Baptism 966. The beginning of Poland.

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Poland and its Neighbours in the Mid-10th Century

The fortress was an early medieval settlement surrounded by a protective rampart.

The rampart was a complicated arrangement of wooden beams (most often made of oak) filled with sand and clay. The height of the ramparts reached up to 10-12 metres (32-40 feet). Its elevation required an enormous amount of material (primarily wood), work that required a large number of people and organizational ability. The mighty fortresses of Gniezno or Poznań are evidence of the power wielded by the Piasts, who were capable of building such demanding constructions.

The scale of the work required to build the fortress ramparts of Greater Poland is demonstrated by the fact that it resulted in the depletion of the oak forests in this part of Poland!

The Odra and Vistula basin was populated by many Slavic tribes. The centre of Greater Poland was inhabited by the Polans, ruled by members of the Piast dynasty. Under the reign of the dynasty, territorial expansion began, leading to the creation of the Polish state.

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In the middle of the 960s CE, Mieszko I emerged, the first historical ruler from the Piast dynasty. We know the borders of Poland at the end of his life from a document titled Dagome Iudex.

Where did the Slavs live during the early Middle Ages

The fortress rampart and a beam with a carving of a boar’s head

One of the beams that formed the rampart of Gniezno was decorated with a carving of the head of a boar (or ram).

A part of the rampart shaped in this way undoubtedly had a magical-defensive significance.

The tree from which this beam was formed was cut down around 1000 CE.

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Wolin

Truso

Kołobrzeg

PRUSSIANS

Szczecin

POLABIANS

Cedynia

Noteć

Narew Ostrów Lednicki

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Poznań

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Kruszwica Gniezno

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Bu

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Włocławek

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Grzybowo

GERMAN EMPIRE

Warta Głogów

Legnica

In the middle of the 960s CE, Poland encountered territories to the west that were under the control of the Ottonian dynasty. At this time, they were the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which was the most powerful state in Latin Europe. The imperial distinction gave Otto and his descendants primacy among the rulers of Europe, while the power of the Germans allowed them to impose their authority on neighbouring countries.

Kalisz

Wrocław

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Wis

Praga

Przemyśl

Piast domain

llustrations and graphic design: Jarosław Gryguć Historical consultant: Prof. Jerzy Strzelczyk

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We invite you to read the introductory article written by Prof. Jerzy Strzelczyk

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English version created by the Consulate General of the Republic of Poland In Toronto

territory of Gniezno

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THE PROJECT WAS CO-FUNDED

BY THE NATIONAL CENTRE FOR CULTURE THROUGH THE PROGRAM BAPTISM 966

Kraków

or select 1 from the keypad .

Authors: Dr. Michał Bogacki, Adam Bąkowski, Łukasz Kaczmarek

English translation: Tomasz Frydel, MA, University of Toronto, Canada

Połabia, or the territory between the Elbe and Oder rivers, was inhabited by many Slavic tribes.

With varying degrees of success, the Holy Roman Empire tried to impose its authority and the Christian religion on them. The most powerful tribe was the Veleti (Wieleci), which inhabited the northern part of the Połabie region and shared a pagan religion.

Opole

BOHEMIA

Organizer: The Museum of the Origins of the Polish State in Gniezno

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Płock

Giecz Nysa

THE BEGINNING OF POLAND

Radogoszcz

Od ra

Baptism 966

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territories annexed

by Mieszko’s state

HUNGARY

In the middle of the 10th century, the regions of Lesser Poland (Małopolska) and Silesia (Śląsk) belonged to Bohemia and were ruled by the Přemyslid dynasty, which had adopted Christianity a few decades prior. The Czechs were forced to accept their domination by the German emperors.

At the end of the 9th century, the Pannonian Basin was taken over by nomadic Hungarian tribes.

In time, its members abandoned the practice of raiding neighbouring countries and created their own state, adopting the Christianity of the Latin Church during the reign of King St. Stephen.

Kiev was the capital of an enormous Slavic state to the east, the Kievan Rus. Eastern Christianity reached its territory by way of the Byzantine Empire, resulting in the baptism of Vladimir the Great in 988.

The expansion of Piast power into neighbouring territories can be traced by analyzing the reconstruction of a network of fortresses on Polish lands. The most important of these were established in the first decades of the 10th century on the territory of Gniezno, which represented the centre of the first Piast state. These were: Gniezno, Poznań, Giecz, Ostrów Lednicki and Grzybowo.

These fortresses were most commonly used to accommodate the duke and his court as they traveled across the country. They were administrative centres and – following the adoption of Christianity – church centres of the young Polish state. In time, the “Piast” fortress emerged in subsequent parts of Poland as an indicator of their subservience to the authority of the dynasty of Greater Poland.

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Where did the Slavs live during the early Middle Ages

The evolution of the Gniezno fortress:

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How did the states neighboring Poland come about

Around the year 940, on top of Wzgórze Lecha (Lech’s Hill) – an elevation surrounded by lake water – the duke’s fortress was established. Not far away, a stone tumulus (kurhan) – most likely the centre of a pagan cult – was located on the northern part of the hill.

Following the adoption of Christianity, the fortress was expanded in a northerly direction.

The duke’s seat of power and the chapel were founded on the site of the tumulus. A church was built in the first sub-fortress during the reign of duke Mieszko I, where the relics of St. Adalbert were deposited after a few years.

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Why did Greater Poland become the cradle of the Polish state

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What does Europe owe to the “Dark Ages”

At the turn of the 10th century, the northern part of the fortress was enlarged. Open settlements developed around Gniezno, which functioned as an economic backyard of the fortress. In time, they grew in importance and were surrounded by a rampart. The third segment of the fortress was established in this way.

In the first half of the 11th century, Gniezno once again grew in size to the north, adding a fourth segment to the fortress.

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The Beliefs of the Slavs

An unusual stone statue of 2.5 metres (8 feet) in height was found in the Zbrucz River of today’s Ukraine. It depicts one of the most important Slavic gods – Svetovid (Świętowit) of four faces. Scholars believe that this statue illustrates a model of the universe shared by eastern Slavs: the realm of the gods in the upper part, the world of human beings in the middle and the afterlife in the lower section.

08 Prior to the adoption of Christianity, the Slavs did not know how to write and were thus unable to record their beliefs, therefore we know little about the subject today. We have come to know the religious ideas of the Slavs thanks to descriptions whose authors were often members of the Christian clergy and were averse to pagan beliefs. They did not pay much attention to them and often portrayed them in a negative light. Archeological relics are also an important source of information about the religion of the Slavs.

Prior to the adoption of Christianity, the Slavs believed in many gods and numerous supernatural beings of a secondary order. Objects of worship also included forces of nature, ancestral spirits and numerous minor supernatural beings close to people’s daily life at this time.

The Sources of Knowledge of Poland’s Baptism

What did pagan Slavs believe in

For scholars, all records from distant eras as well as objects from the past constitute sources of knowledge about past events. The modest number of sources available to researchers permits answers to questions about the baptism of Mieszko I along the following lines: “we do not know,” “perhaps” or “most likely.” All written sources related to the reign of the historical duke of Poland would fit on a single page of a modern newspaper. Information about the baptism of Mieszko I would represent only a section of that page.

This bronze figurine comes from 11th-century Wolin. The horse was a sacred animal associated with Svetovid. A special steed was used by priests for divination, believed to have been ridden at night by the gods themselves.

The oldest Polish yearbooks briefly inform us of the Polish duke’s conversion, with no more than a sentence stating the date of the baptism of duke Mieszko I, the arrival of Dobrawa and the birth of their son Boleslaus (Bolesław).

An ostensibly richer source of the circumstances of these events can be found in the chronicles of Thietmar, the Bishop of Merseburg and Gallus Anonymus, a Benedictine monk whose real name we do not know.

We also learn about the Christianization of Poland from archeological artifacts.

These include relics of masonry architecture, such as the palatia – the seat of power of the ruler – or churches. In Poznań and Ostrów Lednicki, archeologists discovered objects that are interpreted as baptismal pools.

Artifacts tied to the liturgy also provide evidence of Christian activity carried out by the clergy. Another important determinant of the Christianization of a population is a change in burial rituals.

The tradition of painting eggs is rooted in pre-Christian times. For pagan Slavs, decorated eggs (pisanki) were a symbol of life and were originally placed in graves.

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Where and how were gods worshipped

A stauroteka is a reliquary discovered in Ostrów Lednicki in the shape of a symmetrical cross intended to be worn around the neck. It originally contained the relics of the Holy Cross.

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The reliquary of Ostrów Lednicki – a description

Today, in the walls and foundations of the oldest churches of Western Pomerania and Rügen, one can notice reused stone slabs that contain images of figures. Some scholars believe that they are depictions of Slavic gods, Svetovid or Jarovid.

A simple wooden cross was given to the newly baptised. This one was discovered in layers of the Gdańsk fortress dating back to the 11th century.

In the pre-Christian era, Lech’s Hill of Gniezno, situated among lakes and marshes, most likely enjoyed the status of a transregional place of worship. A stone tumulus surrounded by a rampart was located on top of it. Archeologists discovered traces of sacrificial offerings, fire rituals and feasts. Five centuries after the adoption of Christianity by Mieszko I, Jan Długosz wrote that in pre-Christian times “the most important temple was built in the city of Gniezno, to which pilgrimages were organized from all directions.”

In all likelihood, by situating their seat of power next to this pagan sanctuary, the Piasts exploited its religious significance in order to strengthen their own political power.

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Which archeological sources speak about the Christianization

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This animation depicts the tumulus on Lech’s Hill

During the early medieval period, parchment was used as writing material, which was specially prepared from calfskin. It formed a very durable, though costly, material. Ink of various colors was created by mixing natural ingredients.

A writing utensil was prepared from a bird’s feather sharpened with a special knife. Paragraphs were sometimes begun using enlarged initials, especially with decorated lettering. The creation of books was very labor-intensive and required the use of expensive materials, sometimes even gold, which made them very valuable.

The language of the Church, learning and culture was Latin. The first sentence in Polish to be preserved in our time was only written three centuries after the baptism of Mieszko I!

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What do written sources say about Mieszko’s baptism

Mesco dux baptizatur is a sentence that comes from the oldest physically preserved written source related to the baptism of the Polish leader. It is found in the so-called “Old Świętokrzyski Yearbook,” which emerged in the first decades of the 12th century.

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Why Did Mieszko I Accept Baptism

We probably should not regard the decision of the Polish duke to accept baptism solely in terms of a “cold” political calculation. A skillful politician like Mieszko I was certain to perceive the benefits of adopting Christianity. The successes of his Christian neighbours, attributed to the support provided by the Christian God, must have made an impression on the duke. The monumental stone architecture of churches, the beauty of the liturgy and the wealth of adornments found in Christian temples must have had a powerful effect on people’s imagination at the time. An example is the golden chalice of a Benedictine abbot from the 11th century.

Mieszko and Dobrawa

The early life of Mieszko I is lost in the darkness of history – we know neither his year of birth nor the year in which he came to power. However, we do know that he was a talented leader, a skillful organizer and an effective politician.

Shortly after assuming power, Mieszko formed an alliance with the Czechs, accepted baptism and established diplomatic contacts with Emperor Otto.

Due to the strengthening of the position of the country in the new political map of Europe and the strength of the duke’s drużyna, or fellowship, he was able to defeat the Wolinians and the Saxon margrave Hodon. Mieszko’s subsequent success was the arrival of the first bishop in his country as early as 968.

During the rule of duke Mieszko, fortresses were built throughout Poland where the ruler funded the first churches.

This miniature, found in a Gospel Book from Reichenau dating back to c. 1000 CE, depicts the figures of four women making obeisance before the Emperor. They embody the provinces of the reborn Roman Empire. The figures are all of the same height, illustrating the vision of Otto III, in which Boleslaus the Brave, as leader of the Slavic lands, is equal in rank to rulers in other parts of the Empire.

Poland’s first historical duke led an effective, pragmatic political campaign in relation to his neighbours. The diplomatic reach of Mieszko I is demonstrated by the marriage of his daughter Świętosława with the ruler of Sweden and his contacts with the Pope in distant Rome.

Was Mieszko afraid of the German “drive toward the East”

A decisive force on the early medieval battlefield were the so-called ironclad. These were highly trained warriors armed in expensive equipment.

They rode on horseback and were protected by helmets, chainmail and shields. They fought using spears, swords and axes. It was such a unit of the ironclad – representing a considerable fighting force – that was sent by Boleslaus the Stern, the duke of the Czechs, to help his newly baptized son-in-law. Ibrahim ibn Jakub wrote about the ironclad: “a hundred [of them] is equivalent to ten hundred of others [warriors].”

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Dobrawa came from the Czech Přemyslid dynasty and was the daughter of prince Boleslaus the Stern.

In 965, she married Mieszko I, thus cementing a Polish-Czech alliance. Historical tradition assigns her a very important role in the Christianization of Poland. The union between Mieszko and Dobrawa gave birth to the future king of Poland, Boleslaus the Brave and Świętosława (or Sigried), queen of Sweden and Denmark.

Was Poland threatened by its Slavic kin on the other side of the Oder

Was Mieszko’s baptism “Poland’s first entry into Europe”

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Did Mieszko trust in the power of the Christian God

In the early medieval period, a feast was not only an occasion to dine, but also an event that allowed one to demonstrate social position and the exercise of power. For a host, it was an opportunity to showcase his wealth and generosity toward his guests.

In the opinion of Thietmar, it was during such feasts in the court of Mieszko that the duchess Dobrawa, on account of her diplomatic skills, was able to be heard and in this way could convince her husband to accept baptism.

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Did Dobrawa’s name mean “good” or rather “exceedingly shameless”

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Was Dobrawa the reason why Mieszko accepted baptism

Initially, Christian services – which took place in a modest number of small churches and chapels – were attended exclusively by representatives of Polish elites of the time: the duke, his family and the people closest to his entourage.

This small cross was made in a workshop of Great Moravia at the end of the 9th century. Archeologists discovered it in layers of the Wrocław fortress dating back to the second half of the 10th century – perhaps representing traces of the earliest Christianization of Silesia.

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Was Mieszko I a good Christian

Mieszko I of the Piast family was the first historical ruler of Poland.

“Historical” in the sense that we have reliable sources about him at our disposal.

It is not easy to answer the question of why Mieszko I accepted baptism.

Our main obstacle is a shortage of historical sources dating back to this period. It seems that the duke’s decision in favor of baptism was motivated by both political and religious factors.

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The inscription on the seal reads “REGINA RICHEZA,” or “Queen Richeza.” The seal belonged to the daughter of the Palatine of the Rhine, who became the wife of Mieszko II at the beginning of the 1020s. The marriage was a great diplomatic success of Boleslaus the Brave and signified the rise of the Piast line by entering the circles of the imperial family.

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Prince Mieszko I

Did the internal politics of Mieszko I determine the acceptance of baptism

The first bishop of Poland, Jordan

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The Day of Baptism

When did the baptism take place

The Year 966: The Baptism of Mieszko or the Baptism of Poland

The chroniclers who mention the baptisms of early medieval rulers did not provide details about these rituals. The reason for this is that the authors and the readers of these accounts were themselves Christians and were thus well aware of the rites surrounding baptism.

In general, we know about the contemporary process of baptism in the early Middle Ages thanks to church instructions of the period. Unfortunately, there is an absence of such sources for the 10th century, when Mieszko I became a Christian. However, thanks to the relative stability of the liturgy, we are able to approximate a description of the course of the baptism of Poland’s prince.

1. Baptism was preceded by a period of preparations, known as a catechumenate.

In the case of Mieszko, the catechumenate was based on attendance of seven Holy Mass services on Wednesdays and Saturdays during the time of Lent. These were accompanied by lessons about the basic tenets of the faith and formulas required for participation in the rite of baptism.

The year 966 can be regarded as the Baptism of Poland only if we identify the event with the adoption of Christianity by Mieszko I, members of his family and the representatives of the country’s elites. The Christianization of the people, which represented the overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of contemporary Poland, was a process that stretched over time and lasted for the duration of the early medieval period. During the reign of Mieszko I and Boleslaus the Brave, the clergy was too small in number to be able to accommodate all subjects of the early Piasts. This only became possible in the 12th century with the establishment of a network of parishes throughout Poland.

The elites of the state – the ruler and his family, bishops and archbishops – had the option to bury remains inside of a church, which was valued for religious reasons as well as for its prestige.

The underground of the Gniezno cathedral contains a stately stone tomb dating back to the 11th century.

A very important contemporary personage was buried there, perhaps the first archbishop of Gniezno, Radim Gaudentius.

2. The godfather introduced Mieszko as one who wishes to “honestly and without any hidden thoughts to become a follower of Christ.”

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A common funeral ritual among pagan Slavs was cremation.

The bodies of the dead were cremated and their ashes were stored in clay urns placed on small kurhans or posts.

What occurred in 966

3. Early in the day of baptism, Mieszko took a bath and put on a new white robe. The bishop carrying out the baptism blessed the essential oils and water.

The introductory ceremony began in the vestibule of the temple, where the prince renounced Satan and all pagan practices. Next, members of the clergy led him inside the temple while singing, where Mieszko made his vow to Christianity.

Where did the baptism take place

East

25 4. A large tub filled with water blessed by the bishop awaited the duke in the baptistery.

After immersing him (or simply pouring water on him) three times, the bishop carefully uttered the following words: ego te baptizo in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti, or: “I bless you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.”

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West

Who carried out the baptism

A testament to the Christianization of the population in a given region was a change in the burial rituals. As a consequence of the baptism of Mieszko I, his subjects began to gradually bury the dead in graves. As a result of this change, the first so-called row cemeteries emerged in the second half of the 10th century. They were characterized by a row-like layout of graves, where the dead were buried in accordance with an east-west line.

5. In the early Middle Ages, after the baptism, the bishop performed confirmation on the neophyte by marking his forehead with the sign of the cross using holy oil.

Two tombs are found in the centre of the Poznań cathedral, most likely used for the burial of Mieszko I and Boleslaus the Brave.

What might have been the course of the baptism

6. The next step of the ceremony was participation in the ceremonial Holy Mass.

In the course of the mass, Mieszko received the third sacrament on the same day – the Holy Communion.

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Who was the godfather of Mieszko I

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What course did Christianity take in Poland

The amber hammer of Thor and the Christian cross were made in early medieval Gdańsk.

Objects that possessed a cult significance among various religions were constructed in the same workshops. This can be viewed as evidence of the interpenetration of pagan and Christian worlds, as well as the entrepreneurship of these craftsmen!

7. After the ceremonies, Mieszko, the bishop and the guests made their way to the feast – after all, the baptism was preceded by a three-day fast!

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What was the Polish duke’s Christian name

The belief in the magical power of certain objects, or amulets, was a legacy of paganism. They allegedly protected individuals who wore them from spells and witchcraft and ensured success.

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How were the dead handled at the time of Mieszko I

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Board BoardIX X A pastoral staff – a sign of Church authority. In the early medieval period, this one belonged to the archbishop of Gniezno.

A pastoral staff has the form of a long cane crowned with a spiraled curvature at the top.

The tip of this model was given the shape of beast’s head: a dragon or a snake.

The Beginnings of Church Organization in Poland

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The TheBeginnings First King of Church Organization of Poland in Poland

As reported in the brief record of the annual year books, Poland had its first bishop in in 968 CE. His name was Jordan. His appearance in the country just two years after the baptism of Mieszko I was a great success of the Polish ruler.

It raised Poland’s international prestige and facilitated the Christianization of his subjects.

The spear of St. Maurice – a description of the artifact

A second important source of information about the progress and the decisions taken during the Congress of Gniezno is described in the “Polish Chronicles” of Gallus Anonymus. Unlike Thietmar, who focused on the church side of Otto III’s visit in Gniezno, Gallus Anonymus stressed the secular aspects of the events of 1000 CE.

The majority of scholars believe that Jordan was a missionary bishop directly subordinate to the Pope. An alternative view is that he headed a “classical” dioceses with its capital in Poznań, but was still directly subordinate to the Holy See. The successor of Jordan was Unger, previously an important figure in the German Church.

An important change in the Polish Church occurred in March of 1000 CE, when the young Emperor Otto III arrived at the grave of St. Adalbert in Gniezno.

It was announced at this time that an archbishopric would be established in Gniezno, with subordinate bishoprics in Krakow, Wrocław and Kołobrzeg.

Confined to the western territories of Greater Poland, Unger’s bishopric of Poznań fell under direct control of the papacy.

A 12th century bishop’s ring with a sapphire stone discovered by archeologists in one of the graves located in the Gniezno cathedral.

In the underground of the Gniezno cathedral, archeologists discovered traces of the first church built

by Mieszko I. It was a rotunda, or a temple, raised on a round foundation of 9 metres (30 feet) in diameter. It was here that the relics of St. Adalbert were placed during the reign of Boleslaus the Brave.

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A denarius of Boleslaus the Great. The inscription “BOLIZLAS DVX” means “Duke Boleslaus.” The other side of the coin depicts a simplified stock “portrait” of Boleslaus the Brave. However, the goal of the minter was not to render a faithful appearance of the duke, but to display the power that he wielded. In this sense, Boleslaus modeled himself on Saxon princes. The inscription on the other side – “GNEZDVN CIVITAS” – may suggest that the coin was minted in connection with the congress held in Gniezno.

What do we know of the first Polish bishops

Archbishop Radim Gaudentius descended from the wealthy Sławnikowice dynasty in Czech lands. He accompanied his brother Wojciech (Adalbert) on numerous journeys.

In 997, he witnessed his brother’s death as a martyr in Prussia. In 1000 CE, Radim Gaudentius became the head of the Polish Church.

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What was the meaning behind Emperor’s words and gestures

The spear of St. Maurice was a ceremonial weapon that symbolized the authority of the German emperors. Legend has it that it originally belonged to St. Maurice, a Christian martyr who lived in the third century. Emperor Otto III handed a copy of the spear to Boleslaus the Brave in 1000 CE, as a symbol of friendship and recognition of the power of the Polish ruler. For Gallus Anonymus, the gift was evidence of the elevation of Boleslaus to the rank of king.

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According to Gallus Anonymus, Emperor Otto III, dazzled by the wealth and power of Boleslaus the Great, allegedly said that “he does not agree […] to call such a great man as one dignitary among others, a duke or a count, but [it is more proper] to carry him to the kingly throne and crown him.” To emphasize these words, the Emperor is alleged to have placed his diadem on the head of the Polish duke. However, contrary to the opinion of the chronicler, no coronation of Boleslaus actually took place at the time, although his rank was raised.

What was remembered of the Congress of Gniezno 100 years later

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How long did Boleslaus the Brave seek the crown

On Easter, April 25, 1025, in the Gniezno cathedral, Archbishop Hippolytus anointed Boleslaus the Great with sacred oils and placed a king’s crown on his head.

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The life of St. Adalbert – from his birth to his death as a martyr and to the placement of his relics in Gniezno – was depicted at the end of the 12th century on the so-called Gniezno Doors made of bronze. The story begins on the bottom-left section of the doors, depicting the birth of Adalbert. The way it is illustrated alludes to depictions of the Nativity of Jesus in early medieval art. In the fragment of edging around the scene, one can see a foreshadowing of Adalbert’s fate: woven into the vine of a plant is a hunter and dog giving chase to a rabbit. In the Middle Ages, this symbolized the martyr “hunting” for his escaping soul.

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The Gniezno Doors – a description

Why did a Czech become a patron of Poland

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What was the purpose of Otto III’s visit to Gniezno

This scene depicts the arrival of Otto III in Gniezno. Upon seeing the church with St. Adalbert’s relics, he continued the rest of his journey on barefoot. He is led to the shrine

by Boleslaus the Brave as Bishop Unger awaits him at the gates of the church. The golden facing of the altar is being carried behind the emperor – a precious gift from Otto III to the church of Gniezno.

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The Consequences of the Baptism The acceptance of baptism by Mieszko I meant opening Poland to the civilizational achievements of the Mediterranean region with its wealth of spiritual and material culture, as well as an advanced level of social organization.

A very important role in adopting these developments in Poland was played by the Church. The creation of its structures demanded not only the influx of clergy from abroad, but craftsmen skilled in the construction of stone buildings. It was also necessary to acquire the necessary church equipment: books, robes, liturgical paraphernalia and relics.

In architecture, a tympanum is a semi-circular wall surface placed in the upper part of a decorative entrance of a shrine. It was often ornamented with a relief, for example, of an image of a ruler or a wealthy individual symbolically dedicating a temple to Christ, which he himself had funded.

This illustration shows the tympanum of the rotunda of St. Procopius in Strzelno. It was made out of sandstone at the turn of the 12th century.

Together with the adoption of Christianity on territories under the rule of Mieszko I, stone architecture made its appearance. Buildings were constructed using stone: initially using boulders or flat slabs. In time, ashlar masonry, or the practice of shaping stones into cubes, became widespread. Stones were held together by the use of lime mortar. Raising a building using masonry required hiring so-called guilds, or associations of specialized artisans (bricklayers, stonemasons, carpenters and others).

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Baptism 966

By what routes did Latin culture arrive in Poland

In the early Middle Ages, writing in the form of ongoing notes was done on wooden plates covered with a layer of wax. The writing utensil was a metal burin called a stylus. Letters were drawn using its sharp point, while its flattened end (in this case, in the shape of a hand) could be used as an eraser. The burin depicted in this illustration comes from the second half of the 11th century and was discovered in Giecz.

THE BEGINNING OF POLAND Authors: Dr. Michał Bogacki, Adam Bąkowski, Łukasz Kaczmarek llustrations and graphic design: Jarosław Gryguć Historical consultant: Prof. Jerzy Strzelczyk

Organizer: The Museum of the Origins of the Polish State in Gniezno English translation: Tomasz Frydel, MA, University of Toronto, Canada

Thanks to archeological research, we can imagine what the Gniezno cathedral looked like in the early Middle Ages.

The inside of the imposing 12th-century church was adorned with sculpted stone decorations covering its arches, columns and portals. The walls of the cathedral covered the raw ashlar masonry with colourful paintings.

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Who could read and write in the early Middle Ages

English version created by the Consulate General of the Republic of Poland In Toronto

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The Romanesque floor of the Gniezno cathedral was adorned with mosaic parquetry.

It was made out of glazed ceramic tiles.

What is the link between religion and architecture

THE PROJECT WAS CO-FUNDED

BY THE NATIONAL CENTRE FOR CULTURE THROUGH THE PROGRAM BAPTISM 966

Romanesque flooring from the Gniezno cathedral a description

The arrival of members of the Christian clergy marked a lasting ability to read and write in Poland. Initially, knowledge of writing was indispensable for practicing the Christian cult, but later it demonstrated its usefulness for governing the state.

Yet in the early medieval period – apart from a few rare exceptions – it was restricted to the domain of the clergy.