Hydrocarbon Engineering - November - 2024 by PalladianPublications

November 2024

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47 Enhancing C8+ aromatics conversion

Dr. Danny Verboekend, Zeopore, discusses the industrial potential of mesoporous zeolites in the conversion of C8+ aromatics.

12 Pivot to pursue

Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, outlines the challenges presented by the European oil and gas sector’s journey to energy security and the pursuit of a greener future.

18 Embracing innovation and pragmatism in the energy transition

Patrick Kools, KBC (A Yokogawa Company), the Netherlands, explains how paradigm shifts in marine science can inspire the refining sector’s future.

25 Digital adoption propels decarbonisation

Mark Pietryka, Seeq, explains how advanced analytics platforms provide essential capabilities that help industrial organisations manage their data, track emissions, and make informed decisions for process optimisation.

29 Committing to circularity

Andreas Teir, Neste, Finland, considers how chemical recycling can play a key role in the journey to a more sustainable future of plastics.

33 Catalytic reforming in a time of transition

Pierre-Yves le Goff, Delphine Bazer-Bachi, Matthew Hutchinson, Christophe Pierre and Aurélie Lemoine, Axens, France, explore the new developments and opportunities in the catalytic reforming market in an evolving energy landscape.

41 Profitable catalyst solutions

Bettina Munsch, Evonik, Germany, and Christoph Kins, AMC, Germany, explore how active nickel foam catalysts can help to optimise hydrogenation processes.

54 A comprehensive safety strategy

Sarah Rajasekera, MSA Safety, USA, outlines how to enhance safety and risk management in downstream oil and gas with fixed gas and flame detection systems.

61 Crystal clear detection

Mark Naples, Umicore Coating Services, outlines how infrared filters and real-time data monitoring enhances gas safety and facilitates accurate emissions monitoring.

65 Robust and resilient

Donna Brown and Bryan Bulling, RedGuard, USA, discuss the advantages of steel over concrete in designing blast-resistant structures for refineries.

69 Tidy turnarounds

Elke Baum, IMI, Germany, explores the key considerations behind refinery turnarounds and how they can be made safer and more efficient with double disc isolation valve technology.

71 Small yet critical

Nick Howard, Oliver Valves, UK, outlines how advancing valve technology solutions can contribute to more sustainable downstream operations.

75 The expert take

Lloyd Bock, Mogas, USA, outlines the value of onsite actuation experts in valve manufacturing.

81 Hitting all criteria

Abraham Syed and Frank Shoup, Ebara Elliott Energy, present crucial considerations and best practices for compressor casing design and analysis.

85 Crucial control

Nabil Abu-Khader, Compressor Controls Corp. (A Honeywell Company), UAE, explains the importance of monitoring control choke conditions in centrifugal and axial compressors.

Optical flame detectors use sensors to detect open flames while ignoring false alarms. Recent advancements in technology have improved their signal processing and diagnostics, offering reliable 24/7 fire protection for high-value, high-risk applications.

CONTACT INFO

MANAGING EDITOR James Little james.little@palladianpublications.com

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CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Nancy Yamaguchi Gordon Cope

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COM MENT

CALLUM O'REILLY SENIOR EDITOR

“ The planet is basically made up of two parts. Land and sea. Firstly, let’s talk about the land. It’s what we are standing on right now. We know lots about the land. Then there is the sea, which is full of wonderful things. We know a bit about the sea, but we’ll talk some more about that once you’ve learned to swim.” This is a short excerpt from a children’s book written by Oliver Jeffers, titled ‘Here We Are’, which I have become accustomed to reading to my son most nights. Jeffers wrote the book for his own son, Harland, during the first two months of his life, as a way of trying to “make sense of it all.” It’s a beautiful book, full of wise words and guidance for living on planet Earth. It emphasises the importance of being kind to others and using your time well (“it will be gone before you know it”), all while highlighting the sheer enormity of the universe. “Though we have come a long way, we haven’t quite worked everything out, so there is plenty left for you to do,” Jeffers writes. “Just remember to leave notes for everyone else.”

As I was editing this issue of Hydrocarbon Engineering , Jeffers’ book immediately came to mind. The lines “we know a bit about the sea” and “we haven’t quite worked everything out” echoed in my thoughts as I was reading the piece from Patrick Kools, Decarbonisation Practice Leader at KBC (A Yokogawa Company), starting on page 18. Kools’ article explains how, up until fairly recently, there was a general consensus in the scientific community that the ocean was a “sort of desert.” However, thanks to groundbreaking research from genomics pioneer, Craig Venter, we now know that “the number of microbes in our oceans dwarfs the stars in the universe by a factor of 100 million.” The discovery underscores the complexity and richness of life in our oceans, revolutionising our understanding of marine ecosystems. Kools argues that this paradigm shift in marine science can also serve as inspiration for the future of the refining sector: “Just as the vast potential of microbial diversity offers new pathways for innovation, so too can our willingness to adapt and embrace change propel us toward a successful, sustainable future in refining.”

Kools’ article is just one of many interesting pieces in this magazine that showcase how innovative technology and industry collaboration are driving the sector toward a more sustainable future. To further advance this agenda, I am delighted to announce the launch of a brand-new supplement to Hydrocarbon Engineering : ‘EnviroTech 2024’ . This supplement will focus solely on decarbonisation technology and solutions that are helping to transform the downstream sector. Available now, EnviroTech 2024 features articles on topics including renewable fuel integration, CCUS, SAF, clean hydrogen, emissions reduction, and much more. To access your free copy of this supplement, simply scan the QR code at the bottom of this page.

As we embrace these advancements in sustainability, I am reminded of another line from Jeffers’ guidebook to life: “Well, that is planet Earth. Make sure you look after it, as it’s all we’ve got.” Our industry has a vital role to play in advancing responsible and sustainable energy production, ensuring that we protect our planet for future generations.

WORLD NEWS

Global | Wood leads industry project to accelerate CCUS

Wood is leading a Joint Industry Partnership (JIP) to create industry guidelines for CO 2 specifications to accelerate sustainable carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) projects.

The guidelines are the first of their kind to focus on the impact of impurities in CO 2 across the entire CCUS value chain. These findings aim to accelerate the pace

and growth of the CCUS industry by creating a CO 2 conditioning standard to meet safety, environmental, technical and operational requirements.

The members of the JIP include Wood, Aramco, Equinor, Fluxys, Gassco, Harbour Energy, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Net Zero Technology Centre, OMV, Petronas, Shell, and TotalEnergies.

USA | EIA: US capacity to produce biofuels increased 7% in 2023

The US Energy Information Administration (EIA) reports that capacity to produce biofuels increased 7% in the US during 2023, reaching 24 billion gal./yr at the start of 2024, led by a 44% increase in a category that the EIA refers to as renewable diesel and other biofuels.

Other biofuels include renewable heating oil, renewable jet fuel (also known as sustainable aviation fuel

[SAF]), and renewable naphtha and gasoline.

Given continued state and federal tax incentives, regulatory policies, plant expansions, and projected new plant construction, the EIA expects US biofuels production capacity to continue increasing.

Most US biofuels production capacity is located in Iowa, with more than 5.4 billion gal./yr.

Qatar | QatarEnergy signs 20-year naphtha supply agreement with Shell

QatarEnergy has announced it is entering into a long-term naphtha supply agreement with Singapore-based Shell International Eastern Trading Company (Shell). The 20-year agreement stipulates the supply of up to 18 million t of naphtha to be delivered to Shell starting in April 2025.

In remarks on this occasion, His Excellency Mr Saad Sherida Al-Kaabi, the Minister of State for Energy Affairs, the President and CEO of QatarEnergy, said: “We are delighted to sign QatarEnergy’s first 20-year naphtha sales agreement, the largest and longest to date. This is our second such agreement with Shell since 2019 and builds on our strategy of stronger relations with established end-users and partners.”

France | Axens, IFPEN and JEPLAN announce commercialisation of chemical recycling process

I n line with the announcement made at the inauguration of a semi-industrial demonstration unit at Kitakyushu in Japan in October 2023, Axens, IFPEN and JEPLAN, partners in the project, have announced the launch of the commercialisation by Axens of the Rewind® PET process.

This is a major step forward for the three partners, concluding a successful one-year test period within the demonstration unit, which qualifies the performance of the technology, and will enable a

further acceleration of the energy transition and the circular economy of plastics, which are at the heart of Axens’ and IFPEN’s strategy. Axens teams will now be able to market a complete Rewind PET licence package to their customers.

Axens, IFPEN and JEPLAN formed a strategic partnership in 2020 to develop this innovative chemical recycling process, which can be used to recycle all types of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste, especially the waste that is difficult to recycle mechanically. With the support of

the French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME), this collaboration resulted in the construction, commissioning and start-up of the semi-industrial Rewind PET unit in September 2023.

The validation and commercial launch of Rewind PET follows the positive outcome of a year-long programme of tests carried out in the demonstration unit. This test programme demonstrated the effectiveness and reliability of the process while treating post-consumer PET waste.

WORLD NEWS

DIARY DATES

20 November 2024

Global Hydrogen Conference

Virtual www.accelevents.com/e/ghc2024

10 - 12 December 2024

17th National Aboveground Storage Tank Conference & Trade Show

The Woodlands, Texas, USA www.nistm.org

21 -22 January 2025

NARTC Houston, Texas, USA www.worldrefiningassociation.com/event-events/nartc

24 - 27 February 2025

Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference Norman, Oklahoma, USA pacs.ou.edu/lrgcc

25 - 27 February 2025

ESF Europe Vienna, Austria www.europetro.com/esfeurope

2 - 4 March 2025

AFPM Annual Meeting San Antonio, Texas, USA www.afpm.org/events/AnnualMeeting2025

23 - 25 March 2025

AFPM International Petrochemicals Conference San Antonio, Texas, USA www.afpm.org/events/IPC25

6 - 10 April 2025

AMPP Annual Conference + Expo Nashville, Tennessee, USA ace.ampp.org

8 - 10 April 2025

Sulphur World Symposium Florence, Italy www.sulphurinstitute.org/events

19 - 23 May 2025

World Gas Conference Beijing, China www.wgc2025.com

20 - 22 May 2025

ESF North America

Houston, Texas, USA www.europetro.com/esfnorthamerica

Vietnam | NEXTCHEM to upgrade BSR’S hydrogen production unit

NEXTCHEM, through its subsidiary

KT Tech, has been awarded by Binh Son Refining and Petrochemical Joint Stock Co. (BSR) the licensing and process design package (PDP) for a new hydrogen production unit, as part of the larger upgrading and expansion project of Dung Quat Refinery in Vietnam.

KT Tech will design the new hydrogen production unit with a capacity of 22 676 m3/h, leveraging on its technology. This technology, which is part of NX ReformTM hydrogen technology portfolio, enables cost-effective hydrogen

production and offers the potential to reduce the carbon footprint by incorporating CO2 capture technology.

It offers flexibility in feedstock and capacity, ensuring production adaptability.

The solution is based on proven and widely adopted steam methane reforming methods, resulting in high operational efficiency.

Once the project reaches the construction phase, KT TECH will also supply the proprietary equipment for the steam methane reforming process.

USA | Woodside completes acquisition of Tellurian

Woodside has completed the acquisition of Tellurian Inc. and its US Gulf Coast Driftwood LNG development opportunity. Woodside has acquired all issued and outstanding Tellurian common stock for approximately US$900 million cash, or US$1 per share.

Woodside has renamed the Driftwood LNG development

opportunity Woodside Louisiana LNG.

Woodside Louisiana LNG is an under-construction, pre-final investment decision (FID), LNG production and export terminal in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana. It is a high-quality, scalable development opportunity, with a total permitted capacity of 27.6 million tpy.

Germany | BASF receives funding approval for construction of industrial heat pump

BASF has received funding approval from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action for the construction of the world’s most powerful industrial heat pump. In the coming months, the company will therefore be able to start the preparatory construction work for the project at its Ludwigshafen, Germany, site.

The project is intended to make an important contribution to reducing CO2 emissions.

“Incorporating new technologies into our chemical production processes is one of the key components of the green transformation at BASF. And our heat pump even has a unique selling point: the planned plant will be the first of its kind to be used for steam generation – there are no comparable industrial pilot projects anywhere in the world,” said Markus Kamieth, Chairman of the Board of Executive Directors of BASF SE.

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Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, outlines the challenges presented by the European oil and gas sector’s journey to energy security and the pursuit of a greener future.

Since the invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Europe has largely been successful weaning itself off Russian gas. But the longer-term geopolitical and economic ramifications are rippling throughout the continent as the energy sector evolves to meet new challenges and opportunities.

Prior to the Ukraine war, the continent used approximately 500 billion m 3 /yr of natural gas, of which Russia supplied around 150 billion m 3 through pipelines and LNG. When Russia invaded, however, gas became a political weapon, and the EU pivoted to reduce its dependency. Various conservation initiatives and price destruction reduced overall demand by 100 billion m 3 ;

Europe now consumes less than 50 billion m 3 of Russian gas annually.

The EU also pivoted from a passive LNG sink to an aggressive buyer’s market. Europe has approximately 13.6 billion ft 3 /d of regasification terminals (which amounts to roughly 150 billion m 3 /yr), but they are mainly concentrated in the southern part of the continent, and rarely operate at full capacity. While a land terminal takes several years to approve and construct, floating storage regasification units (FSRUs) can be positioned and operational much faster. Germany commissioned its first FSRU in the port of Wilhelmshaven in 2022, quickly followed by three more. Gasunie’s FSRU facility in the Dutch port of Eemshaven has been receiving an average of five shipments per month (mostly from the US), since its launch in September 2022. In all, the continent is expected to add a further 6.8 billion ft 3 /d (approximately 75 billion m 3 /yr) of LNG import capacity near key markets by the end of 2024.

Refineries

The EU had approximately 15.6 million bpd of refining capacity in 2020, but the last several years have seen reduced consumption due to COVID-19 and a shift toward electric vehicles (EVs). In addition, lower refining margins and imports of cheaper fuels from North America, the Middle East and Asia have resulted in a reduction of approximately 1 million bpd of fossil fuel capacity.

Rather than shuttering refineries completely (which would entail expensive land reclamation), many producers are shifting output to renewables. In early 2024, Shell Deutschland made a Final Investment Decision (FID) to end crude oil processing at its Wesseling facility at the Energy and Chemicals Park Rheinland, in Germany. The primary hydrocracker will be converted into a production unit for Group III base oils for the manufacture of engine lubricants. When the conversion is complete later in the decade, the 300 000 tpy plant will reduce Shell’s Scope 1 and Scope 2 carbon emissions by 620 000 tpy.

In January 2024, Eni announced that it would be converting its 84 000 bpd refinery in Livorno into a biofuels facility. The plan is to build several new production trains, including a biogenic feedstock pre-treatment unit, a 500 000 tpy eco-fining plant, and a module to produce hydrogen from methane gas. Construction at the plant, which is located on the west coast of Italy, is expected to be completed by 2026.

In April 2024, Repsol commissioned Spain’s first 100% renewables facility at its 220 000 bpd Cartagena refinery. The re-configured complex will produce 250 000 tpy of renewable diesel and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) from organic waste such as cooking oil, averting 900 000 tpy of CO 2 emissions. Repsol has also announced plans to convert its Puertollano refinery plant in Spain to produce 240 000 tpy of renewable fuels from organic waste when it comes on-stream in 2025.

In late 2023, PetroIneos (a partnership between PetroChina and London-based INEOS), announced that it would be shutting down Scotland’s only refinery. The 150 000 bpd Grangemouth complex near Edinburgh, which produces gasoline, diesel and aviation fuel, will be turned into a fuels import terminal when it completes final operations in 2025; the company is also exploring the feasibility of a biodiesel facility at the site.

Pivoting to renewables refineries is no panacea, however. In July 2024, Chevron announced that it would be putting staff at its 85 000 tpy biodiesel plant in Oeding, Germany, on furlough. “This decision was made in response to a challenging margin environment, primarily caused by alleged fraud and dumping of Chinese biodiesel flooding the market,” the company noted. 1 The move comes amid allegations that Chinese producers are exporting mislabelled biodiesel to the EU in order to take advantage of incentives that place a premium on fuels made from waste products vs virgin plant oil. In July 2024, Shell announced that it was pausing construction work at its 820 000 tpy biofuels plant in the Netherlands due to weak market conditions. Originally slated for startup in 2025, the project is being pushed back towards the end of the decade. BP also announced it is pausing its biofuels project at its refinery in Lingen, Germany, for similar reasons.

Petrochemicals

Europe’s petrochemical sector is one of the cornerstones of the continent’s industrial sector; it tallied approximately €760 billion in sales across a broad range of products in 2023. But the industry is facing a host of challenges, including high energy and feedstock costs, regulatory burdens, international competition from cheap imports and heavy labour costs. BASF recently announced that it would be closing chemical plants at its Ludwigshafen, Germany, complex, eliminating 2600 jobs. The announcement follows on the heels of Bangkok-based Indorama Ventures’ decision to idle a 700 000 tpy polyethylene plant in Portugal and INEOS’ notice to mothball its 442 000 tpy plant in Belgium.

In response, the European Comission (EC) has slapped anti-dumping duties on Chinese polyethylene imports and initiated investigations into polyvinyl imports. In addition, the sector is investing €11 billion per year on research and development in the hopes of finding innovative solutions through the leveraging of new recycling, renewable feedstocks, electrification and high-tech plastic technologies that would give their products leverage in the EU’s net-zero regulatory climate.

In more heartening news, Project ONE, the largest petrochemical plant to be built in Europe in 30 years, is finally back on track. INEOS’ €4 billion complex in the Belgian port of Antwerp is designed to produce 1.45 million tpy of ethylene using advanced, low-carbon technologies. Its licence was revoked in 2023, however,

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when NGOs successfully argued in court that INEOS failed to tell the authorities the full extent of the project’s predicted impact of nitrogen emissions on nearby nature preserves. In January 2024, the project was subsequently issued a new licence by the Belgian government. In response, John McNally, CEO of INEOS Project ONE, said: “It anchors the local processing of essential building blocks, such as ethylene, thus contributing to the resilience and sustainability of Europe’s industrial foundations [...] With the realisation of Project ONE, Flanders and the port of Antwerp can play a role in making European industry more sustainable.” 2

Hydrogen

Hydrogen fuel got a big boost with the advent of the Ukraine war, which saw Russia use its deliveries of natural gas to Europe as an economic weapon. Energy security quickly became the trump card; the low-carbon fuel can be made virtually anywhere, eliminating vulnerability to hostile energy suppliers.

The EU has earmarked over €13 billion for improving low-carbon hydrogen technology, production and demand. The task is daunting; Europe consumes approximately 8.9 million tpy of hydrogen, but only 20 000 tpy is of the low-carbon variety (either produced by wind and solar powered electrolysis, or through carbon capture and sequestration [CCS]).

The EU has set the ambitious goal of 10 million tpy of domestically-produced renewable hydrogen by 2030.

Traditional hydrogen users have already taken the initiative; Shell, for instance, is constructing the Holland Hydrogen I plant in the Port of Rotterdam. Once operational in 2025, the plant will produce up to 80 tpd (29 000 tpy) of green hydrogen using electrolysers powered by the Hollandse Kust offshore wind farm. The output will replace the grey hydrogen currently being produced to feed Shell’s refining and petrochemical production in its Rotterdam complex.

There are several hundred hydrogen production projects from all sectors being promoted in Europe, and the EU has established the European Hydrogen Bank in order to earmark subsidies ranging from €0.37 - 0.48/kg of renewable hydrogen. In May 2024, it awarded seven subsidies; among them, Portugal’s MP2X will produce 500 000 t of green ammonia over a 10 year period and eNRG of Finland will produce 122 000 t of green hydrogen over the same timeframe.

Offshore wind farms could generate an estimated 300 TWh of power, enough to create up to 15% of the estimated hydrogen consumption in 2050. In March 2023, the Dutch government officially designated a site for the world’s largest offshore hydrogen production project; the Ten noorden van de Waddeneilanden (the North of the Wadden Islands). The site has the potential for 700 MW of generation.

Delivering the hydrogen to market is a crucial component of the initiative. DNV estimated that a ‘North Sea hydrogen backbone’ consisting of 4200 km of pipelines could be built using existing technology at

a cost of between US$15.9 billion and US$23.3 billion. The Ten noorden van de Waddeneilanden site, for instance, will be connected to Gasunie’s 1200 km hydrogen pipeline network. In late 2023, Gasunie began construction of the first 30 km stretch to industrial facilities in the port of Rotterdam; plans are being explored that would see the network extend to other hubs, and eventually into Germany and Belgium.

Germany has also been aggressively pursuing a nation-wide grid to deliver hydrogen to regional industrial centres. In April 2024, the federal government laid out a financing mechanism to ensure the country’s hydrogen network would be ramped up by 2037. The core network has been estimated to cost US$21.6 billion and extend for 9700 km, and would be built by private investors, and financed by user fees.

Challenges

Transitioning one of the world’s largest economies from fossil fuels to renewable hydrogen faces huge systemic bottlenecks. In order to produce green hydrogen, there has to be demand. But so far, relatively few traditional hydrogen users have signed binding contracts. Banks, understandably, are reluctant to lend under such circumstances, and financial log jams are having an impact:

n In late 2023, Engie and partners scrapped the Power 2 Methanol project in Belgium. Initially destined to begin producing 8000 tpy of green methanol in the port of Antwerp, it was cancelled due to the fact that no off-takers would commit to long-term contracts at the high prices.

n A proposed 400 MW green hydrogen project that sought to ship liquid hydrogen from the Portuguese port of Siam to Rotterdam has been shelved. H2Sines.Rdam, being developed by a consortium of Engie, Shell, Vopak and shipper Anthony Veder, was originally planned to be in operation by 2028, but Shell and other partners found it to be economically unviable.

n After the start of the Ukraine war, France, Spain, Germany and Portugal announced a new project, dubbed BarMar, which would follow an underwater route between Barcelona and Marseille. The line would be developed so that, by 2030, it would be able to move up to 2 million tpy of green hydrogen. Since then, no budget, ROW or customers have been identified. Current production commitments on the Iberian Peninsula are in the order of 50 000 tpy, well shy of economies of scale needed to make the project viable.

In order to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, Europe will have to undertake a massive expansion of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS). There are several hundred sites across Europe that emit at least 100 000 tpy of CO 2 , including refineries, steel plants and cement manufacturers; in all, over 1.2 billion t of emissions. The EU’s TEN-E Regulation lays down the guidelines to develop the infrastructure to gather,

transport and store CO 2 . The initiative has identified 18 Projects of Common Interest (PCIs) that would coalesce into a giant trans-European agglomeration of carbon-capture sites, transport networks and injection sites. Most capture projects are in the heavily industrialised regions of northern Europe, and the injections sites are predominantly in the North Sea (where oil and gas production has identified numerous saline aquifers suitable for storage). The total cost across all sources ranges from around €70 - 250/t of CO 2 ; clearly, hundreds of billions will have to be spent over the next 25 years to achieve legislated goals.

There is only one major CO 2 injection complex expected to be commissioned in the next several months, Norway’s Northern Lights. Built by a consortium of oil majors – TotalEnergies, Shell and Norway’s Equinor – the plant will inject up to 1.5 million tpy of CO 2 starting in 2025. In order to avoid pipe and storage corrosion, the operators require liquefied CO 2 delivered for permanent undersea storage be 99.81% pure, and contain no more than 10 ppm of SO x and 30 ppm of water. The degree of purity has potential industrial users worried; the current allowances under the EU emissions trading system (ETS) allow for €66 for the equivalent of a ton of CO 2 . Heavy industries such as cement and steel would find it exceedingly difficult to capture and purify CO 2 to such standards at that price, and might simply continue to emit CO 2

Conclusion

In conclusion, Europe has managed to largely neutralise Russia’s weaponisation of gas through conservation and the rapid expansion of its LNG import infrastructure, but the transformation to more expensive energy has come at great cost to the industrial, refining and petrochemical sectors. Investments in R&D hold significant promise for the petrochemical sector, but refining is likely to see further entrenchment as legislated trends toward EVs reduce domestic consumption of diesel and petrol. In the longer term, the development of the hydrogen economy will create significant prospects for fuel suppliers, and the creation of a trans-European CO 2 network will offer a trove of Euro-investment to engineering and mid-stream companies. While significant challenges remain, the opportunities being presented to Europe’s downstream sector are also immense.

References

1. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-07-05/ chevron-puts-workers-on-furlough-at-idled-germanbiofuels-plant?embedded-checkout=true

2. https://project-one.ineos.com/en/news/positivedecision-by-minister-demir-ends-uncertainty-andunleashes-start-of-project-of-the-future-at-port-ofantwerp

Up dated with data from DOE partnership & extensively tested within the EU-funded carbon capture consortium, “SCOPE ”

Updated with data from DOE partnership & extensively tested within the EU-funded carbon capture consortium, “SCOPE ”

Updated with data from DOE partnership & extensively tested within the

➢ Thoroughly tested as part of EUfunded consortium , “SCOPE”

carbon capture consortium, “SCOPE ”

➢ New 1-CESAR model updated with cutting edge lab and plant data from DOE partnership

Applications:

➢ P ower generation

➢ Power generation

➢ CO2 capture from LNG -fueled ship s

➢ Hydrogen production via reforming :Reliable

➢ Renewable methane from landfill gas and organic waste

➢ Renewable methane from andfilll gas and organic waste

➢ Renewable methane from landfill gas and organic waste

➢ Hydrogen production via reforming

➢ 2CO capture from LNG fueled- ship s

➢ P ower generation

Reliable:

Applications:

➢ New CESAR-1 model updated with cutting edge lab and plant data from DOE partnership

pU dated with data from DOE partnership & extensively tested within the funded-EU carbon capture ,consortium “SCOPE ”

➢ Thoroughly tested as part of EUfunded consortium , “SCOPE”

Simulation

Patrick Kools, KBC (A Yokogawa Company), the Netherlands, explains how paradigm shifts in marine science can inspire the refining sector’s future.

Imagine a world where the number of microbes in the oceans dwarfs the stars in the universe by a factor of 100 million. This is not science fiction – it is the astonishing reality uncovered by genomics pioneer, Craig Venter, PhD.

Just as this discovery revolutionised understanding of marine ecosystems, the refining industry stands on the brink of its own paradigm shift, one that will be driven not only by innovation and adaptation, but also by new levels of collaboration and regulatory compliance.

Embracing

bold pragmatism in refining

Not so long ago, there was a general consensus in the scientific community that the ocean was a sort of desert.

An immense body of water where only a few fish swam, algae floated, and here and there bacteria and other microbes could be found. Scientists believed that maybe a dozen or, in the best case, a few hundred different microorganisms lived in the ocean.

Venter, the first to map the human genome, challenged this conventional wisdom. Between 2003 and 2018, he undertook a global expedition on a 30 m sailboat, during which his team collected seawater samples and analysed them using the same techniques previously applied to the human genome. The scientific community considered such basic field research to be an outdated way of working, but they soon changed their minds.

The results were astonishing. To put it into perspective there may be 10 12 galaxies in the universe and 10 22 stars. Based on Venter’s work, science concluded that this small planet, in an insignificant corner of the universe, harbours 10 30 bacteria. This means there are 100 million times more bacteria than stars in the universe. This discovery not only transformed understanding of microbial diversity, but also underscored the complexity and richness of life that exists in the oceans, waiting to be explored. They represent a myriad of new mechanisms to create energy, materials, chemicals and medicines which, in 100 years’ time, may well make today’s current technology look like child’s play. Consequently, the role of refineries may well look very different in the not so distant future, offering many new opportunities – which are much needed.

As the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) ‘World Energy Outlook 2021’ highlights, the energy sector faces significant challenges that require technology innovation, collective action, and a keen understanding of the regulatory framework to remain competitive. 1

The stakes are high: industry research predicts that by the early 2030s, half of the European refineries could generate negative net cash margins. To counter this sobering forecast, industry leaders must unite, share knowledge, and resources to adapt effectively.

Despite these challenges, continued investment in oil and gas remains necessary. According to the IEA, the oil and gas industry currently invests approximately US$800 billion annually. This figure significantly exceeds the projected room for 2030 in a scenario aimed at limiting global warming to 1.5°C, or even 2°C. This highlights the delicate but bold balance that refineries must strike between maintaining current operations and

investing in future-oriented technologies. Encouragingly, research indicates that refineries could reduce global cumulative emissions by 10% by adopting processing technologies and improving efficiency.

Collaboration between stakeholders – including refiners, technology providers, regulators, and governments – will be crucial to navigate these challenges, especially given the complexity of the European regulatory landscape. Understanding and complying with regional regulations can open doors for innovation and investment, while non-compliance may limit market access.

This article explores how applying an innovative mindset propels the industry beyond mere survival to prosperity. By drawing parallels between revolutionary findings in marine microbiology and the untapped potential for innovation within energy production, a transformative course for the refining industry can be charted.

Breaking the norms

As recently as the start of Venter’s journey, the refining sector operated under well-established norms. But as Venter’s groundbreaking research revealed the vast microbial diversity in the seas, the downstream industry too, is on the cusp of a transformation in how it views and operates refineries. The European Refining Technology Conference (ERTC) 2024 emphasises the necessity for pragmatism and for bold decisions as the industry navigates the energy transition amid regulatory uncertainty.

To support a first step in this shift, emissions management software enables businesses to continuously monitor and reduce carbon emissions while ensuring compliance with key initiatives such as the European Green Deal and Fit for 55 legislative package, which set ambitious climate targets for 2030 and beyond. Similarly, the US Inflation Reduction Act creates new opportunities for clean energy investments. These tools provide real-time data and process validation, allowing companies to optimise their operations and develop effective decarbonisation plans as they progress toward net zero targets, as shown in Figure 1.

In this landscape continuing to do the same, but a little bit better, will not be enough. The refining industry needs to rethink and reshape its role and position in the energy landscape.

To achieve this, collaboration across borders is essential. Joint ventures and partnerships between refiners and clean-tech firms can accelerate the development of sustainable solutions, ensuring both compliance and growth.

Figure 1. Visual MESA Greenhouse Gas Emissions Management dashboard.

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This worldwide push for sustainable practices emphasises the need for bold, pragmatic approaches in the refining industry. In fact, Statista projects that global investments in renewable energy will exceed US$2 trillion by 2025, highlighting the widespread commitment to sustainable solutions. 2

This moment in time invites the industry to rethink its strategies: could boldness be the most pragmatic approach? By applying solid first-principle thinking, robust yet flexible plans can be created that position the industry not just for survival, but for leadership in the evolving energy landscape. Perhaps going back to solid field research could also be beneficial in finding a new way to the future.

Leading the clean-tech race: an urgent call for action

The European Commission has sounded the alarm about the escalating clean-tech race. Economies across the globe – be it the US, India, China, or Japan – are investing heavily in green innovation. For the European refining sector to remain competitive, innovation must be coupled with strict adherence to evolving regulations

that prioritise sustainability. While this creates significant pressure for the EU to maintain its competitive edge, it is crucial to view this not as a burden, but as a pivotal opportunity.

Take, for instance, the rapid influx of Chinese electric vehicles into European markets. This is not just competition; it is a clarion call for action. If this is viewed as mere pressure to conform, the industry risks stagnation and decline. Instead, it must be recognised as a vital opportunity to innovate and transform the sector.

Navigating the dilemma: prosperity, resilience and sustainability

Mario Draghi OMRI, Italian economist, paints a dire picture for the EU, framing its choices as a triad: prosperity, resilience, or sustainability. While this perspective might seem paralysing, it must be asked: is this a massive dilemma driving the industry into inaction, or does it point to a future where these elements can coexist and be achieved through active engagement?

As the discovery of microbial diversity opens new possibilities for biotechnological innovations, so too can an understanding of integrated approaches in refining unlock new avenues for success. By embracing a holistic view, synergies can be created that promote economic growth, resilience, and sustainability in harmony.

Redefining the role of refineries

To chart a successful course through these turbulent waters, the downstream industry must critically reassess what a refinery truly represents, shaped by regulatory requirements. Traditionally seen as facilities that convert crude oil into gasoline, this narrow definition limits the industry’s potential. Instead, refineries should be envisioned as transformative hubs – energy bridges that integrate diverse energy sources and applications. Working together, while navigating regulatory frameworks, will allow the industry to leverage a wider range of expertise, leading to greater adaptability and sustainability, as depicted in Figure 2.

This broader perspective allows refineries to be seen not merely as producers, but as vital players in the energy transition, capable of adapting to and driving changes in the energy landscape. Such a vision invites creativity and innovation, enabling the exploration of new business models and pathways.

Figure 3. Advanced technologies provide real-time insights to tackle the transition challenge.

Figure 2. Refiners operate beyond traditional industry boundaries.

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4. Out-of-the-box thinking yields innovation.

Tackling the transition challenge: three key elements

Transitioning refining operations successfully requires a multi-faceted approach, encompassing three core elements:

Optimising current operations

The first step is enhancing the efficiency of existing operations by integrating real-time data monitoring and optimisation, as shown in Figure 3. There must be a focus on reducing costs and emissions while maintaining essential business fundamentals. This is about energy efficiency, yield optimisation and asset management. All of these are not new, and certainly not the trendiest, but they are important fundamentals that are often still lacking in current facilities. This calls for a commitment to leveraging data analytics, advanced technologies, and process optimisation techniques. These refinements can yield immediate improvements, ensuring operations are not only effective but also environmentally responsible.

Integrating new technologies

Next, new technologies must be seamlessly blended into operations. This is not merely about incremental enhancements; it is about reshaping the entire business paradigm. For instance, Figure 3 also illustrates that energy managements systems can optimise energy supply and demand while providing real-time insights through dashboards and KPI reports. Beyond optimisation, investing in advanced solutions such as waste-to-energy, electrification, biochemicals and carbon capture technologies, the industry can redefine the role of refining step by step and prepare its organisations for a long-term future instead of a slow decline.

Innovating with new products

In the previous two elements, the focus has been on the pragmatic side. It is on the innovation side that perhaps an unusual boldness is required. As an interesting parallel, bacteria can directly exchange genetic material, enabling them to transform very rapidly and quickly acquire

characteristics of neighbouring cells. The refining industry must embrace a fundamental shift in its offerings by exploring new product lines. Looking beyond traditional boundaries can lead it to innovative solutions that address emerging market demands, as shown in Figure 4. For example, research shows that refineries can leverage biochemistry to produce sustainable materials and chemicals instead of merely relying on fossil fuels. 3 Strategic foresight can unlock new revenue streams and ensure long-term viability, much like the groundbreaking work being done in microbial biotechnology.

Embracing first-principle thinking

As the downstream industry embarks on this journey, it is imperative to ground efforts in detail and scientific rigour. First-principle thinking is crucial in dissecting complex challenges and formulating plans that are both innovative and realistic. By fostering a culture of inquiry, adaptability, and collaboration, uncertainties can be navigated and a resilient refining sector ready to face the future can be built.

Forging a path forward

The refining industry stands at a transformative juncture. By embracing collaborations and bold pragmatism –where audacious decisions are rooted in comprehensive analysis – it can navigate the complexities of the energy transition. The path to a sustainable future is not just a distant aspiration; it is an imperative that must be actively pursued.

Redefining its role in the energy landscape and committing to innovative, resilient, and sustainable practices will secure the refining industry’s future. Just as the vast potential of microbial diversity offers new pathways for innovation, so too can a willingness to adapt and embrace change propel the sector toward a successful, sustainable future in refining. In this journey, regulatory compliance must be viewed not as a constraint, but as a catalyst for innovation. By meeting and exceeding regulatory standards, refiners can position themselves as industry leaders and gain a competitive edge.

References

1. International Energy Agency (IEA) Executive summary –World Energy Outlook 2021 – Analysis, https://www.iea.org/ reports/world-energy-outlook-2021/executive-summary (2021).

2. https://www.statista.com/statistics/639788/renewable-energymarket-size-worldwide-projection/

3. KUMAR, B. and VERMA, P., ‘Biomass-based biorefineries: An important architype towards a circular economy’, Fuel, 288. 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119622, (2020).

Figure

Despite industry’s growing regard for the environment, only 18% of companies are on track to achieve net zero emissions targets by 2050, according to an Accenture study. 1 Despite the sluggish progress, however, 77% of those surveyed have managed to reduce operational emissions intensity. This indicates effective measures for emissions reduction are being implemented, albeit at an insufficient pace.

Among the factors helping companies progress toward corporate sustainability goals, digital technology deployment and scaling reduce the need for costly and lengthy capital projects in many cases. Over the past decade, manufacturers have increasingly relied on advanced analytics platforms to help reduce emissions. These platforms help streamline access to multiple data sources, automate regulatory reporting, enhance energy efficiency, and minimise waste.

Even with these advancements, however, many companies are still struggling with the fundamentals of emissions reduction efforts, hindering their ability to develop clear and detailed roadmaps for decarbonisation. Achieving success often requires a multifaceted approach that incorporates various strategies. These include transitioning to renewable energy sources, optimising energy efficiency, exploring new business models, and influencing employee and customer behaviour shifts.

Digital technologies help manufacturers make sense of their operations by keeping real-time emissions data organised, evaluating the impact of different strategies, and tracking key metrics to advance the journey toward net zero emissions.

Disparate data challenges

Keeping pace with rapidly evolving industry standards and maintaining compliance with regulatory reporting requirements across equipment, sites, and global operations often requires industrial organisations to integrate data from multiple disparate systems. Without unifying software in place, aggregating data from process historians, lab information management systems, enterprise resource planning, manufacturing execution systems, and other sources becomes nearly impossible, complicating accurate reporting on process efficiency and emissions.

Advanced analytics platforms address this challenge by centralising data from these sorts of systems, providing a unified environment for aggregating, monitoring, and analysing information. Some of the largest global deployments utilise these platforms to

connect hundreds of previously disparate systems in real-time, without the need to transfer or duplicate data. This enables users to query information directly and on-demand, providing seamless operational technology integration while preserving data integrity.

Moreover, enterprise emissions monitoring and reporting ecosystems often require the integration of various tools, including reporting, supplier management, and life cycle assessment software. These integrations are essential for delivering the right data to users at all levels of the organisation – from executives to plant operators – enabling informed decision-making and effective operational management.

Advanced analytics platforms streamline regulatory reporting

Due to historical challenges in accessing, cleansing, and aggregating the data required for regulatory reporting, many companies only reported their emissions on a monthly or quarterly basis. This approach complicated efforts to reduce emissions during operations because the summarised numbers available made it difficult to identify and address the root causes of emissions.

Tending to these issues by leveraging its advanced analytics platform, Chevron’s Salt Lake City Refinery team built a custom export tool to extract final emissions data and format it for ingestion into corporate greenhouse gas (GHG) reporting software. Advanced analytics platforms are made for connecting multiple systems to provide integration with corporate reporting layers. Using these integrations, manufacturing companies can access operational data from their sites, and then cleanse and contextualise the data, empowering teams to monitor in real-time, perform root cause analyses, and automate reporting at the corporate level.

In another case, midstream oil and gas operator Kinder Morgan recently used Seeq – an advanced analytics platform – to extract the required data from its continuous emissions monitoring systems and other analysers to generate emissions calculations, then compare them against semi-annual and annual reporting. The legacy process resulted in a delay of over a month between the occurrence of potential deviations and their subsequent confirmation. Since implementing the advanced analytics platform, plant personnel can monitor daily emissions, which has accelerated root cause investigations, provided more detailed troubleshooting information, and prompted swifter corrective actions.

Not only has this new reporting process reduced

Figure 1. Kinder Morgan’s carbon dioxide emissions tracking and predictions in an advanced analytics platform, which provides the company with optimisation insights.

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delta pressure to minimise emissions.

the time required to complete monthly emissions calculations, semi-annual reports, and GHG reconciliation by 50 - 90%, it has also decreased emissions substantially.

Improving efficiency and minimising waste

Digital technologies provide significant potential for enhancing operational efficiency and minimising environmental impact. By leveraging insights derived from automated emissions reporting, engineering teams can drive continuous improvement initiatives. Additionally, advanced analytics platforms empower industrial organisations to reduce emissions by minimising practices such as flaring, blowdowns, and steam venting.

Aker BP, a Norwegian oil and gas company, successfully implemented Seeq software to optimise the performance of its gas turbine fleet. The company uses a monitoring solution within its analytics platform, starting with the processing of sensor data collected in the field. This data is then cleansed, analysed, and used to build delta pressure (dP) predictive models. Turbine emissions vary directly with dP, so it is critical to limit the value.

By comparing predicted dP against actual values and considering the costs associated with performance degradation, the team can determine optimal air filter replacement intervals. This predictive maintenance approach has been scaled across multiple assets, resulting in carbon dioxide emissions reduction of 10 000 tpy across six assets. Moreover, the advanced analytics platform enabled a transition from calendar-based to condition-based maintenance, facilitating further operational optimisation.

Beyond energy efficiency gains, waste reduction represents another avenue for minimising emissions. Process waste can take the form of off-specification product, process chemicals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and wastewater. By embracing circularity principles, organisations can mitigate their environmental footprint.

For example, Syngenta – a prominent agrochemical manufacturer – implemented digital tools to reduce operational waste. The company employed the same advanced analytics platform to monitor its nitrogen

blanket balancing process, a critical safety measure for preventing buildup of oxygen in vessels that contain flammable solvents. This process relies on two valves: one for adding nitrogen when pressure drops, and another for venting nitrogen in overpressure situations.

Through the software platform’s capsule identification technology, the team can identify steady-state conditions within the vessels and detect any abnormal valve behaviour. This is critical because a single faulty valve can have cascading effects on the interconnected vessels, potentially leading to excess emissions, solvent loss, and wasted nitrogen.

Using this monitoring system, Syngenta’s engineering team conducts weekly valve performance assessments, facilitating the early detection and repair of faulty valves. This proactive approach yields significant cost savings, estimated at €120 000 (US$130 000) per year per faulty valve of prevented lost nitrogen. Furthermore, by reducing fugitive solvent emissions, the company has lowered its carbon footprint and improved raw material utilisation efficiency.

Mandatory digital adoption

Especially when implemented at scale, advanced analytics platforms can help industrial organisations significantly curb carbon dioxide emissions. However, effectively utilising digital technologies requires both workforce buy-in and the proper training for integration into daily operations.

This synergy empowers teams to tackle challenges with innovative solutions and provides enterprise-wide access to actionable insights, enabling better data utilisation, enhanced process efficiency, and stronger sustainability practices.

As 2050 net zero deadlines approach, digital transformation is a foundational imperative. Achieving ambitious sustainability goals will require manufacturers to harness analytics advancements, which minimise the need for manual data cleansing, provide deep insights, automate regulatory reporting, reduce waste, and drive continuous improvement towards a more environmentally responsible future.

Reference

1. https://www.accenture.com/content/dam/accenture/final/ accenture-com/document-2/NetZero-Report-FNL-112823.pdf

Figure 2. Aker BP uses Seeq to build predictive models and optimise turbine

Andreas Teir, Neste, Finland, considers how chemical recycling can play a key role in the journey to a more sustainable future of plastics.

The plastics industry is facing two major challenges in the light of climate change and an increasing public awareness of environmental and climate related issues. On one hand, the lion’s share of plastics is still being made of fossil resources, mostly crude oil and its derivatives. This leads to plastics contributing significantly to man-made climate change, accounting for about 4% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and this is set to increase in the future. On the other hand, plastic waste management is flawed. A good fifth of global plastic waste is not managed at all and ends up as litter in the environment 1 and only a mere 9% of plastic waste is recycled – reflecting a vast waste of resources given the general high recyclability of plastics. With global plastics demand expected to

keep growing in the next years and decade 1 , the challenges and the tasks at hand are not getting any easier. Yet, without tackling them, plastics will have a difficult stand in a society that has set its eyes on sustainability and mitigating climate change.

The search for alternative carbon sources has begun

While there are several technology pathways emerging that could offer means to defossilise plastics and tackle their GHG emissions, e.g. through the use of biogenic or atmospheric carbon (PtX), solving the plastic waste issue will rely strongly on recycling and circularity. Successful recycling starts with the collection of discarded plastics. While some regions have established fairly good infrastructure and systems to accomplish that, the amount of plastic waste littering the environment clearly shows that society is far from perfect at global scale. The same is true for the second step required: sorting. Without collecting and sorting, plastic circularity is doomed to fail. Yet, even if these steps are mastered, there are additional challenges waiting to be overcome.

Plastic waste recycling today is predominantly carried out via mechanical recycling: plastic waste is shredded, cleaned and melted into new shapes and products. While this is highly efficient from an economic and ecological point of view, it has its limitations. On one hand, it relies on rather pure and clean plastic waste input; on the other hand, the output as a raw material for new plastics has difficulties coping with high quality-standards of, for example, contact-sensitive or otherwise demanding applications. While mechanical recycling may be perfectly well suited to produce new raw material for a park bench, a bucket or a plastic bag, it may not be that well suited for food-contact packaging, medical applications or automotive uses which require high material durability.

Chemical recycling: pushing the boundaries of ‘recyclable’

Quality-related challenges for mechanical recycling arise from impurities and unwanted components occurring in various plastic waste streams – and mechanical recycling not having the capabilities to remove these impurities. This is where a different recycling route can come into play: chemical recycling.

Chemical recycling is an umbrella term, encompassing several technologies. These technologies have one thing in common: they go further back in the life of plastic than mechanical recycling to restart the cycle, serving as a kind of reset button for the materials. By going further backwards in the processing chain, chemical recycling technologies open ways to address the impurities in the materials. One of these approaches combines liquefaction with intermediate refining.

Liquefaction technology offers a solution for hard-to-recycle plastics by breaking them down at the molecular level. Liquefaction, for example through pyrolysis, converts the plastic waste into a liquid feedstock or oil. This oil can then be further processed, upgraded and refined, creating a high-quality drop-in feedstock that can be used in the production of new plastics and chemicals.

The combination of liquefaction technology and intermediate refining allows for the production of virgin-quality plastics, ensuring the quality of recycled content remains high (virgin-quality) even after multiple lifecycles. This innovative approach is crucial to closing the loop on plastics, paving the way for a truly circular economy where plastic waste is transformed into a valuable resource.

Committed to scaling chemical recycling globally

Recognising the immense potential of chemical recycling to revolutionise the plastics industry – considering that today’s global plastic generation of approximately 350 million tpy is forecast to triple to over 1 billion t by 2060 – Neste is actively scaling up its capacity to process and utilise circular feedstocks.

The company has set an ambitious target to process more than 1 million tpy of plastic waste, a significant increase from its current capacity. To achieve this goal, the company is pursuing a multi-pronged strategy, encompassing investments in its own facilities, strategic partnerships, and ongoing research and development.

One example of Neste’s commitment is the ongoing investment in its Porvoo refinery in Finland, which includes the development of a world-scale

Figure 1. Chemical recycling overview.

processing facility for liquefied waste plastic. This facility will significantly expand the company’s capacity to process challenging plastic waste streams and turn them into high-quality raw material for the production of new plastics and other products.

Since 2020, Neste has successfully upgraded thousands of tons of liquefied waste plastic into drop-in solutions for plastic production. These successful processing runs have not only proven the viability of the technology at an industrial scale, but also enabled the company to hone its processes for refining recycled feedstocks, marking significant progress toward a circular economy for plastics. The latest processing runs in Porvoo also proved the flexibility of chemical recycling in a different way: plastic waste is not the only possible input for the technology. Together with its partners, Neste showed that it is also possible to turn liquefied discarded tyres into the same high-quality feedstock for new plastics and chemicals.

Joining forces to solve the plastic waste challenge

Collaboration is crucial to achieving a circular economy for plastics. Beyond its own operations, Neste actively collaborates with key players across the value chain to accelerate the development and adoption of chemical recycling technologies. By partnering with companies involved in waste management, technology development, and plastic production, the company aims to create a robust ecosystem that enables the circular use of plastics.

In one such partnership, aimed at closing the loop on plastics within the automotive industry, Neste has joined forces with Borealis and Covestro. Neste sourced liquefied discarded tyres and turned these into recycled feedstock, which was delivered to Borealis, who then processed the feedstock into base chemicals phenol and acetone for Covestro. Finally, Covestro utilised these to produce polycarbonates of high purity to be used in various automotive applications, from parts of headlamps to radiator grilles. This innovative collaboration demonstrates the power of chemical recycling and circularity, transforming end-of-life tyres into high-quality components for new vehicles, showcasing a tangible example of a more sustainable future for automotive manufacturing.

From discarded tyres back to plastic waste, a second collaboration brought together Neste and its partners Uponor, Wastewise Group, and Borealis. By leveraging chemical recycling, this partnership created a closed-loop solution for industrial plastic waste. Wastewise Group liquefied industrial cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) waste from Uponor’s PEX pipe production. The resulting oil was then processed by Neste into high-quality feedstock, and used by Borealis to produce new polyethylene. Finally, Uponor used this polyethylene to create new, food-contact approved PEX pipe systems. This innovative value chain therewith demonstrated the potential of chemical recycling to fully close the loop on plastic waste, contributing to a more sustainable and circular economy.

These collaborations are prime examples of how chemical recycling can turn plastic waste into a valuable resource, reduce reliance on virgin fossil resources, and contribute to a more sustainable future. They demonstrate two things: the potential of chemical recycling to contribute to circularity, and the possibilities that emerge as committed partners join forces and approach circularity in the value chain in a holistic way.

Reference

1. https://www.oecd.org/en/about/news/press-releases/2022/02/plastic-pollutionis-growing-relentlessly-as-waste-management-and-recycling-fall-short.html

Despite the anticipated decline in gasoline demand due to the energy transition, catalytic reforming will continue to play a critical role in refineries worldwide, as it remains essential for producing high-octane gasoline and aromatics. High-octane gasoline is necessary to meet the needs of high-compression engines, improving the efficiency of the internal combustion engine fleet.

Refiners are also facing the challenge of processing increasingly difficult feedstocks, such as highly paraffinic bio-naphtha, which requires higher operating severity and improved catalyst formulations. Additionally, catalytic reforming provides some refiners with a valuable

opportunity to reduce Scope 3 emissions by using the aromatics it produces as feedstock for petrochemical production. Hydrogen, a key byproduct of catalytic reforming, will remain crucial for distillate hydrotreating, especially as more complex bioprocess diesels are introduced into the fuel mix.

This article explores recent developments in fixed-bed and continuous catalytic reforming (CCR) catalyst technologies and suggests that, even after more than 60 years of progress in catalyst development, new opportunities continue to emerge to improve unit profitability and tap into new markets, such as petrochemicals.

Recent developments in catalyst design

Catalytic reforming is a key refining process that enhances the quality of fuels by converting lower-value hydrocarbons into more valuable, high-octane products. The primary method to increase octane involves converting paraffins and cycloparaffins (naphthenes) into aromatics (Figure 1). This is achieved through the use of multi-functional precious metal catalysts in fixed-bed or moving-bed reactors. 1 These catalysts are crucial for enhancing both the octane number of gasoline and aromatics production, which are key for high-performance fuels and profitable petrochemical sites.

To optimise the catalyst’s performance, the manufacturing process plays a critical role. Microprobe analysis (Figure 2) provides insight into how modifiers are distributed within the catalyst particle. A more uniform distribution – resembling a ‘starry sky’ pattern in Figure 2 – has been shown to improve catalyst efficiency and activity.

Traditionally, there has been a trade-off between catalyst activity (operating temperature) and selectivity (desired product yield). Typically, increasing activity reduces selectivity. However, with improved manufacturing techniques, this trade-off is no longer necessary. In start-of-run conditions, catalyst activity increases by 4 - 5°C, while the deactivation rate decreases by 25%, leading to higher selectivity and longer operational cycle (see Figure 3).

This clearly shows that controlling of the quality of the modifier distribution all across the carrier is crucial, leading to both improvement in activity and selectivity.

Catalyst formulations that previously struggled with low activity and stability can now be enhanced through manufacturing optimisation. For example, a 10°C improvement in activity and a 50% reduction in deactivation rate (Figure 4) make these catalysts more competitive. This allows refiners to increase unit profitability by ensuring longer run times and better yields. Compared to platinum/rhenium reforming catalyst without modifier, the optimised manufacturing scheme makes it possible to achieve the same stability with a significant selectivity

Figure 3. The impact of additive distribution on catalyst performances for platinum rhenium formulation: pressure = 12 barg; RON = 102; WHSV = 3.5; N + 2A = 60 wt %.

Figure 4. New formulation development linked to the optimisation of the manufacturing scheme for platinum rhenium formulation: pressure = 8 barg; RON = 96; WHSV = 1.5; naphtha ex Fischer Tropsch.

Figure 1. Simplified main reactions in catalytic reforming.

Figure 2. Additives distribution at industrial scale. H2 yield wt%

reaction yield wt% Reformate yield wt%

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improvement of approximately 1.6 wt %. These advancements have led to the creation of a new family of reforming catalysts tailored to the specific needs of individual customers. Instead of a one-size-fits-all approach, refineries can now choose catalysts optimised for their requirements (activity, stability, specific naphtha diet), therefore maximising both profitability at no activity/stability cost.

In CCR catalysts, similar optimisations in manufacturing but also new developments have improved activity and selectivity. Figure 5 illustrates how these developments help to improve selectivity compared to the base catalyst.

Similar to the platinum rhenium catalyst used in fixed-bed reformers, some units have margins in terms of activity where the optimisation of the catalyst design is of paramount importance. If the activity debit was initially quite large (Figure 5) following an adjustment of manufacturing, it is possible to maintain the same selectivity while improving the activity by 5°C (Figure 5).

As with any change in CCR catalysts, the production of coke – a byproduct that builds up and negatively impacts the reforming process – must be carefully managed. The latest generation of catalysts may produce a slightly higher amount of coke, but they are designed to handle this thanks to the improved hydrothermal stability of the catalyst carrier. Indeed, it is possible to operate the regenerator at higher oxygen levels with minimal impact on the catalyst’s surface area. In some cases, units that previously ran with non-continuous regenerator operation can benefit from this increased coke production, enabling them to switch to continuous regenerator operation and maintain longer, uninterrupted production cycles.

Coke production vs the base case for the same operating conditions and time on-stream is shown in Table 1.

Based on these improvements, considering the basis as given in Table 2, significant economic benefit can be achieved, as shown in Table 3.

As shown in Figure 6, it is ultimately possible to fine-tune catalyst formulation to unit constraints (coke burning capacity and maximum operating temperature).

In addition to improving C5+ selectivity, the new catalysts significantly enhance hydrogen (H 2 ) production, which plays a crucial role in downstream processes like

Figure 5. Impact of modifiers distribution on catalyst performance for platinum tin formulation.

Table 1. Coke production vs base case

Table 2. Product valorisations

Table 3. Added value. Pressure 8 barg; RON 102; WHSV 3; N+2A 68 wt %

Table 4. CO₂ savings

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Advanced energy technologies for a sustainable future.

distillate hydrotreating. H 2 is an important byproduct of reforming, and these new catalysts increase H 2 yield, directly contributing to the reduction of CO 2 emissions. Indeed, the majority of hydrogen is currently sourced from steam methane reforming (SMR), which produces between 8 and 12 t of CO 2 for each t of pure H 2 , classifying it as grey hydrogen. 2 As a consequence, by

boosting H 2 output in catalytic reforming, the need to import grey hydrogen is reduced. Table 4 demonstrates how a 50 000 bpd reforming unit using these catalysts can lower CO 2 emissions by decreasing reliance on SMR-based hydrogen. Therefore, for units having some flexibility, the use of these new catalysts provides a valuable opportunity to reduce CO 2 emissions.

Petrochemicals, a promising industry for new-generation catalysts

As global demand for gasoline declines, refineries are increasingly looking to diversify into the petrochemical market. As a recent International Energy Agency outlook notes, the demand for aromatics – essential for producing plastics and other petrochemical products – is expected to remain strong. 3

When it comes to existing units, the transition to petrochemicals requires several points to be checked on the reforming catalyst side:

n High catalyst activity: improves conversion rates and reduces the non-aromatic content in the reformate (such as the C8 aromatic cut).

n Low coke make: helps to minimise revamp costs by keeping the catalyst coke content within the regenerator capacity.

n High hydrothermal stability: when the coke flow rate is higher than the coke burning capacity of the regenerator, increasing the oxygen content of the combustion gas can be a low-cost option to overcome this constraint. In fact, higher oxygen concentration equates to higher exothermal reaction, with a 0.1% volume increase equivalent to a 10°C temperature increase which puts more stress on the catalyst (typical oxygen concentration is 0.8% volume but can be raised up to 1.2% volume).

To meet these must-have requirements, Axens has introduced a new low-density catalyst that significantly enhances both activity and selectivity compared to a base catalyst. The catalyst is specifically designed to maximise conversion rates while minimising operational challenges like coke formation. The new catalyst demonstrates significant performance improvements throughout its cycle. For example, at start of run, the catalyst’s activity shows a 5°C benefit over the base catalyst, with a reduced rate of temperature increase (Figure 7). Midway through the cycle (middle of run), the

Figure 7. Pressure 8 barg; RON 100; WHSV 2.5; N+2A 57 wt %.

Figure 8. Evolution of specific surface as a function of regeneration number.

Figure 6. Impact of modifiers repartition on catalyst performances for platinum tin formulation. Mixed xylene yield wt%

Hydrogen yield wt% Reformate yield wt%

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Conclusion: a bright future for catalytic reforming

Traditionally, reforming catalysts were primarily platinum-based,4 and while manufacturers introduced modifiers to improve selectivity, this often resulted in reduced activity.5

Today, thanks to advancements in manufacturing, refineries no longer have to choose between selectivity and activity. These innovations allow for improvements in both areas, revitalising older catalyst formulations that were once limited by poor stability and activity. Ongoing R&D and manufacturing improvements now allow catalysts to be fine-tuned to meet specific customer needs, moving away from a one-size-fits-all approach.

catalyst’s stability leads to better selectivity, enhancing yields of hydrogen, reformate, and aromatics.

In addition, the new catalyst reduces coke formation by 10% compared to earlier generations. Importantly, it also reduces coke toxicity, ensuring better overall performance.

Axens’ catalysts provide extremely high hydrothermal stability. As shown in Figure 8, commercial data illustrates the improvement in hydrothermal stability between an older, non-modified catalyst and Axens’ new-generation catalyst. The final diagram (Figure 9) also demonstrates the hydrothermal stability of the new catalyst compared to that of the previous generation. This stability allows refineries to operate under higher-temperature conditions without sacrificing performance.

By reducing coke make and coke toxicity, together with higher activity and selectivity, innovative catalysts are enabling refineries to explore new opportunities in the petrochemical market and strengthen their position in an evolving energy landscape.

References

1. LE GOFF, P.Y., KOSTKA, W., ROSS, J., Springer Handbook of Petroleum Technology, Springer, New York, 2nd edn, pp. 589 - 616., (2017).

2. KATEBAH, M., RAWASHDEH, M. A., LINKE, P., Cleaner Engineering and Technology, p. 10, (2022).

3. International Energy Agency, Oil 2024: Analysis and Forecast to 2030. 2024: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/493a4f1bc0a8-4bfc-be7b-b9c0761a3e5e/Oil2024.pdf

4. ANTOS, G., MOSER, M. D., LAPINSKI, M. P., Springer Catalytic Naphtha Reforming, Marcel Dekker, 2nd edn, pp. 335 - 353, (2004).

5. ROSS, J., LOPEZ, J., LE GOFF, P.Y, Hydrocarbon Processing, (September 2012).

Figure 9. Evolution of the relative specific surface evolution based on pilot.

Bettina Munsch, Evonik, Germany, and Christoph Kins, AMC, Germany, explore how active nickel foam catalysts can help to optimise hydrogenation processes.

The global economy has been defined by its tumultuous nature in recent years. Like most sectors, the chemical and advanced materials industry has been impacted by a multitude of challenges – inconsistent economic growth, geopolitical tensions,

climate-related crises – with sluggish demand witnessed globally.

In the first eight months of 2023, chemical output grew less than 1% y/y; as such, many companies turned their focus to reducing costs and improving efficiencies to help offset reductions in output.

However, there is cause for optimism. The American Chemistry Council expects global chemical production volumes to go up by 3.5% into 2025. As the landscape evolves, players within the industry will need to adapt, and continue shifting their portfolios as demand and industry fluctuations require.

Given 80% of chemical products are manufactured using catalytic processes, businesses can stand to take advantage of new opportunities – capitalising on innovations, new materials and solutions that can assist in reducing waste, optimising costs and improving operational efficiencies.

Catalytic hydrogenation is a fundamental procedure for a range of processes that contribute towards the manufacture of products that consumers rely on daily, including food, petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals. Consequently, selecting the right hydrogenation catalyst is critical for optimal performance – and profitability.

For businesses requiring these specific catalysts, an attractive option for achieving hydrogenation takes form in activated nickel foam. In various hydrogenation reactions, it offers high catalytic activity and selectivity, offering an alternative to noble metal catalysts, such as palladium or platinum on carbon, but avoiding the investment in the precious metal.

Conventional activated nickel catalysts

Activated nickel is derived from leaching out the aluminium from a nickel-aluminium alloy, leaving high-surface nickel where the aluminium was before; it is the most effective way to achieve slurry type reactions. The more traditional and prevalent form of activated nickel catalysts is powder, which is particularly suitable for applications using a batch reactor.

This type of powder catalyst consists solely of metal – up to 95% nickel and a small amount of residual aluminium. It does not include an inert support, such as alumina, silica or carbon, allowing for a complete material reclamation after use, supporting a circular economy.

The most suitable type of activated nickel catalyst depends on the application and the reactor that a plant uses. For example, for the pharmaceutical industry, it is generally true that a batch reactor is more typical for smaller plants; it is what has traditionally been used for the well-known powder catalysts. This kind of multi-purpose reactor involves a process where the starting material is inserted into a secure reactor before the reaction, and removed afterwards, allowing for frequent application changes and catalyst exchanges. The manual efforts are tolerable due to relatively small campaigns and high value products.

Fixed bed reactors are more commonly used in large high-throughput plants and require a material that does not move inside the reactor, making it possible to insert the starting material in a continuous way. This removes the need to open and close the reactor to insert and remove the educts and products, minimising the handling time. However, this method reduces product change flexibility and requires a catalytic material with a high lifetime and low pressure drop.

Until now, it has not been possible to use activated nickel for fixed bed applications, unless the application is suited to activated nickel granules. However, these have a very limited commercial usage and are almost exclusively used for the hydrogenation of butynediol to butanediol. Due to the lack of a fixed bed – only in selected industrial and petrochemical applications such as hexamethylene diamine and toluene diamine –activated nickel powder catalysts can be applied in a continuous process; despite the challenges and efforts required to continuously separate the catalyst from the product and recycle it into the reactor.

Now, conventional supported nickel catalysts are used widely for fixed bed applications, but demonstrate challenges associated with oxidic support and oxidic nickel, such as high pressure drop, safety concerns during handling, and support degradation.

The evolution of an innovative foam

The industrial interest in metal foams began at the start of the 21 st century, and has only grown since. Well known for its application in batteries (electrodes), heat exchangers, filters, energy absorbers, flame arrestors and biomedical implants, the low surface area of the non-activated nickel has acted as a limitation, with use only outside the field of hydrogenation processes.

When it comes to the application of metal foam as chemical catalysts on an industrial scale, so far only few examples exist. These include steam methane reforming (SMR), partial oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde and biogas desulfurisation.

Evonik has transferred tried-and-tested activated nickel technology from powder form catalysts and applied it to fixed bed applications in the form of activated nickel foam. The foam, which is manufactured under a licence from Alantum Europe GmbH, is a new generation of lightweight fixed bed catalysts made from almost pure nickel and with no supporting element (i.e., carrier). This makes for a low weight solution, without the large portion of wasted aluminium that comes with the granules.

The high surface area, combined with its unique geometry, increases the amount of contact between the material and the catalyst, which has been proven to increase the reaction rate by orders of magnitudes attainable with traditional fixed bed catalysts. With its conceptionally high flexibility in material design, it allows for the structuring of the internal reaction space of existing plants, without necessarily having to touch outer reactor geometries, downstreaming or infrastructure, to achieve at the same time efficiency improvements.

Moreover, the vast reactive surface to weight ratio means considerably less quantities of catalyst are needed to maintain the same product output. Despite the porous geometry, mechanical stability and abrasion resistance is outstanding.

Unlike powder and granule form catalysts, the activated nickel foam can, in principle, be customised to the desired shape and size. This reduces undesired by-products while prolonging the lifetime of the catalyst and broadening its application. It has been found to be suitable for manifold applications like the hydrogenation of butynediol to butanediol, the transformation of aldehydes into oxo alcohols, and the hydrogenation of sugars to polyols. In hydrogenation tests of butynediol to butanediol, Metalyst® MC 911 resulted in higher conversion and selectivity in comparison to the incumbent granule catalyst at the same reactor bed volume.

Benefits of nickel foam catalysts

Although typical fixed bed catalysts allow for material reclamation, nickel foam catalysts allow for faster and simpler refining and reclamation because of the absence of any oxidic carrier (support). Additionally, the extremely low pressure drop over the reactor bed and reduced abrasion makes them conducive to shrinking the environmental footprint of the plant and reducing maintenance costs in downstream equipment. For production personnel, the fact that the foam is ready to use means there is no plant down-time, and the absence of dust makes for easier and faster handling compared to more traditional activated nickel catalysts. Moreover, this development enables the future possibility of being able to build and adapt processes

around this new technology, in order to open up opportunities for plants to improve sustainability, and profitability further. For example, this could be done if process conditions and reactor geometries are tailored to nickel foam, as this kind of catalyst delivers higher activity, while requiring a catalyst bed of less volume. That being so, the lower requirement for power or pressure means that processes could be carried out in a reactor that is much smaller, ultimately saving costs if a plant were to build a reactor on this premise.

Experimental investigations were performed in a two-stage-reactor setup comprising an upstream recycle reactor containing a Metalyst® MC 981 foam catalyst fixed bed and a downstream finishing reactor filled with a state-of-the-art continuous process catalyst. Stress tests were run over more than 3000 h of operations, inclusive of varying operation conditions, i.e., variations in temperature and feed load. Results showed there was no significant degradation of system performance.

Conclusion

As the chemical industry navigates through a challenging and volatile global landscape, the need for cost-effective and efficient solutions is crucial. Nickel foam catalysts, such as Evonik’s Metalyst® MC 9 series, are an innovative offering for those looking to optimise their hydrogenation processes.

Presenting a variety of benefits, businesses that utilise these catalysts can experience faster handling times and enhanced safety, due to their unique physical composition. Nickel foam catalysts can also assist in achieving sustainability goals; due to the absence of an inert support, these catalysts facilitate easy reclamation – reinforcing a circular economy. Additionally, they are ready-to-use and effective at a lower pressure, offering energy savings and improved environmental impact – important to end consumers, and also providing businesses with a potential competitive edge.

As chemical companies continue to shift their portfolios, long-term strategies are re-evaluated and re-adjusted. Activated nickel foam catalysts can support these objectives, presenting opportunities to streamline processes through developing purpose-built reactors – resulting in enhanced cost savings in terms of both time and energy.

The continued demand for activated nickel powder metal catalysts underscores their importance in a vast variety of processes, particularly in the pharmaceutical, agrochemical, and sugar substitutes industries. Evonik has responded to this demand by expanding its production capacities by 25% at its sites in Hanau, Germany, and Dombivli, India.

Table 1. Physical property differences of Ni foams and Ni granules

Figure 1. Ni foams (left) and Ni granules (right).

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Dr. Danny Verboekend, Zeopore, discusses the industrial potential of mesoporous zeolites in the conversion of C8+ aromatics.

The zeolite-catalysed conversion of C8+ aromatics is industrially highly relevant, whether the aromatic streams are sourced from fossil feedstocks or from circular materials like waste plastics or biomass streams.

By introducing mesopores into zeolites, the crystalline structure becomes more accessible, enhancing the conversion of bulky C8+ aromatics. A review of patent literature highlights significant industrial interest in mesoporous zeolites, utilising both bottom-up and top-down methods to create mesoporous 10-ring and/or 12-ring zeolites, such as mesoporous ZSM-5 and mesoporous mordenite. These materials deliver notable catalytic benefits, including increased conversion rates, extended catalyst lifetimes, and higher xylene yields, while reducing the formation of ethylbenzene and C9+.

This article advocates technologies which, in addition to attaining catalytic benefits, overcome economical and process hurdles commonly associated with the manufacture of mesoporous zeolites.

C8+ aromatics: now and to come

The formation of C8+ aromatics is tightly linked to the manufacture of benzene, toluene, and paraxylene used as chemical building blocks for a variety of applications in the chemical, polymer, and pharmaceutical industries. Unlike species destined for fuels, the need for these intermediates is strongly increasing.

Traditionally, aromatics are produced by the catalytic or thermal reforming of naphtha. These zeolite-free processes yield a variety of products including heavy reformate, rich in C8+ aromatics.

Alternative approaches to yield aromatics have been proposed, based on the metal/zeolite-catalysed upgrading of low-value streams, such as methane and ethane. The conversion of these molecules into liquids is especially attractive, as these gases are difficult to transport and are often combusted for heat recovery or simply flared off. Hence, the valorisation of such lights allows for diverting streams otherwise destined to be converted to CO2

The development of the crude-to-chemicals process achieves a similar purpose, converting crude oil to chemical building blocks. Also, this zeolite-catalysed process yields, besides a rich stream of olefins, a liquid product rich in aromatics.

An exciting development regards the conversion of natural (wood) or synthetic (plastic waste) polymers into liquid fractions using either a catalytic or thermal reforming. In this increasingly catalysed process, zeolite catalysts can play a pivotal role, maximising the liquid yield and specifically that of aromatics.

A common denominator in the different routes to yield aromatics is that they all, to a varying extent, yield lower-value C8+ aromatics. Herein, the potential of mesoporous zeolites in the conversion of such bulky aromatics using isomerisation and transalkylation is discussed.

Industrial potential of mesoporous zeolites thus far

The narrow intrinsic micropores (0.4 - 0.8 nm) of zeolites are interconnected and in the size range of individual molecules, offering a massive specific surface area, a unique strong Bronsted acidity, and high hydrothermal stability. In addition, zeolites can be tuned in many ways. For example, by means of framework topology or composition, all of which is combined with a scalable and industrially proven manufacturing process.

However, despite these positive features, the narrow zeolite micropores also imply severe access and transport limitations. Accordingly, zeolites with a more accessible active site were conceived: by growing smaller (nano-sized) zeolite crystals, by growing the zeolite around an organic template, or by application of post-synthetic treatments to conventional commercial zeolites (Figure 1).

In academic context, mesoporous zeolites have demonstrated superior performance in virtually any catalytic reaction. In contrast, the industrial application of mesoporous zeolites has been thus far much more restricted, potentially due to the high technical demands on commercial zeolites and/or alternatively due to manufacturing difficulties and too high costs.

Yet, especially in hydroprocessing, substantial benefits have been demonstrated. For example, post-synthetically enhanced faujasites have been applied by various commercial parties, yielding sizeable benefits in middle distillate selectivity, in addition to a score of secondary benefits.1, 2 More recently, unidirectional mesoporous zeolites proved able to maximise diesel retention in dewaxing by hydro-isomerisation.3 In both hydrocracking and dewaxing, Zeopore has demonstrated that, in addition to the quantity of mesoporosity, the mesopore quality is of pivotal influence to maximise catalytic benefits.

Catalytic benefits of industrial mesoporous zeolites in C8+ conversions

Based on a sizeable recent patent activity, it appears that the potential of mesoporous zeolites has been industrially recognised in the conversion of aromatics. Several technology providers and refiners have filed for patents, including parties such as Saudi Aramco, Shell, ExxonMobil, Honeywell UOP, Axens and Ineos.

C8 conversions

The two distinct types of C8 conversions are the isomerisation of ethylbenzene (EB) and the isomerisation of orthoxylene (OX) and methaxylene (MX), both to favour the formation of paraxylene (PX). In practice, a feedstock containing approximately 12 - 15 wt% EB, and approximately 80 - 85 wt% of OX + MX is reacted with a 10-ring zeolite, most commonly ZSM-5.

The benefits are systematic: an increased EB conversion and a more active catalyst. Moreover, this is combined with a reduced formation of C7 and C9+, increased xylenes, and occasionally more paraxylene. Variation of the contact time enables to tune both the ethylbenzene conversion as a function of paraxylene selectivity. Finally, the positive relationship between the mesopore surface or volume and

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the three most abundant types of mesoporous zeolites.

Figure 2. Xylene selectivity as a function of conversion, and selectivity at 48 wt% conversion (points on dashed line in left image) as a function of the modification factor. ‘T’ = toluene.

the EB conversion and xylene selectivity, and the xylene isomerisation activity underscore the catalytic value optimising the external surface of zeolites in the conversion of C8 aromatics.

C9+ conversions

Business wise, the conversion of low value C9+ aromatics is an increasingly important process. Typically, this is achieved by cofeeding and reacting the C9+ aromatics with toluene or benzene. Yet, chemical plants ideally like to process as much of the heavy C9+ aromatics as possible while minimising and potentially removing the toluene/benzene co-feed.

Preferred catalysts are those featuring a 12-ring trans-alkylation zeolite, typically mordenite, and a 10-ring dealkylation zeolite, typically ZSM-5, in addition to a hydrogenation function. Transalkylation refers to the ability to move a methyl group from a C9+ aromatic to benzene or toluene, hereby forming xylenes. Dealkylation activity is the ability to dealkylate ethyl and propyl groups present on the C9+ aromatics to allow the formation of lower methyl/ring species that may undergo transalkylation with higher methyl/ring species to form xylenes. The metal function is required to saturate olefins formed during dealkylation.

As chemical plants move to increased amounts of C9+ in the feed, acceptable activity and catalyst life become challenging.

In the conversion of C9+ aromatics, the benefits of mesoporous zeolites can be generalised into two main observations:

n An increased C9+ conversion.

n An increased xylene selectivity and yield.

In addition, secondary benefits were attained in the form of catalyst life time advantages, lower bed temperatures, and having less co-boilers in the benzene fraction.

Generally, the conversion of C9+ and xylene yield relate very well with the external surface. Besides relating to mesoporosity only, the catalytic performance of mesoporous zeolites has also been analysed more holistically using the Modification Factor. The Modification Factor equals the mesopore volume in a modified material (Vmeso,M) divided by the mesopore volume in the parent material (Vmeso,P)

multiplied with the micropore volume in a modified material (Vmicro,M) divided by the micropore volume in the parent material (Vmicro,P), yielding the following formula: (Vmeso,M/Vmeso,P) x (Vmicro,M /Vmicro,P).

The Modification Factor therefore accounts for losses in intrinsic properties, as measured by nitrogen sorption, and has similarities to the Hierarchy Factor co-developed by Zeopore scientists.4 A striking positive relationship between the modification factor and the xylene selectivity at fixed conversion highlights the value of this approach (Figure 2, right).

Properties of accessible zeolites

Traditionally, the impact of accessibility of zeolites was evaluated using (electron) microscopy, and was mostly applied to zeolites with reduced crystal sizes. However, for methods where the crystal size does not change, such as modified mesoporous zeolites, microscopy is of limited use. Accordingly, nitrogen sorption, being both quantitative and widespread, has become central in the definition (and protection) of many types of unique accessible zeolites, and is the reason why accessible zeolites are commonly referred to as ‘mesoporous’ zeolites.

Ideally, a method to create mesoporosity only complements the zeolite with additional accessibility without altering any of the other intrinsic zeolitic properties, such as microporosity, crystallinity, and (strong) acidity. This, however, appears to be a fundamentally flawed assumption: a mesoporous zeolite is simply different to a mostly microporous zeolite. The complexity lies in that each method to introduce mesoporosity influences the intrinsic zeolitic properties differently. Unsurprisingly, at fixed mesopore quantity, each method therefore yields a different catalytic result. Hence, to optimise catalytic performance, both mesopore quantity and quality should be maximised. For example, mesoporous zeolites of high mesopore quality typically feature, as also suggested by the Modification Factor, a high retention of micropore volume or surface.

Without going into detail regarding the differences in topology and composition, Figure 3 reveals that different approaches yield different ranges of mesopore volume. Secondly, it appears that – generally – the more mesoporous

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zeolites feature lower intrinsic zeolitic properties, something that is particularly clear in the micropore surface vs mesopore surface plot (Figure 3, right). Similar analyses may be made for the composition and acidity of mesoporous zeolites. Hence, upon introducing accessibility, the implications on the composition, crystallinity, microporosity overall acidity, and acid strength are decisive.

Manufacturing of accessible zeolites

The division between bottom up and top down approaches is approximately 50/50, with companies with a strong reputation in hydrothermal synthesis appearing to lean more towards the bottom-up side, while others appear to focus on top-down approaches.

The academic reputation of accessible mesoporous zeolites is one of superior performance, yet of unrealistic synthetic approaches based on a variety of concerns. Industrial approaches often feature at least one such undesired aspect. For example, for bottom-up approaches, typically organic molecules (such as tetraethylammonium bromide for meso-mordenite or meso-UZM-14) are involved. Another disadvantage may be the longer time of synthesis (ca. 3 days) required to prepare mesoporous zeolite variants. This, together with a lower solid yield, means that the productivity of mesoporous zeolites can be inhibitively low as compared to conventional zeolites. Finally, especially for organic containing synthesis of nano-sized crystals, filtration is complicated and may require centrifugation.

Top-down approaches feature similar complications. For example, in many cases surfactants (such as cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) are used, which complicates scaling up through foaming and need to be removed by combustion. Although reaction times may be relatively short, an excessive amount of reaction and filtration steps can strongly hamper productivity. Moreover, the dissolution of precious pristine zeolite is an undesired and costly reality.

Conclusions and outlook

The application of mesoporous zeolites in the conversion of industrial streams of C8+ aromatics displays significant

catalytic potential, yielding superior performance. The conversion of this stream of molecules is of high relevance based on the traditional and emerging manufacture of aromatics, such as in crude-to-chemicals and the catalytic recycling of waste plastics.

Yet until now, disclosed inventions highlight that the catalytic results were based on mesoporous zeolites derived from a single synthetic route, and therefore a single mesopore quality. True to the reputation of mesoporous zeolites, reported synthetic routes often feature costly and hard-to-scale elements, and a general reduction in intrinsic zeolitic properties.

Accordingly, there exists vast potential to use tailored mesoporisation expertise to strengthen the business cases of mesoporous zeolites in this application. For example, demonstrated technologies exist to further boost the catalytic performance, by optimising both mesopore quantity and quality. Another optimisation avenue is already available in lowering the synthetic cost of the mesoporous zeolites. For example, by maximising the synergy between hydrothermal synthesis and post-synthetic modification, increasing productivity, eliminating the use of organics, increasing scalability, and making the dissolution of pristine zeolites less costly.1

In addition, the presence of metals on the majority of catalysts offers opportunity, as recently demonstrated for methanol-to-olefins and hydro-isomerisation.3 In this case, a simultaneous mesoporisation with metal inclusion can yield unique base and noble metal dispersions, and much improved performance. Finally, a specialised entity on mesoporisation can tailor its syntheses and resulting materials such to ensure freedom-to-operate, something of increasing value in the crowded zeolite IP space.

References

1. DU MONG, K., and VERBOEKEND, D., ‘Low-cost mesoporous zeolites deliver catalytic benefits’, PTQ Catalysis, pp. 45 - 49, (2022).

2. TORRISI, S., and DEN BREEJEN, J., ‘Boosting hydrocracking heavy feed conversion’, PTQ Catalysis, pp. 31 - 37, (2020).

3. VEBOEKEND, D., and D’HALLUIN, M., ‘Benefits of simultaneous mesoporisation/metal incorporation’, PTQ Catalysis, pp. 55 - 58, (2023).

4. VERBOEKEND, D., et al., ‘Advanced Functional Materials’, Vol. 19, pp. 3972 - 3979, (2009).

Figure 3. Microporosity as function of mesoporosity expressed in specific volume (left) and surface (right).

Sarah Rajasekera,

MSA Safety,

USA, outlines how to enhance safety and risk management in downstream oil and gas with fixed gas and flame detection systems.

In the high-stakes environment of hydrocarbon refining, safety is paramount.

The downstream oil and gas sector, which includes refining, processing, and distribution, is fraught with potential hazards, ranging from toxic and combustible gases, to the ever-present risk of open flames. These facilities operate under extreme temperatures and pressures, processing high volumes of materials in complex systems. Given these conditions, robust safety and risk management strategies are not just regulatory obligations, but essential components of operational continuity and sustainability.

At the heart of these safety strategies are fixed gas and flame detection (FGFD) systems, which provide continuous monitoring of hazardous environments, offering early warnings to prevent incidents before they escalate. This article explores the latest advancements in FGFD technology, the importance of a layered approach to protection, and the role these systems play in enhancing safety and risk management in the downstream oil and gas industry.

The role of FGFD systems in safety and risk management

FGFD systems are critical in safeguarding oil and gas facilities. They are designed to detect and alert operators to the presence of hazardous gases and the occurrence of flames, serving as the first line of defence against potential catastrophes.

Fixed gas detection systems monitor specific areas for the presence of dangerous gases. In refineries and processing plants, the risks posed by gases like hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methane (CH4) are significant. H2S, for example, is highly toxic and can be fatal even at low concentrations, while CH4 is both explosive and environmentally harmful. FGFD systems provide the necessary vigilance to detect these and other gases, ensuring that any leaks are identified and addressed promptly.

Flame detectors are essential for identifying fires in their earliest stages, allowing for immediate intervention. Advanced flame detectors, capable of distinguishing between different flame types and avoiding false alarms, are crucial in preventing unnecessary shutdowns while ensuring swift action in the event of a real threat.

Layers of protection: a comprehensive approach to safety

In environments where the stakes are as high as in oil and gas refining, a single layer of protection is rarely sufficient. To effectively manage the risks of toxic and combustible gases, as well as potential fires, a Layers of Protection Analysis (LOPA) is essential. LOPA is a structured method for identifying and evaluating the various independent protection layers (IPLs) that can prevent or mitigate hazardous events (Figure 1) .

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the safety measures in place, it is important to review the fundamental components of a gas and flame monitoring system. These systems continuously provide protection against life-safety hazards and abnormal situations in processing and other plants. The hazards include fires, combustible gas leaks, and toxic gas

releases. They also monitor related information, such as manually initiated alarms, wind direction, and system operational status (maintenance alerts).

Understanding LOPA

1. Identify accident scenarios: the first step in LOPA is to identify possible accident scenarios. In a refinery, these could include gas leaks near storage tanks, pipeline failures, or fires at offloading docks.

2. Select the most likely scenario: once potential scenarios are identified, the next step is to select the most likely one based on historical data, facility layout, and operational conditions.

3. Identify initiating events and frequency: for the selected scenario, the initiating events (such as equipment failure or operator error) and their frequencies are identified.

4. Determine IPLs: IPLs are safety measures that can prevent the initiating event from leading to the hazardous outcome. In the context of FGFD, these could include gas detectors, flame detectors, alarm systems, and fire suppression equipment.

5. Estimate risk and determine mitigation needs: by comparing the risk of the identified scenario with the facility’s acceptable risk threshold, the necessary FGFD technologies and systems can be determined to reduce risk to an acceptable level.

Advanced FGFD technologies: enhancing detection and response

Modern FGFD systems have experienced significant technological advancements aimed at improving detection capabilities, reducing maintenance requirements, and enhancing safety in industrial environments. Below are the key developments in the technology that are shaping the future of FGFD systems.

Electrochemical cell sensor technology

Recent developments in electrochemical sensor technology, including XCell® sensors, have resulted in faster response times and extended sensor lifespans. These sensors now utilise automated calibration processes that employ periodic electrical pulses to simulate exposure to gases, ensuring accurate sensitivity readings. This technology allows for automatic adjustments to be made, in response to environmental conditions, reducing the need for manual recalibration. It also provides real-time updates on sensor performance, predicting when recalibration or replacement will be necessary.

Laser-based open path detection

Laser-based open path technology has emerged as a key solution for monitoring large areas or facility perimeters, where point detection may be impractical or too costly. The Senscient ELDSTM using Enhanced Laser Diode Spectroscopy (ELDS) detects gases by analysing their unique Harmonic FingerprintTM, providing highly specific detection and an excellent level of false alarm immunity. By focusing on the distinct absorption pattern of the target gas, ELDS greatly reduces the likelihood of false alarms, ensuring reliable

Figure 1. Layers of protection analysis.

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performance even in adverse conditions like fog, rain, and snow. While maintaining a clear path between transmitter and receiver is essential, the robust design of ELDS systems enhances reliability in challenging outdoor environments where traditional detectors may struggle.

Onboard diagnostics – ease of maintenance

FGFD systems have increasingly adopted intelligent onboard diagnostic capabilities, streamlining the maintenance process. The latest generation of electrochemical and laser-based gas detectors now perform routine self-checks and adjustments automatically. This reduces the need for manual calibration checks, allowing technicians to focus on other critical tasks. By automating maintenance and sensor health monitoring, FGFD systems can predict when a sensor needs replacement or recalibration, increasing both efficiency and safety.

Wireless Bluetooth® integration

The integration of Bluetooth® technology into detectors like the Ultima® X5000 and General Monitors® S5000 allows technicians to interact with detectors from safer distances. This feature reduces the need for scaffolding or other hazardous access methods, improving worker safety. Technicians can monitor and adjust settings using mobile devices or human machine interfaces (HMIs) without directly accessing the detector, especially in hard-to-reach areas.

Data and communications

Standardised digital communication protocols like the HART 7 protocol enable FGFD systems to integrate seamlessly with distributed control systems (DCS), programmable logic controllers (PLCs), and other plant control systems. MSA’s XCell® sensors can now send real-time status information to these systems, providing enhanced process data and issuing safety alerts in case of gas leaks. This integration also supports preventative maintenance by automating sensor health checks and delivering comprehensive data on the operational status of the gas detectors.

Dual gas sensor transmitters

The introduction of dual gas sensor transmitters is revolutionising gas detection, by allowing two gases to be monitored simultaneously with a single transmitter. This reduces the cost of installation and maintenance, as only one unit is required to do the job of two, halving the amount of wiring and conduit needed. Dual sensor technology from MSA, for example, makes it easier and more cost-effective to install comprehensive gas detection systems, encouraging broader coverage and more extensive monitoring across industrial facilities.

Remote monitoring and notifications

Remote monitoring capabilities, facilitated by cloud-based solutions, provide real-time access to FGFD systems from any location. These technologies allow safety personnel to oversee system performance and receive notifications of incidents even when off-site. Remote monitoring enhances the ability to maintain safety in facilities that operate continuously or in unmanned locations, ensuring quick response times and continuous oversight of critical detection systems.

Challenges in FGFD system design

Designing an effective FGFD system for oil and gas facilities is a complex task. These facilities are often large, with high-density layouts of equipment, piping, and tanks. Detection systems must operate in environments exposed to outdoor conditions such as heat, humidity, fog, and wind, which can affect the behaviour of gases and the performance of detectors.

Moreover, the diverse chemical properties of gases and the need to account for factors like gas density and wind patterns make detection challenging. Flame detection can also be complicated by factors such as reflected light off shiny surfaces, leading to false alarms. Therefore, selecting the appropriate gas and flame detection technologies requires careful consideration of the specific hazards, plant layout, and environmental conditions.

Case study: implementing a layered protection approach in a major refinery

Consider the implementation of a layered protection approach in a major refinery, processing millions of barrels of crude oil annually. The facility, facing significant safety challenges due to its ageing detection systems, decided to upgrade its FGFD systems and integrate them into a comprehensive safety management strategy.

Challenge

The refinery’s existing detection system was prone to false alarms and lacked integration with the facility’s central control room, hindering real-time monitoring and response.

Solution

The refinery employed MSA’s advanced IR gas detectors and UV/IR flame detectors, strategically placed in high-risk areas. A wireless communication network was implemented, allowing data transmission to the central control room. The system was integrated with the refinery’s Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system, providing operators with real-time monitoring capabilities and enabling predictive maintenance through machine learning algorithms.

Results

The upgrade resulted in a significant reduction in false alarms and improved operational efficiency. The layered protection approach, guided by LOPA, ensured that the right technologies were in place to mitigate risks effectively, enhancing the refinery’s overall safety and risk management framework.

Conclusion

The downstream oil and gas industry operates in a high-risk environment where safety is non-negotiable. Advanced FGFD systems, combined with a structured LOPA, offer a robust approach to managing these risks. By leveraging modern technologies and integrating them into a comprehensive safety strategy, facilities can significantly reduce the likelihood of incidents, ensuring the safety of personnel, assets, and the surrounding community.

MSA Safety’s FGFD products help to ensure the highest levels of safety in even the most challenging environments. By adopting a layered approach to protection, downstream oil and gas facilities can achieve the operational security and reliability necessary for sustained success.

Mark Naples, Umicore Coating Services, outlines how infrared filters and real-time data monitoring enhances gas safety and facilitates accurate emissions monitoring.

The threat posed by gas leaks in the refining, processing, and petrochemical sectors are often an invisible challenge to health and safety. Leaks can endanger employees, potentially damage equipment, and lead to expensive, time-consuming failures.

When leaks occur, businesses in this industry require a rapid response to avert catastrophe. However, often, this problem is obscured. The invisible nature of gases, combined with the scale of the infrastructure that many companies operate and the limited availability of data, results in too many

oil and gas operators working without a full understanding of where and when leaks occur.

The escalating global demand for energy means that without tangible action now, the threat posed by gas leaks in the energy sector will likely become worse. To tackle this growing problem, energy operators need accurate, reliable data – and this is where infrared (IR) gas detection technology comes in. Deployable in fixed networks or as portable solutions, these devices enable energy operators to monitor infrastructure for leaks and address them before a severe threat emerges.

Networks of fixed gas detectors, deployed in concert with portable solutions, provide operators with a dependable solution for protecting their workforce, infrastructure, and communities. These devices can quickly and accurately identify multiple harmful or explosive gases, granting oversight over oil and gas infrastructure, and facilitating timely action. As the technology that these sensors rely on – IR gas filters –advances, IR detectors are rapidly becoming one of the most effective tools available for helping to clear the air.

Why detection matters

The consequences of a safety-critical incident often do not emerge until it is too late. Workers may be exposed to dangerous substances such as ammonia, nitrates, sulfates, or black carbon, all of which can present a serious threat to wellbeing. These compounds and others like them have been linked to a range of health conditions and can cause death in high enough concentrations. This means that when a leak occurs, immediate action is necessary to prevent potential disaster.

Beyond health risks, certain gases also pose significant environmental threats. For example, methane (CH4) is noted for

its heat-trapping potential that is many times greater than that of carbon dioxide and is a common byproduct of many oil and gas operations. The International Energy Agency (IEA) figures show that this sector is responsible for around 15% of all energy-related greenhouse gas emissions,1 releasing the equivalent of 5.1 billion tpy, and eliminating methane emissions from non-emergency flaring and venting is widely recognised as the most effective measure businesses can take to reduce their environmental impact.

Businesses that fail to take adequate measures on gas safety may also be subject to regulatory penalties and could face reputational damage. Additionally, they could lose out on potential investors, who often use compliance with environmental and safety targets to evaluate their prospects. As a result, failing to act on gas detection may lead to operators falling behind in terms of competitiveness.

Early detection allows for preventative maintenance strategies that protect employee health and business reputation. As a result, active monitoring for dangerous gases should be one of the first steps taken towards mitigating this invisible threat.

Data collection

One of the primary barriers to effective gas detection is the difficulty of collecting the necessary information. Most leaks occur without warning as pipeline and storage infrastructure ages. Combined with the scale of pipeline networks that many businesses oversee, identifying leaks without advanced sensing technologies can prove expensive and inefficient.

However, to collect this information in the first place, companies must have implemented intelligent sensing technology. Without such systems in place, businesses will not have the necessary information to develop their ESG policies. Reliable data streams are key to improving gas safety, and fixed multi-gas detection networks can provide a reliable solution. Placing gas detectors at stationary pollution sources such as refineries and other industrial facilities enables companies to better understand the concentration of gases being emitted, ascertaining precise concentrations and facilitating action to ensure ongoing safety compliance.

Site perimeter monitoring represents one option for staying on top of potential safety issues. Installing boundary monitoring technology enables companies to measure the level of risk on their sites and ensure ongoing compliance with environmental limits and guidelines while also safeguarding employees. In less static environments, hand-held or wearable detectors can also enable staff to conduct rapid checks for dangerous concentrations.

This technology is not only useful for mitigating safety risks, it can also be used to collect detailed data on emissions to build a more complete business emissions profile. Sharing this data will enable manufacturers to establish a better baseline for carbon emissions, creating a solid foundation on which to build future decarbonisation initiatives.

Due to advancements in IR filters, the technology that facilitates high performance, reliable gas detection is more affordable and accessible than ever. As a result, truly comprehensive gas detection is no longer an emerging solution – it is here today and is already making a difference to safety in energy operations worldwide.

Figure 1. Ensuring safety in the energy sector starts with detecting the invisible. Advanced IR gas detection technology offers reliable solutions to mitigate the risks posed by harmful leaks.

Figure 2. Invisible gas leaks pose serious health and environmental risks. Modern gas detection systems provide rapid, accurate monitoring, enabling operators to act before disasters.

IR detection

One of the most powerful tools available for monitoring air quality are detectors based on laser absorption spectroscopy. These sensors exploit the interaction between IR light and sample gases to facilitate highly sensitive detection of trace gases. By measuring the attenuation of an IR beam passed through a filter, the detector can determine the precise concentration of gases being measured for. Changing the filter enables different gases to be detected by allowing different wavelengths of light to reach the detector, overcoming one of the more common challenges of other gas detection technologies.

Among the benefits of this approach are fast response times and very accurate results, without needing oxygen or other external gases to operate. Modern iterations are capable of being deployed in low-oxygen or oxygen enriched areas and require little calibration to work effectively.

Umicore Coating Services specialises in the design, development, and manufacture of thin-film optical coating solutions that are central to how IR detection systems work. The company can produce custom narrow bandpass filters to provide the required standards of spectral performance. This requires expertise in producing a stable deposition process, and on using a highly accurate monitoring system for controlling layer thickness.

A clear solution

Emission levels can vary significantly from place to place, meaning measures need to be precisely targeted for maximum

CUSTOM MODULAR SOLUTIONS

impact. As a result, capturing and monitoring the right data is instrumental to success. For any action on gas emissions to be effective, those that are causing it must recognise that it is a problem and take responsibility for resolving the issue. Without real-time data and monitoring stations, solving this problem with be impossible.

Access to reliable data on emissions facilitates action. With data, stakeholders can set targets for emissions reduction, plan appropriate countermeasures, and promote the problem to attract further funding for research and development.

IR filters such as those provided by Umicore make this possible. By facilitating cost-effective, high performance gas detection, this technology makes action on emissions more accessible than ever. This area may seem complex, but the truth could not be simpler. The right manufacturer can work with companies to meet the specific needs of gas detection technologies. By adopting this technology today, businesses can set themselves up for a safer, healthier tomorrow.

In the struggle to protect workers in the energy sector and the planet alike, knowledge is power. Information about the scale of emissions is available, so long as businesses arm themselves with the right tools to collect it. IR gas detection technologies like laser absorption spectroscopy are such a solution – by facilitating reliable multi-gas detection, these systems could make all the difference to safety records in the sector.

Reference

1. https://www.iea.org/reports/emissions-from-oil-and-gas-operationsin-net-zero-transitions

Donna Brown and Bryan Bulling, RedGuard, USA, discuss the advantages of steel over concrete in designing blast-resistant structures for refineries.

Hydrocarbon and petrochemical facilities inherently carry risks, with fires and explosions in refineries leading to injuries, damage, and environmental harm. One of the major hazards in such events is blast overpressure, which occurs when a wave of energy is released during an explosion. These waves are almost instantaneous and can be 10 psi or more. The larger the explosion, the more intense and destructive the resulting overpressure, measured in pounds per square inch (psi).

In most blast events, injuries are primarily caused by this overpressure. These are typically internal injuries, affecting hollow organs such as the ears, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. Even at just 1 psi, overpressure can render a residential home uninhabitable. At 1 - 2 psi, corrugated metal panels on shipping containers may buckle, while at 2 - 3 psi, concrete and cinderblock walls can shatter. Most fatalities and injuries in such incidents result not from

the overpressure itself, but from the collapse of structures due to the force.

Turnarounds pose greater risks

The riskiest time at a refinery is not when it is operational, but during transitions. Some of the most catastrophic refinery explosions have occurred during turnarounds and maintenance periods, not during routine operations. During a turnaround, tens of thousands of individual procedures are carried out. Numerous steps are required to safely handle volatile materials when equipment is taken offline or brought back online. Additionally, there are more workers on-site, many of whom are performing non-routine tasks. During these phases, most blast events occur, and the presence of extra personnel increases the potential for harm.

When an explosion happens, it can take hours or longer for crews to regain control of the situation. Meanwhile, nearby residents, schools, and businesses are often under shelter-in-place orders. A facility’s ability to quickly manage such incidents can save lives, reduce damage, and help first responders bring the situation under control efficiently. Rapid containment of a hazardous event also reassures authorities and those outside the facility as the crisis is managed.

Blast-resistant buildings

A well-designed and strategically located control building is essential for maintaining or regaining control during emergency events. A modern, engineered blast-resistant building (BRB) provides a far more reliable solution than older stick-built or masonry control buildings, which may not be capable of withstanding an explosion, fire, or toxic release. While the BRB market is relatively new and lacks a dedicated regulatory board, the American Petroleum Institute (API) has established recommended practices (API RP 752/753) to guide the use of both permanent and portable blast-rated buildings to protect personnel from potential hazards.

Today, properly engineered BRBs are recognised as the fastest and most cost-effective way to create control rooms that can endure explosive events. Blast tests, recent incident data, and ongoing advancements in materials and design provide refineries with reliable options for control spaces. These BRBs allow operators to detect releases, trigger alarms, shut down at-risk systems, order evacuations, communicate with authorities, and, crucially, remain in the control room during an explosion to coordinate response efforts.

Pre-built and custom options

Modern BRBs are available in a wide range of configurations. For quick deployment, pre-built modules can be leased and delivered promptly, offering a fast solution. On the other end of the spectrum, fully custom-built BRBs can be designed to include various amenities such as kitchens, bathrooms, locker rooms, and tool storage, catering to the specific needs of a refinery. A middle ground exists in the form of pre-engineered BRBs, where clients can select from a variety of standardised combinations. These pre-engineered options allow for a streamlined build process, eliminating delays typically associated with custom projects.

Compared to traditional construction, customised BRBs can be installed in a fraction of the time, with fewer disruptions to operations and simplified permitting processes. They also provide substantial cost savings while offering superior protection for personnel and assets. Though ideal for rapid construction needs, these buildings are versatile and suitable for a wide range of applications, making them a robust solution in almost any situation.

BRBs: steel vs concrete

Industrial steel is an alloy composed primarily of iron, with approximately 2% carbon. Concrete, on the other hand, is a composite material made from a mixture of aggregate (fine or coarse) and a binding paste, typically cement, which hardens over time to create a strong structure. Both materials play crucial roles in the construction industry, forming the backbone of modern infrastructure.

Concrete is valued for its durability, fire resistance, and relatively quick project timelines, making it a popular choice in many applications. However, in several respects, steel proves to be the superior material for both short-term and long-term construction needs. Its strength, flexibility, and ease of adaptation to various designs offer advantages that make it a more versatile and reliable choice in many scenarios.

Strength-to-weight ratio

Steel boasts the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any construction material available today, offering unmatched tensile strength and shear resilience. Unlike wood, concrete, or plastic, steel does not warp, strain, crack, or crumble under stress, making it a superior choice in many construction applications. Additionally, steel’s lighter weight places less strain on a building’s foundation compared to concrete, and it requires fewer structural members, reducing the overall material needs for a project both on and off-site.

Another key advantage is steel’s immediacy – while concrete requires several days to cure before it can support loads, steel structures are ready for use almost immediately after assembly, significantly speeding up the construction process.

Aesthetics and structural design flexibility

Steel offers unparalleled integration into virtually any design while supporting a wide range of load requirements. Although concrete can be utilised in various structural designs, it lacks the versatility and ductility that make steel an ideal choice for dynamic and complex projects. Concrete is a rigid material, and when dealing with blasts and explosions, rigidity becomes a weakness. In the context of blast-resistant buildings, steel’s inherent flexibility and elasticity – combined with advanced engineering and design – make it the material of choice for achieving superior safety and performance. Steel walls are said to ‘flex’ in response to a blast wave, absorbing the impact.

RedGuard chooses to leverage steel in its blast-resistant buildings to provide the structural flexibility needed to meet and exceed refinery clients’ safety and design requirements. Steel’s adaptability ensures that steel buildings not only deliver optimal protection but also accommodate the unique demands of each project, offering the highest standards of worksite safety.

Fire resistance

While concrete is known for its inherent fire resistance, steel can also achieve comparable fire-resistant properties through the application of coatings, barriers, and active cooling measures such as sprinklers. Steel is classified as a non-combustible building material by the International Building Code (IBC). To enhance fire resistance, fire suppression systems can be installed both inside and outside BRBs. Additionally, the advancement and widespread use of intumescent coatings –spray-applied fire-resistant coatings – are highly compatible with steel structures. BRBs can be engineered to meet specific fire-resistance durations, allowing for safe occupation during a fire if evacuation is not required.

Cost

Steel offers a more cost-effective solution for construction compared to other materials with similar strength and durability characteristics. In building projects, particularly for

blast-resistant structures, steel combines strength, quality, and durability with affordability. Additionally, steel is environmentally friendly, with 85% of the world’s steel being recycled, including 99% of structural steel after demolition. In contrast, concrete materials cannot be reused or recycled once a structure is demolished.

While concrete has its advantages, it generally proves more expensive than steel. Concrete structures require more time for preparation, curing, and installation, and they impose greater weight on foundations. Therefore, steel often represents a more efficient and sustainable choice in construction.

Tests to prove BRB durability

Conclusion

In conclusion, steel blast-resistant buildings offer unparalleled strength, versatility, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness that other construction materials, such as concrete, cannot match. Concrete’s inherent brittleness and limited tensile and shear strength make it less suitable for high-quality blast-resistant structures in refineries. When comparing concrete to steel, steel consistently proves to be the superior choice.

Modern blast-resistant buildings have evolved far beyond the simplistic steel boxes of the past. Today, these structures range from understatedly functional to luxuriously appointed, integrating virtually all the amenities found in traditional office buildings while maintaining the highest standards of blast

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Elke Baum, IMI, Germany, explores the key considerations behind refinery turnarounds and how they can be made safer and more efficient with double disc isolation valve technology.

On 18 February 2015, an explosion occurred at a California refinery. At the centre of this incident at the ExxonMobil Torrance facility was an electrostatic precipitator (ESP), a pollution control device on the air side of the fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU). During normal operation, the ESP would remove catalyst particles using charged plates that produce sparks – something that would become a potential ignition source.

On the day in question, an attempt to isolate equipment for repairs caused hydrocarbons to backflow through the process.1 The sparks in the precipitator then ignited the hydrocarbons, setting off an explosion that injured two workers and dispersed debris into the surrounding community.2

Lessons to learn

While only minor injuries were sustained during this accident, the potential threat to life was clear. Put simply, it is essential that plant managers analyse refinery FCCU shutdown and reactor isolation processes and see how they can be made safer.

Indeed, the conditions in which unit turnarounds are carried out are undoubtedly hazardous. This process currently involves isolating the reactor from the refinery’s main column by removing a manual spacer measuring between 24 and 100 in. and installing a plate blind.

The blinding location is at the reactor overhead vapour inlet to the main column, and when the overhead vapour line is parted to

remove the spacer ring flange, personnel and equipment are exposed to a 300°F+, hydrocarbon-rich stream. While this can already make a flash fire possible, the situation could be made worse if oxygen is pulled up into the reactor vapour overhead line.

Yet though these conditions could lead to potential fatalities and extensive damage to piping and equipment, they must remain in place for up to 12 hours while the blind is being installed. Additionally, the parting of this connection on unit startup leaves personnel exposed to temperatures of 600°F, a level of heat required to bring the FCCU online and allow refractory dry-out processes.

Isolating the issue

During this time, the FCC reactor must be isolated from the fractionator column to ensure sufficient heat is available to raise temperatures in a controlled way if the overhead line remains open. Overall, these isolation efforts can take up to 36 hours, with the blinding process becoming part of the critical path for unit startup and shutdown. Maintenance and repair teams are undoubtedly at significant risk throughout this process.

Considering this, the key question is how the process can be made shorter while preventing incidents such as the Torrance refinery explosion from ever occurring again. The installation of automated equipment is crucial to this. Given that it is situated between the reactor and the main line, installing an automated isolation valve here could have a marked impact.

Specifically, doing so will allow for much safer conditions during fractionator blinding operations. By closing the valve, the plant reactor can be quickly isolated during planned turnarounds or unplanned shutdowns without letting hydrocarbons escape into the atmosphere.

Actuating the double disc isolation valve can also dramatically shorten FCCU turnarounds. If the valve is closed, the work dumping catalyst out of the reactor and washing the main column can continue concurrently. As a result, plant teams can save around 24 hours that would have been spent carrying out these tasks separately and consecutively. Alongside this, keeping the valve in the closed position can allow bolt retorquing to take place while the reactor heats up.

When compared to traditional, long-standing blinding methods, which requires plant stakeholders to wait until

refractory curing is complete before rolling the blind, the possible efficiency gains are clear. Consequently, another 12 hours can be saved during the FCCU turnaround procedures – vital savings considering the importance of the unit remaining online to maximise plant yields.

Demonstrating detailed design

Given the clear importance of isolation valves in mitigating risk, focus should shift to what constitutes effective component design. Double-disc through conduit (DDTC) gate valves are well-suited to these on/off applications, as their separate, independent shut-off discs and overall design provide multiple advantages.

Specifically, the valve’s internal split-wedge-ball arrangement allows for reliable operation and gives discs clearance to move. The internal wedge-ball design also provides actively controllable and adjustable mechanical sealing, and its non-self-locking wedges ensure the discs release from their seats without jamming at high or variable temperatures.

As such, DDTC gate valves allow for true double block and purge processes, ensuring full and effective double isolation during turnarounds. Plant maintenance teams can consequently enjoy peace-of-mind over safety when carrying out turnaround procedures, knowing the valve can be easily controlled when opening and closing.

Negating wear and tear

When specifying valves in this scenario, it is also key that any selected solution is appropriately durable. Conditions in the reactor overhead vapour line are extremely hazardous and must be accounted for during component design and specification.

Manufacturers such as IMI have designed their DDTC gate valves for severe coking services. Production at the company’s manufacturing plant in Düren, Germany, involves including corrosion and wear-resistant overlays on all seats to further bolster component resilience in hazardous environments. Similarly, the component’s seat surfaces are built to provide complete protection from process flows whether in the opened or closed position.

The valve’s internal wedge-ball arrangement should also give its discs clearance to move, further minimising the seat-to-seat friction and wear. The valve’s design includes external piping loads and minimises the effect of seat deflection due to external loads.

In conclusion, though shutting and isolating the plant FCCU for turnaround processes is vital, it can place maintenance teams at risk. Existing manual processes such as removing spacer ring flanges and installing plate blinds could result in a flash fire or explosions, so more effective ways to isolate the refinery reactor from the main column must be explored. In these demanding circumstances, the use of well-designed, hard-wearing DDTC gate valves could allow plant stakeholders to reduce maintenance time while keeping refinery personnel safe.

References

1. Chemical Safety Board, report of ExxonMobil Torrance Refinery FCCU explosion.

2. https://www.csb.gov/exxonmobil-torrance-refinery-explosion-/

Figure 1. It is essential that plant managers analyse refinery FCCU shutdown and reactor isolation processes and see how they can be made safer.

Nick Howard, Oliver Valves, UK, outlines how advancing valve technology solutions can contribute to more sustainable downstream operations.

The global need for reliable, clean energy is indisputable and becoming increasingly urgent. However, there is ongoing debate about the most effective processes for producing green energy, and even the precise definition of green energy remains contested. This debate is likely to continue for many years, if not decades. Despite these uncertainties, the demand for clean energy solutions is ever-present. The evidence of global sea temperatures rising and the increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events worldwide underscores the necessity for immediate action.

Green energy projects are gaining traction across the globe. Numerous pilot schemes are being implemented to demonstrate proof of concept, indicating progress in the right direction. However, the question remains whether these efforts are sufficient. Can the planet afford to wait for standard committees to determine the best course of action when the impacts of climate change are already being felt?

Decarbonising the entire energy chain presents a monumental challenge. The transition from long-established processes – which have been refined over several decades –to green alternatives will not happen overnight. This move involves considerable risk and requires careful planning and execution. The complexity and scale of this task highlights the need for a coordinated and sustained effort to achieve a future with truly sustainable energy.

One aspect of the complex challenge of decarbonising the energy sector is the development of reliable and cost-effective valves. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), over 60% of fugitive emissions originate from gas valves. This raises the question of how to develop a safe and reliable product in an emerging market when the standards governing such products have yet to be established.

Advanced valve solutions

A British company, Oliver Valves, has developed an advanced metal-seated pipeline valve range designed to address these challenges.

Ball valves are known for their simple quarter-turn operation and unrestricted flow path. Features such as non-rising stems and compact geometries make them a common choice for many operators across various processes. The metal-seated variant of the ball valve offers several advantages over the more commonly used soft seat or polymer sealing alternatives, including enhanced resistance to abrasives, increased reliability, and a longer service life. Additionally, the design of metal-seated ball valves makes them suitable for applications involving temperatures above 200˚C.

The development of metal-seated ball valves represents a step forward in creating reliable, high-performance components essential for the energy sector. This innovation addresses the need for improved valve technology to reduce fugitive emissions and support the transition to greener energy systems.

Creating a metal-to-metal, gas-tight seal is a complex and challenging task that requires a comprehensive understanding of several critical factors. This includes the topography of the components, the stresses involved, and the relative displacements required to maintain the necessary contact stress for achieving a gas-tight seal. Achieving this level of precision and reliability is essential, particularly in high-pressure environments where even the smallest leak can lead to significant issues.

Engineers at Oliver Valves have developed substantial expertise in metal-to-metal sealing, particularly through their work on sub-sea gate valves. These valves are known for their high performance and reliability in demanding conditions, providing valuable insights and experience that inform their current developments.

However, in the context of pipeline ball valves, special considerations must be made regarding the size and geometry of the ball and seat. Both components are inherently complex in shape, and their often-asymmetrical nature complicates the prediction of deflection under pressure. Unlike soft, more compliant seats, a metal seat must deflect at the exact same rate as the ball when subjected to full working pressure to maintain sufficient contact stress and create a reliable seal. These deflections, although microscopic, can contribute to leaks if not managed correctly.

Ensuring that the metal seat and ball deflect in unison requires meticulous design and precise engineering. This challenge underscores the importance of understanding the intricate behaviours of materials under stress and the need for advanced engineering solutions to achieve reliable, gas-tight seals in metal-seated pipeline valves.

One potential solution to the challenge of achieving a metal-to-metal, gas-tight seal in pipeline ball valves is to greatly increase the size and rigidity of the ball and seat. This approach aims to minimise deflection under pressure. However, this method would significantly raise the associated costs of product assembly. Increasing the ball diameter necessitates a larger cavity size, which subsequently enlarges the pressure boundary between the valve body and its ends. This, in turn, increases the sealing diameter of the end connector, thereby amplifying the blowout force on the end connector. To manage this increased force, either larger fasteners or a greater number of fasteners would be required.

Furthermore, these fasteners must be accessible using conventional tightening equipment, which can add to the overall size and cost of the finished product. To avoid a cascade of increasing sizes and associated costs, it is essential to determine the optimum size of the ball. This ensures the most cost-effective and reliable solution is achieved.

Advanced finite element analysis (FEA) techniques have been employed to derive the optimum size of the ball and the geometry of the seat. These analyses take into account the strengths of materials suitable for hydrogen applications. The derived optimum sizes and geometries have then been tested under in-service conditions to validate the product’s performance across various temperature and pressure combinations. This approach ensures that the valve design is both cost-effective and capable of maintaining reliable performance in demanding applications.

Testing

At the Oliver R&D facility in Cheshire, UK, a specialised team of engineers focuses on developing high quality valve products. This facility has established a unique hydrogen test standard, which integrates industry-recognised fugitive emissions tests and simulates in-service conditions, including prolonged operational scenarios.

The qualification process developed at the facility is tailored to address the specific needs of pipeline valve applications. This rigorous process includes comprehensive operational and seat leakage tests conducted at both

maximum and minimum rated temperatures. During these tests, fugitive emissions are closely monitored to ensure compliance with stringent environmental and safety standards. The objective is to verify the valve’s performance and reliability under the most demanding conditions.

To further demonstrate the robustness and effectiveness of the zero-leakage metal sealing range, the qualification process was extended to include an endurance test of 3000 operations. This extended testing period is designed to replicate the long-term operational stresses that valves would encounter in real-world applications. After completing the 3000 operations, the valves were evaluated for their ability to maintain a bubble-tight seal at working pressure and to remain within acceptable fugitive emissions rates. The results confirmed that the valves met and exceeded performance expectations, maintaining their integrity and functionality throughout the testing process.

This thorough and objective testing approach ensures that the valves developed at the Oliver R&D facility adhere to high standards of performance, reliability, and environmental compliance. By subjecting the valves to such rigorous testing, the engineers can confidently validate their designs and ensure that the products are capable of performing reliably in demanding conditions, thereby contributing to the advancement of valve technology in the energy sector.

Valves are a small yet critical component in the broader context of addressing complex energy challenges.

DYNAMIC SIMULATION SERVICES FOR CENTRIFUGAL AND

AXIAL FLOW

COMPRESSION SYSTEMS

SCENARIOS

✓ Normal and emergency shut downs (ESD)

✓ Machine start up sequences (series and parallel)

✓ Process changes

✓ Valves or other equipment failure events

BENEFITS

✓ Faster & finer dynamics compared to other tools

✓ Timely proper routing & sizing of control lines & valves

✓ Finer sizing of hot by-pass valves

✓ Broader off design process & equipment checks

✓ Realistic analysis of controllers stability & instability

✓ Finer pre-tuning of compressors antisurge, performance & load sharing controls

✓ Definition & check of complex operational procedures to reach target operating points

As such, it raises the question of whether additional initiatives should be provided to companies to accelerate the development of innovative products. The transition to green energy and the reduction of fugitive emissions requires not only new ideas, but also effective methods to bring these ideas to fruition.

Conclusion

Encouraging further innovation in valve technology could involve offering incentives such as research grants, tax benefits, or collaborative opportunities with academic and research institutions. Such initiatives could expedite the development and implementation of advanced solutions, facilitating more rapid progress towards achieving environmental and energy goals.

Moreover, enhancing the support for research and development in the valve industry could lead to broader advancements in energy systems. Improved valve technology can contribute to reducing emissions, enhancing operational reliability, and optimising performance across different sectors.

In conclusion, while the development of advanced valves represents a milestone, broader support for innovation is essential. By fostering an environment that encourages research, collaboration, and the practical application of new technologies, the energy industry can more effectively address its complex challenges and move towards a sustainable future.

EXAMPLE: simulation of ESD events to define & check hot by pass valve

Lloyd Bock, Mogas, USA, outlines the value of onsite actuation experts in valve manufacturing.

In the complex world of manufacturing, particularly in the valve industry, precision, reliability, and efficiency are of the utmost importance. Having an onsite actuation expert provides significant benefits for valve companies, specifically those which specialise in severe service and demanding applications. This article explores the advantages of integrating actuation expertise directly into the organisation, addressing aspects such as operational efficiency, improved product quality, enhanced customer service, and innovation.

Understanding actuation in valve manufacturing

Actuation refers to the mechanisms and technologies that control the movement of valves. This can include pneumatic, hydraulic, electric, and manual actuators that enable valves to open, close, or regulate the flow of fluids in a system. The proper specification, sizing, and functioning of these actuators is critical to ensuring that the valves operate correctly in various environments under varying conditions and pressures throughout their intended lifecycle.

The complexity of actuation systems

Valves and their actuators must be tailored to specific applications, including oil and gas, water treatment, chemical processing, and power generation. Each sector has unique requirements for which actuation technology is preferred, ranging

from rapid response times to extreme durability to what happens in case of power, hydraulic, or air failure. An onsite actuation expert has the specialised knowledge necessary to address these complexities, thereby enhancing the overall performance of the valve package, the most technically correct and most cost-effective solution.

Operational efficiency

One of the primary benefits of having an onsite actuation expert is the enhancement of operational efficiency. This expert can provide immediate support for design, sizing, specification and implementation processes, leading to reduced turnaround times on quotations from sub vendors, and increased productivity for the entire organisation.

Quick troubleshooting and support

Having an actuation expert allows for swift troubleshooting of actuator-related issues. Instead of waiting for an external consultant or vendor to diagnose problems, the expert can provide real-time solutions, which minimises downtime within an assembly or production environment. This rapid response is particularly crucial in industries where every moment of downtime can result in significant financial losses and missed deliveries.

Streamlined design processes

An onsite expert can work closely with the design and engineering teams to ensure that actuators are integrated seamlessly into valve systems. Their deep understanding of both the valve and actuation technologies enables them to refine designs for performance and reliability, ultimately speeding up the production cycle.

Improved product quality

Quality assurance is vital in manufacturing and none more so than in the world of severe service valves, especially for industries requiring stringent safety and operational standards. An onsite actuation expert contributes significantly to enhancing product quality in several ways.

Tailored solutions

With an in-depth understanding of both the valves and the actuation mechanisms, an onsite expert can customise solutions that meet specific operational requirements. This tailored approach not only ensures best performance, but also reduces the likelihood of failures in the field along with delivery of an optimal product to meet a client’s needs.

Comprehensive testing and validation

The expert can oversee rigorous functional, witness testing and validation processes for actuated valves, often including more in-depth programming and testing while ensuring the products meet industry standards before leaving the facility. This proactive approach minimises the risk of defects and enhances the reliability of products, allowing for more detailed warranty and guarantee options, which is crucial in sectors where safety, uptime and reliability is paramount.

Continuous improvement

The actuation expert can also analyse performance data and customer feedback to find areas for improvement. This continuous feedback loop enables a valve manufacturer to adapt and refine their products, staying ahead of the competition and aligning with the evolving needs of the market.

Enhanced customer service

Customer satisfaction is a key driver of business success and having an onsite actuation expert can significantly enhance the service provided to clients.

Direct consultation and support

Clients often have specific needs and challenges related to actuation technology. An onsite expert can engage directly with customers, providing consultation on best practices, best product and manufacturer for specific applications, installation, and maintenance. This direct line of communication builds trust and fosters long-term relationships.

For example, with the growing complexity of actuation packages, the addition of filter boosters directly on actuator ports means orientation on most actuators can be critical, especially in tight spaces or with pneumatic and hydraulic actuators.

These orientations must be identified correctly at the time of order to ensure correct functionality in the field,

Figure 1. Actuation expert in the field examining process equipment.

Figure 2. Lloyd Bock adjusts actuation instrumentation on a valve package before shipment.

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below are two examples of changes made because of orientations being identified ahead of time.

Faster response times

In industries where turnaround and response times are critical, the ability to respond quickly to customer inquiries and issues is essential. An onsite expert can offer immediate assistance and guidance, significantly reducing the time customers must wait for solutions. This responsiveness not only improves

customer satisfaction but also strengthens the company’s reputation in the market.

Onsite service assistance

Having an actuation expert can also provide more efficient onsite service and support. This enables commissioning to occur with minimised site visits, as well as the ability to identify any ongoing issues – and even small issues – with actuator installations early that may present future problems and issues onsite.

It is not very commonly known that the majority of actuator manufacturers ship their products as a standard with plastic transit plugs in place. These are installed in unused conduit entries to prevent water splashes and dust from entering only for transit purposes, however once onsite, these should immediately be replaced with suitable blanking plugs, in compliance with the area classification of the installation to prevent any moisture ingress and, if applicable, to maintain the hazardous area certification of the equipment.

Training and education

The experts can also provide training sessions for clients, ensuring that they fully understand how to operate and maintain their valve systems. This proactive approach not only empowers customers but also reduces the likelihood of operational errors that could lead to failures.

Driving innovation

Innovation is the lifeblood of any manufacturing organisation. By having an onsite actuation expert, a company can drive innovation in several ways.

Cross-disciplinary collaboration

The presence of an actuation expert eases collaboration between different departments, such as engineering, manufacturing, onsite service and sales. This interdisciplinary approach encourages the sharing of ideas and insights, fostering a culture of innovation.

Research and development

An onsite expert can contribute directly to research and development efforts by identifying emerging trends in actuation technology and integrating them into new products. This proactive approach ensures that a company can remain at the forefront of industry advancements.

Development of proprietary solutions

With their specialised knowledge, an onsite actuation expert can help to develop proprietary actuator solutions tailored to the company’s unique product offerings. This differentiation can enhance the company’s market position and create additional revenue streams.

Through continuous improvement, a feedback loop from the field service team and substantial involvement from an actuation expert, Mogas was able to refine its existing design on a DV-4, 4-way coker switching valve actuation package from the initial concept through to an integrated design which is more robust, repeatable, and better protected from the hazardous environment that the package will be used in.

Figure 3. Initially without knowing the orientation, an actuator was supplied per the above with filter regulator in incorrect orientation.

Figure 4. After visiting the site and identifying all orientations correctly, actuators are now being supplied correctly.

Figure 5. Concept for a 4-way DV-4 Coker switching valve automation package.

Cost efficiency

While the initial investment in hiring an onsite actuation expert may seem significant, the long-term cost savings can be substantial.

Reduced outsourcing costs

By bringing actuation expertise in-house, most valve companies can reduce reliance on external consultants and vendors. This not only cuts costs, but also speeds up processes that would otherwise require coordination with third parties.

Minimisation of failures and rework

With improved design, testing, and quality assurance processes, the likelihood of product failures decreases significantly. Fewer failures mean lower warranty costs and reduced expenditure on rework, translating into substantial savings over time.

Enhanced productivity

Increased operational efficiency and faster response times ultimately lead to enhanced productivity, allowing companies to focus resources on growth and expansion rather than rectifying problems.

Conclusion

In the fast-paced and competitive landscape of valve manufacturing, having an onsite actuation expert within an organisation offers numerous benefits. From improving operational efficiency and product quality to enhancing customer service and driving innovation, the advantages are clear.

Investing in specialised actuation expertise is not just about addressing immediate challenges; it is a strategic move that positions the organisation for long-term success. As industries continue to evolve and demands become increasingly complex, companies equipped with onsite actuation experts will be better poised to navigate the challenges ahead, ensuring they remain leaders in their field.

Ultimately, the integration of actuation expertise into the fabric of a valve manufacturing organisation is not just a tactical decision; it is a transformative strategy that can yield significant competitive advantages. As the industry moves forward, companies that recognise and harness this potential will be the ones that thrive.

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Figure 6. Final design for a 4-way DV-4 Coker switching valve automation package.

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Abraham Syed and Frank Shoup, Ebara Elliott Energy, present crucial considerations and best practices for compressor casing design and analysis.

Centrifugal compressors are custom-engineered rotordynamic machines used to compress gas in a variety of industrial applications. Their casings are pressure-containing vessels that must have acceptable stresses and maintain sealing when subjected to operational pressures and temperatures. Casings must also be designed for

efficient installation and removal of rotors, resulting in pressure containing joints that must effectively contain the process gases.

To ensure the casing has acceptable stresses and can maintain sealing when subjected to the internal gas pressures and temperatures, compressor casing analysts conduct finite element analyses (FEA) to establish

temperature and pressure limits, and in some cases, additional structural analyses, such as applying loads to nozzles to establish whether the loads are acceptable due to the piping. Results of these analyses are evaluated against industry acceptance criteria for allowable stresses and split-line flange sealing criteria to determine the pressure and temperature limits.

All of these analyses follow the requirements of American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 617 for compressors. When referenced by the API standards, or when the API standards do not cover a topic, compressor casing analysis uses methods derived from the ASME Boiler and Pressure Code, Section VIII, Division 2.

Compressor casings

A compressor casing, along with its nozzles, acts as a pressure vessel designed to seal in the process gas to prevent fugitive emissions. Fugitive emissions consist of leakage across joints, flanges, endwalls, and uncontrolled emissions across end seals. The casing serves many additional purposes, acting to support all other compressor components including diaphragms and endwalls. Bearing housings are attached to either

the endwall or the casing at each end of the compressor.

Split-line compressor casings consist of top half and bottom half sections with a split-line flange secured by studs and nuts (Figure 1).

For standard temperatures and low-corrosion environments, commonly used casing and endwall materials are forged carbon steel or carbon manganese steel plate. Nozzles are often cast out of carbon steel. If there is a splitter in the inlet nozzle, it is typically welded in, and is usually made of carbon steel plate. For low-temperature applications, cast stainless steel can be used for casings and nozzles, and the splitter can be part of the nozzle casting. Forged stainless steel can be used for endwalls.

The major compressor casing components are:

n Casing.

n Casing supports.

n Split-line flange and studs.

n Nozzles.

n End walls.

n Shaft.

n Impellers.

n Diaphragms.

n Bearing housings at each end.

n Seals.

n Balance piston line.

Figure 2 shows a compressor with intermediate (iso-discharge and iso-inlet) nozzles. In this case, gas is compressed in four stages, then exits to be cooled before returning, where it is compressed in a further three stages of compression. Parts have been hidden (or partially hidden) for clarity.

Casing analysis

A typical, simplified analysis includes the casing, nozzles, endwalls, and casing supports. Figure 3 shows a typical model. Parts are de-featured and the mesh size is chosen to provide adequate accuracy; for example, a fine mesh is required at the split line to get adequate assessment of the contact pressure.

To better view results, the parts of the model are split by a vertical plane through the shaft centreline as shown in Figure 4.

Analysis can be performed for several purposes:

n To determine a pressure rating for the design and whether or not the custom-made casing design meets the customer’s pressure requirements.

n To determine casing and shaft end deflection due to piping loads at nozzle flanges. To assess shaft end deflection using a more complex model than shown here, including bearing housing, bearing parts and the shaft.

n Analysis of casing sag due to the internal diaphragms is sometimes required if the casing is of a more flexible design, to check for potential interference issues that could occur when installing the rotor and endwalls into the bottom half of the casing.

Figure 1. Compressor with horizontal split line.

Figure 2. Illustration of an iso-cooled compressor.

Compressor nozzles and flanges

As earlier indicated, the casing main inlet and discharge connections are flanged nozzles. These main inlet and discharge nozzle flange connections typically coincide with ASME/ANSI B16.1, B16.5, B16.42, or B16.47 Series A or B, as specified within the API 617 standard. Raised face (RF) flange designs are commonly used with either a flat gasket or spiral wound gasket, typically with a solid inner ring to prevent spiral wound gasket extrusion. Ring type joint (RTJ) flanges are also used, and are often preferred for their ease of assembly. Pressures in excess of the standard ratings require more specialised piping connections. All nozzles and flanges are designed to handle the hydrotest pressure, which is 1.5x the operating pressure for compressors.

Compressor nozzle load analysis

Compressor casing nozzles are joined to piping that connects to the plant system and either delivers or removes medium from the unit. Each piping system design is unique for the application, and can vary greatly. One of the more significant challenges is that the piping systems are designed in parallel with the compressor, and therefore, final piping loads are typically not known in the early design phases. Additionally, because piping fit-up with the turbomachinery is performed in the cold condition, loads develop on the nozzles at the operating condition due to differential thermal expansion of the piping and the unit system. These impart loads on the casing and nozzles that must be accounted for and checked. In the absence of actual system design loads, it is difficult to determine the critical load combinations from the infinite number of combinations. For this reason, guidelines have been developed to help in this effort. The governing document with regard to compressor nozzle external forces and moments is API 617. The document refers to the NEMA SM-23 specification for the definition of three limits applied to these loads. Limit 1 pertains only to the loads on a single nozzle. Limits 2 and 3 pertain to the summation of all loads at all nozzles resolved to a common point. API 617 specifies this point to be the largest nozzle (typically the inlet) and defines the load magnitudes in term of a factor times the NEMA SM-23/24 loads (F x NEMA). API 617, Annex F, requires that compressors be designed to withstand nozzle forces and moments load limits whose magnitudes are 1.85x NEMA SM-23 loads. In lieu of actual piping loads, experience and engineering judgment may be used to determine critical loading cases for a particular compressor geometry and layout. The three limit load cases can then be magnified for a particular factor of NEMA as desired and used in an FEA to determine the acceptability of casing stresses, deflections, alignments, and clearances. This would be included as part of the analysis and acceptance criteria. Current industry trends are pushing manufacturers to design more efficient and lighter casings at the same time piping system designers are pushing for higher allowable NEMA factors. This

combination is driving the NEMA nozzle forces and moments to a higher level of impact on the overall casing design. Again, there are an infinite number of loading combinations for a given casing design, which will introduce some level of uncertainty in the analysis.

The API standard is a minimum requirement. Turbomachinery OEMs can often go beyond the required multiples of NEMA load. Finite element analysis of a specific machine can determine maximum piping loads.

Modes of failure and acceptance criteria

The modes of failure and acceptance criteria are closely tied together. The possible modes of failure considered are dependent on the structure and required design conditions. The acceptance criteria defines what is to be measured or calculated to determine the acceptability of the structure when subjected to the design conditions.

Compressor casing modes of failure

The modes of failure considered in the design of compressor casings subjected to high pressure,

Figure 3. Meshed compressor model.

Figure 4. Section view of compressor model.

and the source of the associated acceptance criterion are:

n Joint leakage:

§ Between top and bottom casing halves.

§ At endwalls.

n Compressor casing and end walls (API 617 and ASME BPVC Section VIII, Div. 2):

§ Comparing calculated stresses to allowable stresses.

§ Prevention of local failure.

n Bolting (API 617):

§ The API standard limits the allowable bolt stresses.

Compressor casing acceptance criteria

The compressor casing needs to have adequate strength and fatigue life. For the basic evaluations, membrane stresses are calculated and different types of finite element analysis are performed based on ASME BPVC Section VIII Division 2. Finite element analysis methods may include:

n Elastic analysis with calculation of linearised stresses as defined by ASME BPVC Section VIII Division 2, part 5.2.2. For this analysis, the split-line assumes a

frictional contact. The compressive forces from the studs are modelled by pressure applied to imprinted washer faces on the flange surfaces. Based on the elastic results, an inlet-splitter weld fatigue assessment is conducted according to ASME BPVC Section VIII Division 2, part 5.5.5.

n Limit load analysis (elastic perfectly plastic analysis) may be performed according to ASME BPVC Section VIII Division 2, part 5.2.3. Convergence should be achieved at the hydrostatic test pressure for the design to be acceptable. In some cases, a design may be found to be acceptable based on the limit load analysis when the linearised stresses exceeded limits.

n Elastic plastic and local strain analysis may be conducted according to ASME BPVC Section VIII Division 2 parts 5.2.4 and 5.3.3, respectively. For an elastic plastic analysis, the total strain is assessed at the hydrostatic test pressure. Local strain analysis uses the elastic plastic results at 1.7x the rated pressure.

n Fatigue analysis may be conducted at both a typical design temperature of 400°F and the hydrostatic test temperature of 70°F following ASME BPVC Section VIII Division 2 part 5.5.4. This assessment assumes a number of cycles at design conditions and a small number of cycles at hydrostatic test conditions. The sum of the damage from both conditions cannot exceed 1 (Miner’s rule).

The stress analyses may provide the casing design limit; however, it is potential leakage at the split line that often determines the rating for a compressor. Hydrostatic testing is performed at the customer required internal pressure multiplied by 1.5.

The compressor casing design is assessed by calculating the contact pressure at the split-line and comparing this against the internal hydrostatic test pressure multiplied by a factor. If the contact pressure is not adequate, then the analysis predicts that leakage can occur. The stud preload affects this pressure. This preload is limited in the ninth edition of API-617, to 90% of the minimum yield stress for hydrostatic testing. However, the positioning of the studs can have a huge effect on the contact pressure.

Results and discussion

Because the split-line sealing often defines the casing rating, the design of the split-line, i.e., size and positioning of studs, is very important. Figure 5 illustrates an example of this, showing significant regions with reduced contact pressure, and therefore, potential leakage paths.

Using larger diameter bolts locally in some critical areas, and moving the studs inward, improved the sealing considerably, as shown in Figure 6.

Conclusion

Based on the results for the compressor stress and sealing analysis, an acceptable pressure rating is found for the casing. The rating must be adequate for the customer requirements; otherwise, redesign is required.

Figure 5. Section view of compressor model.

Figure 6. Improved compressor split-line design.

Nabil Abu-Khader, Compressor Controls Corp. (A Honeywell Company), UAE, explains the importance of monitoring control choke conditions in centrifugal and axial compressors.

Compressor surge is a violent flow reversal that occurs when the process restricts the compressor flow below a certain minimum value. Compressor choke occurs when the process does not create enough restriction to the compressor flow and the compressor operates at its maximum flow for a given performance level. Control systems are available to protect the compressor from surge, but not always from choke.

Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are not always clear about the precise location of the choke line as most attention is given to the surge line. The same mistake is transferred to control systems, which focus exclusively on protection from surge. However, ignoring the effect of compressor choke might have its own unwanted failures.

Compressor choke or stonewall is an unstable operating condition, which occurs when the compressor is operating at low discharge pressure and high flow rate. This leads to increased gas velocity in the compressor. When the gas velocity in any of the compressor parts reaches close to

sonic velocity, this is said to be the choke point or stonewall for compressor operation. The increase in gas velocity occurs until it reaches sonic velocity or resonance at the blade throat (Mach 1). At this point, no more flow can pass through the compressor, causing high frequency and low amplitude vibration in the machine.

During start-up and under unloaded operation, choke can also occur when the anti-surge valve is opened too much or for too long, and no back-pressure is created by the process. If the anti-surge valve is oversized, high travel limitation (high clamp) must be implemented in the controller to make sure the compressor operating point (OP) enters the stable operating envelope as soon as it starts and remains there during operation in unload condition.

One further choke condition should be noted: in compressors operating in parallel, when one compressor trips, the natural response of a load-sharing control system is to increase the performance of the remaining running compressor(s) to compensate for the loss. However, if process resistance remains unchanged, the running compressor might be pushed into the choke area.

Antichoke control

For applications in which choked flow through the compressor is a concern – like in pipelines where process resistance is very low due to the pipe length – an antisurge controller can be configured to alert the operator to a choked-flow condition. One recommendation to avoid choke conditions is to install an anti-choke valve immediately downstream of the anti-surge blowoff/recycle line and set up proper antichoke control, which must be independent from the anti-surge controller. Figure 1 shows this solution.

The antichoke valve should be prevented from closing to the point that it induces compressor surge. The valve movement can be limited using the valve output clamps. When the flow through the compressor is safely below a choked condition, the antichoke valve remains fully open. As the flow approaches a choked condition, the antichoke controller begins closing the valve to reduce the flow through the compressor.

As with the antisurge control function, the antichoke function uses control lines to determine its control response and actions, as shown in Figure 2.

To prevent the compressor from reaching a choked flow condition, a choke control line (CCL) is established within the controller. The CCL defines the desired minimum distance between the compressor operating point and the CLL, and is always to the left of the CLL. The distance between the two lines is determined by the safety margin (b).

When the operating point moves to the right on the compressor map and reaches the CCL, the controller will begin to close the antichoke valve to reduce the flow through the compressor. The proportional-integral (PI) response of the antichoke controller will reduce the flow through the compressor when the deviation is less than zero, and increase it when the deviation is greater than zero.

Figure 1. Antichoke control.

Figure 2. Antichoke control lines.

Figure 3. Proximity to choke variable Sc.

The antisurge controller can also calculate a ‘proximity-to-choke’ variable (Sc) by inverting the calculation of the proximity-to-surge variable (Ss). A proximity-to-choke characteriser and a proximity-to-choke scaling factor are also used in this calculation. The proximity-to-choke scaling factor is selected such that the value of Sc is one (1) when the operating point is on the CLL; is less than one when the operating point is in the stable operating zone to the left of the CLL; and is greater than one when the compressor is in a choked condition to the right of the CLL. Sc value ranges from 0 to 2 which indicates the position of the compressor operating point relative to a CLL configured within the controller, as shown in Figure 3. The CLL is established within the controller based on data for each specific compressor application. The flow through the compressor will be choked whenever the operating point of the compressor reaches the CLL, or passes into the choked flow region of the compressor map, to the right of the CLL.

The value of Sc can also be passed through an analogue output to an external controller which is used to protect against choked flow within the compressor.

Another recommendation to minimise choke conditions is to perform a choke test in addition to a surge test to determine (and show) the choke line and establish a CCL.

Figure 4. Compressor running within its design operating envelop.

Figure 5. Compressor OP is on CLL.

On the other hand, the process should always be ready to provide enough back-pressure for the compressor as soon as it is started. A properly sized anti-surge valve is necessary to make sure it does not allow for operation in choke when 100% open in an unloaded condition.

When operation near choke is detected, the control system should generate an alarm. In the absence of an antichoke valve, the operator may be able to apply corrective measures.

Experimental case study

Consider the process shown in Figure 1, along with its centrifugal compressor invariant coordinate system. It was required to clearly identify the location/position of CLL at a specific speed without the necessity to use a dedicated antichoke controller (UIC2). The antisurge controller (UIC1) will be used to also calculate the ‘proximity-to-choke’

variable (Sc). A Series 3++ antisurge controller was used in this case study.

n Normal running condition (Figure 4): the compressor is operating normally within its operating envelope. Choke display in the controller (1-Sc) is positive since the OP is to the left of CLL. This is considered a healthy process.

n Reducing downstream system resistance (Figure 5): the compressor is operating on CLL due to high opening of antisurge valve. Choke display in the controller (1-Sc) is zero since the OP is on CLL.

n Further reduction of downstream system resistance (Figure 6): the compressor is operating in choke condition due to higher opening of antisurge valve. Choke display in the controller (1-Sc) is negative since Sc is more than 1. The OP is to the right of CLL.

Conclusion

It is recommended to monitor or control choke conditions in centrifugal and axial compressors. The need to monitor or control choke depends solely on the application used and the control elements installed in the process. Prolonged operation of a compressor at its choke point can lead to vibration and possible damage in the compressor parts.

Figure 6. Driving the compressor into choke.

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