearly 80% indicated that the plan was modified based on the data in the plan. These results beg the question of who is modifying the plans, if not those who wrote the plans. Typically, in professional practice, a behavior analyst will be responsible for conducting the FBA and developing and monitoring the plan. All changes are made based on data and they are made by the individual responsible for the plan, namely the one who developed the plan. When plans are written by one person and then monitored and amended by others the plan can potentially lose focus and consistency across its various iterations. As a result, the plan may not be as effective and confounding factors may be introduced as others modify the plan.

Conclusions The results from this study illustrate that given the lack of specific direction in IDEA regarding how to conduct FBA and develop behavior plans, and given the lack of information about the level of training required, these practices will vary from school to school and they may potentially vary within a school. As discussed in the introduction IDEA encourages the use of PBIS when behavior interferes with learning, but applying techniques based on PBIS does not guarantee an FBA will be completed or behavior intervention will be based on an FBA. Nor does it guarantee those processes will be thorough and conducted by well trained personnel. The 125

results of this study suggest that there may be a need for more specific language in IDEA regarding the FBA and BIP processes; or at the very least, state education agencies could provide more guidance regarding a standard of practice and minimal competency when school personnel conduct an FBA and write and implement behavior intervention plans. Having consistency in practice and implementation is not only important for when the FBA and BIP are required by law, but it is also important when educators are utilizing FBA to create behavior intervention for students whose behavior interferes with learning. If schools do not have standards of practice that are consistent with professional research in the field, they may potentially conduct substandard FBAs and create less than effective behavior intervention plans, thus potentially denying students their right to a free and appropriate public education.

Limitations and Future Research The sample is small and may not be representative of the various rural and urban areas in the state. A larger sample representing more schools and areas around Texas would provide a deeper look at what is happening in the schools. Additionally, a question regarding when an FBA is conducted was not included in the survey. This information is important to determine if there is a difference in how FBAs are conducted when the FBA is required by law or if they are conducted as a result of challenging behavior that interferes with student learning. Some comments to this survey indicated an FBA is more thorough when it is part of an initial evaluation or a manifestation determination. Future research will include questions to determine the FBA process when the FBA is legally required by IDEA and when the FBA is completed because behavior is interfering with learning.

References Blood, E. & Neel, R.S. (2007). From FBA to implementation: A look at what is actually being delivered. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(4), 67-80.

Carr, E.G. (1994). Emerging themes in the functional analysis of problem behavior, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 393-399.

Carr, E. G., Dunlap, G., Horner, R.H., Koegel, R. L., Turnbull, A., Sailor, W., et al. (2002).

Positive behavior support: Evolution of an applied science, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4(1), 4-16.

Collins, L.W. & Zirkel, P.A. (2017). Functional behavior assessments and behavior intervention plans: Legal requirements and professional recommendations, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19(3), 180-190.

Cooper, J.C., Heron, T. E. & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis. (2nd edition).

New Jersey: Pearson.

Gable, R. A., Park, K. L., & Scott, T. M. (2014). Functional behavior assessment and students at risk for or with emotional disabilities: Current issues and considerations. Education and Treatment of Children, 37(1), 111-135.

O’Neill, R. E., Bundock, K., Kladis, K., & Hawken, L.S. (2015). Acceptability of functional behavior assessment procedures to special educators and school psychologists.

Behavioral Disorders, 41(1), 51-66.

O’Neill, R.E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R.W., Sprague, J. R., Storey, K., & Newton, J.S. (2015).

Functional assessment and program development for problem behavior (3rd Edition).

California: Brooks/Cole.

126

Positive Behavior Interventions & Support (2019). PBIS and the law, Retrieved March 11, 2019, from https://www.pbis.org/school/pbis-and-the-law Texas Behavior Support (2019). PBIS, Retrieved March 13, 2019, from https://www.txbehaviorsupport.org/pbis Texas Behavior Support Initiative (2019), Retrieved March 13, 2019, from https://www.txbehaviorsupport.org/tbsi Umbreit, J., Ferro, J., Liaupsin, C. J., & Lane, K. L. (2007). Functional behavior assessment and function-based intervention. New Jersey: Pearson.

Von Ravensberg, H., & Blakely, A. (2015). When to use functional behavioral assessment? A state-by-state analysis of the law. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. www.pbis.org.

Weber, K.P., Killu, K. Derby, K.M. & Barretto, A. (2005). The status of functional behavior assessment (FBA): Adherence to standard practice in FBA methodology. Psychology in the Schools, 42(7), 737-744.

Yell, M.L. (2016). The law and special education (4th edition). Pearson Young, A. & Martinez, R. (2016). Teachers’ explanations for challenging behavior in the classroom: What do teachers know about functional behavior assessment? National Teacher Education Journal, 9(1), 39-46.

Zirkel, P.A. (2011). State special education laws for functional behavioral assessment and behavior intervention plans. Behavioral Disorders, 36(4), 262-278.

About the Authors Andria Young is a professor of Special Education at the University of Houston – Victoria and a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA). Dr. Young’s research focus is on teacher training regarding functional behavior assessment (FBA) and implementation of FBA in the schools.

Terrisa Cortines has a Master’s of Education in Special Education. She is an Adjunct Professor at the University of Houston Victoria and a Registered Professional Educational Diagnostician.

For the past 22 years, Mrs. Cortines has worked in the public school setting; four years as a paraprofessional, three years as a special education teacher, and fifteen years as an educational diagnostician.

127

Evaluation and Practices of Mobile Applications as an Assistive Technology for Students with Dyslexia: A Systematic Review Nicole Bell, BS, OTS Julia VanderMolen, Ph.D, CHES Grand Valley State University Abstract The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate the benefits of mobile applications as an assistive technology (AT) for individuals with dyslexia. The researchers in the present review aimed to identify specific practices that have been shown to improve the reading engagement and comprehension of individuals with dyslexia. To develop an understanding of the existing literature pertaining to the benefits of mobile applications as an AT for students with dyslexia, a systematic review was conducted. The following databases were searched for the review (a) ERIC, (b) PubMed, (c) CINAHL Complete, and (d) Web of Science. After reviewing the titles and abstracts and removing duplicates, 83 articles were excluded on the basis that they did not meet the inclusion criteria. Thirteen studies were deemed relevant to the topic based on the titles and abstracts. More research is needed for mobile applications as an AT and its implications in education.

Keywords: dyslexia, assistive technology, mobile applications, occupational therapy Evaluation and Practices of Mobile Applications as an Assistive Technology for Students with Dyslexia: A Systematic Review In the United States’, the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) (2004), Assistive Technologies (ATs) are broadly defined as “any technology, which enhances the performance of individuals with disabilities” (Haq & Elwaris, 2013, p. 880). ATs can be devices, items, equipment, or product systems that increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of students with disabilities (IDEA, 2004; Goodrich & Garza, 2015; Parette, Crowley, and Wojcik, 2007). AT can reduce the effects of specific disabilities and allow students to focus their ability on the particular demands of academic tasks of importance, such as reading and literacy. Reading is not merely an activity for gaining knowledge. It is a transactional activity in which people engage, in the role of either student, employee, or employer, and as a leisure participant (Rosenblatt, 2013). The reader engages with a task object, the reading medium—for example, a book, iPad, or food nutrition label.

The use of mobile technology has become increasingly popular for reading activities in the past decade, resulting in a higher potential and demand for the implementation of mobile applications. Mobile applications allow for convenient transportation and access to activities in daily life at school, home, and in the community (Reid, 2013). Applications can be personalized to account for an individual’s needs (Dawson, 2018). Additionally, mobile apps as AT can provide children with dyslexia with assistance in reading literacy and comprehension (Reid, 128

2013). According to Grajo & Candler (2014), a reading specialist, a classroom teacher, and a speech and language pathologist is trained in addressing the skill of reading. However, occupational therapy (OT) as it applies to reading intervention goes beyond developing reading skills. An OT's approach places a focus on increasing engagement in reading as an occupation.

OT practitioners and special education teachers have the potential to enhance reading skills and comprehension skills of children through the use of AT. Furthermore, Vernock, McCormack, and Chard (2011) explored the Irish OT's view on the benefits of electronic assistive technology (EAT). While the need for further AT training includes computer applications, little research has been undertaken in the area of knowledge in the use of EAT by OTs. If an OT is to deliver occupation-focus and person-centered services, they will, at the very least, need to know what is available, how to access and use EAT with a client (Vernock, McCormack, & Chard, 2011; Orton, 2008). Additionally, training of OTs regarding the implementation of AT is necessary and can be a direct benefit for children with dyslexia.

The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate the practices of mobile applications as an assistive technology for individuals with dyslexia. Based on knowledge from previous studies, the researchers in the present review aimed to identify specific practices shown to improve the reading engagement and comprehension of individuals with dyslexia using AT. Methods To develop an understanding of the existing literature pertaining to the benefits of mobile applications as an assistive technology for students with dyslexia, a systematic review was conducted by two researchers. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses (PRISMA) Group provides crucial guidelines for the development, reporting, and replicability of systematic review methodology. The authors followed the guidelines established in the PRISMA statement, including adherence to the 27-item checklist and recommendations for transparent reporting (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, & the PRISMA Group, 2009). A total of 13 articles were identified as relevant to the topic.

Criteria for Considering Studies To be included in this search, the studies had to meet three criteria to be included in the review: (a) studies published between 2011 and 2018, (b) studies used mobile applications and assistive technology, and (c) studies utilizing assistive technology to help individuals with dyslexia. The authors restricted the review to studies conducted from 2011 to avoid redundancy. The following databases and sites were searched for this review (a) ERIC, (b) PubMed, and (c) CINAHL Complete. A summary of the article exclusions with reasoning is presented in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) diagram (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009) in Figure 1.

129

Figure 1. Study flow diagram for review of studies pertaining to assistive technology and dyslexia.

From: Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med 6(7): e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097 Search Strategy A three-step search strategy was used. First, an initial search of two databases was completed to identify keywords, such as assistive technology and dyslexia. Second, four health and educationrelated databases were systematically searched using the keywords. These were (a) ERIC, (b) PubMed, and (c) CINAHL Complete. Last, the reference lists of all identified reports and articles were hand-searched for additional studies. Figure 2 provides an example search strategy detail from PubMed.

130

("dyslexia"[MeSH Terms] OR "dyslexia"[All Fields]) AND ("self-help devices"[MeSH Terms] OR ("self-help"[All Fields] AND "devices"[All Fields]) OR "self-help devices"[All Fields] OR ("assistive"[All Fields] AND "technology"[All Fields]) OR "assistive technology"[All Fields]) AND ("loattrfull text"[sb] AND ("2011/01/01"[PDAT] : "2018/12/31"[PDAT])) Figure 2. Search Detail from PubMed Data Collection Data were extracted from the papers in the review using the standardized data extraction tool from the PRISMA. The extracted data included specific details about the participants’ demographics and the sample size, study methods, interventions, number and reasons for withdrawals and dropouts, and any outcomes of significance with regard to the aim of the review.

Results The search identified 96 potentially relevant articles. After reviewing the titles and abstracts and removing duplicates, 83 were excluded on the basis that they did not meet the inclusion criteria.

The remaining 13 studies were deemed relevant to the topic based on the titles and abstracts. The full-text of each peer-reviewed article was then checked, and a decision was made to include the articles for data analysis or exclude the articles from the next stage of assessment.

General Assistive Technology and Dyslexia Research has revealed that “AT may mediate reading challenges by providing options for accessing information and customizing the display of information” (Dawson, Antonenko, & Lane, 2018, p. 3). Authors Dawson, Antonenko, and Lane (2018) addressed assistive technologies used to aid students with dyslexia. Assistive technology for students with dyslexia mediates the challenges these individuals encounter, such as reading, writing, and spelling.

Furthermore, students with skill deficiencies in reading can benefit from AT such as text-tospeech software and e-readers. Text-to-speech software is useful for students with weak decoding skills, low levels of fluency, and active listening comprehension skills. Whereas, ereaders allow for customization and interaction of information in a personalized setting. Thus, allowing for customization of features such as fonts, font size, highlighting, spacing, listening speeds, and page displays have proven to influence positively and enhance a student’s reading comprehension skills. Additionally, Dawson, Antonenko, and Lane (2018) go on to mention three specific applications to assist students with dyslexia, DyslexiaHelp, SpedApps, and Tech Finder. DyslexiaHelp provides an extensive list of applications for students, parents, and teachers. SpedApps is a website with a focus on special education and Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Math (STEAM) education. Finally, Tech Finder, a search tool for technology apps for learning disabilities and issues, allows searches for specific challenge areas such as reading, writing, organization, and grade level.

To further substantiate the research conducted by Dawson, Antonenko, and Lane (2018), authors Reid, Strnadová, and Cumming (2013) discuss the variety of needs met by mobile technology for students with dyslexia, including reading, writing, and studying skills. Material presented in a multisensory learning fashion is optimal for students with dyslexia. This allows each program the 131

potential to be personalized to meet the needs of each student and their preferred learning environment. Successful outcomes are most often impaired from the inability to take responsibility and implement assistive technology. It is essential for parents, teachers, and [other professionals involved] to be familiar with these resources to provide up-to-date tools to assist individuals with dyslexia.

Harper, Kurtzworth-Keen, and Marable (2017) assessed the impact of the LiveScribe Pen (LSP) regarding curriculum accessibility, increasing academic independence, and promoting academic study skills. The LSP features include a microphone to enhance the audio recording, playback speaker, camera, and internal memory that stores handwritten notes, audio, and images. The words can sync to iOS and Android devices, providing convenient access to material in any environment. Interviews reveal that the LSP provided increased access to curriculum material, such as a text-to-speech feature for assigned readings. With access to more resources via LSP [wording] the student showed increased independence completing homework and expanded academic study skills including “better time management, enhanced audio skills, and deepened the connection between reading and writing� (p. 2479). AT also provides non-academic gains such as ownership of learning, increased happiness, and elevated aspirations, all of which contribute to learning. Table 1 summarizes the main findings.

Table 1 Summary of articles addressing general assistive technology and dyslexia.

Level of Evidence/ Study Design/ Participants/ Intervention Inclusion and Control Outcome Author/Year Criteria Groups Measures N/A Level V Dawson, K., Antonenko, N/A N=N/A P., Lane, H., & Zhu, J. (2018) doi: 10.1177/00400599187940 27 Reid, G., StrnadovĂĄ, I., & Cumming, T. (2013) doi: 10.1111/14713802.12013

Level V N=N/A

Harper. K. A., Kurtzworth-Keen, K., & Marable, M. A. (2017) doi: 10.1007/s10639-0169555-0

Level IV N=1 (4th grade student in NY with dyslexia)

Results N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

A 4th grade student with dyslexia used the LiveScribe Pen for one year.

Document the impact of the LSP regarding (a) curriculum accessibility, (b) how it can be

The LSP increased curriculum accessibility for the student, independence

132

implemented as an audio tool to increase academic success and independence, (c) how it could be used as a tool for promoting study skills

while studying as well as academic study skills.

Additionally, time management, auditory skills, and a better understanding of reading and writing were gained by the student.

Mobile Applications as Assistive Technology Skiada, Soroniata, Gardeli, and Zissis (2014) developed and analyzed the effectiveness of a mobile application, EasyLexia, for students with learning difficulties. The authors stated that mlearning application for mobile devices have the ability to “motivate the children and engage their attention while focusing on solving problems, improving their memory, their reading, and writing skills” (p. 228). Children were able to become familiarized with the layout of the app and utilize its features independently. This leads to an overall increase in performance over a short time. Additionally, efficiency allowed children to learn the functionality and use it independently, decreasing the need for assistance.

Another study pertaining to the use of mobile applications as assistive technology by Fälth and Svensson (2015) studied whether Prizmo, a mobile application, for the iPhone/iPad app could assist students with dyslexia. Prizmo is a multifunctional program and has several primary functions, including scanning text and synthesizing speech. Additional features allow students to adjust the reading speed, listen to, and save scanned text and highlight words. Fälth and Svensson (2015) found that the ease of accessibility and use show a positive effect on students with learning disabilities (LD). AT tools, such as Prizmo, can be implemented in a child's environment to improve reading and writing skills for those with LD. Lindeblad, Nilsson, Gustafson, and Svensson, also (2016) investigated whether AT on smartphones and tablets have a transfer effect on students with reading difficulties after one year of intervention. AT provided students with a platform to level the playing field compared to students without LD. Reading development was significantly improved in children with impaired reading abilities. Through the use of various mobile applications such as Prizmo, Easy Writer, SayHi, iTranslate, Dragon Search, and Voice Reader Web, showed an overall increase in motivation and independent learning as a result. The study concluded that the aspects of a reading-impaired person’s forthcoming development, such as self-confidence, motivation to learn, relief of feelings of stigmatization and family relations, can be affected by using AT” (p.

9).

133

Alghabban, Salama, and Altalhi (2017) conducted a study in which measured the effectiveness of a multimodal m-learning application for students with dyslexia. Through the use of multimodal interfaces, users access information through a variety of interaction styles, including visual and auditory features such as graphics and text. It was concluded that, “it is important to adopt multimodality functions (combined with m-learning, cloud-based technology) that examine not only the needs of learners with dyslexia but also their preferred learning styles” (p.

161). Furthermore, the study revealed an increase of 30% increase in reading skills after using the multimodal tool for three months, in the third graders. Additionally, the app adapts content based on individual student profile and learning preference, leading to increased motivation and reading interest.

Tariq and Latif (2016) created an app for Android-powered devices that assist students with dyslexia. Evaluation of this app measured supportability, compatibility, learnability, efficiency, errors, and user satisfaction. These factors contribute to the learning environment and progress rates. The application revealed a high potential for a cost-effective, efficient assistant technology resource.

Haq and Elwaris (2013) discuss the importance of the implementation and application of AT in early education. Additionally, the authors provided guidelines for selecting the appropriate AT for each student with a learning disability (LD). Furthermore, Haq and Elwaris (2013) discussed the importance of reading, as it is an essential component of social survival by serving as a gateway to success in both academics and life. Reading literacy and comprehension skills contribute to increased independence in academics, as well as the quality of life. Therefore, selection of AT should be based on the needs, environment, task, and tools, specific to the student such as the Students, Environments, Tasks, and Tools ( SETT framework)–Additionally, selection of AT should be a collaborative effort of parents, teachers, rehabilitation specialists such as an OT, in order to enhance academic achievement. AT creates an increase in accessibility to learning, as well as increased motivation and productivity. Likewise, it empowers students to learn independently and successfully.

Madeira, Silva, Marcelino, and Ferreira (2015) aimed to create an application for Android and combine it with learning to help Portuguese students with challenges associated with dyslexia.

The International Dyslexia Association states that, “overcoming dyslexia, and other learning difficulties, can be achieved through multisensory re-education, which involves the use of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile pathways simultaneously to enhance memory and written language learning” (p. 419). Specific features, which can be modified to help dyslexic students, include font style, formatting, writing style, and layout. The app used in this study, Dyseggxia, is a mobile game aimed at enhancing spelling skills. This app, as well as early intervention, has been shown to alleviate/overcome reading difficulties. Results show that applications provide students with dyslexia the tool to perform at a similar rate to those of regular readers.

Additionally, AT minimizes feelings of exclusion, rejection, harassment, abandonment, and failure. Table 2 provides a summary of the articles addressing mobile applications as assistive technology.

Table 2 Summary of articles addressing Mobile Applications as Assistive Technology 134

Level of Evidence/ Study Design/ Participants/ Inclusion Author/Year Criteria Level II Skiada, R., N=10 school age Soroniati, E., children Gardeli, A., & Zissis, D. (2014) Intervention doi:10.1016/j.pr group, n=5 ocs.2014.02.025 Control group, n=5

Fälth, L., & Svensson, I. (2015) doi: 10.20472/TE.20 15.3.1.001

Level II N=12 (7 fifth graders, 5 ninth graders; 3 fifth grade teachers, 2 ninth grade teachers)

Intervention and Control Groups Students were given a mobile phone and encouraged to use the application, EasyLexia, during class.

Over a 5-6 week period, students used Prizmo in class for 30-40 minutes, 4-6 times a week.

Students used the following features: photograph the text, prune the text, adjust the reading speed, and listen to and 135

Outcome Measures Evaluate the usability of the application as well as the strengths and weaknesses it contributes to each users learning experience in the classroom.

Investigate if Prizmo's accessibility allows smartphones and tablets the potential to serve as AT for students with a dyslexic profile.

Results Identified increase in performance over a short period of using application.

Students showed preference in using a mobile application during class tasks and tests.

Mobile application promoted concentration and focus on the task.

"Preliminary results show the promising prospects mobile learning holds in such contexts."

Results show improved word decoding for students with a dyslexic profile, contributing to keeping up with language skills to enhance students' reading skills. Prizmo increased access to text, focus on content,

Lindeblad, E., Nilsson, S., Gustafson, S., & Svensson, I. (2016) http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/174831 07.2016.125311 6

Level III N=35 (n=23 boys, n= girls; between 10 and 12 years old; 4th-6th grade)

Alghabban, W. G., Salama, R. M., & Altalhi, A. H. (2017) https://doi.org/1 0.1016/j.chb.201 7.05.014

Level V

save the scanned text.

Students used the apps, Prizmo, East Writer, SayHi, iTranslate, Dragon Search, and Voice Reader Web to train and compensate for reading deficiencies for 5 weeks. These applications were used 4 times a week for 40-60 minutes each time. An average number of sessions was 33.

Interviewed and gave a survey to Students with students, parents dyslexia in and teachers. elementary Students used schools, parents learning tool that helps with and teachers reading skills.

136

usability, and accessibility.

To investigate The reading the effects of impaired group these showed transfer applications as effects on AT on reading reading ability. development in "The children children with with reading reading difficulties difficulties after showed a similar one year of reading intervention. progression rate as the norm group" (p. 8).

"The smartphone and tablet applications showed "accessible qualities and easy features," as well as increasing motivation and independence (p.

9) To determine the gaps remaining The proposed in the learning multimodal field of dyslexia interface specify the needs improves of the user and reading skills (before to identify mean=57.57; reading skills after students with mean=82.86). dyslexia find The app allows a most difficult. student to modify features to their specific learning preferences, contributing to increased scores.

Level III N=20 dyslexic children 5 years https://www.jsto old and under r.org/stable/jedu ctechsoci.19.4.1 51

Tariq, R., & Latif, S. (2016)

Madeira, J., Silva, C., Marcelino, L., & Ferreira, P. (2015)

Level II N=8 students ages 10-12 in fifth grade Intervention Group, n=4 https://doi.org/1 dyslexic students 0.1016/j.procs.2 Control Group, 015.08.535 n=4 nondyslexic students

Children used an application on the Galaxy SIII tablet for two weeks.

Explored whether the app could foster learning and improve handwriting in children with dyslexia and "to better understand strengths/weakn esses of performance during learning process while acknowledging learning efforts to improve learning"

89% showed improvements in score and achieved learning objectives after five lessons. The app proved to show usability, accessibility, and presentation of learning content.

"Preliminary results showed promising effectiveness for advancing handwriting skills."

Students tested application for 1 week, on separate days, with four 15minute rounds.

- usability, functionality and relevance of application - performance of each group (gathered device id, date, time, question, correct answers randomized, incorrect answers randomized, words (answers) selected by the player, total time spent with that question, average time spent between each tap, time for each tap and score.

The use of AT showed the students with dyslexia were able to achieve results similar to readers without reading difficulty in 5th grade.

137

Mobile Application as AT in OT Practice Roll, Lavey, Nye, and Johnson (2018) reviewed two case studies to highlight the need for the integration of assistive technology intervention in OT curriculum. The Assistive Technology Resources Center (ATCR) at Colorado State University (CSU) implemented the Human Activity Assistive Technology (HAAT) model into the OT curriculum to enhance student awareness of AT. The HAAT model is a holistic approach, taking into account numerous components of a student’s case. A student's case includes personal factors, meaningful occupations, and the environment in which the individual participates in the occupation. This holistic perspective allows students to “identify appropriate AT that can optimize student performance and participation in higher education” (p. 28). Through the use of the HAAT model at the ATRC, OT’s can provide education, research, and services for implementing AT. As the number of students with disabilities continues to rise, the demand for AT does as well.

Verdonck, McCormack, and Chard (2011) analyzed/surveyed Irish occupational therapists’ knowledge and use of Electronic Assistive Technology (EAT). Results showed a significant deficiency in the understanding of benefits, competence, and roles AT plays in OT practice.

When asked if OTs should be able to assess and prescribe for EAT, 84% responded with yes.

However, only 34% of participants signified that they were able to evaluate for EAT. Training OTs in up-to-date knowledge of assistive technology will contribute to the OT's ability to meet the occupational needs of each client. Implementation of AT can have a significant effect on the quality of life, self-esteem, leisure, careers, and relationships. Results from this study support the need for more general AT training for OTs to familiarize and keep up to date with technological advances. Table 3 provides a summary of the peer-reviewed articles addressing the mobile application as AT in OT practice.

Table 3 Summary of articles addressing Mobile Application as AT in OT Practice Level of Evidence/ Study Design/ Participants/ Intervention Inclusion and Control Outcome Measures Author/Year Groups Results Criteria Occupational Evaluated Both students Roll, M. C., Level IV therapy students performance on showed positive Lavey, S., Nye, N= 2 adults gave two mCOPM and outcomes and E., & Johnson, students with satisfaction with were successful W. (2018) disabilities AT. in their assistive education. technology to Occupational help with their therapy education. These practitioners tools assisted have the with reading, potential to writing, and note contribute to taking. disability 138

services on campus.

Verdonck, M., McCormack, C., & Chard, G. (2011) doi: 10.4276/030802 211X130210487 23291

Level V N= 56 Irish Community Occupational Therapists

Irish Community Occupational Therapists attended a conference titled 'Electronic assistive technology for persons with physical and sensory disabilities in their home.'

Attendees were asked to complete an EAT (Electronic Assistive Technology) survey after the seminar

Survey questions were asked to indicate Irish OT's knowledge on the benefits of EAT, their competence/kno wledge of EAT, and their role in prescribing EAT.

98% of respondents agreed EAT improved independence and 89% agreed it enhances selfesteem. 84% believe OTs should be able to assess for EAT, while only 34% reported being able to do so.

Lastly, 70% of OT attendees indicated that they thought it was a role of specialized OT and 63% agreed it was a role of community OTs.

Discussion The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate and summarize peer-reviewed literature about the benefits of mobile applications as an assistive technology for individuals with dyslexia and to address the need for training of OTs in this area. A priority goal was to examine the advantages of implementing mobile applications as a modality for helping an individual with dyslexia to better understand health information and to increase health literacy. Researchers in the present review concluded that the utilization of mobile applications prove to be beneficial to an individual and helps to alleviate challenges associated with dyslexia.

Though the study sought to adhere to the recommendation of the PRISMA guidelines, the study is not without limitations. While a variety of studies were reviewed, each came with limitations to consider. A majority of studies were conducted in countries outside the United States and not written in English; therefore, they are exempt from this review. It is recommended that the review is updated to reflect the most current advances in the use of mobile applications as a modality to help mediate difficulties accompanied by dyslexia. Moreover, the literature search process also revealed that far more work on the subject is needed. Particularly concerning the rich knowledge and experiences with the use of mobile applications to assist individuals with dyslexia.

139

The promising outcomes of this systematic review revealed that the use of mobile applications as an AT tool for students with dyslexia is warranted. Likewise, the evidence suggests benefits in reading literacy and comprehension through the use of these applications. The recent growth in mobile technologies has introduced a variety of new learning interventions and have shown promising outcomes for the learning needs by accommodating the individual needs of students with dyslexia. Although proven beneficial, research and production of applications are needed to expand on available resources. Tariq and Latif (2016) recommend there should be a focus on developing resources to a broader audience, as well as on a variety of compatible mobile devices.

Creating applications compatible on both phones and tablets, as well as for both Android and iOS users, will allow increased access to the necessary tools to address the challenges associated with dyslexia. Additionally, Madeira et al., (2015) suggest continuing to develop mobile applications that implement multisensory features to accommodate individual needs. Including multisensory interventions will enhance the usability of the app and increase the number of learning methods available. Furthermore, Reid et al., (2013) address the importance of professional development regarding mobile applications as assistive technology. Increasing health professionals’ training on the latest assistive technology will help the best needs of their clients.

Findings from the reviewed articles provide evidence about the benefits of mobile applications as an assistive technology tool to improve overall reading performance in individuals with dyslexia.

While further research is needed, the articles used in this review laid a foundation for the beneficial outcomes mobile applications can provide pertaining to improved reading engagement and comprehension. Additionally, the need for training of health care providers in the most recent assistive technology is crucial to providing individuals with the most optimal care. Lastly, more research is needed regarding mobile applications as AT and their implications in occupational therapy.

Implications for Practice In order to understand the implications of mobile applications and occupational therapy intervention, more research is needed. Additional randomized control clinical trials and observational studies of high quality are also needed. Longitudinal studies must be conducted to understand the long-term effects of such tools on reading literacy and comprehension from a holistic approach. Furthermore, more research should build on existing explorations of integrating universal design and universal design for learning. Larger sample sizes should be explored as well. The assessment and evaluation of specific training of AT for OTs have the potential to approach reading as an occupation in order to enhance both performance and participation for individuals with dyslexia.

References AbleData. (2015). AT for students with learning disabilities in elementary schools. AbleData Tools and Technologies to Enhance Life. Retrieved from https://abledata.acl.gov/sites/default/files/AT%20For%20Students%20with%20Learning %20Disabilities%20in%20Elementary%20School_PDF.pdf 140

Alghabban, W. G., Salama, R. M., & Altalhi, A. H. (2017). Mobile cloud computing: An effective multimodal interface tool for students with dyslexia. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 160-166. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.05.014 Dawson, K., Antonenko, P., Lane, H., & Zhu, J. (2019). Assistive technologies to support students with dyslexia. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 51(3), 226-239. doi:10.1177/0040059918794027 Fälth, L., & Svensson, I. (2015). An app as ‘reading glasses’ – A study of the interaction between individual and assistive technology for students with a dyslexic profile.

International Journal of Teaching and Education, 3(1), 1-12. doi: 10.20472/TE.2015.3.1.001 Grajo, L., & Candler, C. (2014). Children with reading difficulties: How occupational therapy can help. OT Practice, 19(13), 16.

Gitlow, L., & Kinney, A. (2014). Project Lenny: Service learning to expand assistive technology training. OT Practice, 19(1), 9-13. doi: 10.7138/otp.2014.1901f1 Goodrich, B., & Garza, E. (2015). The role of occupational therapy in providing assistive technology devices and services: Fact sheet. Retrieved from https://www.aota.org/~/media/Corporate/Files/AboutOT/Professionals/WhatIsOT/RDP/F acts/AT-fact-sheet.pdf Harper, K. A., Kurtzworth-Keen, K., & Marable, M. A. (2017). Assistive technology for students with learning disabilities: A glimpse of the livescribe pen and its impact on homework completion. Education and Information Technologies, 22(5), 2471-2483. doi:10.1007/s10639-016-9555-0 Haq, F., & Elwaris, H. (2013). Using assistive technology to enhance the learning of basic literacy skills for students with learning disabilities. International Journal of Social Sciences & Education, 3(4), 880-885.

Lindeblad, E., Nilsson, S., Gustafson, S., Svensson, I., Linnéuniversitetet, Institutionen för psykologi (PSY), & Fakulteten för Hälso- och livsvetenskap (FHL). (2017). Assistive technology as reading interventions for children with reading impairments with a oneyear follow-up. Disability and Rehabilitation, 12(7), 713.

Madeira, J., Silva, C., Marcelino, L., & Ferreira, P. (2015). Assistive mobile applications for dyslexia. Procedia Computer Science, 64, 417-424. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2015.08.535 Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D., PRISMA Grp, & PRISMA Group. (2009).

Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264-W64.

Parette, H. P., Crowley, E. P., & Wojcik, B. W. (2007). Reducing overload in students with learning and behavioral disorders: The role of assistive technology. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 4(1), 1-12. Retrieved January 31, 2019 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/55642/.

Reid, G., Strnadová, I., & Cumming, T. (2013). Expanding horizons for students with dyslexia in the 21st century: Universal design and mobile technology. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 13(3), 175-181. doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12013 Roll, M. C., Lavey, S., Nye, E., & Johnson, W. (2018). Occupational therapy and assistive technology: Unique contributions to accessibility in higher education. OT Practice Magazine. 26-28

141

Skiada, R., Soroniati, E., Gardeli, A., & Zissis, D. (2014). EasyLexia: A mobile application for children with learning difficulties. Procedia Computer Science, 27, 218-228. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2014.02.025 Tariq, R., & Latif, S. (2016). A mobile application to improve learning performance of dyslexic children with writing difficulties. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(4), 151-166.

Veater, H. M., Plester, B., & Wood, C. (2011). Use of text message abbreviations and literacy skills in children with dyslexia. Dyslexia, 17(1), 65-71. doi:10.1002/dys.406 Verdonck, M., McCormack, C., & Chard, G. (2011). Irish occupational therapists’ views of electronic assistive technology. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 75(4), 185-190.

DOI: 10.4276/030802211X13021048723291 About the Authors Nicole Bell is a full-time graduate student in the Occupational Therapy and Science Program at Grand Valley State University in Michigan. Her research interests include assistive technology, dyslexia and sleep in older adults.

Dr. Julia VanderMolen is an Assistant Professor of Public Health with Grand Valley State University in Michigan. The contribution of her research is to examine the benefits of assistive technology, UD and UDL. Additionally, Dr. VanderMolen’s recent work has included the benefits of 3D printing for the visually impaired, the concept of universal design and learning and the use of mobile technology to assist individuals with disabilities.

142

Behavior Management in the Early Childhood Classroom: Preschool Teachers’ Self-Reported Usage Prevention and Intervention Strategies Marla J. Lohmann, PhD Colorado Christian University Abstract Behavior challenges, including aggression, are prevalent in today’s classrooms and have a direct impact on children’s learning and development. Many behavior challenges begin in early childhood years, but the use of evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies can reduce the long-term implications of early childhood aggression. While the research tells us that prevention and intervention strategies successfully reduce challenging behaviors, there is little indication of the frequency with which preschool teachers are utilizing these strategies. In order to better understand the implementation of these practices, a survey of teachers’ self-reported usage was conducted. The results of that exploration, as well as further directions in teacher training and research, are described in this article.

Behavior Management in the Early Childhood Classroom: Preschool Teachers’ Self-Reported Usage Prevention and Intervention Strategies In today’s classroom, behavior problems, including aggression, are prevalent and serve as a barrier to learning for many students. According to the Centers for Disease Control (2018), six percent of children skip at least one day of school each year as a result of feeling unsafe due to violence in the school setting. Being absent from school leads to lower academic achievement (Gottfried & Kirksey, 2017) and a reduced likelihood of high school graduation (Smerillo et al., 2018). It is clear that aggression in schools must be addressed and research indicates that challenging behaviors beginning in preschool often continue throughout the school years (Carbonneau et al., 2016; Huesmann et al., 2009). Over fifty percent of young children exhibiting aggression will later be diagnosed with a behavior disorder (Kendziora, 2004).

However, the use of evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies in the early childhood years can reduce the likelihood of later aggression (Brotman et al., 2008; Fung, 2018).

The literature presents a variety of strategies for the prevention and intervention of challenging behaviors in the preschool classroom, including (a) collaborating with families (Booster et al., 2016; Dunlap et al. 2006; Fox et al., 2003; Powell et al., 2006), (b) explicitly teaching classroom routines and expectations (Carter & Ellis, 2016; Hester et al., 2009; Stormont et al., 2008), (c) rewarding positive behaviors and using praise statements (Bellone et al., 2014; Fox et al., 2003; Fox & Little, 2001; Fullerton et al., 2009; Tiano et al., 2005), (d) making adaptations to the classroom environment (Heo et al., 2014; Isbell & Exelby, 2001; Sharma et al., 2008), (e) using pre-correction statements (Blair et al., 2000; Haydon & Kroeger, 2016; Stormont et al., 2007), (f) redirecting (Evertson et al., 2000; Fox & Little, 2001), (g) teaching replacement behaviors and new skills (Dunlap et al., 2006; Fox et al., 2003; LeGray et al., 2013), (h) teaching social and emotional strategies (Fox et al., 2003; Heo et al., 2014; Malinauskaite, 2010; Pahl & Barrett, 2007), and (i) using functional behavioral assessments (Dunlap et al., 2006; Fox et al., 2003; Heo et al., 2014; Scott et al., 2007). Although the literature documents the effectiveness of prevention 143

and intervention strategies, it is unclear the extent to which teachers are utilizing these practices.

To gain a better understanding of preschool teachers’ implementation of evidence-based behavior management strategies, an online survey was sent to public preschool teachers in selected school districts in Texas. Specifically, the researchers looked to answer two questions through the present study: (a) to what extent do preschool teachers self-report using evidencebased prevention and intervention strategies to manage aggressive behaviors in their classrooms and (b) what teacher variables (age, gender, type of teaching position, type of teaching certificate, school type, type of school district, number of students in class and school, level of education, and years of teaching experience) are most salient in predicting the self-reported usage of evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies for the management of aggressive behaviors in the preschool classroom?

Methods Study Participants Subjects were drawn from a pool of public preschool teachers in the Head Start, Preschool Program for Children with Disabilities (PPCD), and prekindergarten programs (Pre-K) in Texas.

Selected Texas Education Service Centers (ESCs) aided in the facilitation of participant recruitment by emailing the invitation to participate to all preschool teachers in their respective regions. One hundred and three teachers participated in the study. Table 1 outlines the demographic characteristics of study participants. For some questions, not all study participants responded, thus the total number of responses for a given question did not always equal 103.

Table 1 Demographic Information of Study Participants Demographic Characteristics Age 36-50 Age Age 20-35 39 (37%) 32 (31.1%) Gender Female Male 102 (99%) 1 (1%) Type of Pre-K PPCD Classroom classroom 30 (30%) 49 (49%) State Fully state Provisionally Certification certified certified 77 (78%) 8 (8%) Highest degree Bachelor’s Master’s earned 69 (74%) 23 (25%) Years of teaching experience

0 – 2 years 24 (23.3%)

3 – 5 years 22 (21.4%)

Age 51-65 30 (29.1%) Head Start 21 (21%) No state certification 14 (14%) Educational Specialist 4 (4%) 6 – 8 years 14 (13.6%)

9 – 10 years 7 (6.8%)

11+ years 34 (33%)

In addition to demographic data regarding the teachers’ qualifications, specific information about the school and districts in which they worked was also collected. Study participants taught in either an elementary school (48%, N=49) or a separate Pre-K center (52%, N=54); all 144

participants were employed by a public school district. Additional information about the schools can be found in Table 2.

Table 2 School and Class Demographic Information Demographic Characteristic Categories Type of setting Size of school

Class size

Number of students with IEP

Number of students with Emotional Disturbance as primary disability

Students with FBA

Students with BIP

Rural Suburban Urban Fewer than 50 students 50 – 100 students 101-150 students More than 150 students Fewer than 5 students 5 – 8 students 9 – 12 students 13 – 16 students 17 – 20 students More than 20 students 0 students 1 – 2 students 3 – 4 students 5 – 6 students 7 – 9 students 10 or more students O students

Number & Percentage of Respondents N = 49 (49%) N = 29 (29%) N = 22 (22%) N =8 (8%) N = 12 (12%) N = 8 (8%) N = 73 (75%) N = 11 (10.7%) N = 10 (9.7%) N = 14 (13.6%) N = 11 (10.7%) N = 27 (26.2%) N = 30 (29%) N = 32 (34%) N = 14 (13.6%) N = 14 (13.6%) N = 16 (15.5%) N = 10 (9.7%) N = 8 (7.8%) N = 72 (70%)

1 student 2 students 3 students 4 students 7 students 0 students 1 student 3 students 4 students 5 students 6 students 0 students 1 student 2 students 4 students 5 students

N = 9 (8.7%) N = 2 (1.9%) N = 5 (2.9%) N = 4 (3.9%) N = 1 (1%) N = 66 (64%) N = 12 (11.7%) N = 2 (1.9%) N = 3 (2.9%) N = 2 (1.9%) N = 1 (1%) N = 65 (63%) N = 20 (1.9%) N = 3 (2.9%) N = 5 (4.9%) N = 1 (1%) 145

7 students

N = 1 (1%)

As noted in Tables 1 and 2, the majority of study participants were fully certified female teachers who taught in inclusive Pre-K classrooms and had obtained a bachelor’s degree. Most of the study participants taught in rural schools. The most common responses to class demographics were that teachers had two or fewer students on an IEP and no students identified with an emotional disturbance. In addition, most classrooms did not include students with a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) or Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP).

Research Instrument To address the research questions, an online survey was developed and pilot tested. The survey asked demographic questions, as well as teachers’ experiences with aggression in the classroom.

In addition, the survey asked about teachers’ use of positive behavior support systems for prevention and intervention.

Data Collection Procedures Following Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, the invitation to participate in the study, informed consent, and a link to the online survey were sent to the preschool directors in four Texas ESCs. The information was then forwarded via email to the study participants by the preschool staff at the ESCs. Potential study participants had the opportunity to participate in the survey or to decline participation. After three weeks, the researcher asked the ESC preschool directors to send an email reminding potential respondents of the invitation to participate in the study.

Data Analysis To analyze the data collected, a multiple linear regression analysis was used. A multiple linear regression analysis is a technique that utilizes several predictor variables in the prediction of one criterion variable (Hinkle et al., 2003). To determine the correlation between demographic characteristics and teacher usage of evidence-based interventions, the researchers ran an analysis of variance (ANOVA), a technique to analyze one independent variable that has multiple levels (Hinkle et al., 2003). In the present study, the independent variable was the teachers’ usage of the evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies. A significance level of .05 was used for all statistical analyses.

Results Respondents were asked to report the frequency with which they utilize evidence-based interventions in their classrooms (see Table 3). The respondents were given the options of “never”, “monthly”, “weekly”, and “daily.” Both the frequency function and a multiple linear regression were used to analyze these data. The majority of respondents reported collaborating with parents and families on a weekly basis and engaging in other interventions daily. The only intervention that the teachers reported using infrequently was FBAs. Table 3 Teacher’s Self-Reported Usage of Evidence-Based Interventions Intervention N Mode 146

Median

Collaborating with families Teaching expectations Rewards and praise Adaptations to classroom Pre-correction Redirection Teaching new skills Teaching social strategies Using FBA

87

Weekly

Weekly

89 89 88

Daily Daily Daily

Daily Daily Daily

86 87 89 89

Daily Daily Daily Daily

Daily Daily Daily Daily

87

Never

Monthly

A regression analysis (Table 4) was used to further analyze the teachers’ use of evidence-based interventions. The beta coefficients indicate there is no significant correlation between the teachers’ demographic variables and teachers’ likelihood of using evidence-based interventions.

The coefficients are closer to 0 than to 1, indicating a weak relationship between the variables, which means we cannot predict teachers’ likelihood of using evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies based upon their demographic data.

Table 4 Regression Analysis of Teacher Usage of Evidence-Based Interventions Intervention R R Sum of Df Mean square Squares Square Collaborating with .624 .389 35.786 13 2.753 families Teaching ----- ------------- ----expectations Rewards and praise .622 .387 38.065 13 2.928 Adaptations to .650 .422 44.194 13 3.400 classroom Pre-correction .611 .373 41.071 13 3.159 Redirection .665 .442 43.367 13 3.336 Teaching new ----- ------------- ----skills Teaching social ----- ------------- ----strategies Using FBA .508 .258 32.782 13 2.522

F

Significance

2.943

.002

-----

-----

3.011 3.425

.002 .001

2.700 3.653 -----

.005 .000 -----

-----

-----

1.635

.100

The researchers had hypothesized that there would be a correlation between teacher demographics and teachers’ self-reported usage of evidence-based intervention. However, there was no statistically significant correlation between teacher variables (teacher age, type of teaching position, type of teaching certification, level of education and number of years of teaching experience) and intervention usage. The significance levels for the relationship between teacher age and the interventions appear to be significantly correlated; however, further analysis using the beta test results indicates that it is not significant.

147

The study also examined the relationship between school variables (school type, school district location, and the number of students in the school) and the use of evidence-based intervention and prevention strategies; the results indicate no statistically significant correlations between school variables and intervention usage. Finally, the study investigated the relationship between class variables and teachers’ self-reported use of evidence-based interventions. The initial results indicate statistically significant correlations between the number of students in the class and the use of each intervention. However, further analysis of the beta coefficients of the regression analysis indicate that the correlations are not actually significant.

Discussion The data revealed that there are no statistically significant correlations between any of the teacher or school demographic variables and the teachers’ likelihood of using evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies; however, preschool teachers report engaging in effective behavior management strategies on a regular basis. Low variance in teachers’ demographics could have resulted in the lack of a statistically significant correlation between the demographics and the use of effective strategies (Ravid, 2011).

Implications for Teacher Preparation Having an understanding of preschool teachers’ usage of evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies may guide teacher training for both pre-service and practicing early childhood educators. The data accrued in the present study has some implications for future preschool personnel preparation. The data indicate that teachers are utilizing best practices in behavior management, which supports the current teacher training efforts in early childhood education. Based on the results of the present investigation, state certified preschool teachers indicate they are implementing evidence-based behavior interventions in their classrooms. These data signify that either pre-service or in-service teacher trainings are effectively meeting the needs of preschool teachers regarding learning evidence-based behavior management strategies.

It is important to note that the results of the present study are contrary to other research, which has indicated that teachers are unprepared for behavior management (Freeman et al., 2013). This discrepancy may be due to the self-report nature of the present study.

In addition, the data suggest that preschool teachers may not fully understand the terms “functional behavior assessment” and “behavior intervention plan” as evidenced by respondents who responded that no students in their classrooms had a FBA, but also reported having students with a BIP. Through examining individual survey responses, the researchers noted that some survey respondents reported students with a FBA, but no BIP, and other respondents noted students with a BIP, but no FBA. Teacher educators must ensure that all future teachers, both general and special educators, are familiar with special education terms and their proper usage.

Future Research There is much potential for future research in the area of teacher preparedness for managing aggression and teacher usage of evidence-based interventions. The first recommendation is to conduct a similar study on a larger scale, using teachers from different parts of the country. This information may help determine if the results are representative of teachers outside of the state of 148

Texas. Additionally, a replication study with uncertified teachers in private childcare settings is also recommended. The results of that study will identify if there is a difference between preschool teachers with and without certification, as well as whether teaching in a public school versus a private center impacts teachers’ usage of evidence-based interventions. A third recommendation is to conduct a qualitative study, using either interviews or focus groups. More specific data about how and when preschool teachers are using interventions can likely be gleaned from teachers through direct interaction with them. A final recommendation is to conduct a qualitative analysis of observations in preschool classrooms to track data on teachers’ actual implementation of behavior management strategies. Direct observation in teachers’ classrooms may more accurately determine the frequency of intervention usage.

Limitations A few limitations of this study should be noted. First, survey respondents were primarily state certified teachers and were working in the public school system; this is not representative of all preschool teachers. Second, the survey relies on self-reporting, which may not provide an accurate assessment of the level of implementation. Finally, the sample size was small and may not provide a good representation of all teachers. Despite the limitations, the present study provides valuable information that may support preparation for both pre-service and in-service preschool teachers.

References Bellone, K. Dufrene, B., Tingstrom, D., Olmi, D., & Barry, C. (2014). Relative efficacy of behavioral interventions in preschool children attending Head Start. Journal of Behavioral Education, 23(3), 378-400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-014-9196-6 Blair, K.C., Umbreit, J., & Eck, S. (2000). Analysis of multiple variables related to a young child’s aggressive behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(1), 33-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/109830070000200105 Booster, G.D., Mautone, J.A., Nissley-Tsiopinis, J., VanDyke, D., & Power, T.J. (2016).

Reductions in negative parenting practices mediate the effect of a family-school intervention for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Review, 45(2), 192-208. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR45-2.192-208 Brotman, L.M., Gouley, K.K., Huang, K., Rosenfelt, A., O’Neal, C., Klein, R.G., & Shrout, P. (2008). Preventive intervention for preschoolers at high risk for antisocial behavior: Long-term effects on child physical aggression and parenting practices. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(2), 386-396. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410801955813 Carbonneau, R., Boivin, M., Brendgen, M., Nagin, D., Tremblay, R., & Tremblay, R.E. (2016).

Comorbid development of disruptive behaviors from age 1 ½ to 5 years in a population birth-cohort and association with school adjustment in first grade. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(4), 677-690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0072-1 Carter, M.A., & Ellis, C. (2016). Work ‘with’ me: Learning prosocial behaviors. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 41(4), 106-114.

Centers for Disease Control. (2018). School violence: Data & statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence/schoolviolence/data_stats.html.

Dunlap, G., Strain, P.S., Fox, L., Carta, J.J., Conroy, M., Smith, BJ., Kern, L., Hemmeter, M. L.,

149

Timm, M. A., McCart, A., Sailor, W., Markey, U., Markey, D. J., Lardieri, S., & Sowell, C. (2006). Prevention and intervention with young children’s challenging behavior: Perspectives regarding current knowledge. Behavioral Disorders, 32(1), 29-45.

Evertson, C., Emmer, E.T., & Worsham, M.E. (2000). Classroom management for elementary teachers (5th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.

Fox, L., Dunlap, G., Hemmeter, M.L., Joseph, G.E., & Strain, P.S. (2003). The Teaching Pyramid: A model for supporting social competence and preventing challenging behavior in young children. Young Children, 6(4), 48-52.

Fox, L., & Little, N. (2001). Starting early: Developing school-wide behavior support in a community preschool. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3(4), 251-254.

Freeman, J., Simonsen, B., Briere, D.E., & MacSuga-Gage, A.S. (2013). Pre-service teacher training in classroom management. Teacher Education and Special Education, 37(2), 106-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406413507002 Fullerton, E., Conroy, M., Correa, V. (2009). Early childhood teachers’ use of specific praise statements with young children at risk for behavioral disorders. Behavior Disorders, 34(3), 118-135.

Fung, A.L.C. (2018). Reducing reactive aggression in schoolchildren through child, parent, and conjoint parent-child group interventions: An efficacy study of longitudinal outcomes.

Family Process, 57(3), 594-612. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12323 Gottfried, M.A., & Kirksey, J.J. (2017). “When” students miss school: The role of timing of absenteeism on students’ test performance. Educational Researcher, 46(3), 119-130. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X17703945 Haydon, T., & Kroeger, S.D. (2016). Active supervision, precorrection, and explicit timing: A high school case study on classroom behavior. Preventing School Failure, 60(1), 70-78. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2014.977213 Heo, K.H., Cheatham, G.A., Hemmeter, M.L., & Noh, J. (2014). Korean early childhood educators’ perceptions of importance and implementation of strategies to address young children’s social-emotional competence. Journal of Early Intervention, 36(1), 49-66. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815114557280 Hester, P.P., Hendrickson, J.M., & Gable, R.A. (2009). Forty years later- The value of praise, ignoring, and rules for preschoolers at risk for behavior disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 32(4), 513-535.

Hinkle, D.E., Wiersma, W., & Jurs, S.G. (2003). Applied statistics for the behavioral sciences (5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company.

Huesmann, L.R., Dubow, E.F., & Boxer, P. (2009). Continuity of aggression from childhood to early adulthood as a predictor of life outcomes: Implications for the adolescent-limited and life-course-persistent models. Aggressive Behavior, 35(2), 136-149. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20300 Isbell, R., & Exelby, B. (2001). Early learning environments that work. Gryphon House.

Kendziora, K. (2004). Early intervention for emotional and behavioral disorders. In R.B. Rutherford, M.M. Quinn, & S.R. Mathur (Eds.), Handbook of research in emotional and behavioral disorders (pp. 327-351). Guilford Press.

LeGray, M., Dufrene, B., Mercer, S., Olmi, D., & Sterling, H. (2013). Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior in center-based classrooms: Evaluation of pre-teaching the alternative behavior. Journal of Behavioral Education, 22(2), 85-102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-013-9170-8 150

Malinauskaite, A. (2010). Prevention of behaviour disorders by stimulating social and emotional competences in pre-school age children: The German experience. Special Education, 22(1), 160-169.

Pahl, K.M., & Barrett, P.M. (2007). The development of social-emotional competence in preschool-aged children: An introduction to the Fun FRIENDS program. Australian Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 17(1), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.1375/ajgc.17.1.81 Powell, D., Dunlap, G., & Fox, L. (2006). Prevention and intervention for the challenging behaviors of toddlers and preschoolers. Infants and Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Special Care Practices, 19, 25-35.

Ravid, R. (2011). Practical statistics for educators (4th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

Scott, T.M., Park, K.L., Swain-Bradway, J., & Landers, E. (2007). Positive behavior support in the classroom: Facilitating behaviorally inclusive learning environments. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3(2), 223-235.

Sharma, R.N., Singh, S., & Geromette, J. (2008). Positive behavior support strategies for young children with severe disruptive behavior. The Journal of the International Association of Special Education, 9(1), 117-123.

Smerillo, N.E., Reynolds, A.J., Temple, J.A., & Ou, S. (2018). Chronic absence, eight-grade achievement, and high school attainment in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Journal of School Psychology, 67, 163-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.11.001 Stormont, M., Lewis, T.J., Beckner, R., & Johnson, N.W. (2008). Implementing positive behavior support systems in early childhood and elementary settings. Corwin Press.

Stormont, M.A., Smith, S.C., & Lewis, T.J. (2007). Teacher implementation of precorrection and praise statements in Head Start classrooms as a component of a program-wide system of positive behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 16, 280-290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-007-9040-3 Tiano, J. D., Fortson, B. L., McNeil, C. B., & Humphreys, L. A. (2005). Managing classroom behavior of head start children using response cost and token economy procedures.

Journal of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention, 2, 28-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0100298 About the Author Marla J. Lohmann, PhD is an Associate Professor of Special Education at Colorado Christian University and teaches in the fully online master’s of Education in Special Education program.

Dr. Lohmann’s research interests include classroom management in preschool and kindergarten classrooms, best practices in the inclusive preschool classroom, Universal Design for Learning in the higher education classroom, and best practices in online teacher preparation.

151

Author Guidelines AUTHOR GUIDELINES SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE welcome manuscript submissions at any time. Authors are completely responsible for the factual accuracy of their contributions. Authors are responsible for obtaining permission to quote lengthy excerpts from previously-published articles.

Authors will be notified of the receipt of their manuscripts within seven (7) business days of their receipt by the Chief Editor and can expect to receive the recommendation of the review process within 90 days.

All submissions must have a cover letter indicating that the manuscript has not been published, or is not being considered for publication anywhere else, in whole or in substantial part. On the cover letter it will be noted to the authors to be sure to include their name, address, email address, and phone number.

Typescript should conform to the following:             

Method of Manuscript Submission: Send Manuscripts should be submitted electronically with the words " Submission to SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE" in the subject line Language: English Document: Microsoft Word Font: Times New Roman or Arial Size of Font: 12 Point Page Limit: None Margins: 1” on all sides Title of paper: Top of page Capitals, bold, and centered Author(s) Name: Centered under title of paper Format: Manuscripts should follow the guidelines of the most recent edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Figures and Tables: All should be integrated in the typescript Abstract: An abstract of no more than 150 words should accompany each submission References: Insert all references cited in the paper submitted on a Reference Page

152

Publishing Process

PUBLISHING PROCESS The following are the steps through which a submitted article moves from initial submission to actual publication in SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE. 1. The article is submitted in Word format by the author(s) to the Editor, Dr. George Giuliani, at George.A.Giuliani@hofstra.edu 2. The Editor then sends an email to the author stating that the article has been received and a final answer will be given within 90 days of receipt.

3. The article is then placed in an online folder that holds all articles up for review.

4. The article is then removed of all author names, affiliations, etc. so that when it is sent out for review, it is a blind review and no peer reviewers have any indication who wrote the article or from what university it was submitted.

5. An email is then sent by the Editor to all members of the Editorial Board with a request to review an article. Only the title of the article is given.

6. Peer reviewers then email the Editor as to their interest in reviewing the specific article. A minimum of three (3) blind reviewers is selected. An email to each blind reviewer is then sent reviewing the peer review process.

7. The peer reviewers have 60 days from receipt to return a recommendation to the Editor.

8. Once all of the reviews have been obtained, the Editor determines whether to:    

Accept, with or without editorial revisions Invite the authors to revise their manuscript to address specific concerns before a final decision is reached Reject, but indicate to the authors that further work might justify a resubmission Reject outright, typically on grounds of specialist interest, lack of novelty, insufficient conceptual advance or major technical and/or interpretational problems

9. An email with the decision (and rationale for it) is then sent to the author(s).

10. Before publication, the article is then passed through three functions: copy editing (grammar, references), proofing (typographical errors, spelling errors), and layout (creating a Microsoft Word and PDF version of the article).

153

Copyright and Reprint Rights SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE is published by Hofstra University.

SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE retains copyright of all original materials, however, the author(s) retains the right to use, after publication in the journal, all or part of the contribution in a modified form as part of any subsequent publication.

If the author(s) use the materials in a subsequent publication, whether in whole or part, SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE must be acknowledged as the original publisher of the article.

All other requests for use or re-publication in whole or part, should be addressed to the Editor of SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH, POLICY & PRACTICE.

154