VIEWPOINTS 3
linda gustafsson
uno wivast
Language • words from the text
• open cloze
• reconstruction
ILLUSIONS
OVERVIEW 71 An Inevitable Meeting 73
• words from the text
• reconstruction
What Have You Done Since Highschool? 89
• words from the text
• rephrasing
Memories of a City 107
Reading fiction “Trollbridge” by Neil Gaiman play extract from The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams essay “Hard up i New York” by Jonathan Franzen
Listening live listening
Speaking recording a trailer discussion discussion
listening
Writing discussion essay feature story argumentative essay
Language
• words from the text
• reconstruction
• phrasal verbs
LIFE ON THE EDGE
• words from the text
• reconstruction
• translation
• words from the text
• odd one out
• antonyms and synonyms
OVERVIEW 117 The African Girl 119 A Lost Paradise 135 The Rebel Spy Girl 147
Reading fiction extract from Little Bee by Chris Cleave historical extract from Blood on the Wttle – Massacres and Maltreatments of Aboriginal Australians by Bruce Elder
fiction
extract from Liar, Temptres, Soldier Spy by Karen Abbot
Listening live listening
Speaking debate comparison discussion
Writing formal letter/discussion essay investigative essay short story
Language
• word gap
• error spotting
• reconstruction
• word gap
• error spotting
• gap test
• words from the text
• formal and informal language
THE CONCEPT OF TIME
OVERVIEW
Reading article
“I got here first! How your subjective experience of time make you think you did” by Ty Tang
Listening live listening
poem “A road not taken” by Robert Frost popular science extract from A Brief History of Time by Stephen Hawking
Speaking discussion presentation instruction
Writing argumentative essay discussion essay summary
Language • direct and indirect speech
• three in one out
• words from the text
• open cloze
• translation
• words from the text
• error spotting
• translation
VIEWPOINTS ACTIONS AND CONSEQUENCES
OVERVIEW
THE TROLLEY DILEMMA
Reading: “The trolley dilemma: Would you kill one person to save five?” by Laura D'Olimpio (article)
Listening: Live Listening g
Speaking: Discussion about technology and AI
Writing: Investigative essay about AI technology
Language: Verbs from adjectives; Adjectives from verbs
POLITICAL ACTION
Reading: “I Woke Up” by Jameson Fitzpatrick (poem); Live Reading g
Listening: Live Listening g
Speaking: Recording a conversation on a radio show.
Writing: Argumentative essay about banned literature
Language: Adjectives ending in -ic or -ical; Adjectives used as nouns
A FATAL MISSTEP
Reading: : “A Sound of Thunder” by Ray Bradbury (fiction); Live Reading g
Speaking: Discussion about improving the world
Writing: Literary analysis of A Sound of Thunder
Language: Words from the text; Multiple-choice cloze
• Are there situations when it is necessary to hurt other people? Give examples and explain why it would be necessary.
• In what situations, if any, would you be prepared to physically hurt another person? If so, give examples and explain why it might be necessary.
The Trolley Dilemma
In the article “The trolley dilemma: would you kill one person to save five?” Senior lecturer in Psychology, Laura D’Olimpio, explains the trolley dilemma, and why this is such a challenging problem for us.
Imagine you are standing beside some tram tracks. In the distance, you spot a runaway trolley hurtling down the tracks towards five workers who cannot hear it coming. Even if they do spot it, they won’t be able to move out of the way in time.
As this disaster looms, you glance down and see a lever connected to the tracks. You realise that if you pull the lever, the tram will be diverted down a second set of tracks away from the five unsuspecting workers.
However, down this side track is one lone worker, just as oblivious as his colleagues.
So, would you pull the lever, leading to one death but saving five?
This is the crux of the classic thought experiment known as the trolley dilemma, developed by philosopher Philippa Foot in 1967 and adapted by Judith Jarvis Thomson in 1985.
The trolley dilemma allows us to think through the consequences of an action and consider whether its moral value is determined solely by its outcome.
The trolley dilemma has since proven itself to be a remarkably flexible tool for probing our moral intuitions, and has been adapted to apply to various other scenarios, such as war, torture, drones, abortion and euthanasia.
Variations
Now consider the second variation of this dilemma.
Imagine you are standing on a footbridge above the tram tracks. You can see the runaway trolley hurtling towards the five unsuspecting workers, but there’s no lever to divert it.
tram tracks cable car rails
runaway here vehicle running out of control
trolley here tram or train hurtle move at a great speed, careen loom reveal itself, emerge lever bar, shaft divert redirect oblivious unaware crux essence, central point probe examine, explore intuition instinct drone remote controlled pilotless aircraft euthanasia assisted suicide, mercy killing footbridge bridge for pedestrians
bulk here weight throw here pull/ (the lever) move (a lever) knitting bones bones joining/ growing together after a break harvest here surgically remove organs utterly completely reject dismiss distinction difference latter the second one of two things that have been mentioned inflict cause permissible permitted, allowed
However, there is a large man standing next to you on the footbridge. You’re confident that his bulk would stop the tram in its tracks.
So, would you push the man onto the tracks, sacrificing him in order to stop the tram and thereby saving five others?
The outcome of this scenario is identical to the one with the lever diverting the trolley onto another track: one person dies; five people live. The interesting thing is that, while most people would throw the lever, very few would approve of pushing the fat man off the footbridge.
Thompson and other philosophers have given us other variations on the trolley dilemma that are also scarily entertaining. Some don’t even include trolleys.
Imagine you are a doctor and you have five patients who all need transplants in order to live. Two each require one lung, another two each require a kidney and the fifth needs a heart.
In the next ward is another individual recovering from a broken leg. But other than their knitting bones, they’re perfectly healthy. So, would you kill the healthy patient and harvest their organs to save five others?
Again, the consequences are the same as the first dilemma, but most people would utterly reject the notion of killing the healthy patient.
Actions, intentions and consequences
If all the dilemmas above have the same consequence, yet most people would only be willing to throw the lever, but not push the fat man or kill the healthy patient, does that mean our moral intuitions are not always reliable, logical or consistent?
Perhaps there’s another factor beyond the consequences that influences our moral intuitions?
Foot argued that there’s a distinction between killing and letting die. The former is active while the latter is passive.
In the first trolley dilemma, the person who pulls the lever is saving the life of the five workers and letting the one person die. After all, pulling the lever does not inflict direct harm on the person on the side track.
But in the footbridge scenario, pushing the fat man over the side is an intentional act of killing.
This is sometimes described as the principle of double effect, which states that it’s permissible to indirectly cause harm (as a
side or “double” effect) if the action promotes an even greater good. However, it’s not permissible to directly cause harm, even in the pursuit of a greater good.
Thompson offered a different perspective. She argued that moral theories that judge the permissibility of an action based on its consequences alone, such as consequentialism or utilitarianism, cannot explain why some actions that cause killings are permissible while others are not.
If we consider that everyone has equal rights, then we would be doing something wrong in sacrificing one even if our intention was to save five.
Research done by neuroscientists has investigated which parts of the brain were activated when people considered the first two variations of the trolley dilemma.
They noted that the first version activates our logical, rational mind and thus if we decided to pull the lever it was because we intended to save a larger number of lives.
However, when we consider pushing the bystander, our emotional reasoning becomes involved and we therefore feel differently about killing one in order to save five.
Are our emotions in this instance leading us to the correct action? Should we avoid sacrificing one, even if it is to save five?
Real world dilemmas
The trolley dilemma and its variations demonstrate that most people approve of some actions that cause harm, yet other actions with the same outcome are not considered permissible.
Not everyone answers the dilemmas in the same way, and even when people agree, they may vary in their justification of the action they defend.
These thought experiments have been used to stimulate discussion about the difference between killing versus letting die, and have even appeared, in one form or another, in popular culture, such as the film Eye In The Sky
'The trolley dilemma: Would you kill one person to save five?' by Laura
D'Olimpio
promote contribute to, encourage in the pursuit chasing after of neuroscientist expert in the function of the brain thus consequently bystander onlooker, observer justification showing something to be right or reasonable
Understand and discuss
a. Understanding the text
Answer the following questions by marking ALL the correct alternatives.
1. In the original trolley dilemma you…
a) kill someone by pulling a lever.
b) save five people by pulling a lever.
c) kill yourself by pulling a lever.
2. In one of the variations of the dilemma…
a) there is no lever.
b) you kill a child.
c) you save yourself by killing someone else.
3. What is true about all of the variations mentioned in the text?
a) They all have the same outcome.
b) Most people would be willing to kill one person to save many.
c) More people would consider pulling the lever rather than pushing a person to his death.
4. The principle of double effect means that…
a) the dilemma lets you save twice as many as you kill.
b) it is easier to agree to actions where hurting someone is a side effect.
c) these dilemmas activate both halves of our brain.
5. What is said about the trolley dilemma in the article?
a) All people justify their actions in similar ways.
b) These dilemmas can be used in medical training.
c) These dilemmas are used in fiction.
b) Discussing the text
1. Discuss how you would act in the different dilemmas and give reasons for your answer.
2. In the text it is said that the different scenarios activate different parts of our brain?
Discuss if the emotional side always is a good thing or whether there are times when it is negative.
3. Is there really a difference between “letting someone die” and “killing someone”. Discuss and find arguments for and against.
4. The text mentions the film Eye in the Sky from 2015 where the characters struggle to make decisions concerning an unmanned drone aircraft carrying missiles.
One such decision in the film is how the army should react when a civilian enters the area where the drone is about to fire a missile to kill terrorists. Can you think of more examples in fiction where moral dilemmas are explored?
5. The article about the trolley dilemma is written in a rather informal style with many short paragraphs - some just even one sentence long. Many of the paragraphs also begin with a linking-word like “however”, and end with a question. Rewrite the text beneath the heading “Actions, intentions and consequences” to make the form, style and language more formal.
Working with language
Verbs from adjectives
Complete each of the ten sentences below and on the next page with two or three words, including a verb made from one of the adjectives in the box. Note: The verb should also be conjugated where necessary. The first one is an example.
10. After five hours in the freezer the mixture _________________________________________ into ice cream. sweet tough broad wide sharp short bright black slack hard to sweeten my
1. I use a couple of sugars ______________________________________ tea.
2. The children’s faces___________________________________ excitement when they saw the pile of presents.
3. Last year Jenny ___________________________________ long skirts to bring them into line with the latest fashion.
4. To make a really clean cut, the edge of the knife must first____________________________________ .
5. The captain ordered the crew ____________________________________ the sails.
6. The river has ______________________________________ in several places to handle storm water.
7. She set out to get my job by _______________________________________ my reputation.
8. When I was young, children were often told to ________________________________________ and stop crying.
9. Education should ________________________________________ minds of pupils and teachers alike.
Adjectives from verbs
a) Make an adjective from each of the following ten verbs by using one of these suffixes: -able -ful -ive -ory -ient -ant
Note that some suffixes can be used more than once. Also, you may have to change the verb in more ways than just adding the suffix.
Example: know = knowledgeable
1. destroy
2. agree
3. deceive
introduce
cure
talk
argue
obey
regret
observe
b) Write full sentences including all three words and an adjective made from the verb in bold. Note: The words can come in any order in the sentence.
Example: John / father / mother know = John’s mother is more knowledgeable than his father
1. earthquake / effect / lives destroy
2. lovely / time / dinner agree
3. trust / appearances / may deceive
4. the / book / chapter introduce
5. doctor / disease / entirely cure
6. new / neighbour / met talk
7. protester / interviewed / manner argue
8. insist / behaviour / children obey
9. situation / find / unfortunately regret
10. police / witness / theft observe
Speaking
As technology advances new dilemmas like the trolley dilemma emerge. With AI controlling cars and other areas of our lives, the questions of how the AI should be programmed and who should decide what the programming is, are waiting to be solved.
In small groups discuss the following questions. Use the article about the trolley dilemma as inspiration.
1. What principle do you believe technology, like self-driving cars and other AI-controlled technology, should follow? Consider the following alternatives:
• protecting the “user” (the passenger in the self-driving car, the user of the technology)
• utilitarianism (protecting the largest number of people)
• choosing the option that follows the law
• to always choose the option that is the most likely to protect people from death
• other options or rules (give examples)
2. Who do you think should decide which principle the AI should follow? Consider the following alternatives:
• the programmers/technicians
• the manufacturers of the product
• the owner of the product
Writing
Text type: Investigative essay Register: Formal
Number of words: : 600–800
• the government
• the public by general votes
• other alternatives (give examples)
Investigative question: What are some of the moral issues concerning AI technology and (self-driving cars) (education) (work/a specific profession) (other area of your choice)
Before writing: Look at the example of an investigative essay on page 254
Choose an area where AI technology is advancing. Present the investigative question (as given above with your chosen topic). Describe some of the moral dilemmas that may arise when using AI in the chosen field by using two reliable sources. Summarise the main findings of the investigation and draw a conclusion based on your findings.
USAGE
Usage in language skills refers to the way in which language is used correctly and appropriately in different contexts. It includes the proper use of grammar, vocabulary, punctuation, style and tone to effectively communicate meaning and clarity. Understanding usage involves knowing the rules and conventions of a language and applying them correctly to ensure effective communication and avoid misunderstandings. In this chapter there are different exercises to practice usage and hone your language skills.
1. Words
1.1 Word formation – prefixes and suffixes
Word formation is the creation of new words by adding a prefix to the beginning of an existing word, or a suffix at the end. For example, if you add the suffix -ious to the verb infect you get the adjective infectious. You could also add the prefix dis- to the verb infect and create the word disinfect. Thus, the prefix dis- creates an antonym because disinfect has the opposite meaning to infect.
1.1.1 Prefixes
Different prefixes are used to create antonyms, to make the meaning of a base word negative or to give the base word a different meaning. The following are common prefixes. Prefixes that give a negative or opposite meaning: un- (can be used before most letters) in- (can be used before most letters) ir- (used before r-) il- (used before l-) im- (used before b-, m-, or p-) anti- (meaning ‘opposite’ or ‘against’) contra- (meaning ‘opposite’ or ‘against’) de- (meaning ‘negative’, ‘back’ or ‘remove’) dis- (meaning ‘negative’, ‘back’ or ‘remove’) mis- (meaning ‘bad’ or ‘wrong’) non- (meaning ‘no’ or ‘not’)
Other common prefixes that give a different meaning: co- (meaning ‘together’ or ‘joint’) en- (meaning ‘put into’ or ‘on’) ex- (meaning ‘former’ or ‘out’) extra- (meaning ‘outside’ or ‘beyond’) mid- (meaning ‘[in the] middle [of]’) post- (meaning ‘after’) pre- (meaning ‘before’ or ‘already’) pro- (meaning ‘in favour of’ or ‘on behalf of’) re- (meaning ‘again’) self- (meaning ‘oneself’)
Exercises
a) Use the prefixes above to give the following words opposite, negative or different meanings. Note: Some of the prefixes can be used for several words.
1. skilled 2. war
3. read
4. alcoholic 5. relevant 6. exist 7. legal 8. social 9. ordinary 10. fabricate 11. president 12. obedient 13. use 14. effective 15. compose 16. distinction 17. moral 18. slave
b) Add a prefix to make a suitable antonym of the ten words in bold. The first one is an example.
1. The contestant was _______________qualified after traces of illegal substances were found in her blood.
2. The old painting suffered _______________reparable damage during the robbery.
3. Having to come and pick you up at this late hour is _______________convenient, to say the least.
4. Your treatment has been _______________continued as per your instructions.
5. It was _______________evitable that we’d run into one of your ex-boyfriends given how many you’ve had.
6. I do hope the blanket is made of _______________flammable material?
7. I don’t like to socialise with her because she is so _______________interested in what I have to say.
8. Despite the difficulties, the settlers continued with _______________abated enthusiasm.
9. I have never encountered a more _______________mature 50-year-old!
10. Keep this ten-pound note in your pocket in case of any _______________foreseen events.
1.1.2 Suffixes
Different suffixes are used to create different word classes such as verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs.
Suffixes like -tion, -ion, -ity, -ment, -ness, -ship, -ance, -ence, -al, -ry, -sion, -ist, -ism, -ee, -dom and -er are used to create nouns.
Suffixes such as -able, -ible, -ful, -y, -ive, -al, -like, -ous, -ent, -ative, -ic, -ant, -ian, -less, -ly, -ish, - en, -i and -ese are used to create adjectives.
Suffixes like -ize/-ise, -yze/yse, -ify, -ate and -en are used to create verbs.
Suffixes such as -ly, -ally, -wise and -ward(s) are used to create adverbs.
Exercises
a) Use the noun suffixes on the previous page to create nouns from the following words. Note: some of the words can be irregular in form.
1. consider 2. endure
3. prosper
4. capital 5. brutal 6. complex 7. disappoint 8. renew 9. drive 10. employ
b) Use the adjective suffixes on the previous page to create adjectives from the following words.
1. specify
2. lock
3. peril
4. year 5. child 6. use 7. product 8. progress 9. adapt
10. wood
c) Use the verb suffixes on the previous page to create verbs from the following words.
1. broad
2. deep
3. strength
4. wide 5. length 6. identity 7. industry 8. economy 9. analysis 10. military
d) Use the adverb suffixes on the previous page to create adverbs from the following words.
1. calm
2. profession
3. excellent 4. down 5. environment 6. other 7. on 8. biology
In the following exercises there is a word in capital letters at the end of each line. Use a prefix or a suffix or both a prefix and suffix to this word to give it the correct form/ meaning in the context. Note: some of the words might need other changes as well.
e)
1. She was accused of obtaining money by ___________. DECEIVE
2. Unfortunately, our children are not always ___________. OBEY
3. When I arrived at the hotel room I ___________ all my clothes. PACK
4. The troops aimed to completely ___________ the enemy forces. ANNIHILATION
5. Average temperatures have risen ___________in recent years and SIGNIFICANT we must do something about it.
6. The ___________ of the battle was unimaginable. FIERCE
7. The water levels had risen ___________ after weeks of heavy rain. DRAMA
8. The two countries signed a ___________pact last year. AGGRESSIVE
9. The rapid increase in prices has made a drop in economic AVOID growth ___________.
10. I wish you could give me some ___________ instead of saying COURAGE I won’t be able to get that job.
11. Much to my ___________, I failed the English grammar test. ANNOY
12. I’m afraid that the situation will ___________ if the police decide to WORSE confront the demonstrators.
13. This is one of the most ___________ elections in years and any of the PREDICT five major parties could win it.
14. The Prime Minister’s ___________ soared after the announcement of POPULAR immediate tax rises.
15. The accident left her with a permanent ___________ which prevents her ABLE from working full time.
16. There are many ___________ snakes in this part of the country. POISON
17. He can be very ___________ and is a natural salesman. PERSUADE
18. After six months of diplomatic negotiations, the ___________ was ABDUCT finally released.
19. Several hundred children were ___________ during the measles outbreak. HOSPITAL
20. The ___________ of the plan makes it hard for us to see how it will work VAGUE in practice.
f)
1. I have a feeling that this decision could affect our lives quite ___________ . PROFOUND
2. I expect you to answer my questions___________ . TRUTH
3. Financial matters must be approached in a calm, ___________ way, so PASSION that emotions do not influence your judgement.
4. The ___________ of space is incomprehensible to me. BOUNDLESS
5. She ___________ escaped death in the car accident. NARROW
6. The shopping centre offers a ___________ of good restaurants. VARIOUSLY
7. The ___________ of the aircraft was found in a remote wooded area. WRECK
8. At this point, there is an extremely low ___________ of a bird flu LIKELY epidemic developing in the region.
9. She has a wide circle of ___________ . ACQUAINTED
10. It is astonishing to see a grown man display such ___________ . MATURE
11. He is one of the most outgoing and ___________ members of the team. COMMUNICATION
12. The ancient Egyptians believed in the afterlife and the ___________ MORTAL of the soul.
g)
1. Her remark was most __________________ and inappropriate. OBJECT
2. The ________________ of the gear was inevitable considering the ABANDON weather conditions.
3. We all have to start consuming ___________ friendly goods. ENVIRONMENT
4. Public ___________ has to be reduced in these “difficult” financial times. EXPEND
5. It is a fact that ___________ is on the rise in contemporary society. EXTREME
6. The ___________ claimed that she had never lied to any of her clients. INTERVIEW
7. There is no ___________ for banning this novel in schools. JUSTIFIABLE
8. Environmental ___________ is an issue of growing concern for many SUSTAIN countries.
9. The way the government used force and violence to quell the BARBARIC demonstrations was sheer ___________ .
10. Several channels will be providing live ___________ of the event. COVER
11. The large windows give the room a wonderful sense of BRIGHT ________________ and space.
12. The standard of ________________ in this hotel leaves rather a lot to CLEAN be desired.
13. Her ________________ indicated that she was quite ill. PALE
14. He watched ________________ as their house became engulfed in flames HELP
15. She is an ________________ person and has twice been jailed for fraud. HONEST
16. The prospect of our lousy team winning a game, let alone IMAGINE a tournament, was utterly _______________ .
17. It disturbs me that some people are prepared to turn a blind eye MORAL to corruption and ________________ .
18. You wouldn’t throw chewing gum and sweet ________________ on the WRAP floor at home, would you? Then don’t do it here!
19. The ________________ of time is a difficult concept to get one’s head ENDLESS around.
20. In the future, the technique of retina ________________ may be used RECOGNIZE instead of ID cards.
1.2 Collocations
Collocation involves pairing words that fit naturally together. Collocations are used to help language flow and make it sound natural. For instance, the adjectives heavy or dense can be paired with the noun traffic to describe the fact that there are a lot of vehicles on the roads (There is dense traffic today).
The fact that some words are usually paired together does not mean that pairing one such word with other words is wrong or grammatically incorrect, but that such combinations may sound unnatural or foreign to native speakers. So, for example, if you were to use the adjective thick instead of heavy or dense together with traffic (There is thick traffic today), it just wouldn’t sound right.
Collocations involve many different word classes. For example, adjectives and nouns (heavy traffic), nouns and other nouns (bar of chocolate), verbs and nouns (do the dishes), adverbs and adjectives (deeply concerned ), verbs and prepositions (also known as phrasal verbs – e.g. run out of something) and verbs and adverbs (ask politely).
In the following exercises, you can practise giving your language a natural flow using collocations.
Exercises
a) Complete the 15 sentences with the word that fits best (a–d), making sure it collocates with the word in bold.
1. One critic gave the new play a/an _________ review, while others were less satisfied. a) bright b) glowing c) upbeat d) beaming
2. The new road gives drivers _________ access to the parking lot. a) direct b) outright c) uninterrupted d) expressive
3. He invited his family over for dinner to show off his _________ acquisition: an Aga stove. a) last b) glowing c) latest d) modern
4. I wonder who will _________ the news about falling revenue to the company’s owner? a) tell b) break c) voice d) disclose
5. If you are serious about taking in a lodger, you have to _________ room for another person’s belongings in your house. a) make b) prepare c) construct d) create
6. Her large diamond ring _________ attention to her badly painted nails. a) enticed b) gave c) pulled d) drew
7. By the look of things, the bosses were not_________ satisfied with the staff’s efforts. a) downright b) completely c) utterly d) absolutely
8. Unfortunately, the new ferry sank on its _________ voyage across the canal. a) first b) primary c) maiden d) initial
9. The hospital’s new guidelines for emergency cases are _________ ridiculous! a) utterly b) very c) fully d) terribly
10. The bank decided to _________ the debt owed by the organization, seeing as they had no chance of paying it back. a) forget b) forgive c) stop d) cancel
11. Despite having a bank account, my grandmother still liked to keep a supply of _________ money in a box under the wardrobe. a) ready b) prepared c) loose d) available
12. _________ him compliments will only make his head bigger than it already is. a) Giving b) Saying c) Paying d) Offering
13. Many witnesses are not able to give the police_________ description of events. a) an appropriate b) a right c) a true d) an accurate
14. None of the applicants fully_________ the criteria given in the ad. a) matched b) met c) outlined d) filled
15. It was _________ impossible for any suitor to live up to the standards imposed by her parents. a) virtually b) fundamentally c) essentially d) effectively
Analysing literature
Introduction
Analysing literature is more than just reading, since it involves looking deeper into a text to understand the author’s intentions and how different elements of the story affect us. When you analyse literature, you are not just following a story but you are trying to understand its meaning, the values it shows, and what it says about human nature and society.
One of the main things to look for in a literary analysis is the theme. A theme is the story’s main message or idea. Themes like love, identity, or justice show up in many stories, and analysing them helps us understand what the author thinks about important issues. For example, if a novel explores the theme of inequality, it might show us how the author thinks society needs to change to become more equal. By understanding the theme, you can see how literature reflects society and real life in a specific period of time.
Another key part of analysing literature is looking at literary devices, that is, special tools that writers use, like symbols, metaphors and imagery. These devices make stories more interesting and give them deeper meaning.
It is also helpful to look at a story’s structure and the way it is told. For example, a story told from a character’s point of view feels different than one told by an outside narrator. The way the author organises the story, like using flashbacks or hints about the future, can change how we feel about the events and characters. All these elements work together to shape our experience as readers and make the story meaningful.
Scheme for analysing literature
Using a scheme when analysing a piece of fiction can help you remember what to look for in the text. If anything in the scheme is not included, or not of interest, in the text that you are analysing, you can simply leave that part out of your final analysis.
The following headings and questions should only be used when gathering information. Your final analysis must be written as a coherent text and not as answers to questions. When it comes to writing your analysis, you can structure these topics in any way you like – not necessarily in the order below and on the next page.
Title
How does the title tie in with the plot and theme of the text?
Plot
Retell the events of the story with as few details as possible. Are the events told in chronological order or are they arranged in another way (flashbacks, glimpses of the future etc.)?
Structure
Many literary works are structured in the same way, following a fixed set of stages along a dramatical curve. Identify these stages in the text you are analysing, and see how well it follows the pattern:
• Exposition – where the characters and the basic action is introduced
• Conflict – a problem or struggle between two forces is presented and drives the action forward
• Rising action – a series of events where the conflict increases
• Climax – the peak of the conflict is reached
• Falling action – the conflict decreases and the story moves towards an ending
• Resolution – the end of the story where the conflict is resolved
Characters
Describe the characters briefly and identify their role in the story. How is information about the characters’ appearance and personality revealed? Is it evident through descriptions or by their actions? Are the characters dynamic (developing during the story) or flat (always the same)?
There are a few typical character types that appear in most works of fiction. Identify which of the characters fit each type and explain why:
• protagonist – ‘the hero of the story’ or the central character
• antagonist – the adversary or opponent
Point of view, narrator
From what perspective is the story told? Is it told in the first person (I ) or the third person (he, she)? Who is the narrator? How visible is the narrator in the story? Does the narrator give the reader much information, or not? About what?
Setting
Describe the time and place in which the story is set. Is this particular time and place important for the story, or could it be set anywhere, at any time? Does the setting play a role in the story, or is it merely there as a backdrop?
Theme
What is the story really about? What is the main message? What other messages and themes are there?
Mood, tone and style
What is the mood and tone of the story? What sets the mood? In what tone or style is the story written? Is it humorous, magical, tragic, exciting, spooky etc.? Find evidence in the story to support your description of the mood, tone and style.
Language
Describe the characteristics of the language. How is the text written? Is it easy or hard to read? What makes the text easy or hard? Are there any key words that are particularly important? Are any literary devices used, such as metaphor, allusion or alliteration? What effect do these literary devices, or the lack of them, have on the text?
Literary theories
Literary theories give you different ways to study and understand texts, helping you to find deeper meanings, cultural influences and hidden ideas in literature. Different theories offer a new perspective, whether it focuses on the text itself, the author’s life, or the reader’s reaction. There are a number of different theories, for example structuralism, reader oriented theory, post-colonialism, feminism and psychoanalysis. These theories show how stories connect to society, identity and human behavior. By using these ideas, you can see more than just the plot and characters and understand the connections between stories and culture. In this chapter, you will explore gender theory and postcolonial theory.
Gender theory
In the 1960s and 1970s, feminists considered that gender patterns of behaviour could, and would, be changed with the help of socialization. It was believed that stereotypical gender roles could be rooted out if boys and girls were socialized in similar ways, which meant avoiding encouraging boys to do ‘boy things’ and girls to do ‘girl things’. If adults really did go about raising children in this way, stereotypical gender roles and sexism would probably be a distant memory soon enough. However, despite some significant changes in socialization since the 1960s which have resulted in an increase in genderneutral activities, preferences and stereotypes based on gender are still widespread among boys and girls.
In gender studies, socialization has been highlighted as one key cause of gender differences. Boys and girls are treated differently from a very early age and are constantly exposed to gender-stereotyped messages by adults, and society in general – through films, TV series, adverts and so on. In mainstream films, for example, men are often dominant and heteromasculine, while women are often objectified or portrayed as victims in need of help and support. There is no denying that most societies regard heterosexuality as the standard for ‘proper’ masculine and feminine behaviour – as a result of which, heterosexuality is the norm. This in turn explains why this pattern of gender stereotypes is rife in many fictional stories.
Task
1. Write a literary analysis in which you compare and discuss gender patterns of behaviour in two of the suggested works on the next page. In your comparison/discussion, you must include appropriate quotes from, and summaries of, the works you are analysing. Use the questions on the next page for guidance. OR
2. Write a literary analysis in which you discuss gender patterns of behaviour in one of the suggested works on the next page. In your discussion, you must include appropriate quotes from, and summaries of, the work you are analysing. Use the questions on the next page for guidance.
Questions to help you:
• Are the men and women portrayed in stereotypical ways? What different roles do they have? In what way do they act? What do they look like?
• Who is the hero of the story?
• Who is the victim of the story?
• Is heterosexuality the norm in the story?
Suggested works
Novels
Little Bee by Chris Cleave (from the Life on the Edge theme)
The Shadow-Line by Joseph Conrad
The Last Taboo by Bali Rai
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
Nightwood by Djuna Barnes
Liar, Temptress, Soldier, Spy by Karen Abbott (from the Life on the Edge theme)
Short stories
Dimensions by Alice Munro
The Legacy by Virginia Woolf
The Man Who Loved Flowers by Stephen King
Films
The Kissing Booth (director: Vince Marcello)
Thelma & Louise (director: Ridley Scott)
TV series (choose one episode)
Stranger Things (creator: Matt and Russ Duffer)
Insatiable (creator: Lauren Gussis)
You (creators: Greg Berlanti & Sera Gamble)
Songs
Shake It Off (artist: Taylor Swift)
Perfect (artist: Ed Sheeran)
Poems
‘The Applicant’ by Sylvia Plath ‘Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?’ (Sonnet 18) by William Shakespeare ‘How do I love thee? (Sonnet 43)’ by Elizabeth Barrett Browning
Photo credits
Omslag Conchi Martínez/iStock
Photograph Collection, Library of Congress, Coffeeandcrumbs/Wikimedia Commons (PDM)
Cagkan Sayin/iStock
VIEWPOINTS 3
Viewpoints 3 är ett läromedel för engelska på gymnasiet och komvux. Läromedlets tredje upplaga består av tre komponenter som tillsammans förser eleven och läraren med allt som behövs för att nå målen:
• Elevbok, tryckt 511-0956-5
• Digital elevträning, individlicens, 12 mån 40-67528-6
• Digitalt lärarmaterial, individlicens, 12 mån 40-67527-9
Eller för dig som vill arbeta helt digitalt:
• Digitalt läromedel, elevlicens, 6 mån 40-68504-9
• Digitalt läromedel, elevlicens, 12 mån 40-68505-6
• Digitalt läromedel, lärarlicens, 12 mån 40-68506-3
Linda Gustafsson är lärare i engelska, svenska och italienska på Malmö latinskola.
Uno Wivast är lärare i engelska och svenska på Katedralskolan i Lund.