Supporting Campus Navigation Knowledge via 3D Mapping Instruction among College Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Sharon Richter, Heather Hagan, and Cheryl Morgan

Young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (I/DD) experience unique challenges as they transition to living and learning on a college campus, including independent campus navigation. The purpose of this article is to describe three-dimensional mapping instruction (3DMI), which was designed to improve navigation between campus locations among college students with I/DD. 3DMI included guided walks to identify salient characteristics of campus locations followed by creating 3D models using building bricks to represent campus locations. 3DMI was delivered by prospective special educators and designed to align with the geography standards included in the National Council for the Social Studies C3 Framework. College students with I/DD gained knowledge of campus resources and navigation skills. Limitations and suggestions for future research are provided.

Naomi is excited to begin her experience as a college student who will live, learn, and work on a college campus as part of a post-secondary education program for students with intellectual disabilities. In addition to living in the residence halls, Naomi will to intern part-time at the childcare center on campus and attend college courses related to early childhood education, theater, and volleyball. In her free time, she wants to use the climbing wall in the student recreation center, attend concerts in the performing arts center, swim at the indoor pool, try out the various cafeterias on campus, and simply hang out with other students.

In the last five decades, individuals with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (I/DD) in the United States have largely moved out of institutions and into homes in their communities with varied residential supports, as needed. As a result, many skills that support community inclusion are widely recognized as valuable instructional targets for individuals with I/DD. In addition to enhanced community inclusion and participation, young adults with I/DD now have opportunities to participate fully in college communities. Currently, more than 260 college campuses across the nation provide specialized supports to include young adults with I/DD. Postsecondary educational programs designed to support students with I/DD as college students are currently available in 47 states in the United States (Think College, 2017).

Overall, college freshman experience challenges associated with the transition to college life. According to Mental Health America (2016), a non-profit aimed at improving mental wellness 107

among people with and without mental illness, college freshman commonly encounter problems with organization, time management, budgeting, and interpersonal relationships with roommates. Additionally, Cawthorn and Cole (2010) conducted a survey of 110 college students with specific learning disabilities and found that only approximately half of respondents received information about how to contact campus services related to their disability. College students with I/DD are likely to encounter these challenges as well as other barriers as they transition to college communities because of the impact of their disability. Some novel challenges for students with intellectual disabilities as they transition to living, learning, and working on college campuses are identified in Table 1.

Table 1 College Domains and Potential Challenges among Students with I/DD College Domain Potential Challenges Daily living skills Maintaining an organized dorm or bedroom Completing laundry Interpersonal skills Risks in use of dating Apps to meet unknown people Living with a roommate Campus rules Lack of knowledge of the university policies associated with excessive absences Little understanding of the impact of underage drinking, as well as personal and legal risks Financial Budgeting available money for semester or academic year Responsibilities Setting priorities with regard to purchasing needs and wants Managing campus meal plan

Familiarizing oneself with the new college campus is important for all college students, so innovative practices to teach campus knowledge and skills to students with I/DD are especially important. Five studies have investigated the impact of interventions to improve pedestrian navigation skills on a college campus among college students with I/DD. First, Mechling and Seid (2011) taught three participants in their early 20s with moderate I/DD to walk to specific locations on a college campus using a handheld electronic device paired with student selfprompting. Similarly, Kelley, Test, and Cooke (2013) delivered picture prompts via an iPod, and successfully increased pedestrian navigation skills among four college students with I/DD.

McMahon, Cihak, and Wright (2015) and McMahon, Smith, Cihak, Wright, and Gibbons (2015) each conducted studies to identify the most effective navigation intervention among three supports including a (a) traditional paper map, (b) handheld electronic device to access Google Maps, and (c) handheld electronic device to access an augmented reality application. Results of both studies indicated that the augmented reality was the most successful intervention among the three supports in increasing accurate directional actions. Recently, Smith, Cihak, Kim, McMahon, and Wright (2017) investigated the impact of a handheld device equipped with augmented reality software on wayfinding skills among college students with I/DD. Results 108

indicated that all students improved navigation skills. Overall, an emerging body of research supports the use of handheld electronic devices to navigate college campuses among students with I/DD.

Naomi meets peer mentors as a part of the inclusive post-secondary education program. One of the peer mentors, Shay, is a senior majoring in special education who knows all about her college campus and the surrounding community. Although Shay has completed several schoolbased field experiences, her peer mentor role has provided her with additional opportunities to engage with faculty to design functional skill instruction aligned with academic curriculum areas. Further, her special education coursework has prepared her with knowledge that the Individuals with Disabilities Education Acts (1997; 2004) require all K-12 students with disabilities to learn grade-level academic content including literacy, math, science, and social studies. This semester, Shay will be teaching Naomi about campus navigation, which aligns with Social Studies standards related to geography, a subject she expects to teach as a special education teacher.

3DMI was designed to teach campus locations and improve campus pedestrian navigation skills among college students with I/DD. It was designed to facilitate geographic understanding through engagement with unfamiliar campus locations. Frequently, students pass campus buildings and landmarks without notice, but these places are crucial in understanding how to navigate the college campus efficiently and effectively. As part of 3DMI, learners with I/DD were provided with guidance to (a) navigate to important campus locations; (b) attend to movement, location, and place relevant to the location; (c) build a model that depicts salient characteristics; and (d) determine the appropriate location for the model on a large campus map. Finally, 3DMI was delivered by prospective special educators and designed to align with the geography standards included in the National Council for the Social Studies C3 Framework (NCSS C3; 2013).

The NCSS C3 Framework (2013) defines four areas of social studies content knowledge expectations for K-12 education, including civics, economics, history, and geography. With regard to the NCSS C3 geography standards, K-12 learners are expected to (a) create maps or other visual representations as a way to better understand a place; (b) communicate their knowledge of a place; (c) use knowledge for further inquiry or decision-making about the place; and (d) demonstrate how humans interact with their environment. The 3DMI was designed to enhance knowledge of geography standards among prospective special education teachers via their instruction to college students with I/DD.

One foundational element of geography knowledge is learners’ sense of place, or “the unique physical and human characteristics,” (Barry, n.d.) of an area. Several author groups recommend teaching geography through a small-world approach (e.g., Fertig & Silverman, 2007; Gandy, 2007; Sobel, 1998). Further, Sobel (1998) indicated that teaching mapmaking of small places allows learners opportunities to (a) explore places first-hand and (b) represent the places and related observations. Via mapmaking, students better understand their own interactions with the 109

space around them. Similarly, during initial formal geography instruction about using maps, students should begin working with large maps of small familiar places (Fertig & Silverman, 2007) in order to understand how the maps represent the world around them.

Making three-dimensional (3D) models is crucial to geographic understanding and offers benefits beyond two dimensional map-making alone (Fertig & Silverman 2007; Gandy, 2007; Sobel, 1998). Further, Hart’s 1979 work (as cited in Sobel, 1998) found that learners created 3D models that were more accurate and more detailed in comparison to two-dimensional (2D) maps that they created. 3D models also allow learners opportunities to use vocabulary related to location such as “next to,” or “behind” and better determine spatial relationships and relative location (Fertig & Silverman, 2007). Finally, building 3D models is an instructional technique that allows learners an opportunity to explore the environment from varying perspectives which further develops their understanding of the space. For example, models allow learners to view from above in order to develop their understanding of “bird’s eye view” which is used when reading 2D maps.

In summary, making maps and 3D models of the world are critical skills in developing learners’ geographic understanding. Given that (a) knowledge of campus locations and campus navigation among college students with I/DD is critical for safety and independence, and (b) prospective special educators must be prepared to deliver standards-based geography instruction, faculty developed 3DMI to meet both aims.

When designing the instruction it is imperative to consider locations for study. Select locations that are important to inclusion and engagement for learners with I/DD on the college campus. On our campus 3DMI, included campus locations such as the (a) public safety building, (b) building that houses the swimming pool, (c) performing arts theater, and (d) casual restaurant at the campus driving range. These locations were selected because they are popular among students and important to students’ effective use of campus resources. Each location must be photographed in a manner that depicts its salient characteristics. For example, if the building has a prominent stairwell and columns at the front entrance, include those in the photograph.

In addition to the photograph of each location, instructors will need several commonly available items for each student group. Each student used a digital camera in order to photograph the salient features that indicate movement, location, and place of each building or landmark. Additionally, each group was provided with building bricks (e.g., Legos) to build a 3D model of the assigned building as well as a base plate on which to build. The base plate successfully used in this implementation was approximately 24” x 24”. Having a sturdy base plate allows the model to be moved onto a large map of the area when completed. This large map can be made on a large canvas such as a shower curtain or drop cloth by projecting the image onto the canvas and tracing it.

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To assess knowledge of the campus locations, the authors designed assessment questions and materials to determine knowledge of movement, location, and place relevant to the location among learners. Each of four locations were depicted on assessment cards. See Figure 1 for an example assessment card for one location. Next, a data collection sheet was created including five questions:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What building is this? Can you think of a reason you might visit this building? Look at these pictures of places on campus. Which one is closest to the building? Can you find this building on a campus map? Can you take me to the building?

Figure 1. Example of an assessment card for one campus location.

Next, the purpose and implementation of 3DMI was described to the prospective special education teachers who would deliver 3DMI. An Instructional Procedures Checklist which listed the steps for 3DMI for one campus location was also provided to 3DMI instructors. The instructors delivered instruction for each campus location, as described here in six steps, and repeated this sequence for each subsequent campus location targeted for instruction.

Step 1: Provide a description of the 3DMI to learners with I/DD. Instructors should explain that students will learn about important campus locations and introduce the first building by showing a photograph of the building, telling the name of the building, and writing the name on a whiteboard. Additionally, instructors should provide rationale for learning about campus locations, including safety, improved navigation, and independence.

Step 2: Walk with students to the campus location and explore. The instructor should lead the group to the location and verbally identify landmarks and turns along the way. Additionally, instructors should encourage students to take notes about how to get to the location. When the group has arrived at the location, the instructor should verbally state the name of the building and 111

ask learners to identify where they are and how they know. After this initial discussion, the group will walk around the building three times in order to name features of the location, photograph important characteristics, and discuss purposes of the location. The first time, the group will focus on movement. The second time, they will focus on location. Finally, they will consider place. Table 2 provides definitions, questions, and likely responses among learners with I/DD for each of three walks around the building.

Table 2 Instructional Guidance for Purposeful Exploration for Three Locations Focus Definition Questions to Ask Response Examples Movement How things and people How do people get here? I see a sidewalk that travel from one place to What clues tell us how people walk on to another people and things travel to enter the building. and from this building? (e.g. Many bikes are in Sidewalk, parking lot, front of the bridge, bus stop) building. Location Where a place is as What is the address? It is next to the determined by its What landmarks or buildings cafeteria. address, latitude and are nearby and where is the It is close to the longitude, or relative to building in relationship to golf course. other places that landmark? Place Physical and human What around here makes this I see a hill (e.g., characteristics of a building stand out? natural features). location What does the building look I see a large like? staircase (e.g., Are there any special architectural features? features) What do people do here? People swim in this Why might I go to this place. building?

Step 3. Review and return. After exploring the location, the instructor should state important information about the location’s movement, location, and place. Next, the instructor will explain how to get back to the classroom while the group walks back to the classroom via the same route. The learners with I/DD should be asked to lead the group back to the classroom via the same route. If the student goes off the route, the instructor will lead the way and verbally identify landmarks and turns as they return.

Step 4. Build a model of the location. In the classroom, the instructor will provide building bricks and a building brick base plate. Instructors should ask learners with I/DD to use the building blocks to construct the location, depicting salient characteristics of the location such as architectural details (e.g., staircase, columns). The instructor will prompt learners with I/DD to use their notes and digital photographs as reminders of the location’s important characteristics.

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See Figure 2 for side-by-side photographs depicting an actual campus location and the 3D building block depiction.

Figure 2. Photograph of actual location and the building block depiction

Step 5. Place the models on the large campus map. Once the 3D models are complete, instructors should invite learners to place them on the appropriate area of the large campus map with verbal support as needed from the instructor. Then, the instructor will orally describe how to walk to that location from the classroom building, naming landmarks and turns, and depicting the route with a dry-erase marker to draw the route from the classroom to the building.

Step 6. Assess students’ knowledge and skills with the 3DMI Assessment. Using 3DMI assessment data collection sheets, the instructor should assess the learners’ knowledge of the location and ability to navigate to the location to determine the impact of instruction and determine next steps for instruction.

Learners with I/DD and pre-service special educators engaged in a number of beneficial experiences and outcomes as part of this project. Overall, all learners with I/DD improved in both knowledge of campus locations and navigation to targeted campus locations. Also, learners with I/DD indicated that the instruction was helpful and that they liked learning from a peer mentor.

Delivering 3DMI allowed peer mentors valuable teaching experience as they were the instructors. In addition to public school field-based experiences required of their undergraduate program, the pre-service special educators delivered this instruction under the supervision of special education faculty. They delivered instruction that met student’s individual needs and also aligned with standards-based geography content, which additionally developed their own understanding of academic content. Furthermore, because 3DMI is delivered through small group instruction, instructors gained experience teaching a few learners and addressing individual needs of individual students in the group, a common instructional format among special education teachers.

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The college students with I/DD who participated in the 3DMI were college freshmen who were invited to participate because they were new to the campus community. However, for students with I/DD, although consistent and rich participation in the campus community was an overarching goal among all involved in this study, it was also a threat to the internal validity of this study. Specifically, it is likely that participation in campus experiences would enhance students’ knowledge of campus locations. One way for future researchers to mitigate this threat is to deliver instruction via online modules in the month prior to start of the college experience. In this way, researchers can diminish the likelihood that participants’ gains are attributable to typical campus engagement. An additional avenue for research would be to teach a strategy to support generalization of navigation to new locations, rather than location-specific content as in the 3DMI. For example, a researcher might teach learners with I/DD to collect information about new locations such as taking a photograph and recording a voice thread including purpose of campus resource and navigation tips. Finally, researchers recommend measuring knowledge of instructional methods among prospective teachers who deliver the intervention prior to and after the intervention.

College inclusion programs provide a unique opportunity to integrate skill development for both prospective special educators and learners with I/DD. By providing 3DMI, college students with I/DD included in this study were more knowledgeable about their campus community and independent in navigating from place to place. Additionally, prospective special educators gained instructional expertise in teaching students with I/DD and knowledge of Social Studies content, which will be valuable as they progress towards careers as professional special educators.

Naomi and Shay both learned valuable skills and knowledge via the 3DMI project. Naomi is more independent and confident in navigating her college campus. Shay has had an opportunity to directly teach geography in a community setting, which is an asset as she transitions from college student to special education teacher.

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Sharon Richter, Ph. D. is an associate professor of Special Education at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, where she teaches classes in the Adapted Curriculum program. Her research is designed to improve independence among students with significant intellectual disabilities.

Heather Hagan, Ph. D., is an assistant professor at Coastal Carolina University. She specializes in elementary social studies with a focus on the integration of social studies with other content areas and inquiry. Her current research involves examining pre-service teachers’ understanding and use of a variety of tools and methods including peer supports for lesson planning, as well as digital literacy and source evaluation.

Cheryl L. Morgan, Ph. D., is the Director of the LIFE Program in the Spadoni College of Education at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, South Carolina. She focuses on providing inclusive post-secondary education opportunities for young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Much of her research addresses processes and partnerships for implementation of inclusive post-secondary education programs, instructional practices, and peer mentoring and tutoring for adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

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