08 The global promise for environmental sustainability
Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, comments on the proposed roadmap to environmental sustainability within the fertilizer industry.
Francesco Burattini, Casale SA, Switzerland, explore developments in
Luca Edoardo Viganò, Saipem, Italy, discusses how the integration of melamine off-gas recycling technology with urea units can optimise
Stefano Sassi, Eurotecnica, Italy, explores the potential within urea and
Tim O’Connell, Johnson Matthey, UK, outlines how improved catalyst
35 A brighter outlook
Anton Kariagin, Christian Berchthold and Stefan Gebert, Clariant, Germany, outline why catalysts that can optimise efficiency and overcome challenging process conditions, including exposure to oxygenates, are essential for reliable and cost-effective green ammonia production.
39 A penny for your thoughts
James Byrd, JESA Technologies, USA, gives insight into the challenges and risks of designing and operating phosphoric acid plants.
43 Fertilizer efficiency increase
Svet Valkov, Ballestra S.p.A, Italy, discusses well known problems within the fertilizer industry: how to minimise losses and how to increase efficiency in fertilizer use.
48 Driving innovation in material handling
Rich Diffley, Sackett-Waconia, USA, discusses the dynamics of fertilizer handling systems and the importance of precision, efficiency, and sustainability.
Driving innovation in material handling
53 Efficient and flexible
Zico Zeeman, EMT Blending, Bagging and Transport Equipment, the Netherlands, explains why materials handling and conveying is at the heart of the fertilizer industry.
57 Balancing sustainability and savings
Bob Nelson, conveyor belting specialist, examines the environmental impact of conveyor belts used in the fertilizer industry, advocating for a mindset shift to reduce waste and lower the overall carbon footprint of conveyor systems.
60 A harmonious approach
Todd Swindermann, Martin Engineering, USA, discusses the importance of prioritising safety and life cycle costs in conveyor system designs for fertilizer operations, to enhance performance, reduce risk, and lower long-term operational costs.
Why Casale on the cover? Because the company knows that it’s not all about plants, it’s about the planet. Casale is at the forefront of sustainable chemical engineering, integrating advanced technologies to promote environmental stewardship and industrial progress. Casale’s commitment is showcased through innovative projects like low-energy melamine production. Learn more about the company’s revolutionary approach in the detailed article on page 14, and join Casale in building a greener future. The global promise for
COMMENT
JAMES LITTLE, MANAGING EDITOR
MANAGING EDITOR
James Little james.little@palladianpublications.com
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Following his US presidential inauguration on 20 th January 2025, President Donald Trump, the 45 th and now 47 th President of the United States, has hit the ground running. In stark contrast to the chaos of his early days in office in 2016, Trump was this time ‘dialled in’ and ready to go. On his first days back in the White House he signed a series of wide-ranging executive orders with the aim, according to the text of his inauguration speech, to enable ‘a complete restoration of America’. These pronouncements addressed many actions from the renaming of the Gulf of Mexico to declaring national energy and border crises, the pausing of the TikTok ban, the ending of birth right citizenship and the pardoning of many of the January 6 defendants to name but a few executive actions. He had previously promised in an interview with Fox News during his campaign to be a dictator on ‘day one’ of his presidency and he certainly delivered with this ‘shock and awe’ approach. However, he had also said during this same interview, ‘After that, I’m not a dictator’. Having got our attention, we wait with bated breath to see what comes next as the ripples, or indeed waves, fan out across the US and inevitably the world.
Indeed, President Trump’s actions were perfectly timed to coincide with the World Economic Forum held in Davos, Switzerland. And it is fair to say that it was the executive orders entitled, ‘Declaring a national energy emergency’ and ‘Putting America First in International Environmental Agreements’, that caused the greatest consternation.
The latter requiring the US Ambassador to the United Nations (UN) to advise the UN in writing of the US intent to withdraw from the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement with immediate effect. Whilst in itself no great surprise, Trump withdrew from the same agreement in his first term before the US re-joined under the Biden administration in 2020. However, it is the clear message of radical change and alternative priorities exemplified by the Trump mantra, ‘drill baby drill’, that gave the ‘great and the good’ at Davos, who themselves have long viewed ‘safeguarding the planet’ as a central tenet of sound global leadership, significant pause for thought. With every nation bar Iran, Libya and Yemen a current signatory of the 2015 Paris agreement, the potential loss of the US could have significant consequences and motivate other countries to themselves walk back on their climate commitments.
We were reminded that 2024 was officially the hottest year on record and that the US itself did not escape the effects of catastrophic climate related events.
State Governor Gavin Newsom, recently posted photographs of the Californian wildfires with the stark message, ‘If you don’t believe in science, believe your own damn eyes’. Policymakers outside the US have remained unbowed by developments in the US. Ursula von der Leyen, President of the European commission, was adamant that Europe would not back down from its commitments, ‘Europe will stay the course and keep working with nations that want to protect nature and stop global warning’. She went on to say that ‘The Paris Agreement continues to be the best hope for all humanity’.
It is clear that a 2025 US withdrawal from the Paris Climate Agreement would be a seismic setback for global climate progress and would undeniably damage international relations. However, it is likely that state governments, businesses and indeed international pressure could still push the US toward continued climate action despite any exit from the agreement.
This issue of World Fertilizer leads with a timely keynote article from Contributing Editor, Gordon Cope, entitled ‘The global promise for Environmental sustainability’, in which he discusses a road map toward greater environmental sustainability for the fertilizer industry.
PRESSURE DROP REDUCTION
FUEL SAVINGS
INCREASED HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
PRIMARY & SECONDARY REFORMER
CO2 EMISSIONS REDUCTION
LOWER POTASSIUM FOULING INCREASED TUBE LIFE
TEXTURED
CATALYST TECHNOLOGY
Our Magcat® catalyst technology, with its proven track record in enhancing SMR performance, is now tailored for NH3 cracking applications, leveraging its advanced physical and geometrical properties. Building on our innovation portfolio, we developed the advanced NH3-cracking Magcat®ACTS catalyst to optimize conversion rates in tubular reactors.
Designed specifically for NH3 decomposition, this specialized catalyst delivers superior efficiency and reliability in hydrogen production processes. By combining improved heat distribution, reduced pressure drop, and enhanced catalytic activity, Magcat®ACTS stands out as a top-tier solution for large-scale NH3 cracking applications.
WORLD
USA Michigan Potash secures conditional commitment for a loan guarantee to enhance food security through major fertilizer project
Atechnologically advanced and energy efficient potash and salt production facility more than a decade in the making has received a critical boost through a conditional commitment for a loan guarantee of up to US$1.26 billion from the US Department of Energy’s (DOE) loan programmes office (LPO).
The facility will create jobs and improve US food security by reducing the country’s near-total dependence on foreign countries for a critical mineral. This partnership enables new domestic production of an all-natural fertilizer nutrient and will bring low-carbon potash and food-grade salt to market within the US demand centre. Industrial tax revenues are expected to triple in Osceola County because of this project, boosting revenue for local schools, roads, police and fire services, healthcare and more.
The loan guarantee will enable Michigan Potash & Salt Co. to finance the construction of the project.
Potash is an essential plant nutrient and fertilizer ingredient. More than 90% of the potash used by US farmers is imported. Once operational, this facility and its Michigan employees will extract and process approximately 800 000 t of potash and 1 million t of food-grade salt each year.
Michigan is uniquely situated in that it contains the world’s purest reserve of potash, according to geological studies.
The potash will be sold direct to farmers, and to the agricultural industry in partnership with ADM, one of the world’s largest agricultural players, ensuring US farmers access to high-quality US-made potash fertilizer.
CHINA NEXTCHEM (MAIRE) awarded process design package
MAIRE has announced that NEXTCHEM, through its subsidiary Stamicarbon, the nitrogen fertilizer technology licensor, has been selected to provide the process design package to upgrade the Hulunbeier New Gold Chemical Co. Ltd’s urea plant in Hulunbuir, China, leveraging on its proprietary NX STAMI UreaTM technology.
NEXTCHEM will integrate its proprietary EVOLVE MELT MP Flash design, part of NX STAMI UreaTM portfolio, to enhance operational efficiency and reliability while minimising process steam consumption. Following the upgrade, the plant’s capacity will increase by approximately 26% to 3600 tpd, with an expected high-pressure steam reduction of 15%.
BRAZIL Brazil Potash signs MoU with Keytrade AG for up to 1 million tpy of potash offtake
Brazil Potash Corp., a company developing and constructing the largest potash fertilizer project in Brazil, has announced the signing of a memorandum of understanding (MoU) between Potássio do Brasil Ltda, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the company, and Keytrade AG for potential offtake of up to 1 million tpy of potash from the company’s Autazes Potash Project.
Adriano Espeschit, President of Potassio do Brasil, said: “Combined with our existing offtake agreement with AMAGGI, we have now secured potential commitments for approximately 1.5 million t of our planned 2.4 million t of annual potash production.”
ExxonMobil and Trammo sign HOA for low-carbon ammonia offtake, advancing the world’s largest low-carbon hydrogen project
For clean ammonia, MIT engineers propose going underground
Azoty Group develops AGRO sales in the Ukrainian market
First-ever ammonia and propane co-loaded vessel completes voyage from US to Europe Visit our website for more news: www.worldfertilizer.com
01 - 03 April 2025 Barcelona, Spain www.fertilizer.org/event/ cultivating-tomorrow/
Sulphur World Symposium 2025 08 - 10 April 2025 Florence, Italy www.sulphurinstitute.org/ symposium-2025/
The Fertilizer Show
08 - 10 April 2025 Orlando, Florida, USA www.fertilizershow.com
48th Annual International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference
06 - 07 June 2025
St. Petersburg Beach, Florida, USA aiche-cf.org/annual-conference
99th Annual Southwestern Fertilizer Conference
13 - 17 July 2025 Nashville, Tennessee, USA www.swfertilizer.org
69th Annual Safety in Ammonia Plants and Related Facilities Symposium
07 - 11 September 2025 Atlanta, Georgia, USA www.aiche.org/conferences/ annual-safety-ammonia-plants-andrelated-facilities-symposium/2025
ANNA 2025
12 - 17 October 2025
Omaha, Nebraska, USA www.annawebsite.squar espace. com/2025-conference
INDIA Casale selected as technology partner for India’s largest green ammonia complex in Kakinada
Casale has been chosen by AM Green as the technology partner for the conversion of two grey ammonia plants into what is set to become the largest green ammonia complex in India – and likely in the world. This initiative represents a significant advancement in the decarbonisation of the fertilizer industry.
This project entails the revamping of two existing ammonia facilities to enable the production of 1500 tpd of carbon-free ammonia. It marks a critical step toward achieving sustainability and addressing the urgent challenges posed by climate change. Notably, this project is the first of its kind to receive a positive final investment decision (FID).
Central to this transformative effort is the experience in delivering revamping projects, complemented by Casale’s suite of technologies, designed to promote sustainability and support the global energy transition. The company will provide a comprehensive scope of services, including: a green ammonia license, a basic engineering package, a review of detail engineering, and the supply of proprietary equipment.
In a statement, Casale said that it is proud to be part of an international consortium alongside companies such as Technip Energies and John Cockerill. The collaboration reinforces the shared commitment to advancing sustainable practices in the fertilizer sector. The companies recognise that achieving a greener future requires collective action and collaboration.
CANADA Congratulations to the 2024 ANNA Conference
Last year, World Fertilizer had the pleasure of attending the 2024 ANNA Conference held in Montreal, Canada. Hosted by the ANNA Exhibitor Group and chaired by Sam Correnti, the conference offered an agenda of fantastic technical presentations and round tables tackling the issues facing the ammonium nitrate and nitric acid industry, all within an open and friendly atmosphere. World Fertilizer’s Sales Director, Rod Hardy, is pictured below with Burke Allen, Sales Engineer at Alloy Engineering Company and ANNA Exhibitor Group Chairman (left image). Congratulations to the Ammonium Nitrate/Nitric Acid Producers Study Group (ANNA) on another successful event, and to Brad Christensen (Orica) and Siebe Dijkstra (OCI) for their winning papers, ‘Risk Reduction in ANS Storage’ and ‘NOx Emission on a Nitric Acid Drain Tank’.
World Fertilizer has been a friend of the ANNA conference for many years and the team is already looking forward to ANNA 2025, set to be held in Omaha, Nebraska, US, from 12 to 17 October 2025.
For more information, please visit: www.annawebsite.squarespace.com/2025-conference
• No fossil fuels required
• 98% lower emissions
• 60% less plot space
• 55% fewer contruction materials
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The global promise for environmental sustainability
Gordon
Cope, Contributing
Editor, comments on the proposed roadmap to environmental sustainability within the fertilizer industry.
The fertilizer sector produces approximately 1.3% of all CO2 emissions worldwide. Most of this comes from nitrogen fertilizer production, but a significant amount also arises from the vehicles that mine and transport potash and phosphorous, and related energy activities.
Governments around the world have taken notice.
The European Union (EU) has enacted the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) III, which requires the fertilizer industry to replace 42% of grey hydrogen with renewable fuel of non-biological origin (RFNBO) by 2030. Both Canada and the US have imposed net zero goals by 2050 on wide swathes of their economies. Ottawa, Canada, is pondering ways to reduce agricultural emissions by 30%, through a combination of tilling methods and fertilizer restrictions.
Fertilizers Europe, the industry group representing the majority of ammonia production in Europe, has taken the lead. The Roadmap for The European Fertilizer Industry sets out a series of milestones culminating in net zero using a mix of methods, including carbon capture and storage (CCS), green hydrogen and green ammonia.
CCS
Industrial-scale CCS involves investing billions of dollars in devices that capture CO2 at its source, transporting it in bespoke pipelines, and injecting it into permanent underground storage. The EU has identified several hundred sites across Europe that emit at least 100 000 tpy of CO2, including refineries, steel plants and fertilizer facilities; in all, over 1.2 billion t of emissions. The EU’s Trans-European Networks for Energy (TEN-E) Regulation lays down the guidelines to develop the infrastructure to gather, transport and store CO2. The initiative has identified 18 projects of common interest (PCIs) that would coalesce into a giant trans-European agglomeration of carbon-capture sites, transport network and injection sites. Most capture projects are in the heavily industrialised regions of northern Europe, and the injections sites are predominantly in the North Sea. The total cost across all sources ranges from around €70 - 250/t of CO2; clearly, hundreds of billions will have to be spent over the next 25 years to achieve legislated goals.
Nutrien is one of the largest nitrogen fertilizer producers in the world. Recently, it installed CCS at its 951 000 tpy Redwater plant in Alberta, Canada. Approximately 300 000 tpy of carbon is captured from its smokestacks and transported by the Alberta Carbon Trunk Line for permanent sequestration and use in enhanced oil recovery. It also operates CCS systems at other plants; in total, the company produces up to 1 million tpy of low-carbon ammonia.
Green ammonia plants
In order to reach net zero by 2050, fertilizer producers need to not only embrace CCS, but totally redesign their manufacturing processes.
Over the last century, conventional ammonia plants have been engineered to prioritise the reliability and stability of chemical and energy inputs and processes in order to optimise output. Fluctuations in temperatures, quantities and downtime are minimised to prevent damage to equipment and catalysts. Efficiency comes at a cost; production using the traditional Haber-Bosch process emits up to 2.5 kg of CO2 for every kg of ammonia output.
Creating green ammonia requires renewable energy application to three inputs; creating pure green hydrogen through electrolysis, removing nitrogen from the atmosphere through cryogenics, and synthesising ammonia in a converter. Because renewable energy from wind and solar fluctuates hourly, daily and seasonally, the primary challenge is to create a plant that can handle flexibility and resilience. Load fluctuations can lead to temperature and pressure changes that create stress; ammonia converters especially need to be designed and built using materials that can handle robust variations so as not to lead to equipment failure.
Catalysts must also be customised. Iron-based catalysts are excellent for traditional ammonia plants, but may not necessarily be the best for green ammonia plants. Non-iron
based catalysts have been tested, but are not as readily available. Manufacturers have been experimenting with new, iron-based catalysts that operate efficiently at lower temperatures and pressures, consistent with green ammonia production.
The future of green ammonia is laced with uncertainty, however; currently, efforts to build production facilities are hampered by lack of demand from large industrial users. The reason is price. For the next decade, the cost of green ammonia is 2 - 5 times higher than grey ammonia, and manufacturers are reluctant to place themselves at a market disadvantage. Credits and subsidies can encourage demand, but until expected technology gains in electrolysers and wind and solar capacity bring production prices down to parity, farmers will be unwilling to pay a premium and will cut back on applications.
Green ammonia as fuel has greater potential; marine transportation, driven by international maritime regulation, is likely to be the first major adopter. Analysts predict that demand could reach 150 million tpy by 2050. This would allow ammonia producers to scale up while investing in technologies that reduce the price to levels where agriculture can affordably maintain application rates.
Potash and phosphate mining
The production of potash and phosphate requires significant amounts of energy. Mining, crushing, milling and concentrating phosphate rock, for instance, emits up to 4.5 kg of CO2e for every kg of phosphate fertilizer produced. The amount associated with potash is much lower, around 0.6 kg for every 1 kg of potash fertilizer produced, but still significant enough to warrant action.
In order to reduce emissions, BHP has opted to use underground battery-electric loaders for its 4.5 million tpy Jansen Potash Project in Saskatchewan, Canada. Sandvik will provide 10 vehicles for the first phase of the US$5.1 billion project, expected to enter production in 2027. BHP touts that the mine will have the lowest carbon footprint of any potash mine operating in Saskatchewan.
ICL is taking reductions in phosphate production one step further through recycling. The European Sustainable Phosphorous Platform (ESPP) is a broad-based coalition dedicated to recovering phosphorous compounds. The ESPP calculates that the EU generates over 800 000 tpy of phosphorous in sewage, animal byproducts and food scraps; that waste can be economically converted to recyclable products. When sewage sludge is incinerated, for instance, the fly ash contains up to 11% phosphorous compounds. Since 2019, ICL has been recycling phosphates from waste streams at its Amfert fertilizer plant in the Dutch Province of Noord-Holland. Ashes from Amsterdam’s sewage sludge and bone meal from food waste streams were treated with acid; the recycled mineral displaces approximately 10% of the mined phosphate feedstock at ICL’s fertilizer plant; the company has the goal of eventually reaching 100% recycled phosphate.
Agricultural usage
Environmental sustainability of fertilizer goes beyond the plant door, of course. Application of fertilizers around the world is rife with inefficiencies that create waste
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and pollution. Only about 50% of ammonia fertilizer, for instance, is absorbed by crops; the rest is lost to volatilisation, runoff, leaching and related issues.
A multi-tiered process of research around the world is helping to increase nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Volatilisation (the evaporation of nitrogen into the air), can be reduced through balancing soil acidity. Runoff can be controlled through low-tillage or crop cover. Introducing nutrients through drip agricultural also shows promise. In the longer term, research into high NUE cultivars can help create crops that absorb more nitrogen through their root systems. Together, both research and soil management will reduce the carbon footprint of fertilizer use.
Challenges
Achieving net zero while maintaining sustainability is a gargantuan task. Hundreds of billions – if not trillions – of dollars will be needed to build sufficient new solar and wind energy plants dedicated to meeting the demand for millions of t of green hydrogen. Ammonia plants will have to be completely retooled as traditional Haber-Bosch processes are mothballed.
In addition, because green ammonia will cost more for the foreseeable future, jurisdictions will have to devise a framework of regulations, tariffs and subsidies to protect domestic producers from being undermined by international competitors. A case in point is the EU’s experience with biodiesel. In July 2024, Chevron announced that it would be putting staff at its 85 000 tpy biodiesel plant in Oeding, Germany, on furlough. This was due to a challenging
margin environment. BP also announced it was pausing its biofuels project at its refinery in Lingen, Germany. Unscrupulous international manufacturers will, no doubt, seek to game the EU with dodgy green ammonia unless proper protection is enforced.
The future
In the near-term, a significant cloud hanging over green ammonia is whether the new White House administration will curtail the development of renewable energy in the US. During his campaign, President Trump criticised the billions allocated to renewables under the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) and vowed to rescind all unspent funds. But that would require repealing the law by Republican members of Congress in districts that have benefited heavily from the growth in solar, wind and other projects, including potential green hydrogen and ammonia production. Regardless, any move would have limited impact on European and Asian markets.
Clearly, the fertilizer sector has a major role to play in dealing with greenhouse gases (GHGs). It has done a tremendous job over the last decade reducing highly-damaging nitric acid emissions; now, CO2 must be addressed. The longer-term challenge is to do so in a manner that leads to significant reductions without driving fertilizer prices through the roof, undermining farming and creating food shortages. It will require the utmost ingenuity and perseverance; fortunately, the sector has shown over the last century that it is up to whatever challenge comes its way.
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Smarter melamine solutions
Simone Gamba, Gabriele Di Carlo, Roberto Mascioni, and Francesco Burattini, Casale SA, Switzerland, explore developments in melamine production technology.
Market requirements can be cited amongst the driving forces for developing new processes. The difficult or expensive supply of chemicals in given geographical areas can make the application of some technologies less profitable than elsewhere, prompting the conception of new production schemes which fit specific demands. As a result of these demands, new technologies have been developed to satisfy the needs of the market.
The high-pressure melamine technologies, Low Energy Melamine (LEM®) and ultra-Low Energy Melamine (uLEM®), have been known on the market since 2013,1, 2 when Casale acquired the former Borealis High Pressure (HP) melamine technology. The technology's key features are the urea-based offgas scrubbing,3 which generates high temperature and high-pressure anhydrous offgas, and the use of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for generating the alkaline environment required by melamine purification. These technologies ensure the consistent production of high-quality melamine with minimum energy consumption and require a NaOH solution as a consumable chemical. In some areas, such as northern China, supplying this chemical is not an easy task, and can be expensive. Even though methods to minimise the consumption of sodium hydroxide solutions exist,4 the complete elimination of it is needed in some areas (even for plant first filling and/or small make-up streams) as it can be required to make the technology profitably applicable. Resorting to ammonia instead of NaOH is something well known in the melamine production field, but ammonia application in an innovative way has led to a new process scheme: ultra-Low Energy Melamine-Ammonia (uLEM-N). Despite the use of NaOH instead of ammonia ensuring a lower energy consumption and a simpler
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Our commitment to sustainability drives us to integrate cutting-edge technologies with engineering, contracting, and construction solutions that harmonize industrial progress with environmental stewardship. From green ammonia, low carbon hydrogen, and renewable methanol to sustainable fertilizers, melamine, and other chemical derivatives, we are at the forefront of creating solutions for a brighter tomorrow. Driven by curiosity, we are also pioneering advances in the storage and transport of clean energy, ensuring a cleaner, more sustainable future for everyone.
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process scheme, an optimised ammonia-based purification melamine technology is a good compromise whenever the use of NaOH is judged to be prohibitive.
A technology overview
In uLEM-N, melamine is produced in liquid phase from urea, alongside a mixture of ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2) (offgas). Melamine synthesis and offgas separation occur in the high-pressure section of the plant. Offgas is condensed to ammonium carbamate inside plant battery limits, producing low-pressure steam to be used in the same melamine plant. The melamine product is purified in the low-pressure (aqueous) section of the plant (Figure 1). The basic environment required for the purification is ensured by an ammonia-water solution.
HP melamine synthesis
Overall, the technology retains the same synthesis section already applied for LEM and uLEM® technologies.1, 2
The HP section of a uLEM-N plant comprises of one combined reactor5, 6 and one offgas scrubber3, as shown in Figure 2. The operating pressure is the same throughout.
The combined HP melamine reactor is a single piece of equipment which combines the duties of both the first reactor and the second reactor traditionally applied in a melamine plant.
It is made-up of two reaction zones coaxially arranged: one central reaction zone and one annular reaction zone (stripping zone) ‘wrapped around’ the central one (Figure 3).
In the central reactor zone, the bulk conversion of urea to melamine is attained and the heat of reaction is provided by circulating molten salts, as it happened in the first reactor of the ‘traditional’ dual reactor configuration (applied in the LEM technology and in the former Borealis HP Melamine technology). Therefore, the melamine plants belonging to the LEM class and already in operation are valuable references for the combined reactor since no modification has been made to the central reaction zone when compared to the ‘traditional’ first reactor.
From the central reaction zone, melamine overflows in the annular zone where the melamine melt itself is brought into contact at high temperature with a counter-current flow of gaseous ammonia that is sufficient to saturate it and therefore eliminate its free CO2 content. The annular section of the combined reactor performs the duty of the second reactor of the ‘traditional’ dual reactor configuration.
The melamine melt is discharged from the annular zone (at reactor bottom) while the offgas from the central reaction zone and the stripping gas from the annular zone are collected in the upper part of the reactor, discharged from the combined reactor’s top, and sent to the urea scrubber.
Reactor internals have been properly designed to ensure an enhanced stripping process occurring in the annular zone and, consequently, the two reaction zones maintain their identity and their distinctive functions even though combined in a single piece of equipment. Combined reactor performances are even better than those of a sequence of two reactors, due to an improved exploitation of the volume in which the stripping process occurs with respect to a standard second reactor.
The melamine HP combined reactor is the standard reactor in the uLEM-N process scheme, but uLEM-N can still have the ‘traditional’ dual reactor configuration. The advantages of the combined reactor are:
n Higher conversion of urea to melamine, reducing by-products (oxyaminotriazines [OATs] and polycondensates) to be treated downstream and increasing melamine yields.
n The production of a CO2-free melamine melt, which has the beneficial effect of making it easier to maintain the basic pH required by the melamine purification in the downstream sections.
In the urea scrubber, the offgas from the combined reactor is washed by counter-current contact with urea melt. The main aim of this washing is to remove melamine from the offgas before it is recycled to the urea plant. The offgas scrubbing with molten urea is a peculiar characteristic of each company’s melamine technology.
The correct design of the scrubber and the heat exchanger3, and the correct selection of the urea circulating pump require a deep critical knowledge and experience of plant operation and maintenance, since no accurate simulation models are commercially available for the proper design and to properly select the right material to be used. This data is the building blocks of company’s expertise which leads to the design of reliable urea-based offgas scrubbing units.
The first scrubber application dates back to the mid-1990s in the Castellanza plant, in Italy, although it is not currently
Figure 1. uLEM-N technology overview.
Figure 2. HP section of a uLEM-N plant.
in operation. After that experience, reliable data for designing this section were made available along with the knowledge of proper material selection, and of the operating parameters to ensure equipment durability for such critical service.
After the Castellanza’s experience, an upgraded scrubber was first installed in Linz, Austria (2000), and then in Piesteritz, Germany (2004), where the units are still in operation. The operation of the scrubber in the above-mentioned plants has led to the fine tuning of operating parameters, and an optimal design of the heat exchanger on the urea circulation loop has been attained. Two more scrubbers have been put in service in LEM plants in 2019 and 2023, with a third plant due to be started up in 2025. The choice of urea for scrubbing has a twofold advantage:
n The heat from the offgas is recovered in the melamine plant, via medium-pressure steam production and urea melt preheating.
n The washed offgas is a high-pressure and water-free ammonia and CO2-stream. This makes a uLEM-N plant simple to integrate with a urea plant.
Finally, avoiding the offgas separation from the melamine solution in the low-pressure section of the plant leads to a decreased steam consumption which contributes to the low energy consumption of the process.
Melamine purification and separation
In the low-pressure section of a uLEM-N plant, the melamine melt is quenched, purified, and crystallised in an ammonia-water solution. Finishing operations consist in solid-liquid separation and drying.
Gaining advantage from the knowledge of the purification chemistry when NaOH is used, and from the performances of the established synthesis and offgas scrubbing configuration, the melamine purification and mother liquor treatment philosophies have been developed in order to minimise energy consumption and ensure process reliability. Despite being a process with an intrinsic higher energy consumption, in regards to its counterpart based on NaOH use, the technology is well-suited for geographical areas where the supply of caustic soda solution is not an easy task and can be expensive.
The difference between NaOH and ammonia is the strength as basic substances. Keeping in mind this difference, the
melamine purification process scheme has been worked out with features which enable a minimisation of the CO2 concentration in the melamine aqueous solution from the quenching to the crystallisation increasing the reliability of the process. In an industrial production process of melamine, it is important to ensure the consistent production of high-quality melamine. This consistency can be reached by robust purification process schemes. CO2 – which can be formed during melamine purification and mother liquor thermal treatment from unreacted urea, OATs, and melamine hydrolysis – exerts an acidic action whose effects are more noticeable against ammonia, as opposed to NaOH. This is the reason why the melamine production technology foresees that the treated water recycled from the mother liquor treatment to the melamine purification is CO2-free. This has been ensured by being aware of the energy consumption thanks to the design of the mother liquor treatment itself. Mother liquor treatment is a train of operations (distillations and thermal treatments) with the aim of recovering ammonia to be reused, ejecting the formed CO2 from the melamine plant (LP purification and mother liquor treatment sections), and destroying OATs. All the water recovered from the mother liquor treatment is recycled to the melamine process and therefore the technology is a zero liquid discharge process.
Undesired but unavoidable, OAT formation is one of the factors that requires the above-mentioned mother liquor treatment. OATs are formed both in the synthesis and in the purification sections and they are kept in solution during crystallisation to avoid contamination of the final product. It is known that OATs’ solubility in ammonia solutions is much lower than inNaOH solutions. Thus, to avoid the need of treating high flowrates of mother liquor (flowrates which depend upon OATs’ maximum allowable concentration and generation in the process), uLEM-N purification operating parameters have been selected to minimise OATs’ formation.
Conclusions
uLEM-N is a melamine technology designed for those areas where the supply of NaOH is difficult or expensive. Despite being more energy consuming than its sister technology due to the use of ammonia instead of NaOH, it ensures the consistent production of high-quality melamine with a low energy consumption, and a good ratio of reliability to energy consumption. Moreover, the melamine technology makes use of the well-referenced HP section (melamine synthesis and urea-based offgas scrubbing) of the sister technologies LEM and uLEM, thus retaining the reliability of the process core.
References
1. GAMBA, S., and DI CARLO, G., 'Mindful Melamine Production', World Fertilizer, (January/February, 2023), pp. 36 - 42.
2. DI CARLO, G., and GAMBA, S., 'Casale HP Ultra Low Energy Melamine Technology, U-LEMTM: Keeping the proven process reliability of the HP LEMTM technology towards a new frontier of low energy consumption', Proceedings of Nitrogen + Syngas 2024 International Conference and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden, 4 - 6 March 2024), pp. 231 - 240.
3. GAMBA, S., 'Melamine Process with a Two-Stage Purification of Melamine Offgas', Patent Application WO 2024/074656 A1 (2024).
4. SCOTTO, A., and GAMBA, S., 'Process for Melamine Purification', Patent Application WO 2018/015093 A1 (2018).
5. RIZZI, E., 'Combined Reactor for High-Pressure Synthesis of Melamine', Patent Application WO 2015/124409 A1 (2015).
6. GAMBA, S., DI CARLO, G., and RIZZI, E., 'Combined Reactor for High-Pressure Synthesis of Melamine', Patent Application WO 2021/123054 A1 (2021).
Figure 3. Casale HP melamine combined reactor.
Via del Brennero 316, 38121 Trento - ITALY
Luca Edoardo Viganò, Saipem, Italy, discusses how the integration of melamine off-gas recycling technology with urea units can optimise production capacity.
In a market scenario characterised by price volatility for both raw materials and final products, diversifying the production is an opportunity to gain a competitive advantage. For example, fertilizer producers may exploit urea not only as a valuable product, but also as a feedstock for chemicals to enter new markets, such as melamine and diesel exhaust fluid (DEF).
The urea market is subject to fluctuations in demand and price, characterised respectively by the increase of population and change of diet, and by the strategical monetisation of gas resources acted by some countries and the current geopolitical situation.
It is on this basis that urea producers look for opportunities to boost their production capacities to satisfy the demand of urea; consequently, new complexes and revamps have recently come on stream or are in the completion phase. Also, producers are looking for options to differentiate their productions, thus enabling themselves to acquire a more flexible position on the market; melamine looks an appealing alternative as it uses urea as
raw material and allows an efficient integration of the units to optimise the overall performance and increase the profitability of the entire complex.
Solutions for melamine off-gases integration
Saipem has developed a specific know-how to recycle melamine unit off-gases within its urea process. Melamine is obtained by synthesis through the reaction of six molecules of urea which combine to form one molecule of melamine, releasing three molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) and six molecules of ammonia which must be recovered as off-gases and recycled to the urea unit where they are treated and converted once again into urea. Depending on the melamine process and its relevant operating conditions, the recovery of the off-gases to the urea unit can be optimised thanks to the three decomposition sections typical of the SnamprogettiTM technology.
In particular, when the off-gases are at high pressure, such gases can be easily condensed in the urea high pressure section and fed to the urea reactor. In the case of
medium pressure off-gases, they can be either pre-condensed and pumped directly to the urea high pressure section or they could be condensed jointly with the gases from the medium pressure decomposer of the urea unit. Off-gases can also be recovered at low pressure; this alternative is normally not applied as it requires a pre-treatment to minimise the water to the urea unit.
The integration of the two units is optimised with particular focus on increasing energy efficiency and minimising investment cost. A key aspect is the smart integration of process plants and machinery with utilities and existing facilities, as in the case of revamping or expansion or brownfield projects.
A recent project with melamine integration
The basic design for a urea unit has been designed by Saipem to be integrated with two melamine units, all of them part of a complex located in China.
The Shaanxi Qingshui Project foresees the realisation of a complex having a urea unit for the production of 3300 tpd on a single train to be integrated with two melamine units. When all the units are in operation, the actual production of the urea plant is reduced to satisfy the need of urea for the melamine units. Each of the two melamine units is designed by Eurotecnica, licensor of the Euromel® Melamine technology, to produce 60 000 tpy.
One of the peculiarities of the design is represented by the flexibility of operation to have the full urea production mode standalone or the combined production with one or both the melamine units. The flexibility of the urea process allows the three units to be integrated without modifications of the process scheme. As a result, no item has been added, and only the design of a few items directly impacted by the recovery of the off-gases have been reviewed, increasing (where necessary) the operating margins or adjusting specific parameters. For example, the streams of off-gases from the melamine units, having ideal conditions of pressure, temperature and composition to be mixed with the gases from the medium pressure decomposer, are condenced with the latter in the preconcentrator and MP condenser, which is having additional margin to manage the increased flow and heat duty.
Following the condensation, the consequently higher recycle of carbamate to the high pressure section would result in the carbamate ejector being unbalanced, therefore requiring a higher ammonia pump discharge pressure. To optimise the system and minimise
operational expenditure (OPEX) and capital expenditure (CAPEX) – maintaining flexibility over the different operating scenarios – part of the flow from the HP carbamate pump is directly fed to the reactor bypassing the carbamate condensers. The discharge pressure of the HP carbamate pump consequently needs to be tailored to directly feed carbamate to the urea reactor where a dedicated nozzle is provided.
In the case of a retrofit integration of a melamine unit with an existing urea, the installation of SuperCups trays in the urea reactor can compensate for the loss of conversion due to the changing feed ratios, limiting the impacts on the downstream equipment and sections.
As for the feed to the melamine plant, the same pumps used to feed the finishing section (e.g. prilling) are used. As such, additional tailor-made pumps are not required. In case a different concentration is required at melamine unit battery limits, another tie-in point could be considered. For example, in a different project the urea solution from the preconcentrator (at 80 - 85% wt. of urea) is further concentrated in the melamine unit up to the concentration required to feed the reactor therein. This could be when an additive is required to be injected in the urea melt to finishing (e.g. a formaldehyde-based solution as required for a granulated product) and it should not be fed to melamine units; this is not the case for Euromel Melamine technology which is not affected in operation and product quality by the presence of the additive. Snamprogetti process scheme, as it is, allows for the segregation of additive and melamine feed just by properly adjusting the urea solution recycles. The process condensate produced in the concentration section of the melamine unit can be treated within the process condensate treatment section in the urea unit, therefore avoiding a double condensate treatment section. With regards to the urea finishing section, it is designed to cover the different production capacities of urea depending on the number of melamine plants in operation. In this project, for example, where prill is the final product, a set of prilling buckets are provided to grant product quality under all the possible production capacities.
A tie-in to a DEF preparation unit is also provided, therefore allowing the end-user to further differentiate its production.
Conclusion
The investment in a melamine unit allows urea producers to upgrade their position in the market by diversifying their production.
A proper integration of the urea and melamine units is fundamental to minimise investment and consumptions while, at the same time, ensuring flexibility in operation. The Snamprogetti urea process fits with these needs as it optimises the recovery of the off-gases from the melamine unit depending on their conditions.
Saipem has performed different studies and projects on urea-melamine integration, both as an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractor and a urea licensor, therefore developing a specific knowledge which has recently been applied to the Shaanxi Qingshui project in China, where a urea unit will be combined with two melamine units.
Figure 1. Snamprogetti™ Urea Plant (courtesy of QAFCO).
Stefano Sassi, Eurotecnica, Italy, explores the potential within urea and melamine applications and developments in this field.
Urea and melamine are two fundamental chemical compounds with diverse applications across various industrial sectors.
While urea is primarily known for its agricultural uses and melamine with resin production, their applications extend well beyond these areas, influencing a wide range of manufacturing processes.
This article will explore the applications of urea and melamine, with a particular emphasis on melamine and the most recent innovations and developments in this field.
Melamine
Melamine, a high value-added chemical compound produced by direct synthesis of urea, is a 2.2 million tpy market, that is expanding and covers a wide spectrum of growing applications.
Across the past 30 years, the global yearly demand for melamine has grown significantly, showing an inexorable upward trend.
A melamine plant is typically integrated with facilities that use natural gas or syngas as feedstock, offering a strategic advantage in calculating and predicting long-term profitability.
The average selling price is 3 - 6 times higher than that of raw urea feedstock, depending on the geographic region. This pricing dynamic significantly enhances the overall profitability of a fertilizer complex while providing a hedge against the typical fluctuations of the fertilizer market.
Melamine applications
Most melamine end-uses see this fundamental building block combined with formaldehyde, to form a strong molecular bond that confers the resulting resins peculiar characteristics, such as hardness and flame-retardancy.
Other applications require the addition of cellulose to form pellets used in the production of thermosetting plastic items.
Melamine is also used as is in the manufacturing of foams, additives and other growing applications.
Wherever possible, melamine is combined with urea in the resins, in order to reduce the cost of the resins themselves since urea has a much lower price than melamine. However, melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) resins showcase lower performance than the resins where urea is not mixed to melamine, such as melamine-formaldehyde (MF) resins. When high performance levels and durability are of the essence, the MF resins are the superior choice.
Figure 1 illustrates the range of end uses and intermediate products involved in the utilisation of melamine and urea, the presence of which is clearly essential for the increase of the level of functionality and comfort in everyday life.
Laminates
Melamine and urea play a crucial role in the production of laminates, enhancing their strength, durability, and aesthetic appeal. Through their application in MF and MUF resins, melamine-based laminates provide a range of benefits, including resistance to heat, scratching, impact, water, and chemicals. These properties make these laminates an ideal choice for high-performance surfaces in various applications, from furniture to flooring.
Key features of laminates containing melamine n Durability: the resins containing melamine offer exceptional resistance to wear, scratching, and impact, making them ideal for high-traffic areas and surfaces subject to frequent use.
n High heat and chemical resistance: MF laminates are resistant to high temperatures, detergents, weak acids, and alkalis. This makes them suitable for environments – like kitchens and bathrooms – where surfaces are exposed to heat and chemicals.
n Aesthetic appeal: MF and MUF come in a wide range of attractive finishes and colours. They can mimic the look of wood, stone, or other materials while maintaining the practical advantages of laminate construction.
n Hygenic and easy to maintain: the non-porous surface of MF laminates is resistant to bacteria and stains, making them easy to clean and maintain. This is especially important in kitchens, bathrooms, and other hygienic environments.
Melamine-based laminate applications
MF/MUF are a popular choice in flooring as resins provide durability, scratch-resistance, and are easy to clean, which is useful for both residential and commercial spaces.
Furniture tops are a good example, as melamine laminates provide a hard, durable surface that resists wear and damage from everyday use. Kitchen and bathroom countertops, as melamine-based laminates, are ideal for resistance to heat, moisture, and chemicals typically found in these areas.
Melamine-based laminates' durable and attractive finish that is resistant to impact and moisture makes it a sensible choice for wall cladding.
Melamine-faced boards are commonly used in the production of flat-pack furniture and other cabinets and self-assembly furniture.
Exterior applications provide a perfect example of where melamine laminate aplications are useful, including outdoor furniture or cladding due to their resistance to weathering, heat, and chemicals.
Types of melamine laminates
High pressure laminate (HPL)
HPLs are made by layering multiple sheets of paper impregnated with resins. These layers are then topped with decorative paper that is treated with melamine formaldehyde resin.
The layers are bonded together under high pressure and heat, resulting in a durable, hard laminate sheet. HPL is used where high durability and resistance to impact, heat, moisture, and chemicals are required. It is commonly used for countertops, furniture tops, flooring, wall cladding, and street furniture.
Low pressure laminate (LPL)
LPLs, often referred to as melamine-faced chipboard (MFC), are made by pressing melamine-impregnated paper directly onto a particleboard or fiberboard substrate.
No additional adhesive is needed; the resin in the paper fuses with the board during the pressing process, creating a durable surface.
LPL is commonly used in furniture, particularly in self-assembly furniture and other less demanding applications, such as cabinet panels, shelving, and light-duty furniture. It is also used in flooring, with some manufacturers referring to this as direct press lamination.
Figure 1. Range of main melamine end uses and intermediate products.
Figure 2. Example of a laminate manufacturing unit.
Medium density fibreboard (MDF)
MDFs are an engineered wood product made from wood fibres and resin that is compressed and heated to form dense panels. They are commonly used in furniture, cabinetry, and interior applications.
Consistency, soundproofing and workability are features that make the MDF panels versatile and easy to use. They are cost-effective and generally cheaper than solid wood and plywood, making them a budget-friendly option for many projects.
The manufacturing process of the laminates is based on a range of rather sophisticated machines that work on continuous basis. To grant an uninterrupted operability the consistency in melamine quality is as important as purity, to yield a consistent recipe for the MF or MUF resins.
Advantages of melamine laminates
n Versatility: melamine laminates can be produced in a wide variety of colours, patterns, and textures. This allows for flexible design options, from sleek, modern finishes to more traditional looks that mimic wood or stone.
n Environmental benefits: many manufacturers of melamine laminates use sustainable materials, such as recycled paper, wood and eco-friendly resins, making them an environmentally responsible choice for furniture and flooring applications.
n Low hazard profile: melamine forms a very strong bond with formaldehyde. This is a fundamental characteristic when the final product must comply with the most stringent regulations relevant to emission of formaldehyde from the laminate surface.
Moulding compound
Melamine-based moulding compound (MMC) offers several advantages over thermoplastics, particularly in terms of its performance and durability. Some key features include:
n Heat resistance: MMC has superior heat resistance compared to thermoplastics. It can withstand high temperatures without deforming, making it ideal for applications where heat stability is critical.
n Surface hardness: MMC has an extremely hard surface, which is highly resistant to scratching and wear. This makes it suitable for products that are subjected to frequent use or abrasion.
n Dimensional stability: MMC maintains its shape and size over time, even under changing environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity. This dimensional stability is one of the key features that distinguish it from thermoplastics, which can warp or shrink under similar conditions.
n Chemical resistance: MMC shows excellent resistance to a wide range of chemicals, including detergents, weak acids, and alkalis. This makes it ideal for products that may come into contact with such substances, such as kitchenware or automotive components.
n Electrical insulation: MMC is an excellent electrical insulator, making it a preferred material for electrical and electronic applications, especially in withstanding short-circuits.
n Resistance to staining and odour absorption: unlike thermoplastics, MMC resists staining from acidic foods, oils, and extracts, and it does not absorb odours easily, making it suitable for food contact applications.
n Durability: MMC products have exceptional durability, even under harsh conditions, due to their resistance to environmental stress cracking, ultra-violet (UV) degradation, and other forms of wear.
n Colour and aesthetic appeal: the material is available in a wide range of colours, allowing for high aesthetic flexibility in product design. It can also be easily moulded into complex shapes, offering creative freedom in the manufacturing of molded parts.
Applications of MMC
n Tableware and kitchenware: due to its resistance to heat, moisture, and staining, MMC is often used for making durable plates, bowls, cups, and other kitchen items.
n Electrical insulation: its excellent dielectric properties make it suitable for electrical components like switches, sockets, and connectors.
n Automotive parts: MMC is used in components like knobs, handles, and trim due to its resistance to abrasion, heat, and chemicals.
n Industrial applications: it is used for making durable parts in machinery, appliances, and other industrial equipment.
Figure 4. Example of laminate.
Figure 3. Example of laminate.
Adhesives
Melamine-based and melamine-urea-based adhesives are essential in the manufacturing and assembly of laminated panels, boards, furniture, and a wide range of wood-based products. Similarly to laminates and moulding compounds, melamine and urea go in combination with formaldehyde.
Melamine-based adhesives are specifically formulated for bonding melamine laminates to various substrates. These adhesives play a crucial role in ensuring that the bond remains strong and durable across different materials.
Key features of melamine adhesives
Versatility
Melamine adhesives are highly versatile and can bond a wide range of materials. They are effective on both porous materials (e.g., timber, MDF, particleboard) and non-porous surfaces (e.g., melamine surfaces, rigid foam, cultured marble). This makes them ideal for applications in furniture, cabinetry, and construction.
Strength and durability
These adhesives offer strong bonding power, ensuring the structural integrity of products. They provide long-lasting adhesion, even under demanding conditions such as varying temperatures, moisture, and stress.
Resistance
Melamine adhesives often exhibit good resistance to heat, water, and chemicals, which makes them suitable for applications where durability and longevity are essential, such as in kitchen and bathroom furniture, flooring, and cabinetry.
Ease of use
These adhesives are designed to be easy to apply and work well in high-production environments, such as cabinet making and furniture manufacturing. They provide reliable bonding with various fittings like dowels, cams, staples, and screws.
Applications of melamine adhesives
n Cabinet making: in the assembly of laminated boards and wooden panels, melamine adhesives are used to bond the different parts of the cabinet. These adhesives work well with both traditional hardware fittings (like dowels and screws) and modern construction techniques.
n Furniture manufacturing: for the production of furniture such as tables, chairs, and desks, melamine adhesives are used to bond laminated surfaces to the underlying wood or MDF substrates. They are also used in bonding veneers and laminates to furniture pieces.
n Construction: in construction, melamine adhesives are used in the production of panels, decorative surfaces, and engineered wood products. They can also be used for bonding surfaces like melamine-coated particleboard in flooring and panelling.
n Post-forming: melamine adhesives are used in post-forming applications, where a laminate is bonded to a curved or moulded surface. The adhesive ensures that the laminate stays in place, even in complex shapes or forms.
n Automotive and aerospace: in addition to furniture and cabinetry, the automotive and aerospace industries use specialised high-performance adhesives, including melamine-based adhesives, for bonding materials like composites, plastics, and metals.
Plasticisers
Melamine plasticisers or dispersants are specialised chemical additives used to improve the flow, workability, and plasticity of various materials, especially in manufacturing processes involving plastics, concrete, and other construction or industrial materials. The following section describes a more detailed breakdown of how melamine plasticisers function in different applications.
Melamine plasticisers in plastics
In the context of plastics, melamine-based plasticisers are primarily used to increase the flexibility, durability, and processability of plastic materials.
These plasticisers reduce the viscosity of the resin, making it easier to mould and shape the plastic during production. They also help in achieving better material flow during extrusion or injection moulding processes.
Melamine plasticisers in concrete and cement
In concrete and cement, melamine plasticisers (also referred to as dispersants or superplasticisers) are used to improve the fluidity and workability of the mix without adding additional water. This is particularly useful in high-strength concrete formulations where a low water-cement ratio is crucial.
In self-consolidating concrete (SCC), melamine-based plasticisers improve the flow and ease of placement of SCC, which is designed to flow into moulds without the need for vibration.
Melamine plasticisers in other materials
The optimal dosage of melamine plasticisers depends on the specific material and the desired effect.
n Wallboard and gypsum boards: like their use in concrete, melamine plasticisers are employed in the production of gypsum wallboard to improve the workability and consistency of the mixture, allowing for easier manufacturing and handling.
n Clay and ceramics: in the production of clay-based materials, melamine plasticisers may be used to enhance the plasticity of the clay, facilitating moulding and shaping processes without compromising the final product's strength.
Figure 5. Melamine based moulding compounds come in a variety of colours.
Coatings
One of the most significant new applications of melamine is to enhance the flame-retardant properties of various materials, such as polyurethane foams, paints, plastics, and textiles, thanks to the high nitrogen content in the molecule (66% wt.).
When exposed to heat or flames, melamine decomposes and absorbs heat, generating a cooling effect. As it decomposes, melamine releases nitrogen gas, which dilutes the oxygen around the fire, thereby slowing the spread of flames and reducing smoke production. This decomposition significantly delays the time to ignition.
Melamine-based flame-retardants are especially sought after for their environmental benefits, safety, and effectiveness in delaying fire spread. They are halogen-free, making them a more environmentally friendly alternative to conventional halogen-based flame retardants, which can release toxic by-products during a fire, as well as being safer to store and handle compared to traditional halogen-based alternatives. They do not pose the same health risks during manufacturing or application.
Melamine-modified coatings are used in automotive applications, providing durable protection against scratches, corrosion, and UV degradation. The glossy finish also enhances the appearance of vehicle exteriors.
These coatings are also used in the appliances like refrigerators, washing machines, and ovens, resistance to wear, moisture, and heat while maintaining an attractive, glossy finish. This helps appliances retain their appearance over time despite frequent handling.
In addition to flame-retardant and coating applications, melamine-formaldehyde resins are used to enhance the longevity of paper products and textiles, making them resistant to tearing and improving their ability to withstand moisture.
Conclusion
Melamine-based items are incredibly versatile and provide critical benefits across a wide range of industries. From enhancing the durability and aesthetic appeal of automotive parts and appliances, to improving fire safety in textiles, furnishings, and construction materials, melamine derivatives are integral to modern manufacturing.
The increasing demand for high-performance and environmentally friendly flame-retardant solutions is driving the continued growth of melamine-based products in the global market, particularly in automotive, aerospace, and construction applications.
For most of these application, melamine such as Euromel® is a necessary component.
Euromel melamine is only produced by plants licensed and designed by Eurotecnica (Milan, Italy), part of the Proman family of companies, and a leader in licensing and designing advanced methods and processes for the production of melamine and carbon black, and energy storage solutions for the chemical, petrochemical, and energy sectors. With a global reach spanning landmark projects in China, across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and the Americas, Eurotecnica provides sustainable and efficient production processes.
With a history 60 years long, Eurotecnica has licensed and implemented 32 melamine plants of growing sizes, for 1.4 million tpy in licensed capacity and over 8 million t of Euromel melamine cumulatively produced to date.
Tim O'Connell, Johnson Matthey, UK, outlines how improved catalyst durability can help operators to increase ammonia production.
Ammonia production, which uses natural gas as the feedstock for a steam methane reforming process, requires a shift section. The upstream steam methane reforming section converts natural gas to syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2). The shift section converts CO to H2 through the water-gas shift reaction. Downstream of the shift section, methanation removes CO before H2 is fed into the ammonia synthesis converter to make ammonia (NH3).
Maximising H2 production for maximum NH3 production therefore relies upon maintaining catalyst performance throughout the installed lifetime. High temperature shift (HTS) catalysts are designed to offer a combination of physical robustness and catalyst activity. There are a range of HTS catalyst reactor duties which set different performance requirements. The most physically demanding requirement of HTS catalysts is resilience to the physical stresses caused by evaporation of absorbed water within catalyst pellets.
Adsorbed water within the catalyst can be rapidly converted to steam during the thermal ramp to operating temperature. This deactivation mechanism can damage the catalyst physically because of volume expansion within the catalyst and can solubilise certain catalyst components.
Some ammonia plants utilise steam to heat their HTS beds. Whilst the bed temperature is below the dew point, there is potential for steam to condense onto the catalyst, and for absorbed water to move through the porous network of the catalyst. Then, as the temperature increases, condensed water within the pellet will evaporate into steam. This deactivation mechanism occurs if the conditions for build-up of water within the pellet and subsequent rapid evaporation during thermal ramping are both met. Certain ammonia plants fulfil the criteria to both expose HTS catalysts to water absorption and rapid evaporation during reactor start-up. The most robust catalyst pellets have been formulated to maintain physical strength in response to the stresses caused by volume increase within the porous network from evaporation of condensed water, and are appropriate for use in ammonia plants that have been designed to heat the HTS reactor using steam. High temperature exposure is the most significant deactivation of HTS catalyst activity.
Johnson Matthey has introduced a HTS catalyst for ammonia manufacturing which shows improved durability compared to previous generation catalysts. This can help allow operators to sustain a high conversion of CO to H2 over the catalyst lifetime, helping to increase plant profitability and efficiency, and thus ammonia production. The conditions under which the new catalyst shows its benefits and the conditions under which the new catalyst increases ammonia production will be discussed below.
Figure 1 shows the performance enhancements and the benefits achieved when two of Johnson Matthey's HTS catalysts were installed in a large-scale ammonia plant (KATALCO 71-6TM and KATALCO 71-6FTM). KATALCO 71-6 was
Built to last a lifetime
the fourth charge of HTS catalyst installed in this plant, following significant pressure drop issues experienced with previous HTS installations, which had been KATALCO 71-5 and a HTS catalyst supplied by another manufacturer. KATALCO 71-6 helped reduce pressure drop and increased catalyst lifetime, allowing the plant to reduce the frequency of its catalyst changes. For the latest charge, KATALCO 71-6F, pressure drop performance is improved, combining durability with an advanced shape.
Strength
Johnson Matthey has worked to further improve the performance of its HTS catalysts, which is intended to enhance durability, allowing higher H2 and subsequently NH3 yield.
The company experimented with the composition and structure of its previous HTS catalyst and improved the number of oxygen vacancies to enable better facilitation of the water gas shift redox reaction with the new catalyst KATALCO 71-7F. The new catalyst improves the porous structure developed for KATALCO 71-6F. The company also developed the fluted ‘F’ shape for its HTS catalysts, improving the geometric surface area to volume ratio of the pellets. This has the beneficial impact of reducing pressure drop within the reactor.
The strength of the HTS catalysts was also investigated before and after representative thermal ageing. The new catalyst, KATALCO 71-7F, showed the highest strength after thermal ageing (Figure 2). The change in strength from ‘as prepared’ condition to ‘discharged’ was severe – these results reflect that the strength of KATALCO 71-5F is high in the ‘as prepared’ condition. The comparison between KATALCO 71-5F and the other two catalysts in the ‘discharged’ condition is favourable for KATALCO 71-6F and KATALCO 71-7F, showing that these catalysts both have the physical robustness for use in the demanding HTS catalyst duties. For HTS reactors where the application places less physical stress on the catalyst, and the most demanding water absorption and evaporation events are avoided, KATALCO 71-5F retains sufficient strength to perform well.
Following the confirmation that KATALCO 71-7F showed improved strength after thermal ageing, the company also investigated durability after simulated wet start-up. The results showed that KATALCO 71-7F has higher strength than KATALCO 71-6F after ageing designed to simulate condensing start-up of HTS reactors (Figure 3). This ageing is designed to represent deactivation events which can happen in HTS reactors when the HTS catalyst may be exposed both to condensed water and subsequent rapid evaporation during reactor start-up. To note that KATALCO 71-7F shows higher strength under these testing conditions is useful to demonstrate the physical robustness of this catalyst, showing that the formulation has a composition and a porous network which can withstand the physical stresses of absorbed water evaporation within the catalyst pellets.
Performance
Testing of the HTS catalysts was completed after seven ageing cycles which were designed to accelerate the impact of thermal ageing on HTS catalysts. The results are shown in Figure 4, and the most important observation is that there is less change in the performance of KATALCO 71-7F than the other HTS catalysts. The results validate the design work to improve promotion of the iron oxide (Fe3O4) active sites, and which enhanced the porous network of the new catalyst for enhanced activity.
The most demanding HTS duties require catalysts which maintain their performance during time on stream. The results in Figure 4 show that KATALCO 71-7F would be the best choice for maintaining catalyst performance during lifetime.
The value of HTS catalysts for ammonia manufacturers
The strength and pressure drop advantages of the improved HTS catalyst, particularly after lifetime ageing, will help enable ammonia plants to incrementally increase ammonia production. The company has developed a model to estimate the potential
Figure 1. KATALCO 71-6 and 71-6F demonstrate durable HTS performance in a world scale ammonia plant.
Figure 2. KATLACO 71-7F is Johnson Matthey’s strongest catalyst after representative thermal ageing.
Figure 3. KATALCO 71-7F is stronger after steaming ageing than 71-6F.
benefits for ammonia manufacturers, when operating an ammonia plant to stay below a pressure drop limit. The absolute benefit of lower pressure drop in operation will depend on ‘cost of natural gas’ and ‘the ammonia sales price’. For a 3300 tpd plant, with the following assumptions, a pressure drop benefit can be calaculated:
n Front end pressure drop of 18.6 bar.
n On-stream factor of the plant of 90%.
n Gas usage of 35 million Btu/t of ammonia produced.
n Other variable costs of US$20/t of ammonia produced.
n Shutdown time of 7 days per year.
n Achieved catalyst life of 4 years.
The company calculate a pressure drop benefit of 0.10 bar, allowing 8.9 tpd ammonia extra production. On top of the expected benefit from low-cost gas feed (US$2/million Btu), and higher product sales price (US$600/t), lower pressure drop enabled by strong HTS catalysts with advanced shape design offers value to ammonia producers, of up to US$1.5 million extra sales of ammonia annually.
HTS catalyst portfolio
Different HTS reactor duties will challenge the catalyst through a combination of frequency and severity of catalyst deactivation events. The newest HTS catalyst offers ammonia manufacturers durable performance over the catalyst lifetime and is an appropriate choice for HTS catalyst duties which will experience the greatest frequency and severity of catalyst deactivation events. The catalyst has previously shown durability and performance in such plants. The extra strength will push the durability of this catalyst beyond the performance
Figure 4. KATALCO 71-7F shows the lowest loss in catalyst performance following accelerated thermal ageing.
delivered by KATALCO 71-6F. For plants with a lower frequency of events which damage the catalyst, or events which have less serious deactivating effect on the catalyst, each of the three HTS catalysts (KATALCO 71-5F, KATALCO 71-6F, and KATALCO 71-7F) may be used successfully by ammonia manufacturers, with the final choice of catalyst tailored to meet the requirements of the HTS catalyst reactor and the operating preferences of the manufacturer.
Conclusion
Improved catalyst durability allows operators to minimise changes in pressure drop over the HTS reactor, which allows operators to increase ammonia production.
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• Also systems of 120/180 tons per hour available
• Custom made
• Unlimited number of weighing bunkers
• Capacity from 20 to 300 tons per hour
• Fully automatic computer controlled mixing process Weighcont Blender
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April 8 – 10 2025
Orange County Convention Center, Orlando, Florida, USA EXHIBITION &
The global gathering of the entire fertilizer production supply chain
Participating Companies Include:
Highlighted Speakers:
Adam Crosswhite Director of Engineering and Pilot Plant IFDC
Dr. Mounir
Founder & CEO AFRIQOM
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Andrea Guati Rojo, Ph.D Stakeholder Relations Manager Ammonia Energy Association
Michael Sudarkasa CEO African Fertilizer and Agribusiness Partnership
Matias Ruffo Director Agronomy LATAM & Sub Saharan Africa Koch Agronomic Services
Richard Voorberg President, North America Siemens Energy
Rob Stevens Sector Lead Green Fuels with Power-to-X Topsoe
Svjetlana
Global Head of Raw Materials
Anton Kariagin, Christian Berchthold and Stefan Gebert, Clariant, Germany, outline why catalysts that can optimise efficiency and overcome challenging process conditions, including exposure to oxygenates, are essential for reliable and cost-effective green ammonia production.
Ammonia is a colourless, pungent gas, composed of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. It is one of the most widely produced inorganic chemicals in the world, with a global production capacity of over 230 million tpy.
The largest use of ammonia, consuming over 80% of global production, is as fertilizer in agriculture. When applied to soil, ammonia provides much-needed nitrogen for plants and crops to grow and thrive. The nitrogen in ammonia is essential for building proteins and nucleic acids that make up the basic building blocks of life.
Outside of agriculture, ammonia has widespread industrial applications including plastics, explosives, textiles, refrigeration, paper, rubber, household cleaners, water treatment and more. These applications rely on the versatile chemical properties of ammonia.
Conventional ammonia production utilises the Haber-Bosch process, which was first commercialised over a century ago. This involves reacting hydrogen (H2) with atmospheric nitrogen (N2) at high pressures of up to 250 bar, and high temperatures of around 500°C, in the presence of an iron-based catalyst. The hydrogen feed is, in most cases, obtained from steam methane reforming of natural gas. This process is energy and emission-intensive, consuming around 1 - 2% of global energy usage and contributing approximately 2% of total global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The emissions arise from
burning fossil fuel feedstocks and the CO2 by-product generated in the steam methane reforming process for hydrogen production. This type of ammonia made via hydrocarbon feedstocks is called ‘grey ammonia’.
Green vs grey ammonia
Grey ammonia is set to fall out of favour as the world looks to transition away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energy. Green ammonia presents a more sustainable path forward. Instead of using fossil fuel-derived hydrogen, green ammonia utilises hydrogen generated by water electrolysis powered by renewable electricity.
Common renewable power sources include solar photovoltaics, onshore or offshore wind turbines and hydropower. Atmospheric air separation units provide the nitrogen, eliminating any carbon in the production process. The end product is a carbon-free or ‘green’ ammonia.
Market outlook for low-carbon ammonia
In addition to the traditional use of ammonia for fertilizer production, several new applications are expected to come up in the coming decades. As green ammonia combustion does not emit carbon, it is being positioned as a promising sustainable fuel or energy source of the future.
One example is using ammonia as a fuel for the maritime sector or for heavy trucks.
Another application is the use of ammonia for power generation, such as co-firing in coal-based power plants.
The third use case is a hot topic right now, and that is using ammonia as a hydrogen carrier for long-distance hydrogen transport and then cracking it at the point of use to release the hydrogen.
This will become important because low-carbon hydrogen can be produced in favourable areas with abundant and low-cost renewable energy like sun and wind and needs to be transported to the point of use.
The advantage of using ammonia as a hydrogen carrier is the existing infrastructure for transporting ammonia and its high energy density.
These new applications are expected to triple the demand for ammonia by 2050 (Figure 1).
The growth will be driven by early adopters looking to export green ammonia. Countries with rich solar and wind resources like Australia, Chile, and Saudi Arabia can become renewable energy export hubs by producing low-cost green ammonia and shipping it to end-use markets in Europe, East Asia and beyond. As more projects come online and scale increases, production costs are projected to become increasingly competitive with conventional routes.
Challenges facing green ammonia production
While the market outlook for green ammonia is promising, its production currently faces some key challenges:
n High capital costs: constructing large-scale electrolysers and air separation units powered by renewable energy requires a major upfront capital expenditure. This is holding back investment, especially when compared to established grey production routes.
n Intermittent renewable power supply: fluctuations in electricity generation from weather-dependent renewables can frequently change the composition of the feed to the ammonia synthesis reactor, affecting overall efficiency.
n Catalyst deactivation: the variable feed can introduce impurities like oxygenates, quickly deactivating conventional catalysts. Frequent catalyst replacement is costly.
This is where catalysts can help overcome production hurdles and enable the deployment of efficient green ammonia production.
Ammonia synthesis catalysts
Clariant's AmoMax® series catalysts are wustite-based solutions for ammonia synthesis, operating in more than 120 plants globally (Figure 2). The latest generation, AmoMax® 10 Plus, has an optimised promoter composition resulting in higher activity and stability. It is even easier to reduce than the previous generation, enabling a lower light-off temperature and a faster start-up. A particularly notable feature of the catalyst is its high poisoning resistance compared to other catalysts.
In addition, the catalysts are significantly more active than benchmark magnetite-based catalysts. This high activity is maintained over a long time, as indicated by rapid ageing experiments.
Overall, the strong catalytic performance can be translated into substantial energy savings by enabling lower loop pressures and lower recycle ratios, robustness, and reliability in green ammonia production.
n Reduction and ammonia formation start at a 61°C lower temperature compared to magnetite benchmark (Figure 3).
n Lower light-off temperature combined with superior water resistance allows for a faster catalyst reduction.
Higher activity
n Shows 21% better performance compared to the magnetite-based benchmark (Figure 4).
n The higher activity allows operating at lower loop pressure and/or recycle ratio, leading to significant energy savings.
Higher water resistance
n Shows better performance than a magnetite-based benchmark under H2O poisoning conditions over a wide temperature range (Figure 5).
n The improvement in activity is particularly strong at low temperatures:
§ 15% higher weight-time-yield at 450°C.
§ 50% higher weight-time-yield at 400°C.
These catalyst improvements lead to the following benefits for green ammonia producers:
n High activity: maximum ammonia yield and single-pass conversion efficiency are achieved even under variable conditions from renewable feeds. This maximises production and minimises costly process gas recirculation in the ammonia loop.
n Improved stability: resistance to catalyst poisons like oxygenates results in higher on-stream reliability and avoids disruptive shutdowns, leading to a longer catalyst lifetime.
n Lower operating pressures: can achieve equivalent productivity at pressures up to 20 bar lower compared to conventional catalysts. This reduces energy consumption.
n Flexibility: provides a wide operating window to handle fluctuations in hydrogen supply from renewable electricity. This allows the plant to respond smoothly to intermittent renewable power.
n Applicable for next-gen projects: suitable for loop operating pressures even below 90 bar, making it ideal for upcoming low-pressure greenfield designs that improve commercial viability.
By increasing efficiency, stability, and flexibility, the catalyst helps drive down both capital and operating costs of green ammonia production.
As the global low-carbon ammonia demand will grow in the coming decades, continued innovation in this area will lead to more sustainable technologies that support the energy transition.
Conclusion
Ammonia is a versatile chemical with indispensable uses as a fertilizer and the potential for future use cases as fuel or energy source across many industries in the energy transition.
Green ammonia produces no CO2 when burned, making it an ideal sustainable fuel for shipping, heavy transport, and power generation. As an efficient hydrogen carrier, green ammonia enables the transport of renewable energy over long distances to the points of use.
By replacing conventional grey ammonia production, the transition to green ammonia significantly reduces
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from a vital base chemical. With applications in transportation, power, and hydrogen supply, green ammonia is expected to play a critical role in decarbonising the global energy system.
In addition to the bright outlook, green ammonia producers are facing major challenges. The first is higher upfront costs than conventional grey or blue ammonia production. The second is fluctuating feed conditions due to the intermittent availability of renewable energy. Therefore, a catalyst that can optimise efficiency and overcome challenging process conditions, including exposure to oxygenates, is essential for reliable, cost-effective green ammonia production.
All kinds of Rotary Tubes and Fluid Beds for treatment of granulated and soluble fertilizers.
Figure
penny
A for your thoughts
James Byrd, JESA Technologies, USA, gives insight into the challenges and risks of designing and operating phosphoric acid plants.
The phosphate industry is unique in many aspects. Some say that operating a phosphoric acid plant (PAP) is as much science as it is art. Managing an inherently changing feed without real time understanding is the first challenge. Differing ore bodies around the world offer differing responses even when the chemistry is similar. The complexity of the chemical reaction complicates setting an even bar across the industry, as the impurities interact differently depending on minerology. Local resources directly impact design considerations.
These points should make a greenfield plant design for each site unique and a challenge. Every project comes down to economics. Due to the bespoke nature of these plants and the well-known pitfalls of an ‘off the shelf’ design, accepted project methodologies must be respected for the project to maximise economics.
Front end loading phases
Different companies have different terms, but project phases are largely divided by front end loading (FEL) methodology.
At each phase, project estimates are better defined. In FEL 1, the concept is defined, this is known as conceptual engineering (CE). This is often split into sub-phases as the owner’s investigation can be compartmentalised to protect confidentiality. In FEL 2, options have been narrowed or eliminated with the basis of engineering frozen, this is known as basic engineering (BE). This is executed with a technology provider leading the design. Finally, in FEL 3 details are developed so that equipment can be purchased and the plant constructed. This is typically termed detail engineering (DE). The technology provider acts tangentially to ensure the integrity of the design. When these phases are respected, project risks are significantly diminished, providing the best path for economic realisation.
Risk vs reward
Because of the unique nature of the industry, these risks can be different than those experienced in other industries. There are many causal factors for risks that include shortcutting any engineering phase, copying designs from one location to another, implementing unrealistic schedules, and not fully vetting decisions affecting the final design. Project risks are a common occurence, they have been repeated time and again all over the world as inefficient plants can testify. Project teams tend to downplay risks as it is human nature to want to move forward at full speed rather than being methodical. There is a real danger for the team that moves too quickly. The project team, representing the owner, is often judged by capital expenditure (CAPEX) savings or schedule adherence. Focusing on a single aspect can lead to diminishing project profitability. The project team will be long gone once the project is finished and the results of the risks will be left for the owner to resolve for decades to come. Blame abounds, regardless of fault and regardless of presence.
By failing to prepare, you prepare to fail
One of the first steps, once a project is initiated, is to apply a schedule. The early schedule should be flexible. Too often the early schedule is frozen and can only be shortened. And it is done so without any engineering input. Often, these cuts are at the expense of one or more engineering phases.
Decisions made early in the project have the greatest impact on the overall project. Bypassing accepted engineering methodologies comes with a price. The later in the project changes are made, the more likely it is to impact the schedule, budget, and have the potential to initiate mistakes as the changes will affect multiple engineering deliverables, regardless of how innocuous they may seem. This is why it is imperative to take time
when making decisions in the early phases to freeze the design, especially prior to BE.
Decisions
In a phosphoric acid plant, the number of options can be overwhelming to some owners. The rationale for addressing site-specific constraints may not be well understood. The desire for a finished plant can be so strong that nothing stands in the way of cutting the schedule. These are potential drivers to enhance project risks.
There has been much said about the risks of ‘off the shelf’ designs. This can be summarised as follows:
n Inefficiencies or mistakes in the original design are repeated.
n Even minor changes will extend BE and be implemented without design oversight.
n Modern technologies are overlooked so potential efficiency gains are not realised.
n Inherent bottlenecks are built into the design – especially true for differing ore bodies.
n Transposition errors by inexperienced engineers can cause project delays.
n Economic drivers may not be reflected in the design.
n Changing local constraints are not reflected in the design.
n Lessons learned are not incorporated (from designs all over the world).
Some of these points are self-explanatory. What is commonly done during a copy approach is to make 'minor' changes to address previous inefficiencies, lessons learned, new technologies or new preferences. Once any change is made, careful consideration needs to account for the law of unintended consequences. This law is prevalent in PAPs and has resulted in many good intentions creating new problems. In a PAP, there are so many inter-dependencies that fixing one problem can create another, and it could be worse than the original problem.
The cost of change
Making changes will extend the schedule, and not using the right personnel to foresee the unintended consequences can result in not only project delays, but lost production once the plant does begin operation. How many PAPs have not started up well? How many have started up at full rates? More to the point, how many PAPs attain the targeted annual production in the first year of startup? It may be attainable to reach the design rates, but how long can they be sustained, and at what cost? Pushing a plant too hard can result in broken equipment, down time or maintenance issues. And how much equipment will be improperly specified, effectively bottlenecking the entire plant?
The driver
If schedule is a true driver for the project, then the cost is in capital as the design must be conservative to ensure targeted rates can be achieved. If CAPEX is the true driver, then the schedule must be flexible while options are vetted, and equipment is properly specified. There is no free lunch, everything comes with a price. To that point, a rudimentary net present value (NPV) model was used to develop a sensitivity analysis. NPV modeling is a common tool used to evaluate the economic viability of a given project. A positive value means that the project has economic merit. The model
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has been used in previous projects and is based on traditional economic modelling. The basis is arbitrary and should not be confused with any previous project or client. For arguments sake, a 1500 tpd phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) plant is referenced with an NPV set close to zero at US$250 million considering revenue with a variable OPEX/fixed cost. The impact of CAPEX on NPV is shown in Figure 1. Again, the values in Figure 1 are arbitrary and not referenced to any specific case. CAPEX for PAPs has been across this range depending on whether the project was schedule driven or CAPEX driven, as well as the myriad options to address. For any given circumstance, the highest CAPEX herein could have a positive NPV (shown negative here). The importance of the slope will be described as consequences in the following section. Assumptions for the model can be seen in Table 1.
The risks of shortcuts
As previously stated, one of the risks with shortcutting engineering phases is unrealised production rates. This could happen in a schedule driven project if a conservative approach is not taken, or in a CAPEX driven approach if the schedule is too aggressive. If the average reduction is 100 tpd for one year, the net reduction on an annual basis is a little more than 33 300 t of P2O5. This results in the NPV moving approximately US$10 million lower for the breakeven point from the unrealied revenue. A second year moves the values UD$10 million lower. At 200 tpd of P2O5 average reduction, the NPV moves US$20 million lower and at two years the reduction becomes US$40 million lower, or the project break even point becomes US$210 million CAPEX. The numbers compound over time. The project team can be oblivious to this point as their concern is with either the schedule or budget. From their perspective, it is the owner’s responsibility to manage project economics.
Bottlenecking
More alarming is the creation of a bottleneck in the process that does not allow full rates to occur. In this case, even at 100 tpd of P2O5 on average for 20 years, the US$150 million CAPEX case has a negative NPV and the project has lost significant money and alternative investment opportunities. This is the real risk in copying plants, that what works in one
area will not be as efficient in another and can result in a significant financial lost opportunity. The owner will realise very quickly that post mechanical completion construction activities will be necessary to recoup the investment which further inhibits production, adds CAPEX, and increases time before revenues are realised, compounding an already dire situation.
Slips in the schedule
Another risk is a slip in schedule. If it slips eight months, the breakeven NPV is the US$150 million case. Slips in schedule can occur for a variety of reasons, including an unrealistic schedule at the project outset. More commonly slips occur when changes to the project continue through DE or when ‘minor’ changes from a given design occur in any later FEL phase, regardless of whether it is a schedule or CAPEX driven project. What may seem like a minor change can ripple through multiple engineering deliverables while also creating opportunity for mistakes to be made. The term paralysis by analysis is appropriate herein, diminishing project economics.
It is a crucial point that the model used assumed a 20-year plant life. This is a customary practice for project justifications. Also common in the industry is to operate these plants for 50 years or more. Making mistakes at the outset can set an awkward path forward for decades.
Another advantage of adhering to the FEL philosophy, outside of mitigating project risks, occurs with identifying cost drivers associated with the project. Analyses during the CE and BE phases can help identify cost drivers such that the team can develop strategies to address them proactively and improve overall profitability.
Conclusion
Regardless of the motivations behind the project, be it schedule, or CAPEX driven, embracing the FEL philosophy provides the best opportunity for the owner to mitigate project risks while successfully achieving project economics. For the magnitude of the investments, a proper risk assessment should be performed prior to project initiation to better direct the project team.
Everything comes down to economics and in the rush to get to the finish line, a stumble could slow it down. Despite the best efforts to the contrary, bottlenecks could occur, or undue burdens could be placed on operations to produce tons in a plant that is not capable.
Neglect
It is surprising that in an industry so risk averse, project risks are not given greater emphasis. Risks have been realised all over the world, the engineering contractor’s market has thrived solving problems left from completed projects with the project teams long gone post mechanical completion. Brownfield modifications to address problems will result in higher CAPEX and lost production rather than having solved the issues in the original design. In this respect, the owners should ensure the process designers stay engaged throughout the project life cycle and be given some authority in DE to stop the paralysis by analysis, ensure the integrity of the design and maintain institutional knowledge for the basic design aspects of the project. By adhering to the FEL methodology, there is a clear path for those with patience and the wisdom to learn from others to maximise investments.
Table 1. NPV model assumptions
Fertilizer efficiency
increase
Svet Valkov, Ballestra S.p.A, Italy, discusses well known problems within the fertilizer industry: how to minimise losses and how to increase efficiency in fertilizer use.
The fertilizer industry as we know it is set for a change, and we already see it happening. One of the most important challenges is how to improve fertilizer efficiency and increase product value without changing existing plants and renewing investment.
This article addresses well-known problems in the fertilizer industry: how to minimise losses and how to increase the efficiency in their use. Two proven applications are developed and described hereafter through methylene urea (me-urea) and sulfur coated urea (SCU).
The need to increase fertilizer efficiency
The fertilizer industry is used to a comforting equation. Arable land is limited, and the population is growing. Hence, we need to pour more fertilizer per hectare to feed more people. That reasoning can spark huge investments but shows its weaknesses when applied to reality. The capability of crops to absorb nutrients is limited. All that crops cannot absorb is lost in the air or leached away by rain and ends up in rivers and seas.
Urea is the most used fertilizer globally, having a significant impact on crop production to ensure food security. However, it also has some harmful effects on soil, the environment, and human health.
The frightening problem related to the urea fertilizer is its huge nitrogen (N) loss (20 - 60%), and low nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) (30 - 40%) which was reported in several crops and achieves up to 50% in corn.
Specifically, the loss of N from applied urea as nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is a corrosive greenhouse gas (GHG), while ammonia (NH 3 ) gas pollutes the air. Nitrate leaching contaminates groundwater and causes eutrophication on surface water. Urea may be the possible reason for soil pollution, nutrient imbalance, acidification, and salinisation.
Volatilisation loss from the application of N-fertilizers is widespread and harmful. Nevertheless, surface application of granular urea occurs more in the form of NH 3 volatilisation when it is applied in no-till soil conditions. In addition, approximately 30% of applied N is lost through volatilisation when broadcasted on sandy soils. The produced NH 3 gas creates adverse effects on seed germination and seedling development. Furthermore, NH 3 volatilisation creates economic problems resulting in lower crop production and environmental contamination in the long term. NH 3 gas loss also can be minimised with the effects of other nutrients such as sulfur, copper, boron, etc.
Nitrogen leaching loss decreases crop growth, development, and NUE, polluting the surface and groundwater. Leaching is more problematic in light-textured upland soil. During the denitrification process, nitrate (NO 3 ) is reduced to nitrite (NO 2 ), and later NO 2 is reduced to nitric oxide (NO), N 2 O, and dinitrogen (N 2 ).
Options available on the fertilizer market
Many different solutions quickly populated the market to give the crops time to absorb the nutrients, avoid or reduce leaching by rain or irrigations, and ultimately maximise the efficiency of the fertilizers.
Outside the fertilizer industry for nitrogen-based fertilizers, the following strategies emerged:
n Urease inhibitors – block or slow down the decomposition of urea into NH 4 +
n Nitrification inhibitors – block or slow down the conversion from NH 4 + to nitrate.
n Coatings – the entire surface of a fertilizer granule is covered by a substance that delays contact with water.
n Formulations – same as above, with substances intimately mixed with the mass of the fertilizer granule.
Most approaches work sufficiently, allowing crops to grow similar or even better than regular fertilizers, reducing the quantity required. For classification releases, inhibitor-treated fertilizer generally belong to the ‘controlled release’ category, while coated fertilizers and formulations belong to the ‘slow-release’ fertilizers.
Particle size
As per client's requirements
All such solutions are made possible by substances like polylactic acid, polyurethane, N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide, dicyandiamide, sulfur, 2-chloro-6 (trichloromethyl) pyridine, malic+ itaconic acid copolymer, etc. Just by reading such names, it is evident that none of them are coming from within the methane to N-fertilizers value chain. As an implication, the fertilizer industry has to involve a third-party and pay a fee to improve fertilizer efficiency. That erodes,
Figure 1. Process flow chart of SCU production.
Table 1. Me-urea final product quality
Figure 2. Chemical structures.
sometimes significantly, the margin from the added value of controlled and slow-release fertilizers.
Other tools within the fertilizer industry are already available to increase efficiency. This includes me-urea and sulfur trials and industrial experience, proving the right direction and is gaining market shares.
SCU and me-urea: improved production and application
SCU
Sulfur is an essential secondary plant nutrient. It is an important component of amino acids. The soil is deficient in sulfur and should be compensated.
The slow-release effect is guided by the nutrient use efficiency which is low in urea. The target to control the nitrogen release in the soil and the property of the sulfur to encapsulate and prevent the rapid release of the nutrient ended to establish the SCU fertilizer as a promising solution. It is also recognised that application of sulfur layer on the urea granules reduces the dissolution rate of the granules and hence imparts controlled-release characteristics.
The fusion of urea and sulfur is operated and can be summarised in five basic steps:
n Urea heating to prepare the surface for sulfur coating.
n Sulfur spray inside bi-fluid drum granulator (BFDG).
The SCU reduces the nitrogen leaching in the soil. This can decrease the fertilizer use by 20 - 30% for a similar yield.
n Wax sealant application to protect the granule.
n Product cooling and screening.
n Final product conditioning to prevent caking.
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Figure 3. The me-urea reaction section.
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Once the urea prills or granules are preheated to avoid the thermal shock with the molten sulfur, the particles enter the bi-fluid drum granulator where they receive the number of layers of sulfur to achieve the required nitrogen/sulfur ratio and hence increase in coating thickness. At the outlet of the granulator, the product must be encapsulated with wax sealant and then cooled down to below 40°C. The next operation is to screen the product and remove the particles out of spec while the marketable product is conditioned and sent to the storage.
Me-urea
The nitrogen industry is used to urea-formaldehyde concentrate (UFC). It is the essential additive to impart mechanical resistance and hardness to the urea granules. In addition, formaldehyde is the product of the partial oxidation of methanol, one of the strictest relatives of ammonia in terms of chemical processes.
Me-urea results from condensing one molecule of urea and one formaldehyde molecule. If the condensation proceeds further, di-methylene-urea is formed. With the chain length increase, the name changes to ‘ureaform’.
Proceeding with polymerisation, we get to urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins, featuring longer reticulated chains.
Urea is very soluble in water. UF resins are absolutely insoluble. Me-urea, di-methylene urea, and ureaform sit in between, and the longer the polymer chain, the more insoluble the chemical compound is. On the other hand, they all are clearly perfect carriers of nitrogen. Starting from urea (very soluble) and arriving at UF resins, the longer the polymer chain is, the more the substance can resist water leaching. Consequently, me-urea chains can be precisely engineered to dissolve and make nitrogen available to crops within days, weeks, or months, depending on the different cultivations' nitrogen intake requirement.
Me-urea and longer urea form (UF fertilizers) are available in liquid and granular form and are demonstrably safe for the body and the environment. The liquid form can also be used for foliar application and is proven to be 4 - 5 times more efficient than non-slow-release counterparts (i.e. to achieve the same effect as 1 kg of me-urea, 4 - 5 kg of urea are needed). Granular me-urea has similar efficiency advantages and a wide application in golf courses and edible crops. Both liquid and granular forms feature very low salinity and no nitrate, hence no burns in the crops.
Me-urea shares the production process with the UF resin industry. The reactor is typically batch to allow easy change of recipes and get different product grades. UFC or formaldehyde are loaded with solid urea or urea solution into the reactor. The polymerisation under acid or basic catalysis is performed under varying, but closely controlled cycles, untill the required polymer length (or mix thereof) is obtained. The recipe is the core know-how behind me-urea. The product can be stored as liquid N-fertilizer, can be sent to finishing, or mixed with fine nutrients and micronutrients to get precisely tailored liquid nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) fertilizers. The latest can also proceed to finishing.
The unit is designed to be safe with a full automatic control system and elaboration of the recipe.
While the technology for me-urea production is well defined, finishing is where most existing plants come short. This is why the maximum capacity of a single me-urea line is limited.
Me-urea is not a single product based on well-defined commercial specifications, but a family of different products. Each different recipe entails specific finishing parameters, and most of the available granulation technologies do not have the flexibility to cope with the range of me-urea product grades.
Figure 5. Pilot plant BFDG.
Figure 4. Sulfur coated urea.
Final products quality
Me-urea
The final product is not limited to only one standard quality but can cover and be adjusted according to the climate, soil and client requirements. The finishing is flexible and could be adapted to several situations on slow-release fertilizers.
SCU
The final product could be tailored to the client requirements and the typical quality of SCU which can be obtained is found in Table 2.
The technology behind the bi-fluid drum granulator
The Ballestra bi-fluid drum granulator is basically a rotating drum with a fixed table of perforated metal sheet inside. The drum rotation lifts the granules to the table, where they are kept in fluid bed conditions by air flowing through the holes of the metal sheet. The perforated table is slightly inclined on a side, so those dry granules from the fluid bed fall back to the lower part of the rotating drum. While doing so, they pass through a spray of incoming fresh me-urea or sulfur, which creates a further layer of material.
The bi-fluid drum granulator is the heart of the finishing granulation process. All parameters such as rotation speed, inclination of the fluid bed table, temperature of fluidising air, flow, and temperature of the freshly sprayed liquid are of utmost importance. Once the proper parameters for each recipe are defined, the result is a granule with a solid and resistant onion-like structure, vastly exceeding the hardness and mechanical resistance of urea granules. It is worth noting that the fresh solution is sprayed in an area away from the fluidising air flow. The specially developed new bi-fluid spraying nozzle allows extremely fine droplets distribution and homogeneous layering on the granules. The recycle ratio is defined for each product and is close to one, this allows energy savings in the high energy consumption equipment of the granulation loop.
Key for flexibility
The bi-fluid granulator is paramount for the proper finishing of me-urea and sulfur-coated urea, and much more. The same unit is proven to be a perfect finishing for many other products in the fertilizer industry.
The bi-fluid drum granulator is the core of a new versatile concept of complex fertilizer plants, able to track and adapt to varying markets and crop requirements. The equipment can be used for simple one through pass which is used in the SCU production.
In existing prilling plant production, the capacity could be increased by spraying the additional capacity of melt around the prills and in such way contributes to increased product size and hardness.
Finally, the classic granulation approach can be used with several products and brings high product quality,
Table 2. Typical quality of SCU
SCU From To
Total N (%) 32 37
Total S (%) 24 17
Water content (%) 1
Biuret (%) 1.5
Particle size 2 mm > %90% min < 5 mm
less air emissions and compact design compared to plants using prilling towers or dryer.
The bi-fluid drum granulator can be used for several different products and allows great flexibility and applications.
Me-urea and SCU applications are part of the proven finishing technology approaches.
Conclusion
Increasing the efficiency of fertilizers, particularly urea, by controlling the rate of release of nutrients to match agriculture requirements is a major challenge in the coming years. The hope of reducing and eliminating nutrient losses due to leaching, chemical decomposition, soil fixation and abundant fertilizer consumption are guiding us in our developments.
The fact that such controlled release fertilizers are not widely used attests to the difficulty of the task to combine technical, agronomic, and economic feasibility in a single product.
Ballestra is engaged in the development of slow-release nitrogen fertilizers such as SCU and me-urea.
Driving innovation in material handling
Rich Diffley, Sackett-Waconia, USA, discusses the dynamics of fertilizer handling systems and the importance of precision, efficiency, and sustainability.
The movement and processing of fertilizers at port terminals represents a complex but critical element of the global agricultural supply chain. This article will discuss the sophisticated dynamics of fertilizer handling systems.
Precision in bulk material handling: key to efficiency and environmental responsibility
In the realm of bulk material handling, the challenges of efficient transloading and storage require a thoughtful approach to both engineering and sustainability. Port terminals serve as vital hubs, ensuring the seamless flow of raw materials and finished goods at competitive costs.
The need for high efficiency and low environmental impact drives the design of port terminals and transloading facilities. These systems move fertilizers and other bulk commodities with remarkable speed, achieving throughput rates of 500, 1000, or even 2000 tph. The significance of this capability becomes clear when considering the scale of global agricultural demand. By optimising material handling, companies can contribute to operational savings and the reduction of environmental footprints.
Key components: mobile and fixed equipment
Material handling equipment in this sector can be classified into mobile and fixed categories. Mobile equipment, such as cranes, front-end loaders, material handlers, clam shell buckets, trucks, trains, barges, and ships, play a critical role in bringing products to and from port terminals. However, the focus of this article will be on fixed equipment, including stationary structures and machinery that move commodities such as fertilizers, grains, salt, and aggregates. Examples of fixed equipment include hoppers, conveyors, warehouses, and loading systems.
Receiving systems: the gateway to efficient processing
At the heart of efficient port operations is the receiving system, which serves as the entry point for bulk fertilizers. Hoppers, an essential part of this system, are designed to accommodate high volumes and facilitate downstream processing. Bulk fertilizers are often unloaded from ships or barges via cable cranes or material handlers, which deposit the cargo into hoppers using clam shell buckets. Due to the hygroscopic nature of fertilizers, moisture accumulation during transit can lead to hardening, posing challenges for subsequent handling.
To address this, many port receiving hoppers are equipped with grizzlies – steel lattices that break down large chunks of fertilizer into manageable pieces. This initial size reduction ensures a steady flow of material through the system. Sackett-Waconia’s hoppers often incorporate lump busters that further reduce chunks, enabling seamless processing. Once inside the hopper, the fertilizer is funneled downward and discharged at the base, where it often enters a troughed belt conveyor system. This conveyor system ensures efficient movement to temporary storage bins within a warehouse, where the product awaits further processing or shipment.
Warehouse storage solutions: optimising space and preserving product integrity
Storing bulk fertilizers involves more than just containment. Effective warehouse storage solutions require optimal product segregation to prevent cross-contamination and preserve the quality of each fertilizer type. Warehouses are equipped with multiple storage bins and utilise bucket elevators to lift products efficiently with minimal space requirements. The elevators, typically of the centrifugal type, are driven by belts or chains and enable rapid product movement.
Figure 1. Barge unloading and elevator.
Figure 2. Elevator conveyors.
Figure 3. Lump buster stainless rotor.
Figure 4. Rail car loading.
For more delicate handling, continuous belt bucket elevators are employed. These systems, which move slower but provide a gentler process, are particularly useful for producing finished or blended products. Once lifted, the fertilizer is transported across the warehouse using either tripper conveyors or en masse conveyors. Tripper conveyors, which move along the building’s centre top, distribute product into bins through controlled chutes. Meanwhile, en masse conveyors utilise chains with flights to drag the fertilizer in a fully enclosed housing, minimising dust and product loss.
Reclaim systems: seamlessly moving stored fertilizer to market
Once fertilizers are stored in a warehouse, they must be loaded onto railcars or trucks for distribution. The reclaim process involves moving large quantities of product with speed and precision. Front-end loaders, with buckets ranging from 2 to over 10 yd 3 , are frequently used for this purpose. The loaders transport fertilizer from storage bins to receiving hoppers, where further processing and loading occur.
To optimise the reclaim process, many facilities utilise in-floor hoppers. Unlike above-grade hoppers, these
to trucks or loading towers through enclosed bulk toter or troughed belt conveyors.
The strategic placement of in-floor hopper pits relative to storage bins and travel distances plays a crucial role in determining operational efficiency.
This configuration minimises loader travel and turn time, reducing cycle times significantly. Industry studies have found that cycle times for loaders working with in-floor hoppers can be cut by up to 60%, improving throughput and safety.
Rail tower garner loading: precision in large-scale shipments
Loading railcars quickly and accurately is a critical step in meeting shipping schedules. Rail tower systems comprise three key hoppers: the holding hopper, weigh hopper, and surge hopper. These hoppers work in tandem, with pneumatic or hydraulic gates facilitating continuous material flow. Automation systems, sensors, and scales ensure precise loading, minimising downtime and maximising efficiency.
The process begins with the holding hopper receiving material from the reclaim system. When the system is in operation, the holding hopper releases a controlled amount of fertilizer into the weigh hopper, which then transfers the material to the surge hopper.
This continuous flow design allows for the rapid loading of unit trains, achieving speeds of up to 1000 tph. Adding automation to this process can help operators meet stringent turnaround times and reduce
PROVEN AND TRUSTED PERFORMANCE
Since 1897, Sackett-Waconia is a diversified manufacturer of high-quality fertilizer equipment, offering solutions from production plants to terminals and blending facilities.
Maintenance and durability: building for longevity in harsh conditions
Handling fertilizers presents unique challenges due to their hygroscopic and corrosive nature. Exposure to moisture can lead to clumping, corrosion, and operational disruptions. To mitigate these issues, Sackett-Waconia constructs its equipment from stainless steel, which resists corrosion and maintains structural integrity over time. Support structures are made of carbon steel with protective coatings, ensuring durability even in harsh environments. Regular maintenance is crucial to preventing buildup inside hoppers, chutes, and transfer points. Accumulations can lead to contamination, wear, and safety risks. The company designs its equipment with accessible panels, allowing for efficient maintenance and cleaning. Additionally, enclosed transfer points, chutes, and skirt boards help minimise dust emissions, improving safety and reducing product loss.
Conclusion: shaping the future of fertilizer material handling
In a world where agricultural productivity is essential for sustaining a growing population, expertise in fertilizer handling systems play a vital role. By delivering innovative, efficient, and sustainable solutions, companies, such as Sackett-Waconia, enable farmers and industry stakeholders to meet global food demands.
Figure 5. Raw material storage.
Figure 6. Terminal facility.
Zico Zeeman, EMT Blending, Bagging and Transport Equipment, the Netherlands, explains why materials handling and conveying is at the heart of the fertilizer industry.
Materials handling and conveying are pivotal to the fertilizer industry, ensuring the efficient transfer of raw materials and finished products while maintaining product integrity. The unique physical and chemical properties of fertilizers – ranging from their hygroscopic nature to abrasiveness – pose significant operational challenges. This article explores the technical solutions available for product intake, internal handling, and outgoing logistics, while highlighting real-world examples of how these systems enhance efficiency and flexibility.
The fertilizer industry is a cornerstone of modern agriculture, supporting global food security. At the heart of its supply chain lies materials handling and conveying – a complex operation involving the transport of fertilizer
ingredients, intermediates, and final products across production facilities and distribution networks. These operations are not only vital for productivity but also play a critical role in minimising waste, preserving product quality, and ensuring environmental compliance. Fertilizers present unique handling challenges due to their sensitivity to moisture, corrosiveness, and abrasive nature. Moreover, their tendency to generate dust and clumps under certain conditions necessitates specialied equipment and processes. Addressing these challenges while meeting sustainability goals has prompted the industry to innovate and adopt advanced materials handling solutions.
Challenges in fertilizer materials handling and conveying
Efficient materials handling in fertilizer production hinges on overcoming several intrinsic challenges.
Physical and chemical properties
Fertilizers are often hygroscopic, absorbing moisture from the air, which can lead to clumping and blockages in conveying systems. Their high abrasiveness accelerates wear and tear on equipment, while the fragility of granulated fertilizers makes them prone to degradation during transport.
Environmental and safety considerations
Dust generation during handling can compromise air quality, and handling corrosive materials requires equipment that can withstand long-term exposure to aggressive chemicals and fluctuating temperatures.
Operational bottlenecks
In large-scale operations, ensuring consistent material flow without interruptions is a critical challenge. Facilities often need to handle a diverse range of fertilizers, each with different flow properties, necessitating systems that can handle these variations.
Local climate challenges
Local climate significantly impacts fertilizer handling. High humidity causes clumping and blockages, while dry conditions increase dust risks. Freezing temperatures can harden materials, complicating transport, and hot climates may degrade sensitive products.
Product intake
Infrastructure considerations
The choice of intake system depends heavily on external infrastructure. Proximity to railways, waterways, or highways can determine the most cost-effective method of receiving bulk materials.
Figure 1. Box filled with a distributing conveyor.
Figure 3. Warehouse intake system with distribution conveyors and bagging equipment.
Figure 2. Train intake system – Finland.
For instance, direct access to a railway or port can significantly reduce transportation costs compared to relying solely on trucks.
Water
transport
When water transport is utilised, boats are typically unloaded using a crane. The crane transfers the product into an intake hopper, which then directs it either to a warehouse via a transport system or directly into trucks or trains for inland distribution.
Train discharge pit
For facilities with railway access, elongated pits with train rails running over them are commonly used. Train wagons position themselves above the pit, and their bottom doors open to release fertilizer. A conveyor at the base of the pit moves the material toward the warehouse filling system. This setup is efficient for high-volume intake but requires proper alignment of the pit with the facility's internal logistics.
Bulk intake by tipping truck
For truck intake, materials are discharged into a pit or hopper. Trucks tip their loads backward or sideways into the pit, which funnels the material to a conveyor. This conveyor directs the fertilizer to the warehouse distribution system.
Internal handling and storage
Bulk storage solutions
Efficient internal handling begins with the right storage system. Bulk materials are often stored in bays with portable walls, providing flexibility for adjustments. For direct feeding into blending systems, forklifts or front loaders with dumping buckets are commonly used.
In facilities where fertilizers are stored in flexible intermediate bulk container (FIBC) bags or smaller bags, handling systems vary. Some setups feed the blender directly from bags, while others require intermediate bulk storage depending on the blending system’s requirements.
Key systems in materials conveying and handling
To address these challenges, the fertilizer industry employs a range of specialised systems.
Mechanical conveyors
Belt conveyors are widely used due to their versatility, offering efficient transport of bulk materials over long distances. Screw conveyors, on the other hand, are ideal for precise feeding in compact spaces, though they may be prone to clogging with hygroscopic fertilizers and put more pressure on the product making more damage as compared to the belt conveyor.
Bucket elevators
These systems are essential for vertical transport, particularly in facilities with space constraints.
However, they must be carefully maintained to prevent blocking especially with very hygroscopic fertilizers.
Chain conveyors
Chain conveyors use a continuous chain to move bulk fertilizers through an enclosed trough, offering durability for abrasive materials and effective handling on steep inclines. They are ideal for short-to-medium distances.
Fertilizer screening units
Screening units are essential for ensuring uniform particle size in fertilizers, enhancing product quality and performance. These systems separate fine powders, granules, and oversized lumps using vibrating screens or rotary sifters. Proper screening minimises clogging in downstream processes and ensures consistent blending for fertilizers with specific granule sizes.
Lump breakers
Lump breakers are designed to crush large, hardened clumps of fertilizer into smaller, manageable sizes. They are especially useful for handling hygroscopic fertilizers prone to caking. Featuring rotating blades or screws within intake hoppers or other units, these units prevent blockages in conveyors and
Figure 5. Warehouse intake system installation in Togo.
Figure 4. Fertilizer lump breaker.
improve flow consistency. Compact and energy-efficient designs make lump breakers a critical component in maintaining smooth fertilizer production.
Coating
Coating systems apply protective or functional layers to fertilizers, such as anti-caking agents or nutrient-enhancing coatings. These systems preserve product quality during storage and improve performance in the field.
Warehouse filling systems
Portable inclined box fill conveyors
Portable inclined box fill conveyors offer a flexible and efficient solution for filling warehouse storage bays. These conveyors are designed to move fertilizers at an incline, enabling precise placement into storage boxes or bays. Their portability allows operators to easily reposition the conveyors to different locations within the warehouse. The adjustable height and discharge angle ensure even filling, minimising material segregation and maximising storage capacity. These conveyors require manual replacement which can lower the overall capacity of the system.
Shuttle conveyor systems
Shuttle conveyors are a simple yet effective method for filling warehouse bays. Mounted on wheels on rails, these conveyors move fertilizer across the bays and discharge material at both ends. This results in v-shaped piles, which provide adequate but not optimal space utilisation.
INTRODUCING THE MINERALS SEPARATOR “PLUS” DESIGN
Where High-Capacity Meets Ergonomics
High volume offering for specific applications like fertilizer, minerals and grain.
Configuration features increased flow inlet plenum(s), more spacing between screen decks and deepened discharge doors.
Models with increased screen area and screen deck slope also available.
Distributor conveyor systems
For higher efficiency, distributor conveyor systems can be used. These systems integrate a shuttle conveyor with a movable distribution conveyor positioned beneath it. The distribution conveyor moves laterally and discharges on either side, filling bays evenly. This approach maximises storage capacity and ensures better use of floor space.
Outgoing product handling
Handling outgoing products depends on transportation methods and customer preferences. Bulk delivery, small bags, and FIBC jumbo bags are the main options. In many regions, such as Europe, farmers commonly use equipment designed for jumbo bags, making them a preferred choice. However, suppliers targeting different markets may need to focus on bulk or smaller packaging options to meet customer needs.
Togo: efficient warehouse logistics
For a customer in Togo, EMT has built a warehouse intake system that was specially integrated into their warehouse. The challenge here was the position of its pillars in the warehouse and the size as compared to the storage capacity required. The bulk storage dimensions are approximately 110 m width x 40 m depth, the storage height in the warehouse is 8 m high. The realised capacity of storage in the warehouse is 30 000 t of fertilizer.
The mode of transport for the raw materials is by backwards tipping truck. To facilitate the receival of the material, an intake hopper is placed in a pit in the floor on the side of the warehouse. With an elevator the material is brought to the required height and with belt conveyor systems the material is distributed.
For this specific warehouse, the shuttle with a distributor conveyor system was chosen. This was done so all the bulk bays could reach a 100% filling rate. Due to the positioning of the pillars that support the roof it was not possible to place one distribution conveyor on top of the bays. Instead, a distribution conveyor was placed on one side of the pillars and a secondary distribution conveyor was required on the other side. With an intermediate conveyor on the distribution frame, the material is brought to the centre of the frame from where the conveyor can distribute it.
The customer picks up the fertilizer with a front loader and brings it in to the blending facility. The blending unit is filled through one central intake hopper after which the material is screened before it is distributed to the various dosing hoppers. After the blend a small bag bagging unit is directly connected to bag the product before it is distributed through the sales channel.
Conclusion
Managing warehouse intake, storage, handling, sieving, coating, and crushing requires a combination of tailored systems and strategic planning. Whether it is designing efficient train pits, leveraging portable bulk walls, or deploying advanced conveyor systems, the right solution depends on the specific needs of the facility. By investing in adaptable and efficient systems, companies can optimise operations, preserve product quality, and meet the diverse demands of their customers.
Balancing
sustainability and savings
Bob Nelson, conveyor belting specialist, examines the environmental impact of conveyor belts used in the fertilizer industry, advocating for a mindset shift to reduce waste and lower the overall carbon footprint of conveyor systems.
The fertilizer industry is making huge efforts to lessen the environmental impact of its products, but can the same be said for the tools and equipment that it uses, such as on-site conveyors? This article looks at the situation from the perspective of both the manufacturer and the end-user, and demonstrates how a change of mindset could dramatically reduce the impact of tools and equipment on the environment.
The challenges
Conveyors are a very environmentally efficient method of moving vast amounts of material. At the same time, manufacturing the conveyor belts that carry those loads uses an enormous amount of energy and materials. The most commonly used type of conveyor belt is rubber ‘multi-ply’ belts which mostly have between 2 - 4 layers of synthetic fabric, usually a combination of polyester and nylon, which are used to create a sturdy carcass. Usually for long-haul applications, a carcass consisting of thick,
strong steel cables is used. In both cases, the carcass is protected by a thick outer coating of rubber. Because of its adaptability, most of the rubber is entirely synthetic. Very little natural rubber (NR) is used. The raw materials used to create the rubber and fabrics are almost all directly or indirectly derived from crude oil. In fact, a typical conveyor belt is effectively 45% oil. You can add to this, a vast array of different chemical components such as anti-degradants, antiozonants and accelerators.
Long-term impact
Ultimately, every conveyor belt has to be replaced and disposed of, which creates something of a double-edged sword. For example, in Europe, nearly 95% of all used car tyres are now recycled. By comparison, the amount of redundant conveyor belting being recycled is estimated to be less than 10%. There are many reasons for this disparity. Recycling conveyor belts is an
appreciably slower, more complicated and expensive process. There is also much less demand for the polyester and nylon fabric inner plies and no practical use for the metal cables found in steel cord reinforced belts.
The reality is that under foreseeable market circumstances, recycling industrial conveyor belts is both ecologically and economically problematic. As a result of this, thousands of tons of rubber, polyester, nylon and all the associated chemicals have to be disposed of, most of which goes to landfill.
A fast-growing problem
The world market for industrial conveyor belts is huge and growing fast. From a level of US$3700.22 million in 2021, it is projected to grow to US$5745.98 million by 2032, representing a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.49% during the forecast period (2023 - 2032). 1
Although there seems to be no reliable data available to translate the monetary worth into physical volumes, the tonnages involved are undeniably mind-boggling.
Throwaway culture
With such an enormously valuable and fast-growing market, it is hardly surprising that competition amongst conveyor belt manufacturers and traders is high. Although always competitive, a more descriptive term nowadays would be ‘ruthless’. An increasing number of highly respected industry experts argue that the level of competition is the root cause of the growing problem of environmental impact, declining quality standards and, in an increasing number of cases, dishonesty.
In Europe, the biggest source of rubber belting is Southeast Asia, predominately China. As with virtually every other high-value market, the strategy is based on mass volume manufacturing at a barely acceptable (and often unacceptable) standard of quality at dramatically lower prices. Over the past two decades, much of the European-based conveyor belt manufacturing capacity has disappeared as a result, creating an unhealthy reliance on low-grade imports. Although not the case with Fenner Dunlop in the Netherlands, European manufacturers often supplement their production with imported belting. What has transpired is a throwaway culture fuelled by a willingness to replace conveyor belts at a frequency that is many times higher than it should be.
Sacrificed on the price altar
Faced with their own budgetary challenges, many end-users welcome the opportunity to apparently cut costs in the short-term by buying low-priced imported belting, which can quite easily be as much as 50% (or more) cheaper than their counterparts at the opposite end of the quality scale. In many cases, quality and longevity is knowingly sacrificed on the price altar, but in just as many cases, the sacrifice is made unwittingly.
Anecdotal evidence strongly indicates that even when it becomes obvious that the low price really did reflect the quality, the opportunity to return to higher quality, more durable belts has been missed. Once the powers-that-be who set the expenditure budgets and those who work in purchasing departments see the ‘savings’, then those low prices become cast in stone.
Cost cutting – a price to be paid
It is important to understand how today’s cut-throat prices are being achieved because this has an equally large bearing, not only on performance and longevity, but also on environmental impact. Because of the high level of automation, labour costs account for as little as 5% of the production cost. The real reason for the enormous differences in price is that raw materials can make up to
Figure 1. Fertilizer conveyors in action.
Figure 4. Rubber conveyor belt market graph.
Figure 3. Rapid wear of conveyor rubber.
Figure 2. Conveyor belt rubber is almost entirely synthetic.
70% of the cost of producing a conveyor belt. Consequently, the only way to manufacture a low-price belt is to use low-price (low grade), unregulated raw materials. Cost-cutting practices include using cheap, low-grade polymers and chemical ingredients, the use of ‘bulking fillers’ such as clay and chalk, and using low-grade synthetic fabric plies. Another practice is the total omission of essential ingredients, such as the antiozonants that prevent premature rubber degradation caused by exposure to ozone (O3) and ultraviolet light (UV). These are important ingredients to minimise premature ageing effects.
To summarise, the environmental challenges associated with rubber industrial conveyor belts are considerable. Fortunately, it is not a lost cause because a lot of positive actions have been, and are being, taken by some manufacturers. However, for these actions to bear fruit, much more understanding, coupled with a change of mindset, is needed from those who are responsible for buying conveyor belts.
Meeting the environmental and economic challenges
The environmental impact of our products
It is an inescapable fact that to make some rubber compounds it is necessary to use some chemicals that are dangerous in their own right and which can potentially have a lasting impact on the environment. Fortunately, at least as far as Europe is concerned, very strong regulatory controls are in place that are designed to protect humans, wildlife and the environment in the form of REACH (registration, evaluation and authorisation of chemical substances) regulation EC 1907/2006 and EU Regulation No. 2019/1021. persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
Worryingly, many European manufacturers have chosen to ignore this because of the impact on production costs. Manufacturers located outside of EU member states and the UK are not subject to them at all, leaving them free to use much cheaper, unregulated raw materials even though they may be prohibited or at least have strict usage limitations within Europe.
Advice is therefore to always ask for written confirmation from the manufacturer or supplier of the belt you are buying that it has been produced in compliance with REACH EC 1907/2006 and EU Regulation No. 2019/1021 POPs regulations.
Product life cycle
The amount of conveyor belting used (and discarded) represents the single biggest influence on the industry’s carbon footprint. It also represents the biggest opportunity for every user of conveyor belting to contribute to reducing that carbon footprint.
As previously explained, the materials used to make conveyor belts are almost entirely synthetic. Almost all are directly or indirectly derived from oil. Adding to this is the fact that many chemical agents are used to create the rubber. Ultimately, up to 90% of these materials, in the form of worn-out, damaged conveyor belts, will not be recycled. This is the reason why producing and using conveyor belts that have the longest possible working life is now more important than ever.
Increase the life, reduce the waste
Good quality belts, especially those made in Europe, North America and Australia, can quite easily achieve double the lifetime, compared to the ‘economy’ versions of what claim to be made to the exact same specification, and have a working life that
6. The amount of conveyor belting used and discarded each year represents the biggest influence on the industry’s carbon footprint.
lasts up to five times longer compared to low-grade imported belts. Fortunately, and rather ironically, often the best way to predict performance and longevity is the price itself, because it invariably reflects the difference in performance that can be expected.
Buying a better quality, longer lasting belt (albeit at a higher up-front price), instead of an ‘economy’ low grade belt, creates two extremely significant benefits. Firstly, it dramatically reduces the amount of belting that needs to be manufactured in the first place. This excess was simply to replace worn-out, damaged belting, along with a corresponding reduction in the amount of chemicals and additives used to create that rubber, together with a dramatic reduction in the amount of non-biodegradable synthetic fabric. Secondly, it also reduces the ‘whole life’ cost of conveyor belts due to the substantial reduction in repairs, stoppages, replacements and lost production. To achieve these goals, it is advisable to base your conveyor belt purchasing policy on lowest lifetime cost.
Figure 5. Conveyor belting falling apart – sacrificed on the price altar.
Figure
Todd Swindermann, Martin Engineering, USA, discusses the importance of prioritising safety and life cycle costs in conveyor system designs for fertilizer operations, to enhance performance, reduce risk, and lower long-term operational costs.
Conveyors are among the fastest and potentially most dangerous cargo transport systems at a fertilizer producer’s operation. Even though their safety and performance are critical to their success, the impact of their contribution to overall efficiency is often unrecognised by management and workers alike. The operational basics of belt conveyor systems are too often a mystery to those employees who have little understanding about the hardware installed and the performance required from the components.
The knowledge gap is understandable. The attention of personnel at a bulk handling operation is centred on logistical and scheduling concerns. The ‘care and feeding’
of belt conveyors – i.e., the adjustment, maintenance and troubleshooting – make a huge difference in safety and performance but is typically outside of an operator’s expertise. It is not that they do not care about conveyors, but the ongoing maintenance and service of these systems is often usurped or deprioritised for other issues.
Low-bid process and life cycle cost
Although the policy is generally not explicitly stated by companies, the low-bid process is usually an implied rule that is baked into a company’s culture. It encourages bidders to follow a belt conveyor design methodology that is based on getting the maximum load on the conveyor belt and the
minimum compliance with regulations using the lowest price materials, components and manufacturing processes available.
Maximising the volume of cargo and minimising the price of the system usually means choosing the narrowest feasible belt, and operating at the highest speed possible. This leaves little margin for error and in many cases results in chute plugging, excessive spillage and reduced equipment life.
When companies buy on price, the benefits are often short-lived, and costs increase over time, eventually resulting in losses. In contrast, when purchases are made based on lowest long-term cost (life cycle cost), benefits usually continue to accrue and costs are lower, resulting in net savings over time.
Conveyor system design hierarchy
To safely maximise production, designers and engineers are urged to approach the project with a specific set of priorities. Rather than meeting minimum compliance standards, the conveyor system should exceed all code, safety and regulatory requirements using global best practices. By designing the system to minimise risk and the escape and accumulation of fugitive material, the workplace is made safer and the equipment is easier to maintain.
Life cycle costing should play into all component decisions. Be aware of specifications on project components that state ‘specific manufacturer name/or equal.’ Vaguely written ‘or equal’ specifications are there for competitive reasons and allow contractors to purchase on price without adequate consideration for construction or performance. Rather, buying on life cycle cost or engineer-approved or equal and anticipating the future use of problem-solving components in the basic configuration of the conveyor provides improved safety and access, without increasing the structural steel requirements or significantly increasing the overall price. It also raises the possibility for easier system upgrades in the future. The ability to accommodate future increases in capacity can also be included in the original design, expanding options and reducing future modification costs.
Designing conveyor upgrades for safety
There is continuous pressure from managers to increase production to match demand. However, standards continue to tighten as government regulators retain their strong focus on worker safety, driving the need for equipment designs that are not just safe, but optimised for safety (designed for safety). Personnel are the single most important resource of any industrial operation, which is why conveyor system designers are incorporating greater functionality into designs that will improve safety.
Figure 2. A properly designed conveyor controls emissions for improved safety and easier maintenance.
Figure 1. The return on better design and quality is realised over the extended life and safety of the system.
Figure 3. This slide-out belt cleaner is engineered to be assessed safely and replaced by a single worker.
To reduce hazards in the workplace, operators employ a variety of methods, from requiring the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to installing the latest and safest equipment designs. When examining the safety of a system, improving efficiency and reducing risk can be achieved by utilising a hierarchy of control methods for alleviating hazards. The consensus among safety professionals is that the most effective way to mitigate risks is to eliminate the hazard by design. This usually requires a greater initial capital investment than short-term fixes but yields more cost-effective and durable results.
Examples of 'eliminating by design' are longer, taller and tightly sealed loading chutes to control dust and spillage or heavy-duty primary and secondary cleaners to minimise carryback. By using hazard identification and risk-assessment methods early in the design process, engineers can create the safest, most efficient system for the space, budget and application. These designs alleviate several workplace hazards, while minimising cleanup and maintenance, reducing unscheduled downtime and extending the life of the belt and the system itself.
Experienced engineers often recommend that operators retain an outside firm to examine system requirements and design new equipment around historical issues and specific needs of the application. An outside eye can generally observe potential hazards that can be overlooked by workers who experience them daily.
Before the drafting phase, designers should establish the goals of reducing injuries and exposure to hazards (dust, spillage, etc.) to increase conveyor uptime and productivity, and seek more effective approaches to ongoing operating and maintenance challenges. Designs should be forward-thinking, exceeding compliance standards and enhancing operators’ ability to incorporate future upgrades cost-effectively and easily by taking a modular approach.
Combining safety and productivity
To meet the demands for greater safety and improved production, some manufacturers have introduced
Figure 4. The track-mounted systems can be serviced quickly and safely, with no reach in maintenance.
equipment designs that are not only engineered for safer operation and servicing, but also reduced maintenance time. One example is a new family of heavy-duty conveyor belt cleaners, designed so the blade cartridge can be pulled away from the belt for safe access and replaced by a single worker.
The same slide-out technology has been applied to impact cradle designs. The systems are engineered so operators can work on the equipment safely, without breaking the plane of motion. External servicing reduces confined space entry and eliminates reach-in maintenance,
while facilitating faster replacement. The result is greater safety and efficiency, with less downtime.
Another example is a new belt cleaner design that can reduce the need for bulky urethane blades altogether. The patented design delivers extended service life, low belt wear, significantly reduced maintenance and improved safety, ultimately delivering lower cost of ownership. Unlike conventional belt cleaners that are mounted at an angle to the belt, the unique cleaner is installed diagonally across the discharge pulley, forming a three-dimensional curve beneath the discharge area that conforms to the pulley’s shape. The novel approach has been so effective that in many operations, previously crucial secondary belt cleaners have become unnecessary, saving further on belt cleaning costs and service time.
Conclusion
Engineering safer conveyors for fertilizer operations is a long-term strategy. Although design absorbs less than 10% of the total budget of a project, where engineering procurement construction management (EPCM) services can be as much as 15% of the installed cost of a major project, additional upfront engineering and applying a life cycle-cost methodology to the selection and purchase of conveyor components proves beneficial. By installing safe and efficient modern equipment, the system will likely meet the demands of modern production and workplace regulations with a longer operational life, less downtime and a lower cost of operation.
AD INDEX
Figure 5. The unique belt cleaner forms a 3D curve beneath the discharge that conforms to the pulley’s shape.
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