Global Mining Review October 2022

CONTENTS

44 UAVs In The Mining Industry

Brad Schmidt, Trimble Applanix, Canada, considers the use of UAVs in mining operations; with productivity gains, more informed decision making, and increased safety among the benefits.

14 Three Trajectories

Yusu Mao and Shankhadeep Mukherjee, CRU Group, present the changing dynamics of steel production in Asia and its impact on iron ore and metallurgical coal producers.

20 GMDs And The Clean Energy Transition

Marcelo Perrucci, ABB, explains why gearless mill drives (GMDs) are the preferred solution for high-capacity mills when combined with digital and service solutions.

26 Protecting Open Gears In Shovels

Roger Young, Imperial Oil, Canada, provides an overview of the keys to preventing unwanted shovel downtime through the proper lubrication of open gear components.

29 The Mining Industry And The Green Energy Future

William Leahy, FLSmidth, Denmark, discusses the critical role the mining industry plays in meeting the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement and limiting global warming.

33 Total Focus On Testing

Frederic Reverdy, Eddyfi Technologies, France, outlines how advanced non-destructive testing helps improve mining equipment operations.

38 A Multi-Purpose Drill Rig

Ceren Şatırlar Balcı and Müzeyyen Çakır, Barkom Group Drilling Rigs and Equipment, Turkey, reviews the functions and uses of a new multi-purpose drill rig and its role in the ever-changing mining industry.

50 A Digital Solution To Global Copper Supply Issues

Ellen Thomson, Thermo Fisher Scientific, UK, details how technologies and digital innovations are essential to tackling global copper supply issues.

54 Using Multi-Channel LASERs In Mining

Harold Cline, TOMRA, USA, explores the recent developments and applications of multi-channel LASERs for sensor-based sorting.

59 Increasing Mineral Processing Productivity

Duncan High, Haver & Boecker Niagara, assesses how departing from traditional screening systems to advanced technologies improves productivity and profits.

63 Automation And Lithium Production

Jonas Berge, Emerson, Singapore, illustrates how automation can accelerate spodumene mining and refining processes.

67 The Clean Nickel Revolution

Chris Gower, Altilium Group, Indonesia, introduces a new nickel and cobalt delivery solution capable of providing the critical metals feedstock demanded by the EV industry.

71 How Can We Make Electrification Sustainable?

Megan O’Connor, Nth Cycle, emphasises the importance of a sustainable supply chain as the world moves towards increased electrification.

74 The Future Is Powered By Lithium

Teague Egan, EnergyX, USA, highlights lithium’s critical importance to the energy transition and the role of the mining industry in providing a sustainable supply chain.

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Guest Comment

MARK HANNAN

Mining’s Scope 1 and 2 emissions – greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that a company makes directly and indirectly – are currently responsible for 4 – 7% of global GHG emissions.1,2 However, decarbonisation solutions are emerging to help mining operators contribute to a more sustainable future, improving efficiency and productivity while not impacting the profitability of their operations.

On average, 40 – 50% of site emissions come from diesel used for mobile assets, so fuel switching and electrification are attractive decarbonisation solutions.3 Liquid sustainable fuels, like biofuel, are an immediate, drop-in solution, offering the potential to decrease carbon emissions by more than 70%, whereas it is estimated that, by 2030, total cost of ownership for a battery-electric haulage truck will be approximately 20% lower than existing diesel trucks.2 Better yet, the availability and accessibility of both are improving, helping to offset longstanding barriers to progress, such as asset and infrastructure replacement.

Recognising that 50% of the fuel used by industrial companies for energy could be replaced with electricity, many mining leaders are embracing electrification’s potential.4 For example, BHP, Rio Tinto, and Vale launched the ‘Charge On Innovation Challenge’ to accelerate the commercialisation of effective solutions for charging large, electric mining haul trucks, with a Shell-led consortium developing a winning solution. Meanwhile, biofuel production is increasing, leading to an average annual growth of 5% in consumption between 2010 and 2019.5

Industrial processing is another key driver of onsite emissions. Removing carbon from processes can be trickier than from fleets, due to emerging technologies that can potentially lead to significant process re-design. For example, this is the case with direct reduced iron, which can produce nearly emission-free steel by replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen, but requires substantial process redesign at the plant level.6

Fortunately, mining operators can unlock improvements by: better tracking output with digital energy management tools; redesigning processes to be more efficient; switching reagents and fuels to more sustainable options like natural gas, hydrogen, or biomass; and integrating carbon capture, utilisation, and storage (CCUS) into surface plant exhaust streams.

CCUS is perhaps the most exciting of these when it comes to scale and impact, particularly for mining, where 32% of carbon capture storage (CCS) is expected to exist by 2050.7 And for good reason too, since more than 90% of emissions from industrial facilities can be captured by CCUS technologies,8 while mineral carbonation – a carbon capture utilisation (CCU) option – can reduce global warming potential by up to 48%.9 CCUS facilities around the world have the capacity to capture more than 40 million tpy of CO2, which is why Shell is progressing with facilities like Quest CSS in Alberta, which has captured, transported, and secured more than 6 million t of CO2 to date.10

Mining’s Scope 1 and 2 emissions might contribute to 4 – 7% of global GHG emissions, but this becomes 28% if Scope 3 is included (emissions out of direct control of the mining company; for example, produced by suppliers),11 due to the complex and wide-reaching supply chain that mining is involved in, which touches everything from marine to manufacturing.12 By working with cross-sector partners – like those in the shipping sector – operators can reduce their site’s Scope 3 output and work towards meeting environmental targets. After all, the shipping industry transports approximately 80% of the world’s traded goods.13

While there is no single fuel, technology, or solution to address the challenge of decarbonising shipping on its own, LNG is the cleanest fuel currently available to shipping at scale today. LNG reduces GHG emissions from extraction through to combustion by up to 21%, meaning a mining operation that partners with compatible shipping companies can better track and reduce its own Scope 3 output.14

References

Available on request.

WORLD NEWS

USA Stantec awarded feasibility study for Resolution Copper project

Stantec has been selected by Resolution Copper Mining LLC to deliver a US$16 million feasibility study providing engineering and technical services for the Resolution Copper mine in Superior, Arizona.

The proposed underground mine has the potential to be one of the largest producers of copper in North America — supplying up to 25% of US copper demand each year. Copper from the mine will be used in products that are vital to the energy transition, such as: electric vehicles, batteries, solar panels, wind turbines, and more.

Resolution Copper is a limited liability company that is owned by Rio Tinto (55%) and BHP (45%). Stantec has been a lead underground mining and infrastructure consultant on the project since early 2019. Stantec will assist Resolution Copper by providing engineering and execution planning services for the mine.

“Resolution Copper is mining a critical resource needed for the energy transition,” says Mario Finis, executive vice president

USA U.S. Tsubaki acquires ATR Sales Inc.

U.S. Tsubaki Power Transmission, LLC, has announced its purchase of ATR Sales Inc. (ATR). Based out of Santa Ana, CA., ATR has been

for Stantec’s Energy & Resources business. “We are proud to support our client in this important endeavour with a strong commitment to sustainable mining throughout the entire life cycle of the project.”

Stantec’s engineering services on this project include power distribution, material handling, shafts and hoisting systems, dewatering/pumping, communications, and more. Additionally, Stantec is evaluating the use of battery electric vehicles to help the mine meet its goal of zero-carbon emissions.

Stantec’s mining, minerals, and metals team is helping clients achieve net zero mining — through its holistic service offering, Sustainable Mining by Design™, which aids companies to meet their environmental, social, and governance obligations by finding ways to reduce energy demand and utilise clean sources of energy.

The mining industry must be the starting point for any discussion about the global energy future.

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CHILE Montero Mining and Exploration receive positive analysis on Avispa project

Montero Mining and Exploration Ltd has received a positive report from Fathom Geophysics from the analysis of geochemical data on the Avispa project. The report entitled ‘3D footprint modelling at Avispa’ has generated a 3D conceptual target indicating the possible location of porphyry copper molybdenum mineralisation at depth.

Company geologists collected reverse circulation (RC) drill chip piles from drilling sites believed to have been completed by BHP and Quantum Pacific Exploration Chile (Quantum) on the Avispa property. Some samples returned anomalous copper (>100 ppm Cu) and molybdenum (>10 ppm Mo). Avispa is located 40 km to the west of the Chuquicamata copper porphyry deposit, and is situated within the defined north-south trending Palaeocene–Eocene Cu-Mo porphyry belt and 40 km north of

BHP’s Spence Cu-Mo mine and KGHM/South32’s Sierra Gorda Cu-Mo mine.

The drilling chip geochemical dataset from an area of close spaced drill holes was analysed by Fathom using proprietary software comparing it to idealised models of mineralised porphyry systems. The results show a significant coincident target modelled under the central part of the area that was processed. The success of the targeting has encouraged the company to use the Fathom analysis on other areas of the Avispa property. RC drill hole samples obtained from the rest of the property and lithological samples obtained from the San Salvador River valley provide an additional dataset for analysis by Fathom. Fathom’s analysis has been successfully used to identify existing porphyry mineralisation systems at depth such as those explored by Solgold in Ecuador.

Diary Dates

USA Rio Tinto to start underground mining at Kennecott copper operations

R

Tinto has approved a US$55 million investment in development capital to start

mining and expand production at its Kennecott copper operations in Utah, USA.

Underground mining will initially focus on an area known as the lower commercial skarn (LCS), which will deliver a total of around 30 kt of additional high quality mined copper through the period to 2027 alongside open cut operations. The first ore is expected to be produced in early 2023, with full production in the second half of the year. It will be processed through the existing facilities at Kennecott, one of only two operating copper smelters in the US.

Kennecott holds the potential for significant and attractive underground development. The LCS is the first step towards this, with a mineral resource of 7.5 million t at 1.9% copper, 0.84 g/t gold, 11.26 g/t silver, and 0.015% molybdenum identified based on drilling; and a probable ore reserve of 1.7 million t at 1.9% copper, 0.71 g/t gold, 10.07 g/t silver, and 0.044% molybdenum.

Underground battery electric vehicles are currently being trialled at Kennecott to improve employee health and safety, increase productivity and reduce carbon emissions from future underground mining fleets. A battery electric haul truck and loader supplied by Sandvik Mining and Rock Solutions are being used to evaluate performance and suitability as part of underground development work.

UK Worley awarded contract for Green Lithium’s UK refinery

Worley will begin supporting Green Lithium in building the UK’s first large scale merchant lithium refinery, which will create a supply of low-carbon, battery-grade lithium chemicals to help meet Europe’s growing demand.

By enabling cathode, battery cell, and electric vehicle manufacturing it will facilitate decarbonisation objectives, green jobs, and long-term economic prosperity.

The refinery will have the capacity to produce 50 000 t of battery-grade lithium a year – meeting 6% of Europe’s anticipated battery demand by 2030. This is enough to help produce 1 million electric vehicles annually.

Ross McPherson, Senior Vice President, Chemicals, Fuels and Resources, EMEA, Worley, comments:

“Current lithium refining capacity in Europe doesn’t match the increasing demand for battery-grade lithium chemicals, which is projected to grow to 800 000 t by 2030. So, this project is a step towards meeting demand and accelerating local lithium production.

“Collaboration in Europe could accelerate sustainable lithium refining. This will help markets dependent on battery-grade lithium to secure reliable feedstock and build sustainable technology vital to the energy transition. These are important steps on the journey to delivering a more sustainable world.”

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World NEWS

PERU FLSmidth launches new approach to mine optimisation

Optimising the productivity of mine sites while reducing costs, resource use, and environmental footprint has long been the primary goal of FLSmidth. With the launch of PerformanceIQ Services at Perumin, FLSmidth now promises to supercharge mine performance through a full flowsheet approach to optimisation based on equipment knowledge, process expertise, and digital solutions.

PerformanceIQ Services focuses on brownfield mining operations to detect performance gaps and identify and prioritise solutions that enhance operational efficiency. Working in partnership with customers, local FLSmidth experts provide defined improvement targets and suggest the most impactful actions an operation can take, given their specific production goals, challenges, and mine characteristics.

The performance data of equipment and technology is monitored, adjusted and enhanced on a continual basis, with the goal of achieving measurable, sustainable productivity improvements, such as the reduction of unscheduled downtime and more efficient use of energy and water.

The concept is straightforward and designed for fast and long-lasting results. After the initial scoping and onboarding phase, FLSmidth and the customer move to a cycle of analysis, value proposition, implementation, and evaluation. Over time, this process of continuous step-by-step improvement provides the foundation to move beyond current objectives to support scalable, sustainable productivity, and growth. All of this is underpinned by FLSmidth’s pit-to-plant portfolio of leading digital solutions that connect, monitor, and optimise processes.

Vale has confirmed that its board of directors have approved the reorganisation of base metals operations held by Vale S.A in Brazil.

The approval provides for the transfer of the Brazilian copper assets to Salobo Metais S.A, and the transfer of Brazilian nickel assets to a new company to be

established by Vale in Brazil. Both copper and nickel assets will continue to be consolidated and wholly-owned by Vale.

With the reorganisation, Brazilian base metals assets will be combined into two entities, enabling more efficient processes and management.

Roughly nine months after reaching the 4 billion t autonomously hauled milestone, trucks equipped with Cat® MineStar™ Command for hauling have now moved over 5 billion t.

Cat autonomous trucks are on pace to eclipse previous record totals of materials hauled in a calendar year, projected to be more than 1.4 billion t in 2022.

“In 2013, we placed our first fleets of autonomous trucks in Western Australia at FMG Solomon and BHP Jimblebar. Since that time, trucks using Command for hauling have safely travelled nearly 200 million km, more than twice the experience in autonomous operations of any automobile manufacturer,” comments Denise Johnson, group president of Caterpillar Resource Industries.

“Caterpillar has grown the number of autonomous trucks in operation by 40% in the past two years. We believe that automation is one of many keys to implement technology that unlocks the value miners need when it comes to the energy transition toward more sustainable operations.”

Marc Cameron, vice president of Caterpillar Resource Industries, adds: “The new Cat 798 AC electric drive trucks replacing BHP’s entire haul truck fleet at the Escondida mine will feature technologies that advance the site’s key initiatives, including autonomy and decarbonisation. The agreement allows Escondida | BHP to accelerate the implementation of its autonomy plans by transitioning the fleet with autonomous haulage system (AHS) technology.”

GLOBAL Caterpillar surpasses 5 billion t of material autonomously hauled

Vale announces reorganisation of nickel and copper in Brazil

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World NEWS

The Weir Group PLC announces alliance with STM Minerals

The Weir Group PLC has announced a new alliance with Swiss Tower Mills Minerals AG (STM), in which Weir will market STM’s innovative vertical stirred grinding mills for coarse grinding applications world-wide.

Integrating vertical stirred grinding mills into Weir’s minerals processing flow sheet will provide customers with substantial improvements in throughput and energy efficiency, helping them to meet their productivity and sustainability goals.

STM’s vertical stirred grinding technology is well proven for energy efficient comminution in the mining market, with more than 80 units currently operating in the hard rock mineral processing industry across the globe. It is used within the comminution segment of the minerals processing circuit as part of a series of crushing and grinding processes that create the fine particles, from which minerals can be extracted through floatation.

Comminution is one of the most energy intensive parts of the mine, accounting for 25% of the final energy consumption of an average mine site. Weir’s comminution technologies, such as Enduron® high pressure grinding rolls (HPGRs), are driving down energy consumption by approximately 40% for customers.

This new alliance with STM takes things to the next level, offering the mining and minerals industry a proven low energy alternative to traditional high energy consuming tumbling mills. Combining and integrating these energy efficient technologies into a single, optimised flow sheet will deliver significant reductions in energy use, driving down costs and carbon emissions.

In order to prove the most beneficial flow sheet for specific projects, STM has already supplied two vertical test mills to the Weir Minerals HPGR test facility in Venlo, Netherlands. Weir and STM will be in the unique position to provide clients with the combined energy efficient grinding test work of HPGRs, followed by STM’s vertical stirred mill.

Commenting on this technology alliance, Ricardo Garib, Weir Minerals Divisional President said:

“Weir and STM share the same vision of enabling primary resource providers to produce resources in the most sustainable manner... Integrating STM mills with Weir’s comminution products, which includes Enduron HPGRs and Enduron screens, will improve throughput and help bring substantial reductions in carbon emissions.”

PERU Anglo American to begin copper shipments from Quellaveco

Anglo American plc has announced the start of commercial copper operations at its Quellaveco project in Peru, following the successful testing of operations and final regulatory clearance. Quellaveco is expected to produce 300 000 tpy of copper equivalent volume on average, over its first 10 years.

Duncan Wanblad, Chief Executive of Anglo American, said:

“Our delivery of Quellaveco, a major new world class copper mine, is testament to the incredible efforts of our workforce and our commitment to our stakeholders in Peru over many years. Quellaveco alone is expected to lift our total global output by 10% in copper equivalent terms, and take our total copper production close to 1 million tpy. At a highly competitive operating cost, Quellaveco exemplifies the asset and return profile that is central to our portfolio quality and our ability to provide customers with a reliable and sustainable supply of future-enabling metals.”

Ruben Fernandes, CEO of Anglo American’s Base Metals business, added:

“We designed Quellaveco as one of Anglo American’s and South America’s most technologically advanced mines, incorporating autonomous drilling and haulage fleets – a first in Peru – a remote operations centre, as well as a number of Anglo American’s digital and advanced processing technologies. Drawing its electricity supply entirely from renewables, Quellaveco is setting an example of a low emission mine producing a critical metal for decarbonising the global economy – copper. In Quellaveco, we can see FutureSmart Mining™ in action.”

Anglo American expects that Quellaveco will ramp up fully over the next 9 – 12 months. Following a thorough commissioning and testing period, and receipt of final regulatory clearance, production guidance for Quellaveco in 2022 is revised to 80 000 – 100 000 t of copper (previously 100 000 – 150 000) at a C1 unit cost of circa 150 c/lb, previously circa 135 c/lb. Production guidance for Quellaveco in 2023 and 2024 is unchanged at 320 000 – 370 000 t of copper.

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Product NEWS

Having been building equipment and designing solutions for underground mines for over 45 years, Aramine has developed a complete line of machines for underground mining operations, which includes drillers, loaders, and trucks. This line includes the first battery-powered miniLoader, the L140B, with a quick battery change system: the quick replacement system (QRS).

In addition, Aramine is the official distributor of Normet, Atlas Copco, HBM, and Astec in authorised areas.

Furthermore, Aramine has one of the largest ranges of spare parts for underground mining equipment in the world. The company supplies genuine spare parts and components suitable for various types of drill rigs, loaders, and utility equipment for underground mining. Its stocks amount to over 800 000 manufacturers’ part numbers, worth more than US$18 million.

Remanufacturing programme

Aramine runs an exclusive programme based on a strong organisation and a long-term experience with the manufacturer’s technical support. The machines destined for the scrap heap are remanufactured on the books, in compliance with the manufacturer’s original standards and quality.

Aramine Driller: DM901

For many years, Aramine has offered a narrow, 1 m width, drill rig –complementing its range of underground mining track-less loaders and dumpers – to the narrow vein mining industry.

The DM901 Aramine is a diesel-electrical drill rig available in a development, production and bolting configuration, using a hydraulic drifter . The drill rig aims to replace hand pneumatic jack leg drifters, and help underground mines with sections of less than 2 m in width to be mechanised.

It is one of the smallest drill rig jumbos available on the market, but offers the same standard of operations as the full scale unit.

The DM901 is an articulated frame drill rig with four wheels driven by hydrostatic Poclain wheel engines.

As the components and parts used to build the rig come from first-class providers worldwide, it guarantees that customers receive a first-class quality machine, with easy access to the OEM parts supplier directly through Aramine’s after-sales team.

For the rock-drill drifters, Aramine proposes a range between 7 kW up to 15 kW hydromechanics, provided by Epiroc or Montabert. However, another premium drifter brand and model can be used when required.

The machine power pack is giving between 45 and 60 kW, depending on the application and needs. The flushing could be done by air, water, or mist.

The DM901 main frame is designed to be able to lift done through a shaft of 1 x 1 m size, without the need for cut and wilding operations, just by scrapping some subset.

The DM901 is available in diesel-electric as standard, diesel as an option, and will soon be available in battery with cable using Aramine technology, derived from its range of battery-powered loaders and dumpers.

Aramine also offers the option of semi-automatic drilling assistance, drilling radio remote control, and machine control from the surface.

Conclusion

The Aramine diesel-electrical DM901 drill rig offers the same performance as bigger drillers, while being well adapted to narrow vein mining operations. Aramine always adapts its machine to provide customers with the solutions they are looking for. The DM901 is part of Aramine complete range of mining machines specialised in narrow vein mining operations.

Copper ore processing

Achieve step change performance

Facing the growing demand for copper while ever-decreasing ore grades, miners must even more weigh the potential yield against production costs today and in the future. They must balance the need for smaller particle sizes to maximize recovery against the increased energy requirements and reagent usage, which can lead to increased costs and environmental impacts.

The accurate measurement of the grade of the ore entering the process, and a deep understanding of the performance throughout the various production stages, helps to determine the right balance of yield vs costs. Prompt-gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) is a key technology that empowers miners to make informed choices.

Yusu Mao and Shankhadeep Mukherjee, CRU Group, present the changing dynamics of steel production in Asia and its impact on iron ore and metallurgical coal producers.

As the pandemic and ongoing trade actions radically re-shape supply chains, the pace of cyclical turns in the steel industry continue to accelerate.

Stimulus measures in the immediate aftermath of the pandemic increased both demand for durable goods and consumers’ ability to pay for them. Spend was directed towards big-ticket items over services in all parts of the world.

Increased sales of white goods boosted demand for steel and, once vaccines arrived, the increased optimism buoyed demand further. Furthermore, when stalled construction projects picked up, that demand soared even higher.

Concerns around global supply chain issues caused panic buying, with end users ordering excess volumes. As idled

supply took time to restart, steel prices hit the highest levels ever seen. As Figure 1 shows, this caused, albeit temporarily, prices to de-link from costs. Over the 15-year period (2006 – 2020) margins for steelmakers were around 5 – 10%. During peak COVID-19 recovery however, they crossed 50% in some parts of the world!

Today, the cycle has turned again, and steel prices are once more on a rapid decline — along with steelmakers’ margins. As global recession looms, households are concerned about inflation, and, with lower/no pandemic restrictions, services are now available to absorb discretionary spend. CRU expects this downward correction and alignment with steel production costs to continue barring any extraneous factors.

An Asian story

As developed western economies stabilise, the global view of steel markets, for the next few years, is an Asian story. As Figure 2 shows, China continues to dominate global production, accounting for up to 53% of global steel output. India, the individual country in second place, accounts for just 7%, while Japan vies with the US for third place on 5% or 6%. The combined might of the 27 EU nations are only responsible for 10% or more.

With significant finished steel production capability, China has a key influence on the rest of the world. Being close to China, this impact is usually felt most swiftly by the countries in South and East Asia, but often in quite different ways.

Steel production in these regions will follow slightly different trajectories over the next few years, as government policies, economic fundamentals, and a changing consumer base will influence production volumes in the near term.

China: A steady decline

In contrast to China’s rapid economic growth, industrialisation and global influence through the Belt and Road initiative, the outlook for the Chinese steel sector is now much weaker.

COVID-19 lockdowns fuelled economic downturn and rising unemployment rates. Though the country has issued financial stimulus packages targeting steel intensive sectors, such as infrastructure and real estate, the benefits of these packages are yet to be seen. The latest data from China shows that new floor space starts for the first seven months have been down by circa 6% y/y, while floor space completed is down by circa 23% y/y. Rising debt – particularly among construction companies and real-estate developers – is also a key concern.

As Figure 3 shows, Chinese net exports hit a peak in 2015. It also shows the dramatic contraction between then and 2020 — the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. Government control on steel exports at a time when domestic demand is weak has led to negative steel margins for Chinese steel producers. CRU estimates that margins for 2Q22 will be

negative for the entire quarter, with the first half of 3Q22 looking slightly better.

Costs and carbon

The obvious question from here is: what affect does the state of China’s domestic demand for steel have on the rest of the world? Five or six years ago, China was a major exporter of finished steel. More than 100 million t of Chinese steel hit the global markets at peak, putting pressure on steelmakers elsewhere and raising the spectre of tit-for-tat trade wars.

That will almost certainly not be repeated as China does not wish to be a major steel exporter. To produce steel in volumes for the export market, China must import raw material — mostly iron ore. The money that flows out of the national economy as a result, plus the high levels of carbon emissions that this amount of steel production will cause, are now seen as far too high a price to pay.

The shift in production route for China’s steel production technology is also applying downward pressure on its export capabilities. Nearly 90% of current Chinese steel production relies on the blast furnace-basic oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) process. That compares to 60% in the EU27+UK and just 30% in the US, where the electric arc furnace process (EAF) is far more prevalent. In this China is not alone: most of Asia favour BF-BOF production, albeit with different drivers.

BF-BOF production, which is used to produce virgin steel, requires iron ore and metallurgical coal. Although Chinese mills import only 5 – 10% of its metallurgical coal requirements, 80% of its iron ore consumption comes from miners in other countries, most importantly Australia and Brazil, who are far more competitive than China’s domestic counterparts.

The use of coal as a reductant in the BF-BOF process means that this route produces much higher carbon emissions than EAF. The transition to EAF will therefore be an important path forward for China, both in terms of viable exports and carbon emissions. However, this is where China’s rapid growth creates a problem. EAF requires quantities of

recycled scrap to be re-melted. China needs investments to build the necessary infrastructure to support greater use of scrap in its steel production, as well as to stockpile the quantities of scrap required, and increased recovery.

China could reduce emissions by switching to more iron ore pellets in its BF-BOF plants, but the reduction would be at most 10%. As a result, China will need to reduce its presence in the export market and produce mostly for domestic consumption.

Northeast Asia: Stability and dependability

Japan has been producing steel at high levels for decades and is also heavily reliant on the BF-BOF process, despite being completely dependent on imports of both iron ore and metallurgical coal. Besides sizeable direct exports of finished steel products, Japan has a thriving manufacturing sector, exports of which are also a key driver of steel demand in the country.

However, what happens in China very quickly affects what happens in Japan. This is because Japan is a net exporter to China. In a situation like that of China, Japan is unlikely to lift exports because of decreasing domestic production.

For Japan, the major shift in the steel industry would be capacity outsourcing. Domestic steel demand has been on a declining trend, especially now that Japan is facing large challenges from a shrinking population, which will limit steel demand growth in many end-use sectors. This will also lead to higher labour costs for the domestic manufacturing sector.

On the contrary, there has been much growth potential in the developing Asian markets. Therefore, Japanese BF-based producers have rolled out plans to cut down domestic crude steel production and re-align global capacity, by focusing more on the acquisition or

Figure

Global carbon crude steel production by country (Mt) and market share (%).

Figure

overseas capacity to better serve overseas demand going forward. Therefore, CRU expects total crude steel production in Northeast Asia to fall throughout the medium term, and remain structurally lower than historical levels.

India and Southeast Asia: The upward curve

The country and region that stands to benefit from China and Northeast Asia’s reduced presence on the international stage is India and Southeast Asia. With its own rapidly expanding steel industry, India has taken great strides forward to become the second-largest producer in the world (although it still produces just over a tenth of its northern neighbour’s output). The situation is similar in Southeast Asia, where both domestic producers, as well as investors from China and Northeast Asia, are eyeing capacity expansion.

As the regions develop, there will be clear housing and infrastructure requirements. There is also a thrust to grow the manufacturing sector. As a result, the Indian and Southeast Asian steel industry is expected to continue its growth trajectory for the next few years. As Figure 3 shows, both the absolute amount of crude steel produced by India and its share of Asian BF-B0F production are set to increase by 2025. Southeast Asia, which started to move away from a predominately EAF production base, is going to witness a lot of BF-BOF investments.

In contrast to China’s raw material dependency, India is home to plenty of the iron ore used in its BF-BOF processes: more than is required by domestic producers. However, with only small quantities of often poor-quality metallurgical coal at home, it is almost entirely dependent on imports for the necessary supply. The growth in the share of BF-BOF production in Southeast Asia means that the region is also going to become a major consumer of both iron ore and coking coal.

Emissions impacts and the future

As the emissions curve in Figure 4 indicates, steel production in all three countries is at the higher end of the distribution. However, CRU does expect a change in the emissions profile as society and politicians respond to changing climate needs. The carbon-intensive nature of steel manufacturing through the BF-BOF route and China’s carbon neutrality target is a key reason for China and Northeast Asia to reduce/maintain their domestic production.

CRU expects China’s steel production will continue to decline, Japan’s to continue along a broadly straight line, and India and Southeast Asia’s steel industry to grow rapidly in the coming years. It is also likely, given the stringent focus on emissions norms, there may be some capacity relocation from China and Japan to India and Southeast Asia. As a result, the BF-BOF production route will maintain its dominance in the Asian market. Consequently, steel makers will still require large volumes of both iron ore and metallurgical coal. Focus on emissions, however, means that there will be an increasing trend towards higher quality raw materials.

Marcelo Perrucci, ABB, explains why gearless mill drives (GMDs) are the preferred solution for high-capacity mills when combined with digital and service solutions.

Figure 1. ABB’s GMD supports Atalaya Mining’s operations in Andalucía.

Not only does mining provide the metals and minerals that 21st Century society relies upon – from cheap electronics, such as smartphones, to critical infrastructure, including houses and hospitals – it also provides the vital commodities such as lithium, copper and cobalt, that are required for electric vehicle batteries, wind turbines and solar panels, without which the clean energy transition cannot happen.

For this reason, demand is forecast to outstrip supply, and mine operators must commission new projects to bridge the gap. According to research by EY,1 published in April 2022, lithium production, for example, must quadruple from 490 000 t in 2021 to 2 million t in 2030, while the copper market is expected to be in deficit by nearly 4.7 million t by 2030 based on current supply projections.

The energy transition is also going to be expensive. EY forecasts that the mining industry will need to invest US$1.7 trillion over the next 15 years to supply enough critical metals, such as; copper, cobalt, and nickel.

For mining companies, this inexorable rise in demand for commodities is matched by a significant decline in ore grades. This means they must build larger mills to

optimise production and increase throughput, while simultaneously reducing energy usage and maintaining quality control.

Less is more: The benefits of GMDs Gearless mill drives (GMDs) can help achieve these goals by offering superior efficiency, availability, and uptime in large semi-autogenous (SAG), ball, and autogenous mills characterised by higher ball charges and demanding ambient conditions, compared with traditional ring-geared alternatives.

Fitted with multiple sensors, GMDs also gather and transmit large amounts of granular data, which can then be analysed and used to facilitate predictive rather than reactive maintenance. This keeps costly downtime to a minimum, and gives mill operators better visualisation and control over production.

In a conventional mill drive system, the ring-gear, pinion, gearbox, coupling, motor shaft, and motor bearings transmit the torque from the motor to the mill. In a GMD, however, the torque is instead transmitted through the magnetic field in the air gap that exists between the stator and rotor.

By mounting the rotor poles directly onto the mill, the mill becomes the rotor of the gearless motor.

This design delivers significant efficiencies when deployed at scale. Large SAG, ball, and autogenous mills, for example, may have several 15 – 25 MW GMDs running at the same time. By eliminating large, maintenance-heavy mechanical components, GMDs can improve efficiency by as much as 3%, limiting energy consumption and contributing to decarbonisation efforts by reducing CO2 emissions. Mining companies can choose to consider GMDs even for lower-than-usual powers (<18 MW), because they offer high efficiency and availability and can be a significant contributor towards more sustainable mines.

ABB GMDs, coupled with the digital monitoring system, ABB AbilityTM Predictive Maintenance for grinding, are increasingly becoming the preferred solution for mills that require 16 MW or more, which are typically characterised by higher-capacity production coupled with low ore grades.

ABB Ability Predictive Maintenance for grinding is an advanced digital condition monitoring solution that analyses GMD systems, increases safety through continuous checks, and considers both past and real-time data; in order to anticipate maintenance requirements and avoid unplanned production downtime.

The system monitors critical asset conditions, which are then automatically compared to pre-defined thresholds. If the system reaches critical status, an alarm is dispatched to both the customer and an ABB expert. The expert connects to the system, checks the condition and then contacts on-site personnel with recommended actions to normalise operations, and to prevent possible downtime of the GMD.

Predictive maintenance and service ABB Ability Predictive Maintenance for grinding, combined with ongoing life cycle management support, is being used by Atalaya Mining to optimise the availability and performance of the SAG mill at its flagship Rio Tinto project, which produces copper concentrates and silver by-product, in Andalucía, Southwest Spain.

ABB’s GMD is the ‘workhorse’ for the grinding operations, providing reliability and availability at the processing plant. Following a recent 15 million tpy expansion, Rio Tinto increased its annual copper production target to approximately 55 000 tpy.

Atalaya and ABB’s long-term service agreement (LTSA) with an ABB Lifecycle Manager has supported a production record at Rio Tinto in 2020, and mine production was approximately the same in 2021.

The LTSA covers lifecycle management to plan, coordinate, and execute services – including corrective, preventive and predictive system maintenance, with rapid response to emergency calls – as well as an adaptive approach to modifications in production, maintenance, or shutdown schedules. Overall, the LTSA maximises availability, optimises asset performance, and facilitates safe operation through a single-point-of-contact (ABB’s Remote Diagnostic Services), routine maintenance, and upgrades.

The new cloud-based predictive maintenance for grinding includes a new mobile application that allows real-time notifications on fleet status.2 The platform aims to extend the life of grinding assets by providing easy access to GMD system parameters, allowing visualisation of performance through considering past activity and real-time data, and assessing future maintenance requirements.

Used in conjunction with the ABB Grinding Connect app, available for iOS and Android, operators can monitor the performance of a GMD at any time and from any place through a phone or tablet.

The ABB GMD – one of more than 150 awarded by customers around the world over the past 50 years – draws on the company’s overarching distributed control system, ABB Ability System 800xA, and offers a range of additional advanced mill control functions; including frozen charge detection, frozen charge remover, controlled rollback, automatic positioning, as well as advanced monitoring.

Monitor what is happening inside your mill

As the demand for GMDs increases, and technology advances, so does ABB’s portfolio of solutions.

ABB Ability Cascade Monitoring uses a wireless sensor device attached to the shell of the mill to measure key grinding features online, and share this data with the plant’s control system. Based on this, operators can assess the milling efficiency and whether current conditions are causing excessive wear on liners, adjusting parameters accordingly to improve both grinding stability and profitability.

The ‘plug and play’ sensor nodes are attached to the mill shell via magnets and begin instantly to communicate with the base station, measuring the complete 360˚ spectrum of vibration inside the mill – including the amplitude of vibrations that can help indicate abnormal ball hits to liners.

By integrating the new cascade monitoring solution with Advanced Process Control (APC), such as ABB’s Ability Expert Optimizer platform, milling features can be included in closed loop optimisation strategies to improve milling efficiency by determining and stabilising shoulder and toe angles.

In summary, cascade monitoring can be used to reduce energy consumption and costs; reduce liner wear by exposing key milling features that can directly be linked to high liner wear rates; and improve operator visibility of current milling conditions by providing further information via the plant’s process control system.

Manufacturing excellence as standard

Manufacturing excellence is at the heart of ABB’s gearless mill drive ring motor factory located in Bilbao, Spain.3 Here, a wealth of experience, the integration of all manufacturing processes, and a network of local suppliers help create complex, customised technological drive solutions that are suited to all altitudes and operating conditions. Investment in facilities, people, and infrastructure at the Bilbao factory means ABB is confident in its delivery against a very healthy pipeline of orders both this year and for other longer term projects, to high levels of manufacturing excellence. Investment at the Bilbao factory has been set at US$1.3 million for 2022, with total CAPEX investment reaching US$10 million since the 2013 acquisition of the site. Approximately 60 jobs have been created at the site in the past 12 months alone.

During the manufacturing phase, the 120 000 or so segments that will form each motor’s magnetic core are cut and tested to avoid the appearance of hotspots. The segments undergo a vacuum pressure impregnation process (VPI) to make them more resistant to the harsh environments of mining.

Approximately 1000 of the bars that form the fundamental components of the ABB gearless motor drive undergo winding for each drive, and the assembly process is completed on site in the mine. Throughout the entire process, the integrity and quality of the components and their assembly is accomplished by strict control of internal processes, in conjunction with ABB’s main suppliers.

Why mill size matters

In summary, GMDs offer significant advantages in terms of availability, reliability, flexibility, and efficiency compared to conventional drives. By eliminating bolt-on mechanical components, such as ring-gears, pinions, couplings and gearboxes, frictional losses and equipment wear and tear is kept to a minimum, while fewer critical components equates to reduced maintenance and OPEX.

In addition, operators can gather and analyse real-time data from sensors in the drives – everything from insulation deterioration to vibration in the core to the temperature of poles and windings – and use this data to identify and address issues before they occur, boosting production efficiency.

Partnering with a trusted technology provider at the earliest stage of a GMD design and installation project ensures a custom-built drive solution that offers the highest possible grinding performance with quick return on investment.

ABB’s mining engineering team has more than 60 years of experience in grinding and in that time has delivered in excess of 300 mill drives worldwide, including some of the world's largest GMDs: a 22 MW GMD for a 28 in. ball mill, 28 MW GMD for a 40 in. and 42 in. SAG mills.4

Larger ball and SAG mills boasting higher installed power ratings relative to the mill diameter offer higher efficiency and throughput, 24/7 reliability and the ability to mine in remote areas, making low ore grades economical to grind – all factors that are important as demand for commodities grow.

Powered by the latest GMDs, and backed by sensor and monitoring technologies that give operators real-time visualisation and control over production, these mills will be on the frontline of the battle to sustainably produce the metals and minerals the world needs to transition to renewable energy.

References:

1.

BONTJE, H. and DUVAL, D., ‘Critical minerals supply and demand challenges mining companies face’, EY Americas, (25 April 2022), https://www.ey.com/en_us/mining-metals/ critical-minerals-supply-and-demand-issues.

2. ‘ABB steps up with new version of digital service for grinding – incuding mobile app,’ ABB, (25 January 2022), https://new.abb.com/news/detail/86754/abb-steps-upwith-new-version-of-digital-service-for-grinding-includingmobile-app.

3. ‘ABB Gearless Mill Drive in Ring Motor Factory in Bilbao’, ABB in Mining, (23 June 2022), https://youtu.be/ iAsAsGM3amc

4. ‘Gearless mill drives’, ABB, (5 September 2022), https:// library.e.abb.com/public/46de79b27d634a56820de89839eb 7eea/Gearless_mill_drives_LR_web.pdf

Figure

Grinding Connect mobile application will allow operators

Figure

The SAG mill at Atalaya Mining's Rio Tinto site from above.

ALLU TRANSFORMING THE WAY YOU WORK

At the centre of every mine site, shovels, and the proper maintenance of them, can be vital when preventing any unplanned downtime. They can not only directly contribute to a mines’ productivity, but they can be some of the most important pieces of equipment on site. Creating a proper lubrication program can help optimise shovel availability and can significantly improve mining efficiency. While these optimisation efforts are often difficult to execute effectively, there are multiple strategies to assist in maximising shovel uptime.

Inefficient shovel cycles, difficult material identification, unclear progress line definitions, and extensive manual monitoring are some of the challenges shovel operators face on a regular basis. Understanding what the common causes for shovel downtime are before they occur is important to preventing problems and optimising shovel uptime. Specifically, moving from a reactive maintenance strategy to a predictive one can help improve fleet uptime.

Protection challenges

Open gears in critical mining equipment — such as shovels, draglines, and drils — can be especially challenging to protect, due to their exposure to extreme temperatures, rain, snow, and contaminants – such as dust, dirt, and other corrosive materials. Open gear equipment can also commonly operate in extreme conditions – such as heavy loads, low speeds, and reversing directions. This can lead to wear and even premature failure. Protecting your open gear equipment despite these challenges demands a multifaceted approach, which includes:

n Choosing the right lubricants.

n Applying lubricants properly and monitoring lubricant performance.

n Managing the centralised grease system properly.

n Working with a supplier who can provide lubrication expertise.

Choose the right lubricants

Optimum protection for open gears requires using high-quality lubricants, preferably ones that are specifically formulated for the applications. Lubricant quality can vary widely, and you should choose a lubricant formulated to handle the typical challenges open gears face. When making your lubricant selection, consider the following challenges, formulations, and lubricant capabilities.

Severe loads and extreme pressures will greatly impact the correct lubricant choice. For open gear lubricants, consider choosing the heaviest viscosity product for your ambient tempreture, while ensuring that it can work with your central lubrication system. To help minimise wear and enhance equipment life,

Roger Young, Imperial Oil, Canada, provides an overview of the keys to preventing unwanted shovel downtime through the proper lubrication of open gear components.

Figure 1. Shovel in production loading a 400 t haul truck at Kearl Mine, Canada 2017.

the formulations should include a balanced formulation of EP additives, along with solid additives – such as molybdenum and graphite. To stay in place and resist fling off, the lubricants must be strong and tacky, and they must possess adhesive and cohesive properties to accommodate for moving components. Extreme temperatures is another factor that needs serious consideration, as lubricants need to be capable of being dispensed in your centralised system in temperatures ranging from -45°C – 45°C. Depending on the conditions equipment is exposed to, seasonal products with different viscosity grades may be required for specific climates. For optimum protection, lubricants must also be able to resist dust, dirt and other contaminants, as well as maintain consistent strength through heavy rain or snow.

Choose lubricants that resist separation due to the vibration typical of many types of open gear equipment. The thickener and additives have to stay suspended for proper distribution and performance. Product separation should also be considered for lubricants stored on site for long periods, or those that remain in machinery experiencing long periods of downtime.

To best protect mining equipment, high-quality oils and greases designed to meet the needs of open gear components should be used. Mobil™ open gear lubricants, for example, are formulated using the best base oils and specialised additives, so they can provide optimum performance even under severe conditions.

Apply and monitor lubricants properly

After the right lubricants have been selected for the open gears in question, it is equally important to apply them correctly. A process needs to be followed to ensure that the correct amount of lubricant is being applied at the correct interval. Each machine, component, and lubrication system has its own needs. Successful application requires regular monitoring of the lubricant films. Look for signs of over or under-application, and make adjustments as needed.

A clear sign of over-application is that the components appear bare, as excessive lubrication can cause a loss

of adhesion. The product essentially washes itself off, commonly leaving a mess of spent lubricant. Under-application, however, shows itself in the components appearing shiny and the lubricant appearing dry. When applied properly, the lubricant appears dark, velvety, and tenacious. The lubricated surface will have even coverage, and the lubricant will be difficult to wipe off with a gloved finger or rag.

Monitoring the lubricant takes dedication and patience. Striking the right balance requires adequate attention, as well as detailed component inspections during machine downtime. When making adjustments, take small steps and consider all the components in the system that will be affected. Be sure to document adjustments and review documentation regularly to evaluate trends.

It may be helpful to also form a team of dedicated lubricant specialists to make and document these adjustments, conduct inspections, and monitor the lubrication program.

Properly manage the grease system

Most mines use centralised grease systems to deliver lubricants. These automated systems use various delivery methods, such as: direct injection, drip tubes, or lubricant sprayers. They allow for the delivery of numerous lubricant types, viscosities, and NLGI grades.

Automated systems help minimise downtime and enhance efficiency. By helping to limit employee equipment interaction, these systems can also maximise safety. Be sure that the lubrication team understands the system and is capable of managing it and handling any issues that may arise.

Partner with an expert supplier

To get the most out of a lubrication program, it is important to work with a lubricant supplier that offers application expertise and on-site guidance. An expert supplier can help with the selection of the right lubricant, provide application expertise, troubleshoot issues, as well as help ensure the integrity of the central system by checking for issues – such as contamination ingress, leaking lines, and plugged or missing nozzles.

Mobil, for example, can offer expert service and specialised lubricants by drawing upon more than 100 years of working closely with equipment builders. The company’s field technical advisors provide insights and training that can help achieve their reliability goals and ambitions through reliable equipment performance.

Conclusion

Proper open gear lubrication is essential to making a shovel fleet run smoothly. It takes informed diligence to keep the equipment running without issues, but it is the best way to ‘get your money’s worth’ and reduce overall downtime. Choosing the right lubricants and applying them correctly can ensure optimal delivery to the components, and, by working with an expert lubricant supllier, a shovel fleet’s uptime can be enhanced and optimised.

Figure

Field Engineer

shovel lubrication

The mining industry has a changing and increasingly crucial role in society. It is a — if not the — enabler industry for a low-carbon, green energy future. It is certain to play a pivotal role in helping meet the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement to limit global warming to approximately 1.5˚C

Looking at the numbers: A typical wind turbine needs 11 minerals, including: aluminium, copper, nickel, manganese, and iron. A regular electrical vehicle (EV) requires eight minerals; with copper, lithium, cobalt, and nickel all playing a vital role. Solar PVs (photovoltaics) need aluminium, copper, nickel, silver and zinc, amongst others. Even carbon capture technologies are reliant on seven different minerals and metals.

With an increasing demand for minerals to create a greener future, mining must be able to provide the amount of metals and minerals needed — and do so responsibly,

with the smallest footprint possible. The areas that come most under the spotlight are water use and management, emissions and energy use, even as energy increasingly becomes more sustainably sourced.

Do not waste your energy…

Inefficient energy use in mining is a massive cost, a drain on resources, and a creator of direct and indirect emissions. Energy is one of the biggest expenses for mining companies, constituting approximately 30% of total cash operating costs.

Finding ways to optimise energy use is a primary focus of miners as they look to meet ambitious climate goals. And these goals go beyond large, Tier-1 miners — over the last few years — both large and mid-size mining companies have been lining up to announce ambitious CO2 reduction targets as part of overall sustainability goals. The Swedish company,

William Leahy, FLSmidth, Denmark, discusses the critical role the mining industry plays in meeting the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement and limiting global warming.

Boliden, for example, have announced that they will reduce their emissions by 40% by 2030.

It is noticeable that a growing trend in the industry is the reduction of carbon emissions through cutting the power needed to run the processing plant. Many plants are fuelled by fossil fuels so there is clear overlap with emission reductions and energy savings.

The focus is justified. The mining industry represents 3 – 4% of the world’s CO2 emissions, while some statistics have claimed that the entire mining industry consumes approximately 12 EJ/yr — or 3.5% of the total energy consumption globally. In Australia, for instance, energy consumption and intensity in mining and mineral processing is rising at around 6%/yr, largely due to the declining grade of ore bodies and the rising amount of waste that must be removed to access them.

Putting energy into finding solutions

These numbers are part of the reason why FLSmidth launched its MissionZero ambition in 2019. MissionZero aims to enable miners to reduce their water waste, emissions, and energy waste to zero by 2030 through efficient equipment, digital optimisation, and in-depth service audits.

Getting energy use to an optimised level will involve the development of innovative technologies, rethinking the extraction process, implementing digital solutions in areas such as process optimisation, and by driving faster adoption. By FLSmidth’s estimates, based off its MissionZero Mine model, there are technologies available now or in the near future that can save 30% energy across the flowsheet.

Where is energy used in the mining flowsheet?

The four areas of the mining flowsheet that use the most energy are crushing and grinding (approximately 45 – 50%), leaching and absorption (approximately 20%), excavation and hauling (approximately 10%), and flotation and concentration (approximately 5 – 7%). Comminution of gold and copper ores alone can be expected to consume about 0.2% of global electricity consumption.

The mill (defined as crushing, grinding, and separation) typically accounts for 35 – 50% of the total mine’s OPEX costs, largely related to energy consumption. In general, comminution is extraordinarily energy-intensive, using 2 – 3% of the electrical energy consumed worldwide energy.1

Additionally, the comminution process is also estimated to be only 1% efficient, resulting in waste energy dissipated as heat, noise, and vibration.2

Towards a low-impact grinding circuit

Traditional horizontal grinding mills are relatively inefficient –large amounts of energy are consumed just turning the mill and lifting the grinding media – and energy is simply wasted through the high number of random actions within the mill during operation.

Utilising a high pressure grinding roll (HPGR), or a solution like the FLSmidth OK™ Mill, for primary grinding not only minimises environmental impact by operating the most efficient tools available, but literally reduces the actual impacts that normally occur in the grinding circuit by replacing the traditional SAG and ball mills and associated grinding media.

The HPGR is a dry grinding machine and, when configured with air classification, delivers a 100% water-free comminution circuit. The FLSmidth R&D Team have estimated that by eliminating SAG and ball mill grinding, media can save up to 100 000 tpy of CO2, with the circuit delivering power savings of 20 – 30% versus traditional SAG mill circuits.

Trade-off studies and analysis of operating plants dating back to 2006 show power savings in the range of 17 – 25% when replacing a SAG mill with a HPGR. The use of the OK Mill in mining is still conceptual, but high-level trade-off studies have observed power savings of approximately 20%.

Truckless mining

Loading and hauling with diesel-fuelled mobile plant can be a large source of greenhouse gas emissions from the mine — and it is energy inefficient. Haul trucks can employ more than 60% of energy used to just move themselves, while they also make multiple empty journeys.

Crushing ore in the pit and substituting trucks with continuous material transportation on belt conveyors powered with electric drives will significantly reduce emissions and make energy use more efficient. Conveyors rarely run empty, and use, on average, more than 80% of energy to move mined material.

A case study at an iron ore mine in Brazil showed that when conveyors replaced 100 off-highway trucks, it led to a reduction in waste (tyres, filters, and lubricants) and a 77% reduction in fuel consumption.

Figure 2. FLSmidth conveyors at work in Thailand.

Figure 1. High Pressure Grinding Roll-1600px (HPGR).

&

Operating sustainably

responsibly everyday

Pump upgrades can be crucial

Many slurry pumps have not had their performance examined closely since they were installed. A simple pump head replacement can be a low risk, low-cost upgrade – and save energy from between 5 – 10%. The reduction in power consumed is a result of a feature FLSmidth has in nearly all of its pumps: a wear ring. The wear ring allows the gap between the impeller and the suction side of the pump to be closed,

eliminating recirculation of slurry within the pump. Recirculation causes a drop in efficiency and an increase in power consumed.

A full pump upgrade can deliver even more impressive result. In one example in Africa, FLSmidth replaced a competitor’s aging pump with one of its own and not only did it improve wear life, but it resulted in a 21% reduction in power usage for the same duty.

The annual reduction was calculated to be approximately 1000 MWh. Putting this in perspective it is equivalent to removing over 90 American households from the grid. And this was just one pump replacement.

Do not look past digital optimisation

Smart Mill Sensor Technology, such as the LoadIQ™, can monitor and adjust mill load and capacity in real time, boosting throughput performance for all grinding conditions, reducing excessive power consumption and increasing energy efficiency.

FLSmidth have seen smart sensors, cutting edge technology and AI-based software work to achieve optimal capacity, resulting in increased throughput and reduced energy consumption. Digital’s benefit in process optimisation is that it can analyse processes in real time so that only the precise amount of energy needed is used, meaning zero energy waste.

Flotation innovation bubbles to the surface

Flotation and concentration use around 7% of a mine energy. A new innovation – coarse flotation – allows coarsely grinded material to be processed. This results in lower comminution costs, improved energy efficiency, and higher throughput. Total flotation energy consumption can be cut by up to 30%.

A second innovation in flotation is the REFLUX Flotation Cell (RFC) which out-performs conventional open tank systems in terms of recovery and stability. A 7-10-fold reduction in required flotation volume results in reduced cross-sectional area, ultimately requiring less air and water when compared to conventional systems. With no direct power input to the RFC, overall energy demand is substantially reduced – often by up to 60%.

Conclusion

By taking a full flowsheet approach to energy optimisation across the mine site, improvements can be easier to identify and can be combined to deliver savings of around 30%. These benefits not only mean a reduced environmental impact but can also mean lower operational costs and improved throughput and reduced downtime. Some solutions, digital innovations for instance, are not even difficult or time intensive to implement and can have a short return on investment timeline. The low-hanging fruit is there to be picked; and it will not even require that much energy.

References:

BALLANTYNE, G., and POWELL, M., ‘Benchmarking comminution energy consumption for the processing of copper and gold ores’, Minerals Engineering, vol. 65, (2014), pp. 109 – 114.

BOUCHARD, J., DESBIENS, A., and POULIN, E., ‘Reducing the energy footprint of grinding circuits: the process control paradigm’, IFAC-PapersOnLine, vol 50(1), (2016), pp. 1163 –1168.

Figure 3. The LoadIQ solution monitoring a mill.

Figure

REFLUX Flotation Cell (RFC).

Underground and open pit mining sites rely on heavy equipment for everyday operations involving excavation, transportation, crushing, sorting, and analysis. With the potential threats found in this industrial environment, it is especially imperative to ensure the safe use of tools and machinery to prevent injury to mine personnel. The right non-destructive testing method can improve safety by detecting flaws and anomalies before a potentially catastrophic failure.

Being able to detect a flaw when it is still tiny can save companies thousands, even millions, of dollars’ worth of repair work. It is certainly easier to repair a pinhole or crack in something like a process pipeline than to manage a full-scale rupture. Unfortunately, it can sometimes be difficult to get accurate details of minor flaws in order to address them effectively. The use of the total focusing method with phased array ultrasonic testing is widely accepted for similar applications across other industries, and the advanced inspection techniques are directly applicable to these more challenging mining equipment inspections.

Conventional ultrasonic testing

Conventional ultrasonic testing makes use of soundwaves to locate inconsistencies in parts. A probe, or transducer, passes over the material

Frederic Reverdy, Eddyfi Technologies, France, outlines how advanced non-destructive testing can help improve mining equipment operations.

and a high-frequency sound wave is sent out. In some instances, that wave will return to the same probe for a reading based on the echo it creates. This is called a pulse-echo ultrasound. Another technique is transmission mode which sends the sound wave to a separate receiver. Anomalies between those two points will diminish the sound wave.

Ultrasonic testing is a popular inspection method with the ability to test a wide range of materials. Technicians only need single surface access to inspect the item. It presents no health risks to users, unlike other methods like radiography. Abnormalities are discoverable regardless of orientation. Tests are relatively fast, and surface areas require minimal preparation.

While ultrasonic testing offers many benefits, much of the accuracy of readings depends on the skill of the operator. Poor operation will result in inaccurate results. Moreover, there are a few limitations inherent in these types of inspections. Sound waves may not reach every part of the inspected object, limiting result accuracy. Conventional ultrasonic testing is not ideal for inspecting over long distances. An uneven surface can result in poor alignment that gives inaccurate readings and false positives of flaws. Large grain materials, like austenitic steel, are challenging to

inspect as the sound waves are attenuated and diffracted by the grains. For normal incidence inspections, such as corrosion mapping, a dead zone close to the surface makes flaws undetectable.

Phased array ultrasonic testing

These issues can result in unnecessary repairs or downtime for equipment, so it is critical to find ways to work around them. One option is to leverage phased array ultrasonic testing over conventional single probes. While conventional ultrasonic testing consists of a single active element that generates and receives sound waves, phased array probes typically consist of an assembly of small individual elements that can each be pulsed separately. The principle of phased array is to fire the elements in such a way that the wave fronts interfere constructively, or destructively, in predictable ways that effectively steer and shape the sound beam. Phased array ultrasonic testing is capable of detecting more flaws than conventional methods, including discontinuities in awkward angles that are challenging to locate. It also speeds up the inspection process and allows for the evaluation of larger parts common across mining assets.

Total focusing method

The increased accuracy of phased array ultrasonic testing does come with a stipulation: the operator needs to carefully choose the aperture and focusing of the beams to obtain the desired sensitivity. A more advanced algorithm is available to focus the acoustic energy everywhere within a region of interest thus optimising sensitivity. The total focusing method algorithm leverages phased array ultrasonic testing data for better, more accurate readings. As a result, it provides a clear picture of the part under inspection. With this method, it is easier to find and accurately detail tiny defects that may have avoided prior detection. It also minimises inspection dead zones as single elements are fired rather than larger apertures.

With the right equipment, it is possible to locate tiny flaws even in a material that is traditionally hard to read. Yet not all ultrasonic equipment is capable of supporting the total focusing method. Typically, the user will need full matrix capture (FMC), a method where the probe records the acoustic information for each element of the probe. The generation can be an elementary FMC for which all the elements are fired one by one, or any other kind of excitation. The full matrix capture provides the information needed for the total focusing method to create detailed inspections. The total focusing method helps to make phased array ultrasonic testing much more sophisticated while minimising the risk of human error.

Commercial phased array ultrasonic testing

The first commercially available portable instrument to offer total focusing method, Eddyfi Technologies’ Gekko, is a field proven flaw detector that offers phased array ultrasonic testing and total focusing method in a compact and portable package for in-service inspection of mining equipment and assets. The embedded software flattens the

Figure

Cracking detected in long bolt.

Figure

Total focusing method for better bolt inspection.

Nothing should stand in the way of your productivity – least of all the materials you move. With our compact Hägglunds direct drive systems, you can adapt easily to the job at hand, taking advantage of full torque at an infinite range of speeds. And should an overload try to stop you, the drives’ low moment of inertia and quick response will keep your machines protected. We’ll support you too, with an agile global network and smart connectivity to bring you peace of mind. Driven to the core.

Hägglunds is a brand of Rexroth.

learning curve for any level inspector who also benefits from high-resolution and speed when performing weld inspection and corrosion mapping.

When considering the various heavy machinery involved with mining operations, there is a range of critical components that require routine integrity assessments. For example, TKY joints are the result of joining two pieces of metal together, either perpendicular or at an angle, and they can be found across mining assets everywhere. Embedded software on the instrument features an application that allows operators to define this type of geometry and positioning of ultrasonic echoes in the geometry for better interpretation of the visual results.

Complex components make up essential mining equipment, and from an ultrasonic standpoint, the difficulty for inspection comes with trying to define a proper scan plan and interpret the various ultrasonic echoes. The right phased array ultrasonic systems will have the ability to import 2D CAD files to assist operators with properly defining their scan plan. This allows focusing on the right locations for maximum sensitivity to flaws. A CAD file also allows the superimposition of ultrasonic testing data on the test piece to take the guesswork out of interpretation and defect sizing.

This example looks at the inspection of long bolts. One can see a 1 mm crack located in the threads.

This cracking is one of the most hazardous types of metal fatigue that may otherwise be missed and quietly deteriorate the mining component over time. With the total focusing method, one can detect thread wear before it is too late.

With conventional techniques, the ball studs connecting steering linkages found in industrial mining trucks present challenges around accessibility for inspection from the threaded side. However, phased array ultrasonic testing offers the solution by sweeping the beam along the tapered surface to look for cracks. By using a phased array ultrasonic testing probe positioned on one side and a set of delay laws focused along the opposite wall to maximise sensitivity, inspectors can discriminate indication from geometry echoes thanks to a superimposed overlay with the sectorial scan.

A phased array ultrasonic testing probe is also a great solution for bore and lug inspection, as it allows better coverage even with limited access, using multiple scanning angles for better detection and characterisation of cracking. Cracks are an inevitable result from the inner bore under high stress. It is preferred to perform inspection of these components with the pin or shaft in place, which allows for continued operation of the mining equipment. These components are usually thick with cracks, propagating in random directions. With a large aperture, the spatial resolution, and therefore sensitivity, for detection of smaller detects is improved. This allows preventative action to be taken with the more accurate sizing information.

Just like it is better to keep the pin or shaft in place for bore and lug inspection, shafts and axle inspections benefit from this same action. To avoid dismantling and limiting production, inspection is then required from the shaft end; this means long ultrasonic paths when considering these big, heavy, thick components. Large aperture probes can focus energy further, improving spatial resolution and the ability to find small flaws early. Defects as far as 1200 mm away can be detected. Again, CAD overlays of axles superimposed on the inspection data facilitates better interpretation and probability of detection.

A final example of the benefits of phased array ultrasonic testing for mining equipment inspection is the application of gear teeth assessment. Phased array ultrasonic testing can complement eddy current array inspections by searching for and measuring any internal and sub-surface defects found. The same logic applies where large probes can detect and size indications at an early stage, and CAD files can correctly position the indications in the gear teeth.

Conclusion

While it is difficult to imagine a failure of massive mining machinery from any of these smaller components, it is all too well known that halted operations (or worse) are what is at risk without proper condition monitoring. Advances in non-destructive testing equipment remove the element of surprise with increased productivity and reduced risk, thanks to the proactive inspection data results offered.

Figure 3. Phased array ultrasonic testing enables clear flaw detection in ball studs.

Figure 4. Shaft and axle inspection.

The drilling industry requires constant improvements and innovations, both in terms of safety and productivity. Barkom Group has manufactured, and served, a wide variety of drill rigs and drilling equipment, following the needs of the market and updating their manufacturing stages to stay at the forefront of an ever-changing industry.

The company specialises in creating drilling equipment and rigs that deliver power and precision, while constantly improving on operator safety and productivity. Barkom’s vision is to create the most suitable drill rig for any given task, offering high levels of efficiency and operator comfort, while requiring minimal levels of service and maintenance. All equipment is designed to be highly productive, while keeping operating costs to a minimum.

Barkom Group’s new drill rig, which has recently been completed, aims to bring a new, innovative approach to exploration. The company’s research and development team, who set out to create a unique rig, have released the BD2000M: one rig that can drill using two different methods: diamond core drilling and reverse circulation (RC) drilling.

Ceren Şatırlar Balcı and Müzeyyen Çakır, Barkom Group Drilling Rigs and Equipment, Turkey, review the functions and uses of a new multi-purpose drill rig and its role in the ever-changing mining industry.

Figure 1. BD2000M centaliser view.

The two drilling methods

Diamond core and RC are drilling techniques that utilise completely different systems. Diamond drilling has revolutionised the mining industry and directly resulted in the discovery of many minable orebodies that would otherwise have gone untapped. Before the introduction of mainstream diamond drilling, mining was still primarily dependent on finding outcrops of rock, with little information available about ore concentrations below the surface. Diamond drilling allows for the removal of solid cylinders of rock (core) from the depths of the earth. The term diamond core drilling comes from the ‘diamond bit’ used during this process. The diamond bit works with a system that is called the core barrel, which collects the core and is then attached to a drill rod,

which measures approximately 3 m in length. More sections of the pipe can be attached to the top of the drill rod, allowing greater depths to be drilled as needed. Therefore, the number of rods attached to the top of the drill rod will determine the depth that can be drilled. Within the drill rod, a core tube is attached to a cable by a latching mechanism. The core tube is lifted to the surface using the cable, which is called wireline, to allow for the removal of the solid core.

Advantages of diamond core drilling

n Speed of operation: The speed of diamond core drilling is faster than the alternatives. This is due to the high amounts of pressure – generated via a hydraulic piston – that the diamond drill bit is able to exert onto the material that it is drilling through.

n Safety: There are drill rig models that can give an option for a remote controlled traveling system. This means in unsafe areas the drill rig can travel without the operator.

n Accuracy: The diamond drill bits can withstand tough forces, and the equipment that is used with diamond core drilling will help give the desired results.

n Adaptability: diamond core drilling is not limited to one mine type, with this method, it is possible to drill through any type of ore.

The RC method

RC drilling is fundamentally different from diamond core drilling, both in terms of equipment and core sampling. One major difference is that RC drilling creates small rock chips instead of a solid core. Other differences are in the rate of penetration and cost (p/ft). RC drilling is faster than diamond core drilling, and can also be less expensive depending on the project. The technique focuses on core recovery, drilling in a very broken formation and trying to receive as much core as possible, all things better suited to RC drilling than diamond core drilling.

RC drilling requires much larger equipment, including a high capacity air compressor. The compressor forces air down the outer space of a double wall pipe. The air then circulates back up through the inner pipe carrying the rock chips (core), which are recovered at the surface. The chips travel at such high velocity that they must be slowed down first, using a cyclone. The return pipe directs the chips to the inside of the wall of the cyclone chamber, and then to spiral downwards to the bottom of the cyclone, losing velocity in the process. The chips are collected continuously as the drill advances into the ground. Drill pipes used for RC drilling range from 3.5 – 8 in. in diameter, and 20 ft in length. Each pipe is extremely heavy and requires the use of a winch to lift and position over the drill hole.

Since its foundation in the early 1970s in Australia, RC drilling has become a preferred method for initial exploration and grade control due to its many advantages. These include: n Extracts reliable samples that are free of contaminants.

n Time and cost-efficient.

Figure 2. BD2000M general right side view.

Figure

BD2000M control and rotation units.

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Hardox® 500 Tuf is also tough enough to perform as a structural steel, allowing for a stronger and lighter mining body that can take high impact loads with less supporting structures.

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n Well-suited for difficult terrains.

n High penetration rates.

n Minimal environmental impact.

A multi-purpose drill rig

The Bulldrill BD2000M is a powerful, versatile drill, efficient in all forms of exploration drilling and boasting a range of standard features and options. It is possible to switch between different drilling methods without even leaving the hole. Barkom Group’s BD2000M drill rig is equally productive in all drilling methods, and is adaptable in mineral exploration, directional, and geotechnical drilling across the globe.

The BD2000M offers more depth capacity in both diamond and RC drilling, and has the highest capacity in terms of depth in Barkom Group’s range of exploration drill rigs.

Key technical features for the BD2000M

n The hollow spindle type rotation unit, with 2x4 gears, has the ability incorporate both methods of drilling – diamond core drilling and RC drilling – in one unit. So, a single hollow spindle rotary head can achieve both methods of drilling.

n A heavy-duty, top drive rotation unit, which includes a type second hydraulic motor, is also one of the options offered in RC drilling and diamond core drilling.

n The system calculates the torque given to the rod threads, increasing drill rod productivity and life span.

n The tray includes an onboard rod storage bin, which holds diamond core rods or reverse circulation rods.

n Its strong chassis and travel system makes overcoming physicals obstacles and advancing forward simple.

n It has an easy setting and stability capability in sloping and difficult terrains.

n Due to the hollow spindle rotation unit, rodrunning does not waste any time.

n It has a Volvo (315 hp) engine transferring power to the selected hydraulic components.

n Has robust hydraulic jacks, truck or track mounted; 22 t pullback, 12 t pull down; inbuilt breakout system; manual breakout; wireless remote for tramming; 6 m drill pipe capacity; 1 m – 250 kg jib winch; hose covering; robust rod holder (hydraulic power opens/closes by gas spring); high capacity wireline drum (6 mm – 2300 m rope); risk assessment; and more.

Conclusion

Barkom Group will continue to sign joint projects with leading universities in the field of R&D and make significant scientific contributions to a rapidly developing industry. By continuing to work on new projects in strength, power, hydraulic design, mechanical design and prototype manufacturing of rigs, the company will move forward by offering the latest high value-added products to its customers.

COMPLETE, END TO END FLOTATION OPTIMIZATION

Brad Schmidt, Trimble Applanix, Canada, considers the use of UAVs in mining operations; with productivity gains, more informed decision making, and increased safety among the benefits.

The use of uncrewed/unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in the mining industry continues to expand, as UAVs demonstrate their value in support of a wide variety of mining requirements.

Developments in the UAV industry driving this momentum include continued improvement in UAV aerial platforms, such as vertical take-off and landing (VTOLS), sensors systems and flight endurance, along with precision and accuracy for data collected.

UAVs are increasingly providing exceptional benefits for various mining industry applications, including mineral exploration, mine development and production (exploitation), as well as with the reclamation phase.

Mineral exploration

For mineral exploration, UAVs are being used in support of prospecting through the application of hyperspectral scanners, and other sensors mounted on UAVs. Hyperspectral imaging utilises spectroscopy to identify minerals or deposits of geological materials. Adding this layer of information to traditional prospecting data can assist in identifying viable mine development opportunities.

Another application is for geophysical mapping. UAVs today can carry electromagnetic sensors, radars and natural gamma ray sensors, all of which can capture geophysical measurements. In addition, according to a paper presented by D’Alessandro et al. at the 2015 Near Surface Geoscience

Conference, uncrewed aircraft system (UAS) technology has several advantages over conventional airborne geophysics, including:

n Resolution and accuracy are higher compared to the deployment of conventional crewed aircraft, because a UAS can fly with a much lower ground clearance.

n It is cost effective and requires less personnel compared to conventional geophysical platforms.

n Only the area of interest is flown; no excess flight lines are necessary.

Exploitation: Mine development and production

Once in the mine development and production phase, UAVs are providing exceptional value for supporting the extraction of materials, such as with the open pit mine example illustrated in Figure 2. Different mineral/material formations can be identified via hyperspectral imagery, with heavy extraction equipment being directed towards viable deposits.

Another example is using UAVs to capture updated digital terrain models of surface activity, such as with the extraction of deposits, or surveying and monitoring of tailings dams and piles. By capturing and analysing 3D terrain data, mining companies can ensure the structural integrity of these features. This 3D imaging data can be easily captured using light detection and ranging (LiDAR)

sensor systems carried as a payload on UAVs. These sensors use a pulsed laser to calculate an object's variable distances from the earth’s surface. These light pulses, combined with information collected by the UAV system, generate accurate 3D information about the earth’s surface, essentially creating a digital twin of what exists on the ground. Using this UAV surveying and mapping technology, in place of ground base surveys provides better accuracy, lower data collection costs and added safety, as crews do not need to be sent to collect data in hazardous areas.

Reclamation/remediation

During the reclamation phase, UAVs can provide support for forest and vegetation restoration and monitoring; environmental analysis, such as measuring the concentration of any hazardous minerals; the monitoring of re-cultivated tailings zones; and other uses. Typical UAV data products required to support the reclamation phase include orthoimagery, digital surface models (DSM), land cover maps, soil property maps, slope and drainage maps, along with following the health and rejuvenation of replanted vegetation.

Red green blue (RGB) cameras, multi-spectral sensors, and LiDAR mounted on either fixed-wing or multi-rotor UAVs are often used to capture much of this information. RGB imagery can be used to generate orthoimagery and land cover maps, while multi-spectral data can help evaluate vegetation health and soil conditions. Mounting LiDAR on a UAV can provide the necessary data for the accurate creation of digital terrain and surface models. Collecting this information over time helps to ensure the restoration phase proceeds as planned.

UAV technology considerations for mining

Selecting the right UAV system to support mining activities involves several key considerations. First and foremost, considering what data needs to be collected is important, as this will determine the sensor payload that will support the requirements. Typically, hyperspectral sensors are useful for mineral and materials exploration, while RGB cameras, multi-spectral scanners and LiDAR are useful for assessing changes, and the extraction of earth materials at the mine site. Multi-spectral sensor systems prove useful for mine remediation, where the re-introduction of indigenous vegetation may need to be monitored over time.

Another important consideration is the precision and the accuracy of the data collected. Sensor payloads that carry an integrated GNSS/inertial system are best, and can provide survey grade results. These systems can employ direct georeferencing (DG), which does not require the collection of ground control points. Collected data also needs to be processed, which typically involves georeferencing the data to a standard format, followed by information extraction and data analysis.

The future of UAVs in the mining industry and uncrewed mining

Figure

a

surveying

in mining, inclusive of a differential correction solution and data processing

The use of UAVs and autonomous vehicles/technologies will continue to grow within the mining industry, and will transform the way mines operate and manage

Figure 2. Hyperspectral imagery overlay in Google (Image courtesy of Norsk Elektro Optikk AS).

Figure 1. UAV with HySpex hyperspectral scanner (Image courtesy of Norsk Elektro Optikk AS).

illustrated by Trimble Applanix.

TO RECOVER VALUABLE RAW MATERIALS

BATTERIES?

Electric vehicles, smartphones, computers and many more everyday items rely on lithium batteries. And as our society continues to move towards green technologies, it is essential to ensure that these batteries are not disposed of by landfill when they reach the end of their usable life. Luckily, both the recycling process for old batteries and the process

for valorization of production rejects are not exactly rocket science. For example, ANDRITZ can assist you with process know-how and proven technologies for separating the battery coating from the black mass and recovering the valuable base metals, such as lithium, cobalt, or graphite. Be it breaking down with shredders, dewatering with filter presses,

peeler or pusher centrifuges, or drying with paddle, helix or plate dryers – with our broad portfolio and comprehensive experience, we can offer you a solution that will make your old batteries a valuable commodity again and protect the environment at the same time.

their business. Even more so, these technologies will be further integrated to work in tandem.

UAVs will perform such tasks as mine site surveys, monitoring and inspection, with the data collected being used to direct autonomous vehicles, such as self-driving ore carrying trucks, and various robots to complete specified tasks.

Mining engineers and technicians will work cooperatively with a pool of autonomous vehicles and robots that will support the physical work load, while the human labour force will provide decision-making and work authorisation.

Positive outcomes of this transformation include productivity gains, better mine site management and oversite, and more accurate and timely information for decision making. Most importantly, safety will be improved by keeping mine crews clear of many of the most dangerous mining activities.

The digital transformation of a mining worksite with automated vehicles and workflows is not without its challenges. For example, robotic technology – such as UAVs – working with autonomous vehicles still requires integration; and the development of autonomous operational and decision-making algorithms, improved sensing systems, and achieving positional accuracy for moving assets remains critical.

Even with the challenges posed, the advances being made in the technology and the use of UAVs in mining is modernising the industry and improving the operations from start to finish.

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Figure 5. LIDAR image of a mining site (Image courtesy of YellowScan).

Figure 4. UAVs working in tandem with autonomous mining vehicles (Image courtesy of Trimble Applanix).

Clean energy is on everyone’s mind as the world becomes increasingly environmentally conscious. As a highly efficient conductor, copper is widely used in renewable energy applications, such as solar, hydroelectric, thermal, and wind power generation. The demand for this metal is therefore constantly growing but, at the same time, the world is running out of higher grade, easily accessible ore bodies, and mine operators are having to work with ever-decreasing copper grades. There are predictions of a shortfall of 15 million tpy by 2034, based on the current output, meaning that existing mining efficiencies must be boosted to match supply with demand. A key part of these optimisation efforts is real-time sampling and measurement across the mineral processing value chain, in order to provide an in-depth understanding of each plant’s performance. This data will make it possible to assess each step of the process, as well as optimise and

identify possible improvements in vital areas of the plant. This includes optimising process control through ore grade analysis, sorting on the mill feed conveyor, particle size analysis in the grinding circuit, controlling the addition of reagents in the flotation circuit to maximise recovery, and elemental analysis and impurity detection in the concentrate leaving the plant.

Copper is sought after for its high conductivity, and is commonly used to transform energy from renewable sources – such as solar, hydro, thermal, and wind – into electrical power. Unfortunately, as the industry demand grows, there is a growing shortage of higher-grade ore bodies. This means that miners must extract the precious metal from ore where the concentration of copper is as low as 0.5%, requiring significantly larger volumes to be processed to obtain the same amount of the metal. Aside from low grade ore and the rising demand, miners must also

Ellen Thomson, Thermo Fisher Scientific, UK, details how technologies and digital innovations are essential to tackling global copper supply issues.

deal with the emerging carbon emission targets, aiming for net zero by 2050. It is therefore crucial to improve performance across the entire mining value chain to optimise metal production, as well as to minimise the mine’s tailings footprint and reduce energy and water requirements.

Know your ore

The efficiency of a mining operation can be improved across many steps, starting at the extraction of raw material from

the ground, through the crushing process, and onto the mill feed conveyor. It is vital to understand the grade of the plant feed, as this will affect the performance of the concentrator and, therefore, production costs. Knowing the grade entering the process helps to reduce the dilution of incoming feeds, and allows redirection of low or marginal grade material – which is not economically viable – away from the concentrator as soon as possible. This greatly improves the raw feed material consistency and concentrator efficiency, as only ore at or above the target cut-off grade will be processed. However, getting a good overview of the plant feed grade can sometimes be tricky, as not all deposits are homogeneous. Bulk testing using a high spec analyser to test the minerals in real time can be a good method to rapidly differentiate the material grade, helping to increase profits for established plants.

Finding the optimal size

Grinding and crushing is an integral part of the mining process – accounting for over 50% of the total energy consumption – but there is still no consensus on the optimal particle size for a certain ore grade. On one hand, creating finer particles liberates more metal, but this consumes more energy and media, increasing the costs. It is therefore crucial to strike a balance between particle size and circuit throughput that limits consumption of grinding media and energy, while still maximising metal yields. The chosen target can be controlled through real-time analysis of particle size and head grade elemental composition, which can be done efficiently using gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) with a cross-belt system, such as the CB Omni™ Agile Online Elemental Analyzer. This approach can have a significant beneficial impact on the efficiency of the grinding circuit, as well as the following process stages – such as the flotation circuit – as homogeneous particle size and composition make stabilisation easier.

Very small particles float

During the flotation process, the floatability of different minerals is altered using frothers, collectors, depressants, and pH modifiers. These reagents depress unwanted minerals, while the desired metals attach to the bubbles and rise to the surface, where they can be easily collected. Although this may sound simple, the incoming ore is often of varying size, and can contain an excess of fine particles, which require a larger dose of reagents. This leads to poorly-optimised reagent additions, resulting in increased costs. This is not only expensive, but also has negative impacts on the environment, and it is therefore important to tailor the dosages of the flotation chemicals in response to the incoming ore grade and particle size.

Keeping an eye on impurities

Impurities reduce the quality and, ultimately, the value of the concentrate. However, understanding the concentrations of these impurities can often be overlooked during ore processing. In worst case scenarios, this may lead to the concentrate being rejected upon delivery at the receiving site, causing substantial financial impacts and reputational damage. Systematic impurity detection can

Figure 1. Average copper ore head grades over time.

Figure 2. Thermo Scientific™ CB Omni Agile Online Elemental Analyzer.

Figure 3: Thermo Scientific AnStat-330 Online Sampling and Elemental Analysis Station.

help mining companies to improve the quality of their concentrates, increasing credibility and avoiding fines. The optimal solution would be to continuously test the product throughout the whole production chain, from ore extraction to concentrate. However, this can be quite challenging due to concentrated slurries, high tonnages, and geographical separation between sampling and analysis.

A common solution to this problem is use of multi-stream analysers – like the Thermo Scientific MSA 3300 Slurry XRF Analyzer – which support plants with the critical information required to optimise process control, and provide shift samples for metallurgical accounting purposes. Investing in high quality analytical technology –such as the AnStat-330 Online Sampling and Elemental Analysis Station – may be a better long-term solution for critical streams that require more rapid results. This type of online solution can help to optimise control of your plant and maximise recovery while meeting grade targets, as well as eliminate pumping requirements. This deals with the various problems related to process control of critical streams, time to results, distance from sampler to analyser, and the requirement for a metallurgical accounting quality sample.

Planning ahead

Identifying the bottlenecks, and finding the reasons behind a plant’s sub-optimal performance, makes it possible for a site to predict and optimise metal production. Data is therefore vital, and an efficient way to collect relevant, reliable digital information is through a digital twin; a virtual representation of the concentrator that collects data from process instrumentation and other systems, then stores it on the cloud. An accurate digital twin model allows mines to explore different scenarios and process parameters, predicting their outcomes without any disturbances to the mine’s operation. In this manner, metal production can be optimised for any given scenario, which will prevent unnecessary expenditure and yield better returns on investments. In some cases, up to 20 – 40 times return on investments could be seen, simply through the implementation of

digital twins. In addition, this technology enables advanced, automated process control to be established, increasing efficiency and depopulating mines.

Summary

The mining industry is facing a lot of challenges, as the demand for copper grows at the same time as plants are forced to work with ever-decreasing ore grades. This means that miners must weigh the potential yield against production costs, balancing the need for smaller particle sizes to maximise recovery against the increased energy requirements and reagent usage, which can lead to increased costs and environmental impacts. Having an accurate measurement of the grade of the ore entering the process, and a deep understanding of the performance throughout the various production stages, can help to determine the right balance of yield vs costs. Luckily, there are many measurement technologies and digital innovations that can empower miners and inform their choices.

Cincinnati

Harold Cline, TOMRA, USA, explores the recent developments and applications of multi-channel LASERs for sensor-based sorting.

The concept and implementation of multi-channel LASER sensor-based sorting was initially developed around 1997, and has matured in the food processing industry where applications have become very sophisticated. For instance, food sorters detect dangerous mold allowing removal of aflatoxins from nuts. In recycling, LASER sorters are used to remove glass from mixed waste streams. In mining, there are currently three main applications for LASER sorters. The first application involves detection of quartz, where the quartz acts as a good proxy for gold. The second application of LASER sorting is in the production of high-purity quartz, and the third most common application is in the removal of basalt from lithium. These mining applications are discussed in more detail in this article. It is estimated that more than 3000 LASER sorters are currently installed and in operation around the world.

For a recent overview of sensor-based sorting technology see Robben and Wotruba, 2019.1

Quartz-associated gold applications

There is no sensor available that is currently capable of directly detecting gold for the purposes of sensor-based sorting, where material is passing by a detector at a rate of thousands of rocks per second, and which occurs at very low relative concentrations in run-of-mine (ROM) ore. For that reason, proxies or associations are the most successful approaches for gold. Quartz and sulfide associations are the most practical and successful associations utilised in sensor-based sorting. Fortunately, some of the most common types of gold deposits in North America are structurally controlled quartz veins, which are very amenable to detection using LASER sorters.

Frequently, gold is associated with both quartz and sulfide minerals.2 In this case, both LASER sorting and X-ray transmission (XRT) sorting may be indicated to maximise recovery. For instance, in Brazil, AngloGold Ashanti uses both LASER and XRT sorting to achieve an average of 97% gold recovery, which is concentrated in 40% of the feed.

As a cautionary tale from experience, a certain measure of diligence should be exercised before implementing sorting for all gold projects. On deposits where sorting is beneficial, its results can be quite dramatic, especially for low grade or marginal zones of deposits. However, test sample selection and test work should be conducted with a great deal of thoroughness to minimise risk before implementing sorting.

LASER sorting test results from a quartz-associated brownfields project, located in South America, display the extreme variability of test results in some gold projects. The upgrade factor (ratio of sorter product grade to feed grade) varied from 1.0 (no upgrade) to 3.1 (an excellent upgrade factor). The average upgrade factor was 2.1 for eight LASER sorting test runs. For the test run where there was no upgrade, 12% of the mass contained quartz, and was removed from the feed. For the test run where there was an upgrade of 3.1, there was 92% gold recovery in only 3% of the mass. In other words, 97% of the feed did not contain quartz and so did not contain gold. This last test would represent a significant removal of gangue material, and a significant increase in the gold content of the mill feed. This particular project is still in the test phase.

High-purity quartz applications

The first mining LASER sorter was delivered in 2016 for a high purity quartz application in Europe. Since then, LASER sorters have been

commissioned around the world, and high-purity quartz is the most common use of LASER sorting.

The detection of high-purity quartz in alluvial deposits is accomplished by using multiple LASERs. The LASER system measures the interaction of the LASER through reflection, absorption, and scattering caused by the internal structures of

different materials. High quality quartz is used in the production of silicon for semiconductors and other uses. Colour sorting has been historically used because there is, in general, a correlation between iron content and the colour of quartz. This correlation does not always exist and sometimes there is a wide range of colouration in alluvial deposits which complicates colour sorting.3

Mikroman, a Turkish-based quartz producer, uses a combination of colour and LASER sorters to differentiate, or grade, quartz material into multiple products to optimise its revenue. Mikroman uses colour sorting techniques to make white quartz with low iron oxide content for use as architectural stones, and to make grey and yellow quartz for the glass industry. It uses LASER sorting to produce coloured quartz for the ferrosilicon or metallurgical sector, and to make coloured gravel to be used as aggregates.

Elmore Sand & Gravel, located in Alabama, USA, employs LASER sorting in order to move its operation out of wetland areas, where the high-quality quartz exists, into drier areas where lower quality stone must be used.4,5 At Elmore, the challenge for using colour sorting is that not all white stones are quartz, and some darker stones are a viable quartz product. Their goal is to expand their product portfolio by creating a quartz product with iron content below 0.04% from various types and qualities of feed. The sorting objective, therefore, is to remove all rocks that are not quartz, and keep dark rocks that are quartz, thereby increasing their yield of viable products to sell.

The advantage of LASER sorting is outlined in Table 1.

Lithium applications – basalt removal from spodumene

Currently, most lithium processing plants utilise a conventional two-stage crushing system ahead of the final high-pressure grinding rolls (HPGR). This is followed by dense media separation (DMS), which is used as the primary spodumene concentration process. DMS relies on the density of spodumene being higher than silica and feldspars. Problems occur when basalt contamination enters the process; due to its high density, this dark colored, high-iron, barren material is also concentrated by the DMS. This negatively impacts the flotation recovery and contaminates the final product.

A recent discovery is that LASER sorting turns out to be a useful solution for removing basalt contamination from lithium. This is a common challenge encountered in many spodumene operations. For example, at Galaxy Resources’ Mt. Cattlin Mine in Western Australia,6 a LASER sorting system has been in operation since September 2021 to reduce basalt intrusion contaminants occurring in the pegmatite-hosted spodumene. The target level to be achieved is less than 4% basalt in the concentrate exiting the LASER sorter. To date, the product coming out of the sorter has met, and even exceeded specifications. Previously, optical (colour) sorters were used, but were unable to consistently achieve the specifications.

Future developments of LASER sorting

LASER sorters are deployed in a chute configuration so that up to four different LASERs per side (eight LASERs total) can be utilised

a single LASER sorter. LASERs produce an intense light source

a single wavelength. Infrared (IR) and red LASERs are most

Figure

Figure

Tertiary LASER sorter

Mining

sorting quartz at Mikroman.

4. “We have 1.2 million t to treat, and we will have treated the best part of it in 9 – 12 months. With the TOMRA sorter, we are using far more contaminated ore than we would previously have processed.”, Matthew Bateman, Principal Metallurgist Galaxy Resources.

commonly used at this time. However, blue and green laser can be added to the mix if they add value. Recent discoveries have also indicated that the addition of a shortwave infrared (SWIR) LASER can add value in certain applications, such as in iron/manganese sorting. As we gain more experience on different applications, the ability to combine multiple LASERs will allow a greater number of sorting criteria for achieving the most optimal results.

As currently engineered, LASER sorters are designed to work with particles in the 20 – 120 mm (¾ in. – 4 ¾ in.) size range. However, there are certain applications where a better separation (coarse particle liberation) occurs with smaller particles. Therefore, due to the success of LASER sorting,

and driven by customer requirements, engineering is nearly complete for a new LASER sorting configuration able to handle particles in the 6 – 32 mm (¼ in. – 1 ¼ in.) size range. This configuration is due to be released in the very near future.

Situations where LASER sorting may not be recommended

There are clear reasons for not implementing LASER sorting under certain circumstances. These are fairly obvious, but it is worth mentioning them for discussion purposes.

First of all, if the sorting objectives can reliably be achieved using simple colour optical sorting, then the extra capital expense for a LASER sorter would not be warranted. An example would be using colour sorting to simply remove dark particles from quartz for producing a very white final product. This is a simple and straight-forward application that does not require LASER technology and has a lower initial capital investment than LASER sorting.

Secondly, if quartz is not a suitable proxy for gold in the deposit, then LASER sorting is not a good choice. This information may already be known from previous mineralogical evaluation or may be proven through LASER sorting test work.

Another possible disqualification is the availability of water at site. LASER sorting requires imaging of a clean surface. So, if wash water is not available, either because of arid conditions or arctic temperatures, LASER sorting may not be a viable operation.

Finally, as is true of any mineral processing unit operation, if sorting does not achieve the intended technical requirements, or does not produce a clear business advantage, then it should not be implemented.

Conclusion

TSUBAKI BS-F SERIES BACKSTOPS

Multi-channel LASER sorting presents an effective new tool for applications in gold, quartz, and lithium. The technology has now been deployed, improved, and is currently in operation at locations around the world and should be evaluated to determine whether it delivers a value-add on suitable projects.

References

1. ROBBEN, C., and WOTRUBA, H., ‘Sensor-Based Ore Sorting Technology in Mining – Past, Present, and Future’, Minerals, 9, 523, (2019).

2. MICHAUD, D., ‘Geology of Hard Rock Gold Deposits’, 911Metallurgist, (2015) https://www.911metallurgist. com/blog/geology-of-hard-rock-gold-deposits

3. DEHLER, M., ‘Precise Separating Sensor-Based Sorting of Quartz using Multi-Channel LASER Detection’, ATMineralProcessing(Englishversion), (2017).

4. CLINE, GOODIN, DECENSO, and RUTLEDGE, ‘Using Sensor-Based LASER Sorting to Increase Grade and Recovery of Quartz at Elmore Sand & Gravel’, SME MINEXCHANGE, (2020).

5. DECENSO and CLINE, ‘Laser Sorters Minimize Iron Content and Maximize Yield for Quartz Producers’, Industrial Mineral Association of North America TechnologyWorkshop, (2017).

6. ‘TOMRA Mining’s Ore Sorting Technology Unlocks Value at Mt Cattlin Lithium Mine’, ModernMining, (2022), https://www.crown.co.za/modern-mining/technologynews/20198-tomra-mining-s-ore-sorting-technologyunlocks-value-at-mt-cattlin-lithium-mine

Figure 1. Integrating eccentric screening technology, state-of-the-art screen media and diagnostic tools can prevent blinding, pegging, carry-over or contamination, improving screening performance, productivity, and profits.

Duncan High, Haver & Boecker Niagara, assesses how departing from traditional screening systems to advanced technologies improves productivity and profits.

Global demand for aggregates and mining materials is on the rise, with the industry facing an expected growth of nearly 4.2 billion t over the next 15 years. That is a lot of material, which means producers need efficient equipment to meet spec and turn a meaningful profit.

Every tonne of material must go over at least one vibrating screen, so ensuring the equipment’s efficiency is critical to an operation’s success. The good news is that there are technologies available today that can help increase or improve screening productivity. Integrating cutting-edge systems, such as eccentric screening technology, state-of-the-art screen media, and diagnostic tools can prevent blinding, pegging, carry-over or contamination, while improving screening performance, productivity, and profits.

Heighten screening action

Vibrating screens that are engineered with a double eccentric shaft assembly create a constant stroke to maintain g-force

during material surging. The double eccentric shaft design forces the screen body to follow the movement of the shaft. While the shaft travels up, the counterbalance weights move in the opposite direction and create a force equal to what is generated by the body. As a result, the forces cancel each other out and maintain a consistent positive stroke that handles material volume spikes without losing momentum.

One producer in Western Canada quickly saw the benefits of switching to double eccentric screening technology when they replaced two horizontal vibrating screens with one double eccentrically-driven, four-bearing inclined vibrating screen. Changing its equipment helped to eliminate surging, blinding, pegging and material contamination challenges, while increasing their production by 25%.

Reduce damaging vibrations

A vibrating screen’s operation can have a large impact on a machine’s surroundings. The metal springs on a traditional

concentric vibrating screen, for example, can be noisy to operate. This metal-to-metal, up-and-down, or side-to-side movement can cause excessive noise and vibration. To resolve this problem, double eccentric technology makes use of shear

rubber mounts that are strategically designed to minimise lateral movement. The rubber mounts reduce noise while maintaining smoother operation, even in extreme circumstances, such as overloading, surging and starting, or stopping under load.

The use of eccentric technology virtually eliminates vibration in the structure – or chassis when used with portable equipment – which protects the integrity of the machine. This means producers can potentially use multiple eccentric vibrating screens in one structure, boosting productivity. Attempting to operate multiple concentric machines in a structure, however, could create vibrations damaging enough to not only cause a negative effect on the quality of production but open the door to safety risks and possible downtime.

A leading phosphate producer in North America –producing nearly 8 million tpy – increased screening area by 60% by transitioning to double eccentric equipment. The mine incorporates a six-story screening plant to house multiple vibrating screens that run 24/7. Multi-story screen houses are common in the industry, but can pose structural concerns due to the vibrating screens’ size, capacity, and force. Opting for double eccentric technology eliminated those concerns.

Improve stratification

Combining the use of advanced eccentric screening technology with the best screen media for the application is a recipe for success. Specifically, polyurethane screen media can be a beneficial asset to any operation seeking to prevent blinding and pegging, while improving material stratification and increasing wear life.

Figure 3. By analysing applicational requirements, producers can strategically select a blend of screen media that maximises their vibrating screen's performance in all phases of screening –from layered to basic to sharp.

Polyurethane media offers the best combination of open area and wear life for both wet and dry applications. In particular, polyurethane screen media that is poured open cast can result in 1.5 – 2 times longer wear life than injection-molded products. Open cast polyurethane permanently hardens when cured to maintain its chemical properties and improve wear life. Alternatively, injection-molded screen media can soften when temperatures rise, resulting in shorter wear life. Polyurethane screen media also features tapered openings to reduce the risk of blinding and pegging.

The solution to improving material stratification lies in finding the ideal mix of screen media types to ensure all phases of screening work correctly. A screen media company that offers a variety of screen media types can help evaluate how material moves through the three phases of screening –from layered, to basic, to sharp – to give recommendations on the best screen media for an application. Producers can customise the screen deck by choosing screen media that maximises productivity for each phase by blending the best combination of open area and wear life.

Prevent equipment damage

Figure 4. Vibration analysis software monitors the vibrating screen’s performance in real-time, by detecting problems before they lead to diminished performance, decreased efficiency, and increased operating costs.

A vibrating screen needs regular checkups to run optimally. Vibration analysis and diagnostic systems designed specifically for vibrating screens by OEMs are reliable tools for maintaining continued efficiency and longevity of screening machines. To ensure the best productivity, operations can partner with an OEM that specialises not only in manufacturing equipment, but also offers additional

Figure 2. Eccentric technology virtually eliminates vibration in the structure – or chassis when used with portable equipment –which protects the integrity of the machine.

diagnostic tools, product-specific knowledge, and years of engineering experience.

Utilising vibration analysis software, for example, allows mining and aggregates operations to monitor a vibrating screen’s performance in real-time by detecting problems before they lead to diminished performance, decreased efficiency, and increased operating costs. The most robust systems incorporate eight wireless sensors that magnetically fasten to key areas of a vibrating screen and measure orbit, acceleration, deviations, and other important data points that indicate the condition of the machine. The sensors send real-time information wirelessly to be analysed, ideally by an OEM-certified service technician who can provide a detailed summary and recommendations.

Some manufacturers use vibration analysis technology to offer impact testing – or a bump test – which ensures proper machine calibration and promotes efficient operation. Impact testing involves striking the machine at key points with a dead blow hammer while the machine is off. Vibration analysis sensors are placed at key locations on the vibrating screen while a technician tests the natural frequency of a machine. Based on the results, engineers can adjust machine parameters to avoid operating in resonance, which can diminish productivity, incur damage to vibrating screens, and pose safety risks. It is important to note that natural frequency can shift over time as components are repaired or replaced, so the impact test should be conducted regularly. By incorporating impact testing into an operation’s regular maintenance routine, producers can ensure optimum screening performance and equipment reliability.

Another advanced diagnostic tool is condition monitoring, which is designed to monitor the health of vibrating screens using modern algorithms and artificial intelligence. The system utilises permanent sensors that monitor the equipment 24/7 to capture real-time information and provide alerts via e-mail immediately upon the first sign of a potential problem. By constantly monitoring the accelerations of the vibrating screen, certain systems can even forecast the equipment’s dynamic condition in regular intervals of 48 hours, 5 days, and 4 weeks. With consistent use, condition monitoring software will accurately point out and predict critical issues, as well as advise when to schedule maintenance, along with what to focus on during that planned downtime.

By using diagnostic programs to conduct regular analysis, and by engaging in predictive and preventative maintenance, operations will see minimised downtime through faster problem-solving, lower repair costs, and increased peace of mind.

Increase profits through advanced technology

The development of the double eccentric vibrating screen and other screening technology provides operations with innovative and cost-effective ways to increase their profits and efficiency. By integrating the right equipment, screen media and vibration analysis systems, producers can see more uptime, higher quality results, increased productivity, and greater profits.

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mining and minerals processing

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and minerals

The demand for lithium is growing, driven by the demand for batteries in electric vehicles (EV) and machines that use electric motors, instead of internal combustion engines, as a means of reducing emissions. The mineral known as spodumene is a critical source of lithium. Producing lithium at the required scale requires massive new infrastructure, made possible by a high degree of automation from the mining pit through the concentration plant, the refinery, and on to the battery factory. Automation of ore mining, processing, and refining thus plays a critical role in accelerating electrification

and decarbonisation. Apart from a large amount of general-purpose process automation, many specialised automation solutions are also required that go beyond core process control. This article will highlight a few of these solutions that are particularly valuable for lithium production.

Optimising production processes Ore is extracted and processed into spodumene concentrate near the mining site, then transported to the refinery where it is turned into lithium hydroxide or lithium carbonate used in

Jonas Berge, Emerson, Singapore, illustrates how automation can accelerate spodumene mining and refining processes.

battery manufacturing. Advanced automation solutions beyond basic control loops are required for transfer chutes, hydrocyclones, grinding mills, and flotation cells.

Concentration plant production

One concertation plant production challenge for spodumene is moist material build up on the transfer chute walls, or oversized rocks getting lodged in the chute causing blockage, resulting in loss of production. Stopping to clear a blocked chute is labour intensive and involves costly downtime, and there is also an element of risk to the workers clearing the chute.

The solution is an online vibration monitor with non-intrusive sensors external to the chute, and expert system algorithms to monitor progressive buildup and predict blockage in real time, which estimates the degree of blockage as a percentage and provides escalating alarms as buildup progresses. Based on this information, operators can perform simple cleaning by water jet, or air jet, while production is still running before complete blockage occurs, or take other action

like slowing down the conveyor belt. If there is a high degree of blockage they can plan for cleaning by shovel. The information enables operation to optimise the time of clearing. The result is a 15% reduction of downtime due to total chute blockage, and a 25% reduction of time to clear buildup, as well as reduced conveyor and chute damage due to undetected blockages.

A second challenge is that insufficient grinding of the spodumene rock reduces yield in the flotation process, but excessive grinding speed causes high mill power consumption and energy cost. Grinding is a complex process with many interacting variables, which makes it difficult to maximise yield and throughput. Controls must balance feed rate, power consumption, grinding speed, and particle size. Even moisture content plays in. The solution is model predictive control (MPC), using multiple process variables to control mill speed to get the particle size ‘just right’ to maximise yield, maintaining throughput, while avoiding excessive power consumption. The result is reduced power consumption and cost, as well as enhanced lithium recovery.

A third challenge is that oversized spodumene rocks in the hydrocyclone can lead to roping and plugging. The hydrocyclone ceases to classify the material, resulting in recovery losses. It also causes pipe blockages or sanding of underflow tanks and unplanned downtime to clear. There is even a risk of downstream equipment damage. The solution is an online vibration monitor and expert system algorithms to predict and detect roping and plugging, as well as estimate particle size in real time. The result is improved lithium recovery, reduced downtime from clearing blocks and sanding, lower maintenance costs from downstream damage, and improved product quality.

A fourth concentration challenge is that spodumene flotation cell reagent is expensive, so dosing too much is costly, but too little and the recovery yield is low. Flotation is also a complex process with many interacting variables, such as: chemical dosing flow, air flow, aeration sparging, agitation speed, particle size, and level. Ore concentration also plays a part. And there are multiple cascading flotation cells, each cell affected by the one before it. The solution here too is MPC using multiple process variables to control reagent flow to maximise product recovery yield, while minimising reagent consumption. The result is 2% improvement in recovery and reduced chemicals costs.

Refinery production

One refinery challenge is that chemicals and fuel gas are costly, so inaccurate and unresponsive control valve movement causes unnecessary costs to be incurred, as well as process variability and the delivery of off-spec product. The solution is smart valve positioners (Figure 1) and valve analytics software with control valve performance diagnostics – to detect inaccurate and unresponsive control valve movement and recommend corrective action to restore valve performance. Plant personnel can take action to reinstate responsive and accurate control. The result is reduced off-spec product and reduced fuel and chemicals consumption.

Improving reliability with automation

Automation solutions are required to support maintenance of the equipment along all stages of the process.

Figure

Valve analytics drives valve performance and availability.

Figure

Wireless vibration monitor.

Many operational challenges stem from traditional ways of working, such as manual data collection and manual data interpretation. To improve performance and profitability, many automation solutions go beyond core process control.

Reliability in the mining pit and concentrator plant

One reliability challenge in the spodumene mining pit is electric rope shovel failure. The propel, hoist, and crowd systems are prone to wear-and-tear and may fail unexpectedly. Manual data collection is infrequent and labour intensive and does not detect problems that may occur between periods of data collection, resulting in unplanned production downtime and high maintenance cost. Manual data collection also means personnel exposure in remote high-risk areas. The solution is an online vibration monitor and vibration analytics software to predict failure of transmission, motor imbalance, and bearing failure in propel, hoist and crowd systems, so personnel can plan overhauls before they fail. The result is reduced production loss, as well as reduced logistics and maintenance costs.

A reliability challenge in spodumene concentration plants is wear-and-tear of crushers, mills, stackers and conveyor belts, which may fail unexpectedly causing unscheduled production shutdowns and high maintenance costs. The solution is permanent wireless vibration sensors (Figure 2) and vibration analytics software, which are able to predict equipment failure so personnel can plan overhauls before failures occur. The result is fewer unplanned plant shutdowns and production losses, reduced maintenance costs, and extended equipment life.

Yet another reliability challenge is the hydrocyclone isolation valves in spodumene slurry service, which are prone to jam and experience seat failures. This causes unscheduled production shutdown and high maintenance cost. Isolation valves (Figure 3) with full port and tight shut-off capabilities can solve these problems. The most unique feature of this type of valve is the replaceable urethane liner. The two body halves are unbolted and the liner simply pops out and a new one clicks into place, which is very easy to maintain. This helps reduce unplanned shutdowns and production losses, lower maintenance costs, and extended valve life.

Refinery reliability

One refinery reliability challenge is that control valves in spodumene slurry service erode, causing unstable flow control and process leakage that affects the process operation and shorts the service life of the control valves. The solution is ceramic trim on eccentric plug valves, which provides good wear resistance for slurry applications. The unique feature of the eccentric plug is that when it opens it moves away from the seat, so there is no rubbing; like there would be in the case of an ordinary ball or v-ball valve. The result is reduced maintenance costs, extended service life, reduced process variability, reduced unplanned shutdown, and greater safety.

Another reliability challenge is wear-and-tear on pumps and other equipment causing failure and unscheduled production shutdowns with associated high

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maintenance costs. The solution is condition monitoring analytics software with underlying wireless vibration sensors and other sensors that use rule-based artificial intelligence with cause and effect and first principles for robust predictions. The result is extended equipment life, reduced maintenance costs, improved maintenance planning, and fewer unplanned plant shutdowns.

Automation for sustainability

A sustainability challenge in the lithium refinery is the combustion in spodumene kilns. Too much air reduces efficiency. Too little air cause incomplete combustion increasing emissions. Fuel flow, fan speed, and product flow are manipulated; excess oxygen, hot-end, cold-end, and hood temperature are controlled; and multiple fuels with different heating value may be used, so process control is not simple. The solution is MPC using multiple process variables to ensure optimum fuel economy and complete combustion. The result is greater energy efficiency and reduced SOx and NOx emissions.

Mining 4.0

By automating the lithium production value chain with the right solutions that are specialised for the harsh conditions of mining and processing, these automation technologies can maximise lithium recovery, minimise energy consumption, and associated cost. In the spirit of Industry 4.0, these solutions go beyond just improving production; they provide data and analytics for predictive maintenance to reduce downtime and maintenance cost as well.

Isolation valve with replaceable parts.

Chris Gower, Altilium Group, Indonesia, introduces a new nickel and cobalt delivery solution capable of providing the critical metals feedstock demanded by the EV industry.

I

n November 2021, Altilium Group announced an agreement with PT Indo Mineral Research, a member of the Sebuku Group, one of Indonesia’s largest mining groups. The story caught the attention of the international mining media because it involved nickel, batteries, sustainability, and the expected boom in electric vehicles (EVs). Central to the story was a nickel extraction process which could double the size of global lateritic nickel reserves, while solving the key issue of tailings management.

The basic issue the nickel industry is facing is the exhaustion of high-grade sulfide nickel deposits – the easiest form to process – and the requirement to move to more complex lateritic ore bodies. Of the 89 million t of global nickel reserves, 62 million t are found in lateritic ore, the rest is in sulfide nickel deposits. With global demand for nickel set to increase dramatically, processing lateritic ore far more efficiently, and sustainably, would represent a major achievement for the nickel industry. This is now possible through the DNi ProcessTM

Hydrometallurgical vs pyrometallurgical

The world needs more nickel; not necessarily the nickel produced by pyrometallurgical processes, but the type of nickel delivered through the elegant chemistry of hydrometallurgy.

Smelters, the plants which operate pyrometallurgical processes, are plentiful and are ideal for the production of nickel for the stainless steel industry. Although Tsingshan has recently shipped its first NPI-to-matte product to China from Indonesia, the matte will then be converted for use in EV batteries. The environmental cost, at least in terms of carbon dioxide generation, however, negates what is sought to be achieved by the EV revolution.

Hydrometallurgical plants use acid to dissolve the metals contained in the ore and generally produce a compound, known as mixed hydroxide precipitate (MHP), which can be chemically converted into the sulfates needed by the EV battery manufacturers. When it comes to ‘hydromet’ some processes are more efficient than others, and some are simpler to operate than others.

So, the pressure is on. Automakers and metallurgists the world over are struggling to identify sources of nickel which meet their environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG) standards, and which can be obtained at a price low enough to allow the much-needed mass adoption of electric vehicles. As noted in a McKinsey article, “In general, three main aspects will be considered important by EV OEMs: the ability to provide nickel that is clean, Class 1, and easily accessible.”1

The hydromet world

The challenge is how to obtain the materials needed by the EV industry, while minimising the impact on human health and the environment. The guidelines for responsibly mining ore are readily available and understood, it just takes the commitment to implement them – see, for example, the International Council on Mining and Metals’ mining principles.2

When it comes to the extraction of the desired metals contained in an ore, however, more nuance comes into play. On one hand ‘pyromet’ technologies produce a lot of inert slag which, unfortunately, contains valuable metals now rendered inaccessible. Alternatively, in the hydromet world, things are a little more complex. There is one well known technology, known as high pressure acid leaching (HPAL). This is presently the most common hydromet process, and although it is quite effective at extracting nickel and cobalt, mainly from limonitic ore, it does produce acidic tailings, which require neutralisation (simply add limestone) and then containment or disposal. For each tonne of ore processed, the resulting tailings weigh approximately 1.5 t because of the addition of limestone. Furthermore, the process uses sulfuric acid, operates within an autoclave, and at high temperatures. It works, but it cannot process all of the laterite ore – it cannot extract all of the available metals and the tailings it produces create an environmental hazard which must be addressed.3

It is possible to manage the tailings in a more environmentally friendly way, but to do so means building a special facility – adding another US$1 billion+ to the multi-billion dollar price-tag that comes with the construction of an HPAL plant.

Figure 1. Low-carbon technology demand growth data (Source: World Bank, 2019).

Laterite profile analysis.

Unfortunately, HPAL tailings are problematic and, as noted in the aforementioned McKinsey article, “can contain heavy metals and iron hydroxides.”1 There needs to be a better process.

The geology

Nickel laterites make up around 70% of the world’s nickel resources. The sulfide ores make up the remainder.

Laterite ore is comprised of limonite in the upper portion and saprolite in the lower part. There may also be a transition zone between the two which has different mineralogy. The limonite has low magnesia and high iron, but contains the lower grades of nickel and most of the cobalt. This ore feeds the HPAL process plants. The saprolite contains the higher nickel and some of the cobalt, but also has magnesium – a ‘poison’ to the HPAL process because it consumes acid.

The superficially illogical way the nickel industry has developed over decades is that pyromet processes largely use the more valuable saprolite, but only for the iron and nickel. On the other hand, HPAL largely uses the lower value limonite, but only for the nickel, cobalt, and, in some cases, scandium.

What the world needs is a process which will extract all the metals from all the ore in one plant/flowsheet. A process which will utilise the complementary nature of limonite and saprolite, and which does not produce a residue requiring permanent containment, sounds perfect. But is it realistic?

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Figure

The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) pilot plant in Perth, Western Australia.

Why waste the iron, magnesium, aluminium, scandium and/or rare earth elements which may be contained in nickel laterites by using one process (pyromet) or another (HPAL)? As humanity collectively strives to make better use of earth’s limited resources whilst minimising its impact on the planet, there is a need for an efficient, elegant chemical process which does all of this, but without leaving a legacy which threatens human health and the environment.

The solution

Altilium’s DNi Process offers a solution, one which has been in development since 2012. It is a sustainable method of

delivering nickel and cobalt, in the form of MHP, to the EV battery industry.

Key features:

n The DNi Process is effective in processing the whole of the lateritic profile, and making use of a lower mine cut-off grade possible, consequently increasing the resource.

n It uses nitric acid at atmospheric pressure.

n Up to 99% of the nitric acid is recycled.

n This all means that not only does the DNi Process recover nickel and cobalt into MHP, but it is also possible to extract:

§ Aluminium as a hydroxide.

§ Scandium in solution.

§ Rare earth elements in solution.

§ Iron in hematite.

§ Magnesium oxide.

Crucially, the DNi Process leaves a dry and inert residue which requires minimal neutralisation (using the magnesia already in the system). This amounts to about 20% of the volume of the original ore feed (remember that HPAL produces more residue volumetrically than the ore it started with). Even then, the DNi Process residue contains trace amounts of magnesium nitrate, which is a fertilizer so it can be safely used to remediate the mine site.

Economically, by generating multiple revenue streams, the DNi Process fundamentally changes the economic

evaluation of a resource and the profitability of the processing plant.

Finally, because the process is much simpler, because it operates at atmospheric pressure and uses nitric acid, materials of plant construction are, by-and-large, just 304 grade stainless steel. This results in significantly lower capital and operating costs, as well as fast, efficient plant design and construction.

Conclusion

Invented in the US, developed in Australia and now owned by a British company, the DNi Process has been proven by Altilium working with the Australian government’s CSIRO at their demonstration plant in Waterford, Western Australia. Timing is, however, everything and now there is a burgeoning EV industry which requires significant quantities of nickel, cobalt, and other metals to power its vehicles. MHP is the preferred feedstock for EV battery manufacturers, and the DNi Process is an efficient, zero-waste solution which can deliver that MHP.

References

1. AZEVEDO, M., GOFFAUX, N., and HOFFMAN, K., ‘How clean can the nickel industry become?’, McKinsey & Co., (September 2000).

2. ‘Mining With Principles’, ICMM: International Council on Mining & Metals, (2022), www.miningwithprinciples.com

3. SAWAL, R., ‘Red seas and no fish: Nickel mining takes its toll on Indonesia’s spice islands’, Mongabay, (16 February 2022), https://news.mongabay.com/2022/02/red-seas-and-no-fish-nickelmining-takes-its-toll-on-indonesias-spice-islands

Megan O’Connor, Nth Cycle, emphasises the importance of a sustainable supply chain as the world moves towards increased electrification.

Society is on the precipice of the greatest economic transformation the world has ever seen. Driving this moment is the transition towards the electrification of transportation, power grids, personal devices, etc. In other words, as many have proclaimed, the ‘electrification of everything’. And, while the movement is certainly inspirational, the obstacles faced when attempting to meet these ambitious goals are daunting.

Empowering an electrified future – both in our vehicles and homes – means a massive investment in batteries, almost exclusively lithium-ion batteries (LiBs). US-based

companies manufacture only 10% of all batteries produced, which puts it, as a country, in the back seat of an increasingly intense global competition to control supply of critical minerals. However, this is starting to change.

The Inflation Reduction Act, which became law on 17 August, includes a 10% advanced manufacturing production tax credit intended for the supply chain of minerals required for battery technology, which would help ease the costs absorbed by battery manufacturers and automakers. The tax credit is focused on the

production of critical minerals and extends midstream for cathode and anode materials. An investment tax credit is also included for the energy storage and production tax credit for battery cell manufacturing with a cost of US$35 kW/h. Earlier this year, President Biden invoked the Defense Production Act (DPA) to step up US production of minerals for EV and storage batteries to lower the nation’s reliance on foreign supply. Separately, the US Department of Energy (DOE) dedicated US$3.16 billion of funding, as part of the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, to develop the country’s battery supply chain. The funding will be allocated across the supply chain, with the bulk of it being made available to mid-stream processing of cathode, anode, and battery cell production.

However, LiB manufacturing capability cannot be increased with the flip of a switch. The US must also increase the scope, capability, resilience and cleanliness of its battery manufacturing supply chain, which means easy access to supplies of lithium, cobalt, and nickel. This is no simple order; China and Africa currently dominate the critical mineral supply chain. Critical minerals are often dug, by hand, from African soil by Chinese companies, then transported to China for refinement and production into LiBs. In fact, rare earth metal mining has played an important role in the rise and strength of China’s economy, but at a cost: the city at the centre of the industry is horribly polluted and home to what one journalist has called a “dystopian lake”. 1

Additionally, most of the supply chain for these critical mineral commodities comes from mining, refining, and manufacturing processes that require an immense amount of energy, have a large environmental impact, are enabled only by geopolitical disruption and, as mentioned earlier, unethical labour standards. If society is to truly embrace a clean energy future, the tools of this transformation need to be as clean as the imagined world. This can be achieved by leveraging the latest mineral processing technologies, such as Nth Cycle’s electro-extraction process for refining and mining critical minerals.

As society moves towards a cleaner energy future, it needs to ensure that the technologies leveraged to electrify and decarbonise infrastructure and daily life are themselves clean, sustainable, and humanely-produced.

Critical minerals are just that: critical

According to the US Geological Survey, global cobalt production was at a record 170 000 t in 2021. In addition to cobalt, nickel and manganese are used as cathode materials in LiBs that power consumer smartphones, laptops, and a variety of devices that are commonplace in daily life. As the world moves toward a fully electric future, and the US pursues broad-scale electrification, the supply of these materials will be eclipsed by the demand, especially for cobalt. Meanwhile, dozens of industries that depend on these materials are aware of an imminent shortage and are pulling out the stops, sometimes at considerable cost, to secure future sources.

Recent estimates predict that the global cobalt market will reach a value of around US$13.6 billion by 2027, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of more than 8%. This demonstrates that the demand for cobalt, as well as other critical minerals required for LiBs manufacturing, is unprecedented.

Prevailing mining and refining processes are at odds with environmental goals

The cobalt mining industry has taken note of the growing demand and has responded, but the way it has done so is often starkly at odds with the positive goals from the clean energy it enables. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) dominates the mined cobalt supply chain, providing over 70% of the world’s cobalt in 2019; however, a sizable portion of this mining is performed using unethical and even illegal methods, involving independent miners extracting cobalt with diggers and banned practices that negatively impact the environment and harm the health of local populations. For example, such mining practices often disturb and degrade riparian (river wetland) zones, eroding the soil and dumping contaminants, such as mercury and cyanide, into water supplies.

Similar to waste coal mining in the US, only the highest quality of nickel ore is transported and refined to end-user quality because of the excessive cost. Left behind are low-grade mine tailings, left in ponds and piles, causing even more environmental damage. Luckily, there are some solutions that can be implemented to address these concerns; they include recycling cobalt, nickel and manganese from end-of-life batteries, and upgrading existing mining technology to exploit lower-grade ores. However, both these critical metal feedstocks use pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes for upgrading the critical minerals to the required specifications for battery manufacturing. These techniques also require considerable capital expenditures, emit considerable amounts of greenhouse gasses, and are extremely energy intensive.

Today, EVs are viewed in popular culture and environmentally-conscious circles as an emission-free alternative to internal combustion-powered vehicles. The reality is quite different — and shocking — primarily because of current lifecycle battery manufacturing processes. While the lifecycle of EVs is still considerably cleaner than vehicles with internal combustion engines, the mining and manufacturing for a single EV emits 30 000 lbs of CO 2e compared to the manufacturing of a traditional combustion engine at 14 000 lbs CO 2e.

Counter-intuitively, over an average lifespan, an EV will put more carbon in the atmosphere over the same number of miles compared to an internal combustion engine. Even if driven past its expected life, carbon savings for an EV are minimal. As the world pursues full vehicle electrification, the demand will only continue to increase. This will lead to the DRC producing more ‘dirty’ cobalt through labour-based mining, and refining these essential minerals through dirty and expensive pyro and hydro-metallurgical processes.

The commonly used thermal separation process, Pyrometallurgy, can recover all the critical metals in spent LiBs cathodes, except lithium and manganese, which get stuck in the slag phase. While effective, it is extremely energy-intensive, requiring high temperatures and additional equipment to clean up the toxic gasses emitted, while burning away plastics and solvents. Hydrometallurgy also works well, recovering cobalt, nickel, manganese, and lithium with the use of solvent extraction. Yet, this method requires specialty chemicals and other materials to separate these individual metals, is expensive, and the chemicals used create excessive waste.

A better path: Electro-extraction

The need for a humanely-sourced, environmentally-respectful, and sustainable supply of cobalt and other critical minerals is clear. Nth Cycle was founded in response to these critical material supply chain demands and production constraints. The company has developed a proprietary process, called electro-extraction, for refining critical minerals from conventional and unconventional domestic sources, such as end-of-life batteries, nickel scrap, permanent magnets and low-grade ores and mine tailings, creating new domestic sources of critical minerals. The process has demonstrated effective and efficient recovery of more than 90% of cobalt, and other critical minerals while being economical, energy efficient, and climate conscious. The numbers tell the story: more than a 75% reduction in cost, a 60% reduction in energy use, and a 92% reduction in emissions compared to traditional mining processes. Nth Cycle’s solution can be deployed at existing mine sites to upgrade low-grade ore, and at battery recycling facilities to economically recover critical minerals from mechanically processed waste streams. Electro-extraction hybridises traditional sequential unit processing techniques – including electrowinning, precipitation, and filtration – into a single compact and modular unit. The technology uses a novel porous carbon electrode material to increase the effective electrode surface area, and to allow for flow-through electrochemistry that is not limited by slow diffusive mass transfer. The flow-through system results in rapid metal hydroxide deposition kinetics (>200 g hr-1 m-2), via in-stream hydroxide production, and the modular membrane-like format allows for simple scaling by

operating multiple apparatuses in parallel, or alternatively in series for sequential metal processing.

The Nth Cycle electro-extraction process is enabled by nanotechnology. One-dimensional carbon nanotubes, or nanofibers, can be simply assembled into 3D porous and conductive thin film membrane electrodes by vacuum filtration, blade-casting, or spray-coating. The company’s technology’s use of nanomaterial-based filters has many advantages compared to traditional porous electrodes, such as carbon or metal mesh, felts, and cloths. In addition, the ultra-high nanomaterial specific surface area of >100 m 2/g enhances the solid-liquid interface limited electrochemistry. Ultimately, the electrochemical and filtration synergisms delivered by the Nth Cycle electro-extraction process are made possible by the marvel of nanotechnology.

An additional advantage lies in the device size and modularity, which can be implemented into existing metal processing facilities, decreasing the need for costly and hazardous transportation of LiBs, and capital-intensive construction of new facilities. This stands in stark contrast to classical pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy, which requires large, centralised volumes of raw material to be profitable. At scale, Nth Cycle projects that a single on-site unit can process 1000 t of cobalt yearly with a base footprint of only approximately 1000 ft 2. For example, the small footprint allows for the Nth Cycle technology to be added to existing mechanical recycling facilities to provide a low capital cost, low operating cost, and cleaner alternative to traditional centralised metallurgic facilities.

Conclusion

With the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) codified into law, demand for the critical minerals, which serve as the backbone of electrification, will skyrocket in the US and surely beyond. The industry as a whole needs to ensure that supply meets demand to truly realise the promise of the IRA, but also needs to establish a clean, domestic supply of those materials, securing the tens of thousands of jobs, and billions in economic opportunity that accompany this national movement.

Ahead of the United Nations’ 2021 climate conference (COP26) in Glasgow, all eyes were on the 197 sovereign nations, as well as the representatives from the public and private sector, who were going to negotiate the planet’s climate policies. In the lead up to the conference, the International Energy Agency (IEA) published a report estimating that the race to net-zero emissions could be worth US$27 trillion for the renewable energy and storage industries, and called for US$4 trillion in investments into the clean energy sector.1

Experts were bullish on the opportunities that could open up during COP26, but in the end, the summit ended rather unceremoniously.

A uniting element World leaders were not as forthcoming as hoped and committed to phasing out fossil fuel subsidies, as well as increasing their efforts to reduce carbon emissions. “It is an important step but it is not enough. We must accelerate climate action to keep alive the goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5˚C”, expressed UN Chief, António Guterres, at the time.2 To reach the goals that were discussed and set at COP26, politicians and activists alike were quick to point to renewable energy and electric transportation as the technology capable of ushering in the low-carbon future envisioned. It is lithium that is key to this transition, yet few seemed to notice.

Teague Egan, EnergyX, USA, highlights lithium’s critical importance to the energy transition and the role of the mining industry in providing a sustainable supply chain.

Lithium is capable of negating the intermittency of renewables. At electric vehicle (EV) or grid-scale, lithium-ion batteries are able to store vast amounts of energy, in addition to providing users with cheaper operating costs. Renewable power and EVs will be the face of the global transition towards a cleaner more sustainable future, but lithium will be the integral piece to their implementation. This is already evident, as pundits have called for making lithium technology more accessible to poorer nations seeking to decarbonise, and subsequent increases in demand and price of lithium.3

While it does not get the amount of airtime as the technology it enables, lithium is nestled within the international and domestic policies of several major economies – including the US, the European Union (EU), and China. The three powers understand the role that lithium is to play in the upcoming decades, as the world positions itself to break free from fossil fuels. With a recent IEA report estimating that there could be 145 million EVs on the road by 2030, and a concerted push to increase global renewable energy capacity, it should not be a surprise that lithium prices soared 406% through the course of 2021.4 Today, it sits at US$60 000+/t, due to a lack of supply.

Lithium and global policy

Far from being empty projections, governments have taken note and adjusted their policies. Early into its term, the Biden Administration issued an Executive Order expressing the President’s interest in securing lithium supply chains domestically and abroad, the metal now being considered of critical importance to the US’ future. This was followed by an ambitious change to domestic policy, with President Biden announcing a carbon-free power grid by 2035 and pledging to invest US$174 billion into developing the nation’s EV infrastructure.

The EU’s new renewable energy commitments now include the implementation of grid-scale lithium-ion batteries. It became aware of the potential that large scale energy storage could provide after its 2020 renewable target fell just 0.3% short of its goal. Now intent on becoming carbon-neutral by 2050, the EU has identified batteries as a key component in its transition, “Batteries are the fastest growing storage technology and will play a key role to meet the EU goal of cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030”, states the Union on its website.5

China took over the US as the largest EV market in 2015 and has continued to dominate. By 2028, the country is expected to build 8 million per year, off the back of strong policies aimed at rapidly transitioning all road-bound transport to electric models as quickly as possible.6 Not content with being the global leader in all things EV, China has been asserting itself across the world’s current lithium and battery material supply and processing chains. The country is not just ensuring that it is securing the lithium it needs for domestic use – it is on its way to becoming present at every step in the supply chain, an integral part of the global shift towards low-carbon.7

Practically speaking, what does this all mean?

Lithium mines are ground zero

The public’s love for renewable energy and EVs is creating a shift of consumer demands. Behind the scenes, this has led to a political chess match happening in government buildings across the world from Washington to Brussels and Beijing, but the action is happening elsewhere. Australia, Argentina, Chile, Brazil and Zimbabwe, are just some of the sites that are seeing investment into their lithium infrastructure, while countries like Bolivia are weighing up their options.8

The lithium market is forecast to triple by 2025 and rise to over US$78 billion annually by 2040, as EVs and renewable energy continue to exponentially grow in popularity. So, when António Guterres is pushing nations to be more ambitious with their climate goals, he is driving the demand for lithium higher. When President Biden is calling to improve the nation’s EV infrastructure, he is ramping up activity on domestic and international lithium supply chains. When Greta Thunberg is demanding a faster transition, she is creating new opportunities for lithium mines.

Lithium mines are ‘ground zero’ in the shift towards a low-carbon future. There is no net-zero target that can be attained without lithium batteries. An EV battery alone requires roughly 63 kg of lithium carbonate equivalent, and an energy-storage unit for renewable energy needs considerably more – not including the other major components, such as nickel or cobalt. While considerations need to go towards the recycling of these materials, the first order of business is getting them out of the ground.9 This is where the mining industry stands to gain the most.

A sustainable supply chain Sustainable development cannot be achieved without every aspect of global supply chains being optimised to their most sustainable level. Much has been made about the impact the mining sector has on local environments. A contentious topic that often results in claims of greenwashing, sustainable mining is more than a catchphrase – especially in the lithium sector.10 Lithium extraction methods have not changed much since their initial inception, so calling current extraction methods for spodumene and brine as antiquated and in need of an overhaul

is not groundbreaking. What would be is for mining companies to admit it and adopt the different methods already available today.

Adopting more sustainable lithium mining practices starts in the boardroom. The technology is already widely available, evident in the progress made in direct lithium extraction (DLE) by companies such as EnergyX or Cornish Lithium. These technologies are more time, cost, and resource efficient; they provide higher lithium yields than current methods; and they have fewer chances of causing environmental damage. The sector is due for a modernisation, and this overlaps with currently skyrocketing demand for lithium and battery-related elements – the onus is on decision-makers.

Conclusion

The entire world is at a crossroads. It is moving towards a more sustainable model that values the environment as much as an economic bottom-line. Policy-makers have continued to ramp up their efforts to implement renewable energy, electric transport, new technologies, and processes that ensure a low-carbon future. Lithium is the critical element to this future, and mining companies can choose to move into a new era where sustainability is not just a buzzword, but a fact. There is technology that exists that makes lithium extraction less destructive, it should be front and centre in the transition. Lithium is the future, and the future can be sustainable from the extraction process to the delivery of the final product.