(e) Renewable energy and climate change mitigation
More than 60% of Peru's electricity is generated from renewable sources, mainly hydroelectric, with growing investments in solar and wind energy. On the other hand, Tanzania is targeting 5 GW renewable capacity by 2035, with solar and wind power capacity currently at 200 MW.
The potential for cooperation in this sector includes the exchange of expertise in renewable energy infrastructure, mini-grids, energy storage and climate adaptation strategies.
(f) Education, research and technology transfer
The potential for cooperation in the education sector includes university partnerships in agricultural sciences, mineral processing, and climate studies; technology transfer in drone-based agricultural monitoring and digital supply chains; and academic scholarships and exchanges to strengthen ties between people.
Peru, as an emerging economy in Latin America, can explore partnerships with Tanzania to promote trade, investment, and technology exchange. In addition, participating through platforms such as the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) and the East African Community (EAC) could facilitate dialogue, strategic alliances, and policy coordination.
4. Heritage diplomacy: from Kilimanjaro to the Andes
RTG: Both Tanzania and Peru are home to extraordinary natural wonders such as Kilimanjaro and Qhapaq Ñan, share deep historical roots and are heirs to a rich cultural heritage. How can our countries collaborate to promote sustainable tourism, safeguard indigenous knowledge, and share best practices in heritage preservation?
BYK: The similarities between Tanzania and Peru in tourism sectors that are endowed with major tourist attractions such as Mount Kilimanjaro and the Andes, present opportunities for collaboration in sustainable tourism, preservation of indigenous knowledge and heritage management. Based on those facts, these two friendly states have the potential to collaborate in the following areas of heritage diplomacy:
(a)
Promotion of sustainable tourism
Both countries are based on nature-based tourism (safaris, trekking, adventure tourism). Tanzania's expertise in wildlife conservation and communitybased tourism (e.g., Serengeti, Ngorongoro Conservation Area) can complement Peru's strong cultural and adventure tourism (e.g., Machu Picchu, Sacred Valley, and the Amazon).
The two countries can develop joint tourism promotion packages that combine "Andes and Kilimanjaro" adventure circuits, knowledge exchange workshops on ecotourism standards and sustainable tourism investment forums.
(b) Safeguarding indigenous knowledge
Tanzania's indigenous communities, including the Maasai and Hadzabe communities, and the Quechua and Aymara peoples of Peru, have centuries-old cultural traditions. The two countries can establish a Tanzania-Peru Indigenous Knowledge Forum to share experiences on cultural mapping, intellectual property protection, and inclusive development.
Mount Kilimanjaro Source:www.viajar.media
(c) Heritage preservation and management
Work together at UNESCO and other international organizations to advocate for heritage protection, sustainable tourism, and indigenous rights. Tanzania has 7 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (including Kilimanjaro, the Serengeti, the Stone Town of Zanzibar). Peru has 13 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (including Machu Picchu, Nazca Lines, Lima Historic Center). The two countries can explore cooperation in exchanging best practices in visitor management, heritage digitalization, climate adaptation for heritage sites, and capacity building of heritage professionals.
In addition, both countries can develop some areas of cooperation, for example, joint archaeological and anthropological research programs, partnerships with museums, and digital archives of traditional knowledge.
5. Peru and Tanzania: The Road Ahead
RTG: Now that Peru and Tanzania have completed five decades of diplomatic relations, how do you foresee both nations deepening our cooperation and bilateral relationship?
BYK: Fifty years of diplomatic relations provide a solid foundation for a continued partnership. The road ahead is paved with opportunities for innovative partnerships that leverage the strengths, cultural richness, and shared values of both countries to create a more prosperous and sustainable future for cooperation between Peru and Tanzania. To deepen cooperation and strengthen bilateral relations, both
nations can focus on two key areas:
(a) Strengthening of economic and trade partnerships.
As noted, the two countries offer potential opportunities to strengthen economic ties through trade and investment. In the future, the two countries can implement joint investments in renewable energy, ecotourism, and agribusiness, leveraging Tanzania's natural resources and Peru's expertise in sustainable agriculture.
The two countries can explore the establishment of bilateral trade agreements and hold trade forums to speed up market access and encourage entrepreneurs from both countries.
(b) To promote cultural cooperation and links among peoples.
This can be done by increasing student exchange programs, scholarships, and university partnerships in archaeology, anthropology, and environmental sciences. In addition, promote joint cultural festivals, art exhibitions, and heritage projects that showcase each country's rich traditions and history. As mentioned, both countries can promote ecotourism and heritage tourism, emphasizing natural wonders such as Kilimanjaro and Inca sites, fostering sustainable tourism models.
Qhapaq Ñan
Source: lali-iniciativa.com
Tanzania and Peru Source:Shutterstock.com
THREE INSIGHTS INTO TANZANIA 50 YEARS AFTER THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH PERU
sebAsTián GArcíA mArenGo
The Republic of Peru and the United Republic of Tanzania established diplomatic relations on August 12, 1975. At that time, less than a decade had passed since the unification of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Despite the 50 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations, bilateral relations have been of low intensity, highlighting the need to build bridges and foster greater mutual understanding. This article aims to introduce three aspects of Tanzania today: tourism, port infrastructure and foreign policy.
TOURISM AS AN ECONOMIC DRIVER IN TANZANIA
First, it should be considered that 27% of Tanzania’s GDP comes from agriculture, 31% from industry and construction, and 42% from services. In the latter, tourism stands out, a huge source of income for the country. Last April, Tanzania had already surpassed its 2025 goal of attracting five million tourists, confirming the country as one of the most attractive for tourism in Africa. The Tanzanian Minister of Natural Resources and Tourism stressed that these positive figures reflect the efforts made by the country to revitalize the sector (Tanzaniainvest. Tanzania Wins..., 2025; ATTA, 2025).
This success is partly due to the particular features of Tanzanian geography. The snow-capped summit of Kilimanjaro at 5,898 meters above sea level, has the highest altitude on the African continent; the Uluguru Mountains; the Serengeti National Park; the beaches of Zanzibar; Lake Tanganyika, the world’s deepest lake, with a depth of 1,470 meters; Lake Victoria, the third largest in the world considered a source of the Nile; and an active volcano west of Kilimanjaro, Ol Doinyo Lengai. The following sites are attached to the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Serengeti National Park, the Selous Game Reserve, Kilimanjaro National Park, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, the ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, the Kondoa Rock Art Sites, and the Stone Town of Zanzibar (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Spain, 2025; Botha, 2025; UNESCO, n.d.).
However, the country's geography and heritage alone do not explain the success of tourism in Tanzania. The country recovered from the pandemic and carried out promotional campaigns focused on selected markets, visa facilitation, infrastructure improvements, and strategic collaborations. Of particular note is the arrival of Chinese tourists, partially attracted by a popular documentary entitled Surprising Tanzania that shows the country's breathtaking landscapes, its varied wildlife and cultural richness (ATTA, 2025; Botha, 2025).
Serengeti
Source: Tanzania Tourism
National Park
firsT secreTAry in The diplomATic service of The republic of peru
During the Africa and Indian Ocean World Travel Awards on June 28, Tanzania was chosen as the leading destination in Africa; Zanzibar was voted the best beach destination in Africa and Serengeti National Park won in the Best National Park category, Mount Kilimanjaro won as the best mountain park, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area was voted the best tourist attraction in Africa and Kitulo National Park the Best Honeymoon Destination in Africa. As if that were not enough, Ruaha National Park won as Best National Cultural Park; Nyerere National Park was recognized as the Best National Landscape Park, while Tarangire National Park was voted the Best Elephant Paradise Park. Julius Nyerere Airport was awarded the best in Africa and the Port of Dar es Salaam as the Best Cruise Port. Several Tanzanian tour operators were also honored (Tanzaniainvest. Tanzania Win's..., 2025).
It is surprising how active the country is in the tourism sector. Between October 3 and 5, 2025, the ninth edition of the Swahili International Tourism Expo (S!TE) will take place at the Mlimani City convention center in the city of Dar es Salaam. This year S!TE will seek to provide a platform for networking, business opportunities and showcase Tanzania's rich cultural and natural heritage.
PORT INFRASTRUCTURE AND GEOSTRATEGIC PROJECTION: TANZANIA'S PORTS AND THE LOBITO-DAR CORRIDOR
In addition to the benefits of its geography, landscapes, natural wealth and culture, Tanzania enjoys a strategic location. Dar es Salaam is a port city on the Indian Ocean that represents vital access for neighbouring landlocked countries. Its routes are faster and more efficient than those of competing ports and improvements to its infrastructure have established it as a key port in East Africa. It is the country's main one with a capacity of 10.1 million tonnes per year, handles 92% of the maritime port cargo and serves landlocked countries such as Zambia, Malawi, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) with which it is linked to these countries through two railway systems, roads, and the TAZAMA pipeline (Tanzania Invest. Ports, n.d.).
In the future, the port of Dar es Salaam in the Indian Ocean could become particularly important if the project to establish a trans-African corridor through its connection with the Lobito corridor in Angola, in the Atlantic Ocean, materializes. The Lobito corridor
is a project that was announced in October 2023 at the Global Gateway Forum that envisages the construction of a railway connecting northwestern Zambia, through the DRC, with the Angolan port of Lobito, and brings together the African Development Bank, the African Finance Corporation, the United States and the European Union. A significant part of the financing would come from the Global Infrastructure and Investment Partnership (PGII), a joint effort of the G7 countries established in 2022 (Fillingham, 2024).
Kilimanjaro National Park
In this regard, in August 2024 Helaina Matza, a special coordinator of the PGII at the U.S. Department of State revealed that discussions were being held about expanding the Lobito corridor to Tanzania. Since the infrastructure already partially exists through the TAZARA railway linking Dar es Salaam to Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia, the latter point was required to be linked to the Lobito corridor in Chingola through the construction of 200 kilometres of railway. The ItalianAfrican Development Programme is interested in this connecting path. Indeed, on a visit to Rome in March 2025, the Tanzanian Foreign Minister, Ambassador Mahmoud Thabit Kombo, proposed naming the corridor "Lobito-Dar" (Daily News, 2025; Fillingham, 2024).
In addition, the port of Dar es Salaam will be boosted by two factors. First, the concession granted to DP World for 30 years to operate and modernize the multipurpose port and connect Tanzania and the region with global markets. This will imply an initial investment of US$ 250 million that could be increased to US 1 billion dollars during the concession period. This modernization involves investments in temperature-controlled warehouses to support the agricultural sector, better connections and the development of a special economic zone. DP World's status as a leading port company with extensive partnerships to develop the port will be key (Labrut, 2023).
Second, the European Union and its partners Enabel, UN-Habitat, TradeMark Africa, and the International Port of Antwerp-Bruges have signed a project to improve the performance of the Port of Dar es Salaam. The project, which has a budget of 15 million euros and focuses on optimizing port operations by trying to overcome bottlenecks, improve safety and sustainability; as well as trade facilitation, reducing non-tariff barriers, and improving customs procedures (Global Gateway, 2024).
On the other hand, 75 kilometers north of Dar es Salaam, a $10 billion project is being developed in the port of Bagamoyo. The port is expected to handle 20 million TEUs by 2045, 25 times more than Dar es Salaam and will be the largest port in East Africa. The government estimates that the port will be one of the most important components of the country's development strategy and in its first phase the Tanzania Ports Authority is taking over the initial phases of construction, with particular interest in the creation of deep-water berths to handle vessels that currently cannot be serviced at the port of Dar es Salaam. Bagamoyo will allow it to receive ships
that require 17 meters of depth and will be able to transport between 12,000 and 15,000 containers, compared to the 8,000 that can currently be transported in Dar es Salaam. The project is expected to intensively boost Tanzanian GDP (ABDAS, 2024; BBC, 2016).
Similarly, the importance of the twenty lake ports on Lake Victoria that are operated by the Tanzania Port Authority and include Bukoba, Kemondo Bay, Musoma and Nancio should be emphasized. In Tanganyika, lake ports such as Kigoma and Kasanga stand out. It is these ports that allow connections with Burundi, the eastern side of the DRC and Zambia (Tanzania Invest. Ports, n.d.).
From Non-Alignment to Regional Diplomacy: Evolving Tanzania's Foreign Policy
In the international arena, Tanzania's foreign policy has been shaped by its recent history and the challenges of its regional environment. During the Cold War, Tanzanian foreign policy sought to act in the realm of the non-aligned. In the subsequent period, its foreign policy has been characterised by intervention in the resolution of conflicts in neighbouring countries such as Rwanda, Burundi and Mozambique, channelling its multilateral diplomacy for the resolution of these conflicts through the Southern African Development Community (SADC), of which it is a member. Political instability in neighboring regions has shaped Tanzanian foreign policy, making conflict resolution one of its main objectives over the past 40 years (Britannica, n.d.).
Puerto Dar es Salaam Source: www.ippmedia.com
Source: global.ed.ac.uk
This position explains why Tanzania has been the headquarters of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha and hosts the residual mechanism that follows up after its closure. Presidents Nyerere and Mkapa also played an important role in the interBurundian dialogue; President Kikwete was part of the talks in Kenya following the post-election violence in 2007 and 2008; and Tanzania has contributed troops and assistance to United Nations missions such as the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic - MINUSCA, the United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo - MONUSCO, the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur, the United Nations Interim Force for Lebanon, and the United Nations Assistance Mission in the Republic of South Sudan (Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2025).
Additionally, it is interesting to know that the 10 thematic areas on which Tanzanian foreign policy focuses are the following: (1) economic diplomacy; (2) the promotion of peace, security and political stability; (3) the ratification and conversion into domestic law of international treaties and protocols; (4) participation in bilateral, regional and international organizations; (5) the use of Kiswahili as an instrument of diplomacy; (6) mobilizing international resources for national development; (7) diaspora participation; (8) maximizing the opportunities of the blue economy; (9) human rights; and (10) crosscutting issues such as the environment, climate change, gender and youth (Ministry of Foreign Affairs
and Cooperation in East Africa, Tanzania, n.d.).
Tanzania and Peru: Strategic Parallels in Tourism, Infrastructure and Foreign Policy
This article has reviewed three important aspects of Tanzania today, such as tourism, port infrastructure and foreign policy. It is interesting to note that there are important parallels with Peru. Like Tanzania, Peru has impressive sites and multiple UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Therefore, it is natural that Peru is attractive for tourism. However, Tanzania's efforts to attract and facilitate the arrival of a growing number of tourists through tourism policies and infrastructure improvements should be studied in greater depth.
As far as the port area is concerned, it is curious that the current main ports of Tanzania and Peru; Dar es Salaam and the port of Callao (South Terminal), are operated by DP World. In this sense, it would be possible to explore possible mechanisms to promote routes between the two countries through allied shipping companies and explore complementary products for our agro-export sectors.
President Julius Karambage Nyerere
Similarly, while the port of Chancay is emerging as the most important in the coming decades thanks to Chinese investments that allow it to have stateof-the-art systems and by virtue of a draft capable of receiving the largest existing vessels, Tanzania is doing the same in the port of Bagamoyo. Peru will have the most important port in the South American Pacific and Tanzania will seek to do the same in the African Indian Ocean.
The possibility of establishing a trans-African corridor linking Angola's Lobito corridor in the Atlantic Ocean with the port of Dar es Salaam in the Indian Ocean would be particularly interesting for South America in a context where the region is also considering the establishment of bioceanic corridors. For a decade, for example, Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Paraguay have been promoting the Capricorn corridor. Likewise, since the signing, during the BRICS summit held in Brazil on July 6 and 7, 2025, of the memorandum of understanding between the Brazilian public company Infra S.A. and the Institute of Economic Planning and Research of the state-owned China State Railway Group to carry out studies in Brazilian territory to evaluate the feasibility of a bioceanic railway corridor, the need to study the establishment of a railway linking the port of Chancay with the Brazilian ports, allowing Brazil to project itself to the Pacific Ocean and Peru to the Atlantic Ocean (Brazilian Ministry of
Transport) regained importance. If by chance both corridors materialize; the Peru-Brazil bioceanic corridor and the Lobito-Dar trans-African corridor, this would lead to a greater projection of Peru to Africa and a greater link with a country like Tanzania.
Finally, a review of some features of Tanzanian foreign policy shows that it is characterized by its proactivity in pursuit of objectives of global interest such as peace and stability, a position with which Peru can also identify. The contribution of Peru and Tanzania to United Nations peacekeeping missions is a sign of our commitment to the well-being of the international community. Just as this cooperation exists in the multilateral sphere, after 50 years of the establishment of diplomatic relations between Peru and Tanzania, the challenge of generating rapprochement and collaboration also in the bilateral sphere persists. This could be facilitated by coincidences in principles and values, as well as by the interesting parallels described and others to be discovered.
Headquarters of the Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha Source: global.ed.ac.uk
References
AABDAS. (2024). Tanzania allocates TZS 22 billion for Bagamoyo port’s early construction phases. https:// goo.su/sNrT
ATTA. (2025). Tanzania surpasses five million international tourists ahead of 2025 goal driving record-breaking tourism growth and economic prosperity across Africa. https://goo.su/EYKB1nK
BBC. (2016). La carrera para convertirse en el puerto más grande de África Oriental. https://goo.su/U9krrw
Botha, A. (2025). Tanzania surpasses 2025 tourism target with 5.3 million international visitors. https:// goo.su/jzOMB9C
Britannica. (s. f.). History of Tanzania. https://goo.su/ VfNaS
Daily News. (2025). Lobito-Dar corridor to transform Africa´s infrastructure. https://n9.cl/atzs6
Economist Intelligence Unit. (2025). One-click report: Tanzania.
Fillingham, Z. (2024). The Lobito Corridor: Washington´s answer to Belt and Road in Africa. https://n9.cl/82frr
European External Action Service. (2024). Global Gateway: EU and Tanzania sign agreement to improve port performance and enhance trade connectivity. https://n9.cl/lpp5v
Labrut, M. (2023). DP World signs 30-year concession to operate Dar es Salaam port in Tanzania. https:// n9.cl/9vg8o
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de España. (s. f.). Ficha País Tanzania. https://n9.cl/kw8g0
Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación en África Oriental de Tanzania. (s. f.). Tanzania foreign policy. https://n9.cl/vh846
Ministerio de Transportes de Brasil. (2025). Brasil e China firmam parceria estratégica para integração ferroviária continental. https://n9.cl/vmij68
S!te. (s. f.). Tanzania tourism official site. https://site. tanzaniatourism.go.tz/
Tanzania Invest. (2025). Tanzania win’s Africa’s leading destination 2025 award, Serengeti named top national park, Zanzibar best beach. https://n9.cl/ mpf5a
Tanzania Invest. (s. f.). Ports. https://n9.cl/4eacp
UNESCO. (s. f.). United Republic of Tanzania. https:// whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/tz
Peru and Tanzania
Source: www.shutterstock.com
LITERARY JOURNEYS
THAT BRING US CLOSER:
HOW "PERUVIAN
LANDSCAPES"
AND "PARADISE" FACILITATE MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN PERU AND TANZANIA
mónicA ceciliA lizAnA Gómez
Third secreTAry in The diplomATic service of The republic of peru
Cover of the book Peruvian Landscapes (1912)
Source: elcomercio.pe
SUMMARY
This article analyses the books "Peruvian Landscapes" (1912) by José de la Riva Agüero and "Paradise" (1994) by Abdulrazak Gurnah as examples of literature that facilitate mutual knowledge between distant societies. In his work, Riva Agüero documents the Peruvian reality during the Aristocratic Republic, seeking to understand the national identity after the War of the Pacific, while Gurnah presents Yusuf's journey in German colonial Tanzania at the end of the nineteenth century, revealing complex social transformations. Both authors use the landscape as an interpretable text and empathize with the reader through characters who face universal dilemmas of identity and belonging. The works demonstrate
how travel literature can reveal parallel historical experiences between seemingly distant cultures, building bridges of understanding between Peru and Tanzania.
I. INTRODUCTION
Literature can facilitate mutual knowledge between seemingly distant societies such as Peru and Tanzania, revealing parallel historical experiences and shared challenges in the construction of national identities. This is the case of two literary works separated by almost a century of difference: "Peruvian Landscapes" (1912) by Riva Agüero and "Paradise" (1994) by Gurnah. These literary journeys allow readers to access geographical realities that transcend the limitations of time and space.
José de la Riva Agüero (1885 - 1944), a Peruvian intellectual of the early twentieth century, undertook a journey through the various regions of Peru, documenting with scientific rigor and sensitivity the complexities of Peru in its process of nation-building. His interpretation of Peru in his work "Peruvian Landscapes", as a country shaped by the synthesis of two cultures and centuries of history, was an expression of reflection and real knowledge of Peru.
In 1912, Riva Agüero made a memorable journey from Cusco that took him through the Apurimac region, exploring sites such as the carved stones of Concacha and the cities of Abancay and Andahuaylas; until he arrived in Ayacucho, where he studied its colonial architecture and visited the battlefield of Quinua. Later, he continued to the Mantaro Valley, crossing various towns and landscapes until culminating his journey in Huancayo and the Franciscan convent of Ocopa, thus completing an extraordinary expedition through the heart of the Peruvian Andes that would become the basis of his work "Peruvian Landscapes".
For his part, Abdulrazak Gurnah (1948 – present), Nobel Prize in Literature 2021, presents in "Paradise" the journey of Yusuf, a twelve-year-old Swahili who accompanies a trading expedition in what is now Tanzania at the end of the nineteenth century. Set in German colonialism, the novel offers a window into the social, cultural, and economic transformations that the region underwent during this period in East African history.
Yusuf's journey starts from the train station in the fictional town of Kawa in Tanzania, from where he is taken to a waterfront town to work alongside Khalil in an Uncle Aziz's shop. It then goes deep into the interior of the country following the ancient trade routes that connected the coast with the lands near the Congo Basin.
During his journey, Yusuf passes through various commercial settlements, such as the town of Chatu, the Olmorog government station, places where he experiences the encounter with different cultures (Arabs, Indians, Germans, Italians, Greeks and various African communities) of colonial East Africa.
II. HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF TRAVEL
Riva Agüero's Peru: Republic under construction
Riva Agüero's journey takes place in Peru at the beginning of the twentieth century, during the period coined by historian Jorge Basadre as the Aristocratic Republic (1899-1919). At this time, despite political changes and processes of social reform and
democratization, the ruling class maintained its hegemonic position by constructing an aristocratic image of itself. This representation was widely accepted by society, allowing it to exercise cultural dominance over the indigenous and mestizo majorities, configuring a system of social control through both economic and symbolic mechanisms (Hernández, 2000).
The War of the Pacific (1879-1884) was catastrophic for Peru. For two years, Chilean forces occupied Peruvian territory. The Peace Treaty of Ancon in 1883 meant the loss of Tarapacá, and the provisional Chilean administration of Tacna and Arica for ten years. But the plebiscite that was to determine the final fate of these latter provinces never took place. After the war ended, the national pain and distress intensified due to the territorial loss and forced displacement of Peruvians (Monteverde, 2023).
Thus, Riva Agüero's work is inserted in a broader intellectual movement of national reconstruction and search for identity after the war and the chaos that followed. Riva Agüero anticipated the generation of intellectuals who, during the 1920s, undertook the rediscovery of deep Peru. With his work, the author manages to accurately capture the majesty of the Andean geography, evoking with nostalgia fundamental episodes of our history, particularly those corresponding to the period of the conquest; and articulates a vision of Peruvian national identity conceived as the synthesis between the Hispanic and Inca traditions (Chang-Rodríguez, 2018).
Cover of the book "Paradise" (1994) Source: Editorial Horizonte
José de la Riva Agüero Source: politikaperu.org
GURNAH'S TANZANIA: COLONIALISM
AND TRANSFORMATION
Yusuf's journey, in "Paradise", takes place in what is now Tanzania, at the end of the nineteenth century, a period of radical transformations that would mark the future of the region. The Germans were late to the colonial division of Africa. They took over the territories to exploit them economically, implementing a system of forced labor that generated discontent, resentment, and resistance among the local population. They delegated power and responsibility to military officers and private businessmen, whose political ineptitude was evident when they faced local resistance, which they brutally repressed (Khapoya, 2012).
This era was defined by a complex political transition, characterized by the clash between traditional African systems and European domination. "The Europeans are very determined, and while they fight for the prosperity of the earth they will annihilate us all (...) It is not trade that they seek, but the land and everything in it, including us" (Gurnah, 2021, p. 110). Kawa, a fictional town on the coast of Tanzania, is the starting point of the trip. A city that prospered "thanks to the fact that the Germans used it as a depot while they built the railway line that would reach the interior highlands, but which now served only to collect wood and water" (Gurnah, 2021, p. 14).
Yusuf's commercial expedition represents more than just a business trip. It is a journey that reveals the complexities of a society in transformation. Yusuf will have to live in a multicultural environment where Arabs, Indians, Greeks, Germans, English, Swahili and various ethnic groups from Inner Africa coexist, which are pejoratively called "savages". These interactions are often presented in the book as social tensions that are reflected in the experiences of the characters in the work.
III. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL
Purpose of travel
Although the journeys undertaken by Riva Agüero and Yusuf respond to different initial motivations, they become processes of discovery and understanding of complex realities. Riva Agüero embarks on an intellectual journey of exploration through the Peruvian regions, motivated by the desire to make a scientific observation of the Peruvian landscape and society. Its purpose was to understand how history
Source: www.elespectador.com
is inscribed in the territory and manifested in the customs and traditions of the peoples.
Riva Agüero's approach is academic. His training as a historian and his commitment to the project of nationbuilding give his trip a political and cultural dimension. Every landscape observed, every ruin explored, and every documented tradition becomes a piece of the puzzle that constitutes Peruvian identity. His journey is, in essence, an act of knowledge that seeks to become an instrument of nation-building.
On the other hand, Yusuf undertakes a mercantile expedition to the African interior because he has been handed over as payment of a debt owed by his father to the Arab merchant Aziz. Under his tutelage, Yusuf was forced to accompany him on expeditions to trade valuable products such as ivory, gold, fabrics and other goods that could be obtained in the interior of the continent and then traded on the coast, especially in centers such as Zanzibar.
Yusuf's journey serves as a narrative vehicle to explore the Swahili universe before and during colonial times, where conditions within regional social and power structures are as violent and exploitative as under European rule (Göttsche, 2023). The personal transformation that Yusuf experiences on his journey is the narrative core of the novel, revealing how such journeys can alter individuals’ perceptions of themselves and their environment.
Abdulrazak Gurnah (1948 – present)
Function of landscapes
In "Peruvian Landscapes", the territory functions as a text that must be read and interpreted. Riva Agüero develops a specific methodology for the reading of the territory, which includes the interpretation of temples, ruins, architecture and human geography, evoking the decisive historical facts. Each element of the landscape becomes a source of historical and cultural information that allows the construction of historical narratives rooted in geography.
Riva Agüero's descriptions go beyond simple aesthetic observation. Inca ruins, colonial churches, republican haciendas, indigenous peoples, all these elements are articulated in a coherent discourse on the historical evolution of Peru and the unresolved tensions that characterize Peruvian society at the beginning of the twentieth century.
In "Paradise," Gurnah uses a different approach. The sensory description of the African landscape is a narrative instrument that reveals social and cultural tensions. The use of the natural environment to reveal this is particularly noticeable in the descriptions of the different ecosystems that the expedition traverses, from the coasts of the Indian Ocean to the inland regions.
The landscape in Gurnah's novel functions as a metaphor for the cultural transformations that Tanzanian society is experiencing. Changes in vegetation, climate, and topography reflect the social and political transformations that characterize the colonial period. Yusuf's progressive loss of innocence corresponds to the gradual discovery of increasingly hostile and complex landscapes.
Social complexities
"Peruvian Landscapes" offers detailed documentation of Peruvian ethnic diversity and the tensions between criollos, mestizos and indigenous people. Riva Agüero carefully observes the regional differences that characterize the coast, the mountains and the jungle, reflecting on the challenges they pose for national integration. His analysis includes a consideration of the cultural syncretisms that result from the encounter between indigenous, colonial and republican traditions.
The analysis of miscegenation as a historical process is one of the most significant contributions of the work. Riva Agüero understands that Peruvian identity cannot be built by negating any of the ethnic
and cultural components that make it up, but must be based on a creative synthesis that recognizes and values diversity as a national strength.
In "Paradise", social complexities are manifested through the description of social hierarchies in East Africa. The systems of serfdom that characterize the society of the time are gradually revealed through the experiences of Yusuf, who discovers the darker dimensions of the commercial exchanges that he had initially perceived as normal.
The novel presents a fascinating portrait of East Africa as a cosmopolitan space, where diverse religious and cultural systems coexist. The multicultural trade exchanges connecting Africa, Arabia and India create a complex social environment that challenges simplified visions of the African continent. However, this complexity also includes forms of exploitation and domination that are progressively revealed throughout history.
IV. NARRATIVES AS BRIDGES TO MUTUAL KNOWLEDGE
Shared narrative strategies
Both Riva Agüero and Gurnah employ narrative strategies that facilitate the intercultural knowledge characteristic of both countries. The use of description as a tool is a fundamental element in both works, beyond being just an aesthetic resource. Detailed descriptions allow readers to understand the complexities of the societies described, revealing value systems and, most notably, in Gurnah's work, everyday practices that would otherwise remain inaccessible to readers outside those cultures.
The integration of history, geography and human experience constitutes another shared narrative strategy. Both authors envision that the understanding of a culture requires knowledge of multiple dimensions: the physical environment that shapes it, the historical processes that have shaped it, and the individual experiences that humanize it. This approach allows the humanization of geographically distant experiences, facilitating the empathetic identification of readers with different cultural realities.
Building Cross-Cultural Empathy
Both works build an intercultural empathy through the creation of characters who embody universal dilemmas. Riva Agüero, as narrator-protagonist, faces the challenge of understanding and articulating the complexity of his own country. Yusuf, on the other hand, represents the universal experience of the young man who must navigate a complex and often contradictory adult world.
Both authors avoid simplified presentations of their respective societies. These narratives invite challenging the preconceived perceptions that readers may have about the cultures described. A Tanzanian reader who approaches "Peruvian Landscapes" will discover a complex and diverse Peru that transcends the simplified images that can circulate on social media. Similarly, a Peruvian reader exploring "Paradise" will find a cosmopolitan African atmosphere in the late nineteenth century that defies Western stereotypes.
V. REFLECTIONS
The literary journeys of Riva Agüero and Gurnah reveal complex societies characterized by extraordinary ethnic and linguistic diversity. Both Peru at the beginning of the twentieth century and Tanzania at the end of the nineteenth century are presented as multicultural spaces where diverse traditions converge, creating unique cultural syntheses, but also significant social tensions.
These narratives invite Peruvian and Tanzanian readers to explore the literature of the other country, respectively, as a window into cultural experiences that, although geographically distant, have elements in common. Both societies have faced the challenges of nation-building in contexts of cultural diversity, and have gone through modernization processes that threatened ancestral traditions.
Abdulrazak Gurnah's recent visit to Peru at the "Hay Festival Arequipa 2024" represents a concrete example of Tanzanian literature's approach to Peru and the realization of a direct dialogue between intellectuals from Peru and Tanzania. This meeting generated significant media coverage and mutual academic interest, demonstrating the potential of literature to build effective cultural bridges.
This precedent suggests the need to expand these cultural exchanges, inviting Peruvian writers to participate in African literary festivals and promoting
the translation and circulation of literary works between the two regions. Travel literature, as demonstrated by the works analyzed, has the potential to facilitate knowledge and understanding between apparently distant cultures, revealing the universality of certain human experiences.
REFERENCES
De la Riva Agüero, J, (1995). Peruvian Landscapes. Riva-Agüero Institute of the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. (Original work published posthumously in 1955).
Gurnah, A. (2021). Paradise. Salamandra Narrative. (Original work published in 1994).
Hernández, M. (2000). Is the face of Peru another? Identity, diversity and change. AGENDA: Peru. Retrieved from https://red.pucp.edu.pe/wp-content/ uploads/biblioteca/48.pdf
Chang-Rodríguez, E. (2018). Tradition and innovation. The Peruvian essay in the first decades of the twentieth century. In Ideological Counterpoint and Dramaturgical Perspectives in Contemporary Peru / Juan E. de Castro and Leticia RoblesMoreno, coordinators.-- 1st ed.-- Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP), Fondo Editorial, Casa de la Literatura Peruana, Ministerio de Educación del Perú (MINEDU). Retrieved from https://www.casadelaliteratura.gob.pe/wp-content/ uploads/2018/11/Vol-6.-HLP.pdf
Khapoya, V.B. (2012). The African Experience (4th ed.). Chapter 4: Colonialism and the African Experience. Routledge. Recuperado de https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/ samplechapter/0/2/0/5/0205208606.pdf
Monteverde, L. (2023). Memory and mourning of the witnesses of the War of the Pacific and their sculptural proposals to commemorate the dead heroes. Peru 1883-1897. Ibero-American. (pp. 217 - 248). Retrieved from https://dialnet.unirioja.es/ servlet/articulo?codigo=9563870
THE PLACE OF WRITING: MEMORY AND EXILE IN THE NARRATIVE WORK OF ABDULRAZAK GURNAH, NOBEL
PRIZE
IN LITERATURE 2021
rAfAel AdemAhr vAllejo bulnes second secreTAry in The diplomATic service of The republic of peru
Currently considered by critics as one of the most representative voices of African postcolonial literature and the greatest exponent of Tanzanian letters, Abdulrazak Gurnah (Zanzibar, 1948) has built through his novels and essays, a literary universe marked by nostalgia for his native Zanzibar; the experience of exile in Europe; the constant search for a sense of identity and belonging; and the effects of colonialism on history and personal and collective memory. Although he enjoyed some recognition within European academic circles - of which he was a member having held a chair in English literature at the University of Kent for more than four decades - it was not until 2021 that he acquired widespread notoriety with the Nobel Prize for Literature.
The awarding of the highest prize in universal literature not only meant for Gurnah the individual consecration for the production of an extensive literary work - composed of eleven novels, of which the committee highlighted "Paradise" of 1994, as his most successful creation - but was also interpreted as the necessary, although deferred, recognition of the literature of an entire continent: Gurnah was the first African writer to win the medal in more than a decade, preceded by Wole Soyinka of Nigeria in 1986; Naguib Mahfouz of Egypt in 1988; and South Africans Nadine Gordimer and J.M. Coetzee in 1991 and 2003, respectively. What's more, he was the first Black writer to receive the distinction from the Swedish Academy since African-American novelist Toni Morrison in 1993 (Alter & Marshall, 2021).
The jury supported the decision by underlining "its uncompromising and poignant penetration of the effects of colonialism and the fate of the refugee in the abyss between cultures and continents" (The Nobel Prize, 2021). Indeed, Gurnah has devoted much of his narrative work to critically examining the multiple effects of European colonialism in East Africa.
Source: www.nobelprize.org
Abdulrazak Gurnah
is, indeed, a central theme in Gurnah's work" (2002; the translation is mine).
A prime example is his novel " By the Sea", published in 2022, in which the protagonist, Saleh Omar, a furniture merchant already in his old age and a refugee in London, recalls his years in the Zanzibar archipelago, then a sultanate under the protection of the British Empire, and examines how the education received in that period prioritized the use of English and elevated Western knowledge to absolute truth to the detriment of the local knowledge and the cultivation of their African identity. It should be remembered that Gurnah, like Saleh Omar, was born and spent his early years in colonial Zanzibar, until, at the age of twenty, in 1968, he migrated to England as a refugee, as did a young man named Farrokh Bulsara, who would later adopt the stage name of Freddie Mercury.
Far from his family and his land, and unable to return, Gurnah turns to nostalgia, and in an effort to recover that life that he now knows is alien and irretrievable, he resorts to the only method that can somehow restore that experience: writing. As Anaya points out, "Gurnah's narrative fills precisely that void and builds a context of historical specificity that allows us to understand the causes of these collective tragedies" (2021). Thus, personal and collective memory, biographical and national circumstances, are intermingled in fiction to bring to life through writing what reality has made unfeasible: "It became necessary to make an effort to preserve that memory, to write about what was there, to recover the moments and stories that people lived and through what they themselves understood" (Gurnah, 2021; the translation is mine).
In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech, Gurnah explores what the act of writing has meant to him: a pleasurable activity in his school and formative years, which took on a different and more complex
dimension in his youth and maturity: "I didn't fully realize this until I went to live in England. It was there, in my homesickness and in the midst of the anguish of a life as an outsider, that I began to reflect on many things that I had not considered before. It was from that period—that prolonged period of poverty and alienation—"that I began to write in a different way." It became clearer to me that there was "something I needed to say, that there was a task to be done, that there were regrets and grievances that needed to be brought to light and considered" (Gurnah, 2021; italics and translation mine). It is then that Gurnah becomes aware of the function of writing as a vehicle of memory, and as a critical testimony of his time and situation: "Those scattered reflections, the habit of writing to understand and document his own dislocation, eventually gave rise to his first novel and nine other works [eleven at present] that explore the lingering trauma of colonialism, war and displacement" (Alter & Marshall, 2021).
But memory is not the only driving force of his work; Exile and the often tortuous process of assimilation to a new country, to a diverse and heterogeneous reality, crossed by cultural, idiosyncratic and linguistic barriers, is another of the central axes of his literary production and reflection. In most of his novels, the protagonists are refugees from East Africa, who experience difficulties in integrating themselves into the host society, and who feel that they have lost their place in the world. It is precisely the construction of a new sense of belonging and identity that will guide the often fruitless search for these characters: "Perhaps it is not surprising," Dadawala reflects, "that in Gurnah's fiction, migration turns out to be an experience that diminishes all those involved. Those who are lucky enough to escape discover that migration divides their lives in two" (2022).
The particular case of Gurnah is illustrative in this regard, and shares traits of undeniable similarity with many of his characters, to whom he transfers his biographical experiences, such as the protagonist of " Admiring Silence " of 1996, a Tanzanian professor, refugee in the United Kingdom, who goes through a prolonged assimilation and begins a new life with an English wife with whom he has a daughter. After twenty years abroad, the possibility arises of returning to his country and reuniting with his family, whose emptiness, nourished by longing and nostalgia, has been populated with memories and fantasies (Gurnah himself was prevented from returning to Tanzania for ten years).
Works by Abdulrazak Gurnah
Source: www.elconfidencial.com
However, once he returns, he gradually realizes the distance that the years have been creating and imposing between his memory and reality. As Gonzalo Chacón points out, with this story Gurnah manages to "portray the feelings of many migrants who, after establishing their lives in another country, return to the land where they were born only to realize that it has changed so much due to the normal progression of society that the places that star in their memories no longer resemble at all the mental snapshots they had of them or have directly disappeared" (2025). In this way, we witness one of the central dramas of the migrant experience portrayed by Gurnah: the profound sense of orphanhood—of belonging only to the homeland preserved in memory.
A curious aspect of Gurnah's work, which is symptomatic of his personal process as an exile and migrant, is the fact that all of his literary production has been written in English, despite the fact that his mother tongue is Swahili, a language of Bantu origin that is spoken by more than one hundred million people in East and Central Africa and that has been widely influenced by Arabic and Portuguese. However, as Alter & Marshall point out, Gurnah's prose exhibits the use of English permeated by Traces of Swahili, Arabic, and German, which are revealing of the different traditions from which he comes, and with which he has been enriching his experience and writing (2021). Gurnah himself has confessed that, although English is the language chosen to capture his work, the content of it was given to him long before he made his choice.
In this sense, the marks of different cultures are not only manifested at the idiomatic level but also through the multiplicity of references and imagery that Gurnah incorporates into his stories, and with
which he composes a cosmopolitan, diverse and integrating mosaic: the Qur'an; the stories and legends of "One Thousand and One Nights"; Persian poetry; African myths and beliefs are used to explain certain situations that Western rationality cannot comprehend. His own identity as a Muslim - his name literally means "Servant of al-Razzak", one of Allah's names - is also reflected in his work, indicating, for example, the rule of conduct or the application of the law to be followed in a given circumstance, as in the case of " By the Sea", which describes how, according to Islam, the deceased's property should be distributed among the heirs, particularly with regard to real estate, which, as the reader will discover later, is the main source of disagreement between the two protagonists.
However, Gurnah's work not only captures the dramas of its protagonists, or the dark aspects of existence, it also finds room to highlight the goodness and nobility of the human soul. In the author's own words: "But writing cannot be just about battles and polemics, however stimulating and comforting they may be. Writing is not about just one thing, it is not about this subject or that, or this concern or another, and since its subject is human life in one form or another, sooner or later cruelty, love, and weakness become its subject. I believe that writing should also show what can be different, what the hard, domineering eye can't see, which makes people, seemingly small in stature, feel confident in themselves despite the contempt of others. That is why I found it necessary to write about it as well, and to do so honestly, so that both ugliness and virtue are manifested, and the human being appears beyond simplification and stereotype. When that works, a kind of beauty emerges" (2021).
Abdulrazak Gurnah
Source: www.ft.com
The beauty to which Gurnah refers is that of dignity restored to the individual, where tenderness prevails over cruelty and kindness arises from unexpected sources: "Abdulrazak Gurnah's gaze is neither spiteful nor revanchist nor vindictive. It is a look from the act of pleasure, the goodness and beauty of reading and writing, of someone who knows what ugliness and cruelty are, points them out, remembers them and asks that they not be repeated" (WMagazín, 2021). And that is precisely, and ultimately, Abdulrazak Gurnah's legacy: the reconciliation of the individual with his or her history, through a comprehensive understanding, which does not exclude in this process the inevitable ups and downs, violence or grievances, but which hints at the possibility of a happy encounter beyond the place of writing.
Gurnah, Abdulrazak (2022). A orillas Del Mar. Salamandra.
The Nobel Prize (2021). Abdulrazak Gurnah delivered his Nobel Prize lecture in literature. Recuperado de: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/2021/ gurnah/lecture/
WMagazin (2021). The Nobel Prize for Literature Abdulrazak Gurnah calls for the abolition of stereotypes and cruelty and the release of tenderness and beauty. Retrieved from: https://wmagazin.com/ relatos/el-nobel-de-literatura-abdulrazak-gurnahpide-dejar-los-estereotipos-y-la-crueldad-y-dejarsalir-la-ternura-y-la-belleza/#aaaescribiendo
Abdulrazak Gurnah
TANZANIA, HEART OF THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY: AN OPPORTUNITY FOR PERU'S INTERNATIONAL OUTREACH
johAn ríos rivAs
second secreTAry in The diplomATic service of The republic of peru
Glorious nduTA KAwAwA
Located on the eastern coast of Africa, Tanzania is much more than an iconic tourist destination; it plays a quiet yet undeniable role in East Africa's recent history. Arusha, one of its main cities nestled in the middle of the hills of Mount Meru, is home to the headquarters of the East African Community (EAC), a regional body that brings together eight African states and seeks to consolidate an integrated market of more than 300 million people (East African Community [EAC], n.d.). From this diplomatic enclave, Tanzania plays a key role in the political, economic and cultural integration of the continent, offering countries such as Peru a platform to strengthen ties.
Serengeti National Park Source: visitworld.today
Tanzania: geographical position and strategic relevance
Tanzania is located on the coast of the Indian Ocean, with strategic ports such as Dar es Salaam and Tanga, and shares borders with eight countries, making it a natural corridor connecting the ocean and the interior of the continent (World Bank, 2022). In addition, it belongs to both the EAC and the Southern African Development Community (SADC), which gives it a hinge role between two important blocs (Chatham House, 2024).
Tanzania's rich history as a champion of peace and pan-African ideals runs deep. This nation's first president, Julius Kambarage Nyerere, whose philosophy of Ujamaa or "family" emphasized social cohesion and equity, still inspires diplomatic approaches across the continent today (Fouéré, 2014). Successive Tanzanian leaders have built their foreign policy on this thinking, expanding regional trade, facilitating peace processes, and ensuring that Tanzania remains a reliable partner within the EAC. This continuity of vision has anchored the country's role as a bridge builder.
In addition, the city of Arusha is recognized as a "diplomatic capital" in Africa, as it houses the Secretariat of the EAC, its Parliament and the Court of Justice, in addition, it has been the headquarters of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), established in 1994 by Resolution 955 of the United Nations Security Council (United Nations [UN], 1994)
to prosecute those responsible for the genocide that occurred in Rwanda, and to host key peace processes in the region (UN, 1994; UN-IRMCT, n.d.).
In this, Tanzania represents a country that values mediation, multilateralism and consensus-building as tools for stability. This nation understands that being a "host" isn't just about providing meeting space; It is about providing an environment in which solutions can be nurtured and trust grown. Two examples of this foreign policy of mediation are outlined below:
The Arusha Agreements on Rwanda (1993)
Signed on 4 August 1993 between the Government of Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), the Arusha Accords established a Broad-Based Transitional Government with cross-party portfolios, the appointment of Faustin Twagiramungu as Prime Minister, a 37-day timetable for the installation of transitional institutions and the integration of forces with a proportion of 60% (government forces) and 40% (RPF) with an army projected at 13,000 troops. These agreements also provided for the repatriation of refugees, rule of law guarantees, and the deployment of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) to support implementation. (UN, 1993; Peace Accords Matrix, 1993; George Washington University, National Security Archive, 2014).
Map of Tanzania
Source: www.zaratours.com
The Arusha Agreements on Rwanda (1993)
Source: www.flickr.com
Source: www.iwacu-burundi.org
The Arusha Agreement for Burundi (2000)
The Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi (28 August 2000) was brokered by Julius Nyerere and, after his death, by Nelson Mandela. Its architecture includes five protocols: nature of the conflict; democracy and good governance (including a transitional constitution); peace and security; rehabilitation and reconstruction; and implementation guarantees. It established transitional mechanisms, security reforms (ethnic and regional balances in the forces), non-violence commitments, with timetables and international supervision. Although complete demobilization and the inclusion of all armed movements required subsequent agreements, Arusha 2000 laid the groundwork for the ceasefire and institutional frameworks that followed. (Peace Accords Matrix, 2000).
Potential of the link between Peru and Tanzania
Peru can take advantage of Tanzania's strategic position to connect with East Africa, boosting trade in agribusiness, mining, renewable energy, and tourism. In addition, there are opportunities for academic cooperation, participation in multilateral forums, and cultural promotion through public diplomacy.
Challenges and opportunities in technical cooperation and knowledge transfer
The direct diplomatic link between Peru and Tanzania is under construction; however, studies on international cooperation in Peru reveal that the country has developed capacities to align its "development cooperation" with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), enhancing the coherence
of national policies and the effectiveness of international aid (Guerrero-Ruiz, Kirby, & Schnatz, 2021). This Peruvian experience could be a useful reference for future dialogues with Tanzania in areas of interest.
In the case of Tanzania, several international donors have worked on agricultural projects that emphasize local ownership and knowledge transfer as key mechanisms for success. For example, projects supported by the United States and China have implemented approaches based on cross-country visits, flexibility for local counterparts, and promotion of local leadership in implementation (comparing districts such as Mvomero and Kilosa), which has demonstrated the relevance of designing initiatives that empower host communities (International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 2023). These lessons are vital for any future collaboration between Peru and Tanzania in international cooperation sectors.
Recent research in Peru highlights the importance of combining bonds from extractive sectors with strengthening local state capacity to translate these revenues into sustainable development and structural transformation (Murillo and Sardon, 2024). Although focused on Peruvian contexts, this approach offers a valuable perspective for Tanzania, a country rich in natural resources that also faces the challenge of turning these resources into concrete benefits for its communities. Therefore, there is untapped potential for both nations to share experiences in industrialization management, institutional strengthening and inclusive economic development, mutually contributing to the design of more efficient and adapted policies.
Multilateral participation and cooperation
Both countries are part of the United Nations and coincide in forums such as the 2030 Agenda and the promotion of South-South cooperation. According to Rojas Aravena (2020), Latin American and African states often find multilateralism a key platform to defend principles of sovereignty, equity, and sustainable development. In this sense, the relationship between Peru and Tanzania is framed more in convergence within multilateral organizations than in direct bilateral ties.
The Arusha Agreement for Burundi (2000)
Multilateral Participation and Cooperation
Source: www.saberesafricanos.net
Tanzania's experience as an active member of the African Union and groups from the Global South brings it closer to Peru in its interest in strengthening the voice of developing countries in the face of global asymmetries. Peru, as Tickner (2022) explains, has historically used its multilateral diplomacy to articulate positions in defense of democracy, human rights, and international cooperation for development. These coincidences open up opportunities for coordination on issues such as climate change, food security and access to international financing, areas where both face common challenges linked to economic and social vulnerabilities.
In the area of peace and security, Tanzania plays an active role within the EAC and SADC. In the latter, it is the headquarters of the Organ on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation, reaffirming its commitment to regional stability, strategic coordination and the joint management of threats such as transnational organized crime, terrorism and cybercrime (The Citizen, 2025; The Guardian, 2025). In addition, both Peru and Tanzania share spaces for cooperation in global forums under the mandate of the United Nations Security Council, where the importance of regional mechanisms in conflict prevention and in the deployment of peacekeeping operations is emphasized (UN, 2006).
Arusha's institutional memory – from ICTR to the agreements with Rwanda and Burundi – provides a learning laboratory in transitional justice, security sector reforms, and high-level mediation; issues where Peru can exchange experiences (internal peace, transitional justice) and cooperate academically.
Commercial and cultural promotion
Both Peru and Tanzania have been making progress in areas such as economic diversification and cultural promotion through public diplomacy. Tanzania, after periods of isolation under the government of John Magufuli, has begun a shift towards a more active
and regional diplomacy, promoted by President Samia Suluhu Hassan, with an emphasis on SouthSouth cooperation, the promotion of the Kiswahili language as a cultural tool, and the strengthening of global alliances.
Tanzania is an active member of the EAC, which has a customs union, common market and is moving towards monetary integration. This includes proposals such as the creation of an East African Central Bank, a joint monetary system, and a set of common policies that would significantly strengthen intraregional trade and the bargaining power of member states (Tharani, 2017). This platform allows it to articulate a trade agenda within this economic bloc, facilitating exchanges, investments and shared standards that could benefit market diversification and regional economic growth.
On the other hand, Arusha also hosts cultural and linguistic forums (Kiswahili) that could be integrated into an agenda of educational cooperation and academic tourism. Additionally, synergies could be capitalized in areas such as science and technology, diplomatic training, and cultural exchange, aligned with Tanzania's new orientation towards AfroLatin American solidarity and diplomacy based on innovation and social inclusion (Business Wire, 2025).
Conclusion
Tanzania's geographical positioning, the logistical scaffolding that articulates corridors with the Indian Ocean and the symbolism of Arusha as a regional diplomatic capital – home to the EAC and milestones of justice and peace – make up a unique ecosystem for relations with East Africa. For Peru, anchoring a strategy in this node would make it possible to move from exploratory visits to concrete projects: trade and academic missions, regulatory cooperation, logistics, and South-South diplomacy with institutional anchorage in the EAC.
East African Community
Source: www.saberesafricanos.net
References
Business Wire. (May 26, 2025). The launch of Tanzania's foreign policy strengthens Afro-Latin American solidarity and South-South cooperation. Retrieved from: https://www.businesswire.com/ news/home/20250526984631/en/TanzaniasForeign-Policy-Launch-Strengthens-Afro-LatinSolidarity-and-South-South-Cooperation.
Chatham House. (2024). Reviving Tanzania’s regional leadership and global engagement. Recuperado de: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2024/04/ reviving-tanzanias-regional-leadership-and-globalengagement/04-tanzanias-global-engagement
East African Community (EAC). EAC Organs. Recuperado de: https://www.eac.int
Fouéré, M.-A. (2014). Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa, and political morality in contemporary Tanzania. African Studies Review, 57(1), 1–24. Recuperado de: http:// www.jstor.org/stable/43905075
George Washington University, National Security Archive. (2014). Rwanda: The Failure of the Arusha Peace Accords. Recuperado de: https://nsarchive2. gwu.edu
Guerrero-Ruiz, A., Kirby, P., & Schnatz, J. (2021). Aligning development co-operation to the SDGs in upper-middle income countries: A case study of Peru (OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers, No. 99). OECD Publishing.
International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews. (2023). Comparing donor approaches in
promoting rural livelihoods. A case study of two selected donor-funded agricultural projects in rural Tanzania. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 4(11), 151-161.
Murillo, D., & Sardon, S. (2024). Commodity Booms, Local State Capacity, and Development. ArXiv. Recuperado de: https://doi.org/10.48550/ arXiv.2411.09586
Peace Accords Matrix. (2000). Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi. https:// peaceaccords.nd.edu/accord/arusha-peace-andreconciliation-agreement-for-burundi
Peace Accords Matrix. (1993). Peace Agreement between the Government of Rwanda and the RPF. Recuperado de: https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/accord/ arusha-accord-4-august-1993
Rojas Aravena, F. (2020). Multilateralism and international cooperation in times of change. Pensamiento Propio, (51), 15-40.
Tharani, A. (2017). Harmonization in the EAC. In E. Ugirashebuja, J. E. Ruhangisa, T. Ottervanger, & A. Cuyvers (Eds.), East African community law: Institutional, substantive and comparative EU aspects (pp. 486–500). Brill. Recuperado de: http:// www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vj2.34
Tickner, A. B. (2022). Latin American International Relations and the Search for Autonomy: From Autonomy to Post-Hegemony. Routledge.
United Nations. (1994). Security Council Resolution 955. Recuperado de: https://undocs.org/S/ RES/955(1994)
United Nations. (1993). Security Council Resolution 872. Recuperado de: https://digitallibrary.un.org/ record/197341?v=pdf
United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (UN-IRMCT). (s.f.). The ICTR & its legacy. Recuperado de: https://unictr.irmct.org
World Bank. (2022). Tanzania - Transport Integration Project (English). World Bank Group. Recuperado de: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/959601653593525756
THE EXQUISITE PEPIAN OF THE LIBERATOR
AmbAssAdor jorGe AlejAndro rAffo cArbAjAl
direcTor GenerAl for AfricA, The middle eAsT And Gulf counTries of The minisTry of foreiGn AffAirs of peru
Francisco, a slave born in Africa, was the creator of the recipe for shrimp pepián, today a famous dish of Peruvian gastronomy
The knocks on the door of the court sounded like a popular uprising, startling His Lordship Tomás Palomeque, a Spaniard married to a Peruvian and a judge of the Royal Audience of Lima who, in those days of libertarian struggles against the Crown, feared that sooner or later the neighbors would storm in, demanding—by bravado or by force—that he declare his political sympathies.
Hard times where the excessive expenses of European wars had weakened the royal coffers and the bad example set by the nobles was soon imitated by others, where the Bourbons did not cease to accumulate mistakes, among them mistreating the Creoles beyond the sea, already very dissatisfied with the monopolistic policies of the metropolis.
In an empire in decline, the tributes in the Spanish possessions only provoked uprisings and endless protests; and without spaces for dialogue with his American subjects, the loss of loyalties was inevitable.
But these reflections did not worry the spirit of Don Tomás when he learned the reason for the abrupt irruption of the litigants in his judicial office. It was a culinary dispute between Mr. T. Panizo and Mr. J. Pardo who, accompanied by their lawyers, launched into legal tirades about the ownership of a slave, skilled in the kitchen, creator of the shrimp pepián recipe, now a famous dish in Peruvian cuisine. The slave in question was born in Cape Verde (Africa), had been baptized with the name Francisco and had been given the surname of the patron Panizo as was customary in haciendas such as Maranga – on the outskirts of Lima – where since his adolescence he learned the craft of cooking, displaying a special ability to combine flavors, aromas, and the art of fine dining.
As a servant of Doña María Ramírez de Panizo he learned the viceregal customs for important dates until the day when the Azevedo (whose patriarch Matías was an angry man) asked to "borrow" him and did not return him. Francisco ended up working for the Pardos, although it is unknown if in Lima or on their hacienda in Ica.
Royal Audience of Lima Source: es.wikipedia.org
In the end, Don Tomás had nothing to elucidate because while there was a discussion about which of the two families would keep the slave, Francisco Panizo escaped from the hacienda where he was confined to join the ranks of the Liberation Army of Generalissimo José de San Martín where he was admitted as a free man.
Historian E. Koechlin (Guide to the Emancipatory Process, 2019) points out that Francisco was as talented in the kitchen as he was in battles – he fought in Chacra Alta –and prepared his famous pepian dish for the Protector of Peru, with such success that San Martín appointed him cook for the General Staff in 1821.
Guayaquil's Rosa Campusano and Quito's Manuelita Sáenz, emblematic women of American emancipation, among other constant guests at the Liberator's table, tasted what Francisco’s dishes.
In 1823, before Bolívar's arrival in Peru on the brigantine Chimborazo, Francisco worked as a cook for José de la Riva Agüero, then president of Peru. Its prestigious recipe has survived to the present day thanks to the historian L.A. Eguiguren (Hojas para la Historia de la Emancipación del Perú, 1959) who transcribes it: "Grind the corn kernels (parboiled corn) into a smooth paste and add a little olive oil. Separately, prepare a hearty broth with the coral, heads, and whole shrimp. In a separate pot, fry the crushed garlic, diced red onion, ground yellow chili pepper, and turmeric. When the dressing is ready, add the corn paste and a ladleful of shrimp broth. Stir constantly to prevent sticking and check the salt level. Add the shrimp tails and, if the mixture is too thick, thin it with a little shrimp broth. When the mixture thickens, remove it from the heat. Serve with rice and garnish with whole shrimp."
A dish that, like the ‘Lima Chicken Causa’, evokes the earthy traditions of a nascent Republic.
References:
Eguiguren, L. A. (1959). Hojas para la Historia de la Emancipación del Perú (Vol. 1). [s.n.]
Koechlin Febres, E. C. (2019). Guide to the emancipatory process 1780-1866. Lima, Peru: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú.
(*) Published in La Estrella de Panamá on April 28, 2020.
Modern Corn Pepián Source: perudelicias.com
José Mariano de la Riva Agüero Source: https://es.wikipedia.org
THE AFRO-PERUVIAN CONTRIBUTION
TO NATIONAL IDENTITY
luis espinozA AGuilAr minisTer in The diplomATic service of The republic of peru
"A compatriot of mine, José María Arguedas, called Peru the country of 'all the bloods' [...]
That is what we are and that is what all Peruvians carry inside, whether we like it or not: a sum of traditions, races, beliefs and cultures from the four cardinal points.
[...]And that with Spain, Africa would also arrive with its strength, its music and its effervescent imagination to enrich Peruvian heterogeneity."
(Mario Vargas Llosa, Speech on receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature)
National identity is a topic that has been the subject of abundant academic discussion in Peru, including aspects such as nationality and interculturality. Thinkers such as José Carlos Mariátegui, in Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana; Víctor Andrés Belaunde in Peruanidad, José Matos Mar and Hernando de Soto from social and economic analysis; historians such as Jorge Basadre and Raúl Porras Barrenechea; writers such as José María Arguedas, in Todas las sangres, among others, have reflected on this, each from different fields and from different perspectives.
The imaginaries about Peru are also varied. We have the Inca, the Hispanic, the indigenous, the mestizo, the multicultural, the Afro-Peruvian imaginary. Víctor Andrés Belaunde, a diplomat who held the presidency of the United Nations General Assembly, wrote: "Peru is a living synthesis; biological synthesis, which is reflected in the mestizo character of our population".
This can be conceptualized as the fruit of a complex maturation process over the last four centuries. As a result, the modern Peruvian is neither Inca, nor Spaniard, nor European, Asian, or African alone, but rather embodies elements of all the migratory flows that have settled in Peruvian territory.
If we understand that Peruvianness is the result of this racial and cultural miscegenation, we have to consider as an important element in the construction of Peruvian national identity, the presence and contribution of the Afro-Peruvian.
Torre Tagle Palace. 1895
Source: Courret/Biblioteca Nacional
Peruvian Traditions
Source: www.abebooks.com
African presence and influence in Peru
The African presence in Peru has two aspects, received during the Spanish viceroyalty: one indirect, North African, originating in the Maghreb, and the other, more direct, coming from sub-Saharan Africa.
The North African influence can be seen in aspects such as architecture, gastronomy, mathematics, medicine, and Christian religion and philosophy, which arrived in Europe and then spread to Peru. This influence remains visible today in the beautiful Mudejar style of our colonial architecture, evident in temples and other buildings, in their coffered ceilings, gables, mullioned windows, and construction styles in cities such as Cusco and Lima.
The sub-Saharan influence, meanwhile, arrived directly through the forced migration of slaves, beginning in the late 15th century.
In this context, an interesting process of integration and cultural mixing took place, which was reflected in aspects such as music, gastronomy, language, and religion. Much could be said about this, but for the purposes of this article, it suffices to point out some of the most notable contributions.
In the musical sphere, Afro-Peruvian percussion instruments began to appear, such as the cajón— declared national cultural heritage in 2021—later incorporated into Spanish flamenco music in the late 20th century, the cajita, and the quijada. All of this was accompanied by traditional Afro-Peruvian dances, such as the festejo, the landó, the zapateo criollo, and the panalivio.
Tonada el Congo (s. XVIII) Source: saboresycultura.blogspot.com
"The lamplighter". Francisco Fierro Palas
Source: Museo Central
La buñuelera, by Pancho Fierro
Source: saboresycultura.blogspot.com/
There is also a decisive Afro-Peruvian influence in dances such as the zamacueca and the marinera, as well as a significant number of important figures in Peruvian music.
In the literary sphere, the Afro-Peruvian tradition has left us a predominantly oral literature, as seen in the cumananas, with poetic compositions used in verse contests. Likewise, Afro-American literature achieved recognition in written expressions in the 20th century with figures such as Nicomedes Santa Cruz, in his roles as decimista, composer, journalist, and television presenter, about whom this Cultural Bulletin has offered interesting articles; and Gálvez Ronceros, who collected Afro-Peruvian rural oral language.
From a gastronomic point of view, their great contribution to our Peruvian identity continues to manifest itself through foods such as anticucho, carapulcra, chanfainita, tamales, and ceviche; sweets such as alfajores, marzipan, ranfañote, frejol colado, buñuelos, picarones (a type of fritter), mazamorra morada, and turrón de doña pepa; and figures such as chef Teresa Izquierdo and chef and researcher Carlos Holsen.
Among Peru's signature dishes, anticucho reflects the fusion of Afro-Peruvian, Spanish, and indigenous cultures. Anticucho, a word derived from two Quechua terms: anti (east) and kuchu (cut), consists of a skewer (Moorish style) of beef heart, seasoned with ají (a plant native to ancient Peru) and with a distinctive Afro-Peruvian flavor. Mazamorra morada, a name that refers to its Moorish ancestry, is a sweet made with purple corn and chuño, native products of Peru, sweetened with sugar, cinnamon, and fruits brought by the Spanish.
This cultural fusion is combined with the human fusion generated by migration from sub-Saharan Africa. Ricardo Palma (1833-1919) in Tradiciones Peruanas mentions the diversity of origins of African immigration to Peru: Angolans, Caravelis, Mozambicans, Congos, Chalas, and Terranovas (“El Rey del Monte”). This diverse population, coming from different regions of sub-Saharan Africa, gradually integrated into Peruvian society, enriching the country's great ethnic diversity.
Despite the historical context of slavery, discrimination, and adverse socioeconomic conditions suffered by the Afro-Peruvian population during the 16th to 19th centuries, there were exceptional cases in which AfroPeruvian individuals excelled in various fields, such as painting, literature, and even liberal professions such as medicine, as in the case of the physician José Manuel Valdez. These are exceptional cases, certainly, but as we shall see, they take on special relevance in the construction of Peruvian national identity and complement the collective contribution of the Afro-Peruvian community to that national identity.
Doña Pepa's nougat
Source: elcomercio.pe
Watercolors of Bishop Gaspar Martínez de Compañón
Source:prints.album-online.com
Watercolors of Bishop Gaspar Martínez de Compañón
Source:www.tierra-inca.com
Watercolors of Bishop Gaspar Martínez de Compañón
Source:alcolonial.wordpress.com
Watercolors of Bishop Gaspar Martínez de Compañón
Source:www.alamy.com
Afro-Peruvian painting
Afro-Peruvian painting plays an important role in the formation of Peruvian national identity. The AfroPeruvian watercolorist Pancho Fierro (1807–1879) left behind a valuable visual record consisting of more than 1,200 watercolors, in which he captured scenes of daily life, popular and religious festivities, as well as portraits of prominent figures in Peruvian society during the final years of the viceroyalty, the process of emancipation, and the early days of the Republic.
Pancho Fierro was the son of a Spanish Creole and an African slave. His watercolors depict Creole and Afro-Peruvian society. It is interesting to note that the art of depicting Peruvian reality in watercolors had precedents in the work of Bishop Baltazar Martínez de Compañón, and was followed by the depictions of various European travelers, such as the German Johan Moritz “Mauricio” Rugendas and the Frenchman Théodore Fisquet. It is noteworthy that Pancho Fierro, one of the founders of Peruvian national identity, died on July 28, the date on which Peru's independence is celebrated.
José Gil de Castro y Morales (1785–1841) was an Afro-Peruvian painter with a more academic style, who stood out as a portraitist, especially of the liberators who led the emancipation process. Among his works, the portraits of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar, a figure who had an African-American
nanny in his childhood, are particularly noteworthy.
Afro-Peruvian culture in Peruvian Traditions
Just as Pancho Fierro portrayed the customs of Peru at the beginning of the Republic in watercolors, Palma reconstructed the viceregal and emancipatory past, as well as the republican present of his time, in literary images, in which he also represented AfroPeruvian culture.
This thematic coincidence led Ricardo Palma to acquire a series of watercolors by Pancho Fierro, later compiled in the album Lima, tipos y costumbres (Lima, Types and Customs). With this, Palma sought to rescue and preserve the visual memory of a Lima in transformation, aware that Peru, a Republic still young at that time, maintained historical continuity with its past. In his vision, tradition and modernity were intertwined, shaping the elements that would form the Peruvian national identity.
The book Tradiciones peruanas (Peruvian Traditions) is a collection of traditional stories from Peru, written by Ricardo Palma between 1872 and 1910, consisting of historical fiction based on anecdotes illustrating various moments in Peruvian history, especially during the viceregal period. This work is composed of 453 stories, called traditions, grouped into seven volumes.
Ricardo Palma was perhaps the most prestigious Peruvian writer of the 19th century. A traditionalist writer, poet, lexicographer, and politician, and director of the National Library, he was a member of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language, and his contribution to literature is on par with that of lexicography.
Considering that Palma was born just a dozen years after independence, at the height of literary romanticism, his work fits into the historical and literary context of his time: that of the formation of nation-states. In this case, the Peruvian nation.
Hence, his traditions include references to all social classes, different geographical locations, and various periods, ranging from pre-Columbian times, thought of in terms of the Inca civilization, through the conquest, the viceroyalty, emancipation, and up to the republican era. His characters belong to all bloodlines: pre-Columbian native population (for example, in La Achirana del Inca), Spaniards, Creoles, indigenous people, mestizos, Europeans, and AfroPeruvians.
Pancho Fierro
Source: wikipedia.org
Source:limagris.com
Ricardo Palma, the great traditionalist, had AfroPeruvian ancestry. His mother, Dominga Soriano, was one-quarter African. His maternal grandmother, Guillerma Carrillo (or Santa María), was Afro-Peruvian and was “the Creole educator of the traditionalist,” according to historian Porras Barrenechea. This origin was the cause of various grievances against him.
Palma maintained a somewhat ambiguous attitude toward his Afro-Peruvian ancestors; however, he is the author of one of the most famous phrases in all of Peru: “Quien no tiene de Inga, tiene de mandinga” (He who does not have Inca ancestry, has Mandinga (African) roots), which refers to the Peruvian ethnic mix that includes native (Inga from Inca) and African (Mandinga or Mandé, referring to the ethnic group that inhabits West Africa) elements.
Afro-Peruvian culture is present in various traditions:
• In “El rey del monte” (The King of the Mountain), he recounts the formation of religious brotherhoods of black people, beginning in the 1540s.
• In “Carta canta,” he recounts an anecdote about two slaves who, due to the summer heat, decide to eat a melon they were transporting, believing that no one would notice, due to their limited education, which leads them to naively get themselves into an awkward situation with the recipient of the fruit.
• In “Pancho Sales, el verdugo” (Pancho Sales, the executioner), he tells the story of a condemned slave who is spared from death by accepting the position of executioner.
• In “La emplazada” (The summoned woman), he refers to a love triangle involving a slave, a teenage slave girl, and a countess.
• In “Los aguadores de Lima” (The water carriers of Lima), he refers to that guild.
• In “Un negro en el sillón presidencial” (A Black Man
in the Presidential Chair), he refers to the famous bandit Luis Pardo, who at one point occupies Lima and sits in the presidential chair.
• In the tradition “La Conga” (The Conga), he discusses Afro-Peruvian music.
• In “Pan, queso y raspadura” (Bread, Cheese, and Scraps), Afro-Peruvian culture is present in the description of various gastronomic dishes.
Beyond their plots, the stories we have mentioned reveal the social background in which the AfroPeruvian community developed during the viceroyalty and the early days of the republic. They reflect the Afro-Peruvian contribution to Peruvian identity, which is now considered part of the Afro-Peruvian intangible cultural heritage, including aspects such as: knowledge, wisdom, and practices associated with gastronomy; music and dance; languages and oral traditions; festivals and ritual celebrations; artistic and plastic expressions: art and crafts (Chocano, 2016).
Despite the light tone of his traditions, Palma, in El rey del monte, managed not only to portray the conditions of poverty and exclusion of Afro-Peruvians, but also to offer an explicit and firm critique of the barbarity of slavery.
Religiousness from an Afro-Peruvian perspective
The Peruvian people are predominantly religious. Within the expressions of faith, especially in relation to what is known as popular religiosity, we can recognize the Afro-Peruvian presence.
The Lord of Miracles, also known as “the Dark Christ” or “the Christ of Pachacamilla,” is an essential element of Peruvian popular religiosity and has its origin in the image of the crucifixion of Christ painted on a wall in the neighborhood of Pachacamilla, surviving the devastating earthquake that ravaged Lima in 1546, as well as various attempts to erase it; giving rise to a complex bond of social and religious syncretism between the indigenous, African, and Spanish communities, as outlined by anthropologist and historian Luis Enrique Tord in his account “Oro de Pachacamac” (Gold of Pachacamac). Currently, a replica of this image is carried annually through the streets of Lima in what is the largest Christ-centered procession in the world, with more than a million devotees. Similar replicas are carried in procession in various cities around the world by Peruvian communities abroad.
Parade carrying one of the first flags of Peru, from 1822
Fray Martín de Porres led a life of holiness, with a deep spirituality that was accompanied by numerous miracles in service to others. He was canonized in 1962, being officially recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, and was also the first black saint. His image, holding a broom and accompanied by three small animals sharing a plate, has iconic value for Peruvian society.
The Afro-Peruvian community in the 19th and 20th centuries
It is worth mentioning that slavery was abolished in 1821 for those born after that date, with the independence of Peru, which was ratified in Article 11 of the Political Constitution of 1823, and was finally extended to the entire Peruvian population in 1854, by decree of President Ramón Castilla; ten years before the US and 20 years before Brazil. Thus began a new era for the Afro-Peruvian community, which left behind agricultural and mining activities, reinforcing its urban character and national integration from another perspective of freedom and in various fields.
The Peruvian Foreign Ministry is symbolized by the viceregal palace of the Torre Tagle family, whose most representative features are its latticework balconies and arches, influenced by the Mudejar style and of Moorish descent. The architectural symbiosis of the Torre Tagle palace, with its African, European, and indigenous elements, reflects the cultural fusion that forms part of Peruvian identity.
Africa in Peruvian diplomacy
However, despite the existence of all these social and cultural elements that we have briefly outlined, various political, geopolitical, and economic factors, both in the case of Peru and the African continent, led to a certain mutual distancing, reflected in Peruvian foreign policy during its first 140 years. It was not until the 1960s that a gradual diplomatic rapprochement began to take place.
Diplomatic ties with African countries were forged during the process of decolonization and independence, especially during the 1960s and 1970s. In addition to the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations, there has been interaction in multilateral forums such as the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement in the 1970s, and, in the present century, the four Summits of Arab-South American Countries (ASPA) meetings, the third of which was held in Lima in 2012.
Peru currently has six embassies on the African continent, three in the Maghreb and three in subSaharan Africa, and is making efforts to strengthen bilateral relations and intercultural dialogue. Among the initiatives being developed to promote mutual understanding are, for example, the “Meet the Team” series of virtual conferences and the cultural magazine Cumanana.
Source: es.m.wikipedia.org/wiki
Torre Tagle Palace
At Expo Osaka 2025 in Japan, during the presentation for Peru's national day, attended by the President of the Republic, Afro-Peruvian culture was showcased as part of the national identity.
The possibilities for trade and cooperation are vast, even more so given the current political and economic dynamics of the African continent, with its various Regional Economic Communities, free trade areas, and customs unions, as well as the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA).
Conclusion
It is important to highlight the African contribution to Peruvian society and culture, to Peru's social and cultural identity, emphasizing the integration of the AfroPeruvian community into the Peruvian nation over the centuries, and the role played by Afro-Peruvians in the initial or foundational stage of the Republic of Peru in the construction of that identity, which is currently reflected in contemporary Peruvian foreign policy, which is revitalizing ties with the African continent.
References
Barrón Mifflin, J. (2016). Pancho Fierro: A Chronicler of His Time (Munilibro Nº 15). Municipality of Lima.
Chocano Paredes, R. (2016). Intangible Cultural Heritage and Afro-Peruvian Populations: An Approach.
Lembcke, G. (2024). Peruvian foreign policy and the African continent: designing a strategy for greater rapprochement. Peruvian Journal of International Law, 177 (Volume LXXIV, May-August 2024).
Palma Soriano, R. (1893). Peruvian traditions.
Tord, L. E. (1985). Gold of Pachacamac. Ediciones Copé.
Vargas Llosa, M. (2010, December 7). Speech on the occasion of receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature. Stockholm, Sweden.
Afro-Peruvian presence at Expo Osaka 2025
Source: www.gob.pe
THE AFRO-PERUVIAN CAJÓN: FROM PERU TO THE GLOBAL STAGE AND ITS ROLE AS A BRIDGE STRENGTHENING TIES WITH AFRICA
vícTor AlTAmirAno AsmAT minisTer counsellor in The diplomATic service of The republic of peru
The Afro-Peruvian cajón, which emerged in the alleys and squares of viceregal Peru, where enslaved African people adapted or transformed wooden boxes into musical instruments, became over time an essential part of the Peruvian cultural soul.
Today, in the 21st century, the cajón resonates in world music festivals and can become a living bridge between continents. That is, to be the axis of a route that connects societies that share rhythmic heritages of African origin through concrete, sustainable and replicable projects.
1. Genealogy of the cajón.
The Peruvian cajón belongs to the family of idiophones or auto-resonators, instruments whose sonority comes from the vibration of the body itself when it is percussed. In organological terms, it can be described as a box-shaped wooden drum, traditionally made of wood (cedar or mahogany), with a rear acoustic opening and a thin front cover that is struck with cupped hands or fingers . According to Fernando Ortiz (1950), it would be understood that it belongs to the genre of drums, that is, "an instrument whose sonority is obtained by striking externally on the hollow and resonant body that constitutes it".
Historically, the cajón was not born as a formal instrument, but as a cultural solution to a colonial prohibition. In the Peruvian viceroyalty, enslaved Africans were forbidden the use of African drums –for their ability to transmit messages and strengthen bonds of identity – which led them to reinvent their rhythmic expression through everyday objects such as packing boxes or fruit and kerosene cans, ingeniously transformed into "domestic" percussion instruments that went unnoticed by the colonial authorities .
This act of creation was much more than a functional adaptation. As Fernando Ortiz states, the Afro-American peoples did not limit themselves to replicating African instruments, but "created new ones, already American",
such as the cajón, which not only replaced the African drum, but established its own sound lineage . It is a new cultural technology product. As the aforementioned author points out, the communities of African origin that arrived in America not only brought customs and languages, but also "rhythm as an essential expression of their vital culture".
Throughout the nineteenth century, the use of the cajón was consolidated as an essential part of rhythmic accompaniments on the central coast of Peru, especially in genres such as the zamacueca. This was recorded in 1867 by the chronicler Manuel Atanasio Fuentes, when describing the dance of Amancaes: "the zamacueca shakes the atmosphere to the sound of the harp and the cajón that the blacks beat with enthusiasm". In turn, the first clear image of the cajón is in a watercolor by Pancho Fierro, dated around 1850, where an Afro-descendant is seen playing a box as if it were a drum .
2. The leap to Europe
Academic interest in the cajón came later. For much of the twentieth century, the importance that formal musicology gave to the instrument was relative. It was only in the 1960s and 1970s that more systematic studies began to appear, first in Creole publications and then in academic circles. In 2001, the Peruvian State recognized it as Cultural Heritage of the Nation .
A milestone for the globalization of the cajón was the realization in Lima of an act of homage to the Spanish flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucia, who heard a cajón for the first time in an informal meeting in Lima, in 1977. The sound fit so well with modern flamenco that he decided to take it to Spain. Since then, when it was incorporated into flamenco music, the cajón began to be called "flamenco" in many European stages, catalogues and music schools.
Many young percussionists associate it with flamenco without knowing its coastal and Afro-descendant roots. This phenomenon has been described as a "cultural invisibilization by aesthetic resignification."
What followed was predictable: an instrument born of "marginality" became part of cultured music. It was recorded, sold, taught, but it was taught without context. There was no conscious appropriation, but a functional absorption. In response, artists such as Susana Baca, through music, and Rafael Santa Cruz, through historical research and outreach, promoted a current of vindication of the cajón as a Peruvian instrument. His objective was clear: for the world to play the cajón, yes, but knowing where it comes from.
of the Colombian Caribbean coast, shows obvious similarities . All are direct percussion, all have served as a rhythmic base for rituals, dances or celebrations. However, the cajón has something that makes it particularly useful: its shape is a box. You sit on top of it. It does not require prior preparation or expensive materials. That facilitates its dissemination.
For that same reason, it can be played by children, adolescents or conservatory teachers. That functional nature makes it valuable for something more than music: education and cultural cooperation. As a sound archive that unites those who, despite not having shared the same geography, lived similar stories.
4. From Afro-Peruvian heritage to flamenco and the African reunion
Beyond the Iberian circuit, the cajón holds an even deeper possibility: to reconnect Peru with Africa from the cultural convergence of rhythmic base. This African dimension is not only symbolic; it is historical, sonorous and corporeal.
From this perspective, the cajón could become an instrument of cultural dialogue with countries with deep percussive traditions, historical links with the diaspora and a strong musical identity. The definition of a route of Countries/Regions with the potential for rhythmic cultural link with the Peruvian cajón could be worked around four lines of action, which do not exclude each other, but complement each other:
“Comparative research on rhythms and sound traditions” involves gathering information on mapping rhythmic traditions, instrument histories, and ethnomusicological studies. The aim is to understand the percussion instruments most closely linked to the Peruvian cajón: what is played, how it is played, and why it is played. Identifying activities related to percussionist gatherings to generate alliances between cities and Afro-descendant communities in Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and Spain (Andalusia). Organizing traveling artistic activities such as concert series, workshops, and exhibitions in various countries. Small tours with local impact that promote exchanges and stimulate cultural economies. The development of educational materials for students and teachers in schools.
3. More than a box: a point of convergence
The cajón, when compared to other instruments such as the West African djembe or the cheerful drum
Paco de Lucía and Ruben Dantas
5. The cajón as a starting point
The journey of the cajón—from the boxes reused by Afro-descendants in Peru to the international stages where it is heard today—is not just a musical story. Originating in Peru under particular circumstances, it has the potential to establish itself as a vehicle for recognition, cooperation, and cultural presence in the world.
It is not about turning the cajón into an export emblem but rather using it as a key to open doors to broader conversations about African heritage, collective memory, and cultural expressions. In that sense, the instrument is not the end, but the starting point. It is ready to be an instrument for bringing that shared memory closer. This would not only give visibility to the cajón as an instrument of Afro-Peruvian origin, but also, why not, project it further as a cultural bridge between societies.
References
Gilroy, P. (1993). The Black Atlantic. Harvard University Press.
Ministry of Culture of Peru. (2001). Directorial Resolution No. 300/INC.
Ministry of Culture of Peru. (2016). National Development Plan for the Afro-Peruvian Population to 2025. Lima: MINCUL.
United Nations. (2015). International Decade for People of African Descent 2015–2024.
OEI – SEGIB. (2022). Cultural policies for social cohesion in Ibero-America. Madrid.
Ortiz, F. (1947). The Instruments of Afro-Cuban Music.
Quintero Rivera, Á. (2009). Body and culture. CLACSO.
Santa Cruz, R. (2004). The Afro-Peruvian cajón. PUCP. Smith, R. (2020). Afro-Peruvian Instruments in Global Education Programs.
Djembe Instruments
Source: beautifulinstrument.com
The History of the Flamenco Cajón or more correctly Peruvian Cajón
Source: blog.musicopolix.com
UNESCO. (2003). Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.
UNESCO. (2020). The Slave Route: Resistance, Liberty, Heritage. Paris: UNESCO.
Walsh, C. (2009). Critical interculturality and coloniality of power. Abya-Yala.
On 26 April 1964, Zanzibar joined Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar and the country's name was subsequently changed to the United Republic of Tanzania (Britannica, 2025).
Santa Cruz, Rafael. (2004). The Afro-Peruvian Cajón. Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, p. 47. See also Orozco, L., & Gómez, F. (2012). Musical Instruments of Peru: An Annotated Organological Guide. Lima: Universidad Nacional de Música, p. 88
Ortiz, Fernando. (1950). The Instruments of Afro-Cuban Music. Volume I: Simple membranophones. Havana: Ministry of Education of Cuba, p.77.
Santa Cruz, R. (2004). Ibid. p. 21. Percussion instruments made in contexts of slavery and colonialism are not only artistic expressions but above all they are part of a functional solution.
Santa Cruz, R, (2004). Ibid., p. 27.
Ortiz, F. (1950). Ibid., p. 58.
Fuentes, M. A. (1867). Lima: historical, descriptive, statistical and customs notes. Paris: Librería de A. Roger y F. Chernoviz, p. 28. The text makes one of the first documentary records of the use of the cajón in an Afro-Creole musical context in the nineteenth century.
Lima Museum of Art (MALI). (2009). Pancho Fierro: watercolors (N. Majluf, Ed). Lima: Fundación Telefónica. Museo de Arte de Lima, p. 76.
Ministry of Education of Peru. National Institute of Culture (INC). (2001). National Directorial Resolution No. 335/INC. Lima: Directorate of Cultural Heritage.
Hernández, E. (2019). "From flamenco to landó: appropriation and recognition of the Afro-Peruvian cajón in global scenarios". Journal of Latin American Musicology, 34(2), pp. 103–129.
Santa Cruz, R. Ibid. p. 103; and, Baca, Ssusana. (2015). I come to offer my heart: Memories of music and resistance. Lima: Editorial Peisa, p.12.
The djembe and the cheerful drum, like the cajón, share a ritual origin. In the case of djembe, it is associated with ancestral Mandinga ceremonies. In: Fougerolle, A. (2012). Le Djembé d'Afrique de l'Ouest. Paris: Harmonia Mundi, p. 38. On the other hand, the happy drum is an essential part of bullerengue and cumbia sabanera. In: Wade, P. (2000). Music, Race, and Nation: Música Tropical in Colombia. University of Chicago Press, p. 75.
The ritual character of drumming in African-American cultures is part of a form of social cohesion and resistance. In: Gilroy, P. (1993). The Black Atlantic. Harvard University Press, p. 77. On the other hand, UNESCO, in its Convention on the Intangible Cultural Heritage, has insisted on the need to protect those manifestations that "resist oblivion" and "preserve diversity from orality and corporality". In: UNESCO. (2020). The Slave Route: Resistance, Liberty, Heritage. Paris: UNESCO, p.10.
In educational programs in Peru, the cajón has been incorporated as part of the musical initiation curriculum precisely because of its accessibility and its potential to teach rhythm and coordination. In: Ministry of Education of Peru, 2010. Intercultural Music Education Program, p. 14.
The diffusion of the Peruvian cajón in the world can be understood as a form of soft power, where music is used as a vector of intercultural understanding. In: Nye, J. (2004). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. Public Affairs, p. 97.
UNESCO. (2020). Ibid., loc. cit.
Santa Cruz, R. (2004). Ibid., pp. 34–39.
Tompkins, W. (2002). Afro-Peruvian Rhythms, for Cajón, Drumset and Percussion. Pacific Heights, p.36. The text points out that some elements of Senegalese sabar and the use of the drum can be traced in Peruvian forms such as festejo and landó.
Cuche, D. (1999). The notion of culture in the social sciences. Bogotá: Nueva Visión, chapter V.
Golash-Boza, T. (2011). Yo soy negro: Blackness and racial identity in Peru. University Press of Florida, pp. 46-48. In Chapter 2, entitled "Practicing Blackness: Sacred Music and Spirituality", the author describes how Afro-Andean religious songs incorporate the sound of drums of African heritage (including those of Mozambican origin) such as the cult of the Virgen del Carmen and the black saints
Hernández, E. (2019). "From flamenco to landó: appropriation and recognition of the Afro-Peruvian cajón in global scenarios". Journal of Latin American Musicology, 34(2), 103–129.
MANDAZI
DRY INGREDIENTS:
- 3 cups all-purpose flour
- 2 tsp instant yeast
- 5 tbsp sugar
- 1 tsp baking powder
- 1/2 tsp ground cardamom
- 1/2 tsp salt
PREPARATION:
LIQUID INGREDIENTS:
- 1 cup warm milk
- 4 tbsp melted butter or margarine
- 1 egg
1. To prepare the dough, add the liquid ingredients to the dry ingredients and knead into a smooth dough. Cover the bowl with a damp cloth and cover and let rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size.
2. To fry the mandazi, on a lightly floured surface, roll out the dough to about 1 cm (½ inch) thick. Cut the dough into the shapes you prefer, cut into squares, diamonds, or circles (a drinking glass works well as a cutter). In a heavy-bottomed pot, heat enough oil for deep frying. The oil is ready when bubbles form around a wooden skewer inserted into it.
3. Reduce the heat slightly and carefully add the dough pieces to the oil. This will prevent them from burning on the outside while the inside cooks. Fry, turning every 30 seconds, for about 2 minutes total, until golden brown.
. Mandazi is a popular fried pastry in East Africa, especially in countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and Rwanda. It resembles a fritter but is usually less sweet and fluffier.
MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS
DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR AFRICA, THE MIDDLE EAST AND GULF COUNTRIES
CUMANANA XLVII– AUGUST – 2025
Editorial Board
Emb. Jorge A. Raffo Carbajal
Min. Marco Antonio Santiváñez Pimentel
M.C. Eduardo F. Castañeda Garaycochea
Editorial Team
Ambassador Jorge A. Raffo Carbajal, Director General and Editor in Chief
First Secretary Dahila Astorga Arenas, Content Director
Third Secretary Giancarlo Martinez Bravo, English Edition Editor
Third Secretary Berchman A. Ponce Vargas, French and Portuguese Editions Editor
