Biophilic Homes: Analyzing Biophilic Design in the Residential Setting

biophilic homes

analyzing biophilic design in the residential setting

ABSTRACT

Biophilic design, a design practice that promotes wellness through the connection of people and the natural world, has grown in popularity over the years but is often discussed only in the context of its implementation in large-scale architectural projects. As a practice that is regarded by many as overtly beneficial, it is intriguing that it is mainly discussed in terms of its application in the workplace or commercial projects when its most widespread benefit can be felt in the one place that almost everyone has in common: the home. The application of biophilic design in the home, while not a new topic, is one that is primarily skipped over or assumed to be out of reach for the majority of society. This practice should not be limited in this field due to the immense opportunity for far-reaching benefit that lies in making biophilic design practices widely available to projects at the smaller residential scale.

Through familiarization with the major literature on biophilic design and an investigation into the ways in which biophilic practices have already been implemented in residential scale projects, this thesis will investigate how biophilic design practices are related to the idea of well-being for the user and how they can be generalized and executed on the residential scale in order to provide the benefits of nature in an extensive way. These general practices will be compiled in a comprehensive catalog, or pattern book, that will be used to inform the design of a series of biophilic home prototypes concentrated on providing maximum wellness benefits to its residents. This design will be documented through drawings and each of the different practices will be further described in the pattern book as to how they can be implemented and what specific benefits they provide to the user. This thesis will yield a resource for the application of biophilic design in the residential environment in the way of a pattern book of design applications that can provide inspiration and direction on how to move forward with the implementation of biophilic design in residential projects.

FIGURES

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Photograph by Design Haus Liberty, Villa Mosca Bianca / Design Haus Liberty, May 16, 2019, ArchDaily, https://www.archdaily.com/916988/ villa-mosca-bianca-house-design-haus-liberty

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Photograph by Design Haus Liberty, Villa Mosca Bianca / Design Haus Liberty, May 16, 2019, ArchDaily, https://www.archdaily.com/916988/ villa-mosca-bianca-house-design-haus-liberty

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Photograph by Design Haus Liberty, Villa Mosca Bianca / Design Haus Liberty, May 16, 2019, ArchDaily, https://www.archdaily.com/916988/ villa-mosca-bianca-house-design-haus-liberty

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Photograph by Yosuke Ohtake, House in Kyoto / 07Beach, June 5, 2021, ArchDaily, https://www.archdaily.com/920871/house-in-kyoto07beach

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Photograph by Guz Architects, 20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives, January 15, 2021, Dwell, https://www.dwell.com/ article/biophilic-home-design-f58257d5

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Photograph by Patrick Bingham Hall, Sky Pool House / Guz Architects, March 21, 2022, ArchDaily, https://www.archdaily.com/978737/sky-poolhouse-guz-architects

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Photograph by Lance Gerber, An Open-Air Venice Home by Sebastian Mariscal Asks $3.7M, May 27, 2020, Dwell, https://www.dwell.com/ article/venice-house-sebastian-mariscal-eab0ad6e

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Photograph by Lance Gerber, An Open-Air Venice Home by Sebastian Mariscal Asks $3.7M, May 27, 2020, Dwell, https://www.dwell.com/ article/venice-house-sebastian-mariscal-eab0ad6e

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Diagram by Author, April 12, 2023

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Diagram by Author, November 1, 2022

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Drawing by effekt, ReGen Villages, 2016, EFFEKT, https://www.effekt. dk/regenvillages

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Drawing by effekt, ReGen Villages, 2016, EFFEKT, https://www.effekt. dk/regenvillages

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Drawing by effekt, Living Places, 2020, EFFEKT, https://www.effekt.dk/ buildforlife

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Drawing by effekt, Living Places, 2020, EFFEKT, https://www.effekt.dk/ buildforlife

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Drawing by effekt, Living Places, 2020, EFFEKT, https://www.effekt.dk/ buildforlife

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Image by effekt, Living Places, 2020, EFFEKT, https://www.effekt.dk/ buildforlife

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Drawing by effekt, Urban Village Project, 2018, EFFEKT, https://www. effekt.dk/urbanvillage

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Drawing by effekt, Urban Village Project, 2018, EFFEKT, https://www. effekt.dk/urbanvillage

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Diagram by Author, April 11, 2023

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Diagram by Author, April 11, 2023

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Map by IECC, Climate Zone Map from IECC 2021, 2021, Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, https://basc.pnnl.gov/images/ climate-zone-map-iecc-2021

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Diagram by Author, April 11, 2023

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Photograph by Emma Janzen, 20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives, January 15, 2021, Dwell, https://www.dwell.com/ article/biophilic-home-design-f58257d5

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Photograph by Emma Janzen, 20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives, January 15, 2021, Dwell, https://www.dwell.com/ article/biophilic-home-design-f58257d5

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Photograph by Coral von Zumwalt, 20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives, January 15, 2021, Dwell, https://www.dwell.com/ article/biophilic-home-design-f58257d5

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Photograph by Coral von Zumwalt, 20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives, January 15, 2021, Dwell, https://www.dwell.com/ article/biophilic-home-design-f58257d5

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Photograph by LandVest, Inside a $32.5 Million Martha’s Vineyard Home with Biophilic Design, Forbes, https://www.forbes.com/stories/ homes/inside-a-325-million-marthas-vineyard-home-with-biophilicdesign/

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Photograph by LandVest, Sustainability and Biophilic Design Takes Center Stage at Newly Listed Martha’s Vineyard Home, September 29, 2021, LandVest, https://landvest.blog/2021/09/marthas-vineyardminawetu/

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Drawing by Author, February 1, 2023

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Diagram by Author, March 1, 2023

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Photograph by Sergi Serrat, April 19, 2023

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Drawing by Author, January 29, 2023

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Photograph by Sergi Serrat, April 19, 2023

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Photograph by Sergi Serrat, April 19, 2023

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Photograph by Sergi Serrat, April 19, 2023

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Photograph by Sergi Serrat, April 19, 2023

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Photograph by Sergi Serrat, April 19, 2023

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Photograph by Sergi Serrat, April 19, 2023

I. INTRODUCTION

Biophilic design is a topic that is currently becoming popular in the design profession but is notably underemphasized in its application in the residential sphere. It is often praised for its benefits to human well-being and its importance to the future of design, but in practice, it is lacking in the spaces we would most expect it to be – the ones where we spend the most time. People are spending increasingly more time in their homes as of recent years, especially with the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting surge of remote work positions, so it only makes sense to focus such a beneficial practice within this sphere. 1 In order to truly understand the oversight in this field, it is first important to understand the fundamentals of biophilic design, such as what it is and what it means in the architectural profession. Questions, such as how this practice differs from sustainability, what makes it a design “practice” and not just the addition of landscape elements, and what its actual benefits are, are crucial first steps to understanding this topic and its significance. Biophilic design is commonly described as a practice that facilitates a connection between humans and nature through the built environment, but what does this really mean?

Biophilia, a term that has been around for less than 60 years, refers to the inherent human inclination to affiliate with nature due to the evolutionary connection between humans and the natural environment. 2 Biophilic design, then, refers to any design approach or element that works to facilitate this connection between humans and aspects of the natural environment that were influential in evolutionary development. It is not just focused on landscape and plants, but also encompasses daylighting strategies, ventilation strategies, incorporation of water and natural materials, and so much more. Biophilic design is thought to be important because the connection it provides with nature provides a multitude of health and wellness benefits for human beings, including physical, mental, and behavioral. It is thought to increase our immunity, boost natural circadian rhythms, regulate temperatures, and inspire relaxation and tranquility for human inhabitants as a result of this inherent connection to nature first described by Edward O. Wilson in his book Biophilia. 3

Due to the praise this design strategy receives for potential wellness benefits, its most notable use has been focused on large-scale architectural works or office buildings as a way to improve the lifestyle of humans at work. The application of biophilic design is severely lacking, however, in the place where people spend the vast majority of their life: their home. Residential applications for biophilic design practices can provide the widespread benefit of the human-nature connection in a place where people often spend most of their time, but implementation at this level is not often prioritized and leaves most homes distinctly “non-biophilic.”

The goal of this thesis is to examine the lack of biophilic design practice at the residential scale and provide ways in which biophilic design can be implemented in the home, across a range of different locations and climate zones. Biophilic design is achievable in every home, in different applications, and knowledge for implementation should be made accessible to all people, so that they may also have the opportunity to benefit from the environment around us. The following paper will address core questions surrounding the topic of biophilic design and its application in residential settings, including how biophilic design stands alone as a design strategy, what its benefits are and how it promotes wellness, what its relationship is with the residential environment and why this is important, and why an emphasis on biophilic design is not currently seen in the residential sphere. Additionally, it will address how biophilic design can be implemented at the residential scale and how this may differ from other applications, along with demonstrating some of the limitations and advantages of this design practice based on climate and location. Through the compilation of this research and an exploration of the central precedents in literature and built work, this thesis and subsequent design project will work to provide an analysis and public resource for the application of biophilic design in the residential setting and seek to prove the thesis statement: biophilic residential design can be achieved and implemented in almost any home, regardless of economic status, location and climatic conditions, and dwelling type.

With the intention being to investigate the limited use of biophilic design on the residential scale and put forward a solution as to how this strategy can become accessible to the residential environment to provide widespread benefit, this thesis will dig deeper into the roots of biophilic design and its relationship to the human being. Additionally, it will explore the specific benefits this practice provides to its human inhabitants and why it is important for health and wellness. Specifically, this thesis looks to address the following questions:

● How does biophilic design stand on its own as a design strategy?

● What are the benefits of biophilic design and how do these strategies promote wellness?

● What is the relationship between biophilic design and the residential environment and why is it important?

● Why is an emphasis on biophilic design not currently seen in the residential sphere?

● In what ways can biophilic design be implemented, specifically in residential environments?

● How can this knowledge become accessible so that more people can feel the benefit resulting from this design approach?

Throughout the following document, with the breakdown of the subject of biophilic design and its significance to the residential sphere, along with the accompanying design project, this thesis hopes to provide answers to these inquiries and any additional questions regarding biophilic design or its residential application that may come up along the way.

II. BREAKING DOWN BIOPHILIC DESIGN

Before moving into the specifics of biophilic design and its significance at the residential scale, it is critical to understand this topic and how it stands on its own as a design practice. As this is a relatively new practice and is still faced with large amounts of confusion and skepticism, it is important that a foundation of knowledge be established to clarify its significance, application, and benefits in general. This section of the paper looks to address this issue by introducing core terminology, defining the practice, categorizing and breaking down implementation methods, and addressing biophilic design’s intention as a design practice. Additionally, the review of prior literature and built precedents, along with a historical review of the subject, will work to establish the background of the practice and add to the base of knowledge required to fully comprehend biophilic design.

2.1 TERMINOLOGY

Biophilic design is a design practice that evolved out of the initial topic of biophilia. Therefore, before understanding the meaning of biophilic design, it is important to investigate the meaning of biophilia. For this, we look at the definitions of those considered to be pioneers and experts in the topic: Erich Fromm, Edward O. Wilson, and Stephen R. Kellert.

Biophilia

the passionate love of life and all that is alive; the wish to further growth, whether in a person, a plant, an idea, or a social group (Erich Fromm, TheAnatomyofHumanDestructiveness, 1973) 4

Biophilia

the innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes (Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia, 1984) 5

Biophilia

a human dependence on nature that extends far beyond the simple issues of material and physical sustenance to encompass as well the human craving for aesthetic, intellectual, cognitive, and even spiritual meaning and satisfaction

(Stephen R. Kellert, TheBiophiliaHypothesis, 1993) 6

Biophilia

the idea that humans possess a biological inclination to affiliate with natural systems and processes instrumental in their health and productivity

(Kellert and Heerwagen, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory,Science,andPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife , 2008) 7

Biophilia

the inherent human inclination to affiliate with nature that even in the modern world continues to be critical to people’s physical and mental health and well-being (Kellert and Calabrese, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign , 2015) 8

Biophilia

the inherent affinity people have for the natural world (Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 2018) 9

After gaining a basic understanding of its roots, the core idea of biophilic design should be easier to grasp. This topic has been described many different ways, but all of the definitions refer back to one important aspect: the human-nature connection encouraged through the built environment. Some of the definitions that came up in the research for this document are as follows:

Biophilic Design

an innovative approach that emphasizes the necessity of maintaining, enhancing, and restoring the beneficial experience of nature in the built environment; the expression of the inherent human need to affiliate with nature in the design of the built environment

(Kellert and Heerwagen, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory,Science,andPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife, 2008) 10

Biophilic Design

design that reconnects us to nature (Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 2014) 11

Biophilic Design

seeks to create good habitat for people as a biological organism in the modern built environment that advances peoples’ health, fitness, and well-being; seeks to sustain the productivity, functioning, and resilience of natural systems over time

(Kellert and Calabrese, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 2015) 12

Biophilic Design

biophilia in the human-built environment (Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign , 2018) 13

Biophilic Design

the practice of connecting people and nature within our built environments and communities

(International Living Future Institute, BiophilicDesignToolkit , 2022) 14

After analyzing the variety of different explanations and definitions of biophilic design, along with consideration of the research and history of the topic, the resulting definition of biophilic design was created:

Biophilic Design

any design approach or element that works to facilitate a connection between humans and aspects of the natural environment that were influential in evolutionary development

Another important aspect of understanding biophilic design is the concept of biophilic design categories. These categories help organize different practices or elements of biophilic design by filtering them into overall topics that are easier to understand. This thesis will lean on the categories defined by Stephen R. Kellert in NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign to help filter the chosen practices, due to their clarity as compared to the categorizations of other resources. These categories are:

1. The Direct Experience of Nature, referred to as Direct

2. The Indirect Experience of Nature, referred to as Indirect

3. The Experience of Space & Place, referred to as Space & Place 15

Additionally, throughout this thesis, the terms principles and practices will be used frequently in relation to the discussion on biophilic design. In context, these terms will be used in the following ways:

Principle

(noun) a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behavior or for a chain of reasoning 16 context: the principles of biophilic design

Practice

(noun) the carrying out or exercise of a profession 17 context: the practice of biophilic design

(noun) the actual application or use of an idea, belief, or method 18 context: biophilic design practices

This terminology, specifically the difference between the two uses of “practice,” becomes important in understanding the following text on biophilic design. The three formerly listed design categories hold significance in both the text and design project, and act as a pivotal organization tool when discussing biophilic design practices in both of these documents.

2.1.1 DIRECT

The first biophilic design category, the Direct connection with nature, refers to actual contact with the basic features and characteristics of the built environment. 19 This is the most apparent form of biophilic design and the category most people think of when referring to this design practice.

PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

Natural Light accessibility of natural sunlight, such as through windows and openings

Filtered & Diffused Light the modulation and control of light, such as through shades and screens

Air the opportunity for airflow, such as natural ventilation strategies

Water the presence of water as a design feature, such as a fountain or pond

Fire exploitation and control of fire, such as through fireplaces or firepits

Animals the incorporation of living animals in the built environment or through representations, such as aquariums or images

Plants plants and vegetation present in the home, such as potted plants

Greening vegetative facades or walls, such as living walls, green roofs, or ivy walls

Geology connection to geological features, such as earth and rock structures

Weather exposure to weather conditions and natural elements, such as operable windows or terraces

Views and Vistas views of natural environments facilitated through design, such as through windows and framing

Natural Landscapes and Ecosystems interconnection of plants, animals, water, soil, rocks, and geological forms in natural scenery, such as constructed wetlands

Natural Systems evoking a relationship to the greater whole of natural properties and processes, such as through wildlife habitats

Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli creating brief distractions through natural stimuli, such as birds singing or breezes rolling through a space

Auditory Stimuli exposure to nature sounds, such as ocean or rainforest sounds

PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

Haptic Stimuli physical touch interaction with nature, such as gardening or petting animals

Olfactory Stimuli exposure to natural scents, such as plant oils

Gustatory Stimuli exposure to natural tastes, such as edible plants and fruits

Thermal Variability control of thermal conditions and the opportunity for range, such as through HVAC

2.1.2 INDIRECT

The second biophilic design category, the Indirect connection with nature, refers mostly to images or other representations of nature, features of the natural world transformed from their original state, and particular natural patterns and processes that were influential in human evolution. 20

PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

Images of Nature literal and metaphorical images of nature, such as images of plants, animals, and landscapes

Natural Materials use of local and naturally-occurring materials in space, such as finishes and furnishings

Natural Colors the use of natural colors to refer to landscape and nature elements, such as blues, greens, and earth tones

Natural Textures incorporation of naturally occurring textures, such as through building facade or finish features

Natural Geometries incorporation of naturally-occurring mathematical properties, such as fractals and hierarchically organized scales

Naturalistic Shapes and Forms inclusion of shapes and forms inspired by nature, such as patterns

Simulating Natural Light and Air the use of artificial light and processed air to mimic natural circumstances, such as simulating outdoor conditions

Reflected Light using reflective materials to enhance light penetration of a space, such as light-colored walls and floors

Evoking Nature imaginative depictions of the experience of nature, such as through a stained-glass window

Botanical Motifs inclusion of the shapes, forms, and patterns of vegetation, such as mimicking foliage

Animal & Vertebrae Motifs simulation of animal life in design, such as the appearance of animal heads

Shells & Spirals simulation of invertebrate creatures in design features, such as webs and Fibonacci spirals

Tree & Columnar Supports simulation of tree-like shapes that act as aesthetic or support features, such as tree-like columns

Arches, Vaults, & Domes using structural design elements, like arches, vaults, and domes, which emulate forms found in nature, such as beehives

Organic Shapes the inclusion of forms that resist straight lines and edges to evoke natural geometry, such as rounded walls

PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

Biomimicry adopting unique features of other species in design, such as spider web glass

Biomorphy adopting architectural forms that are viewed as organic without a deliberate natural inspiration

Geomorphy designing in a way that mimics geology, such as integral building design

Sensory Variability

Information Richness

Age, Change, & the Patina of Time

creation of conditions that evoke the use of multiple senses, such as gardening where you are using touch, smell, and sight

incorporation of nature’s detail and diversity in the built environment, such as ornate detail

representations of the metabolic stages of organic life, such as re-use of aged materials

2.1.3SPACE&PLACE

The third biophilic design category, the experience of Space & Place, refers to the spatial setting, including the ecological context of the built environment and how people manage and organize their environmental circumstances. 21 This category relates to the spatial features characteristic of the natural environment that have advanced human health and well-being. 22

Prospect & Refuge

PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

inclusion of long distances and enclosed spaces, such as through sight lines and sheltered spaces

Fear & Awe designing peril and adventure into the built environment, such as through overhangs

Curiosity & Enticement

Growth & Efflorescence

Complexity & Order

fostering curiosity, exploration, and discovery of nature and natural processes, such as through a labyrinth

incorporation of aging and maturation processes in design, such as through ornamentation

creation of detail-rich environments in a structured and orderly way, such as through complex ornamentation

Security & Protection ensuring protection in the built environment, such as through secure shelter

Mastery & Control reflecting the human desire for control over their environment, such as through manufactured landscapes

Mobility & Wayfinding enabling clear and efficient circulation, such as through clear pathways

Exploration & Discovery inclusion of opportunities for exploration and discovery of natural processes, such as through gardens

Attraction & Beauty fostering an aesthetic appreciation for nature and natural processes, such as through flowering plants

Affection & Attachment eliciting emotional affinities for nature through design, such as through a meditation fountain

Reverence & Spirituality designed spaces that provoke feelings of transcendence and connection, such as meditation gardens

Complementary Contrasts blending of contrasting features in a complementary way, such as the combination of light and dark

Hierarchically Organized Ratios and Scales

hierarchically connected forms that are arithmetically or geometrically related, such as the Fibonacci sequence

Linked Series & Chains clear movement facilitated through linked spaces, such as connected rooms

PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

Integration of Parts to Wholes evoking the feeling of discrete parts that comprise the overall whole, such as through hardwood flooring

Patterned Wholes uniting of variability through integrated and patterned wholes, such as through a patterned ramp

Bounded Spaces the inclusion of bounded and delineated spaces in the built environment, such as with clear boundaries

Transitional Spaces designated spaces that provide access from one area to another, such as passageways

Central Focal Point point of reference in a constructed landscape, such as an object of focus

Spatial Variability allowing for diversity of spaces, such as differing room sizes

Spatial Harmony the blending of light, mass, and scale within a bounded space, such as through spatial and light manipulation

Spaciousness incorporating feelings of openness in the built environment, such as through open floor plans

Inside-Outside Spaces connection of interior spaces to the outside environment, such as through porches and interior gardens

Mystery eliciting a sense of anticipation through design elements, such as through translucent materials

Spirit of Place evoking a feeling of space as part of personal identity, such as through historical significance

Indigenous Materials utilization of local and indigenous materials, such as through furnishings and finishes

Cultural and Ecological Attachment to Place the fusion of local culture and ecology in design, such as through sustainable practices

Geographic Connection to Place evoking feelings of connection to geography of an area, such as through the emphasis of geographic features

Historic Connection to Place eliciting continuity with the past, such as through historic symbolism

Ecological Connection to Place facilitating connection to ecology and ecosystems, such as through non-destructive design techniques

Cultural Connection to Place integration of history, geography, and ecology of an area as part of the built environment, such as vernacular forms

2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Biophilic design is a relatively more recent study in the field of architecture, with most of the research and literature being completed within the last 20 years, and the word “biophilia” first being coined less than 60 years ago, by social psychologist Erich Fromm. 23 With respect to this topic, the most notable contributors are Edward O. Wilson, with his book Biophilia, and Dr. Stephen R. Kellert, with multiple works, including The Practice of Biophilic Design, Nature by Design, Biophilic Design:TheTheory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life, and his joint work with Wilson: TheBiophiliaHypothesis. The New York-based environmental consulting firm, Terrapin Bright Green, has also provided a foundation for the aspects of biophilic design in their 2014 paper, “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” and the International Living Future Institute has distributed two different resources to guide in the application of this practice: the Biophilic Design Guidebook and the Biophilic Design Toolkit. All of these sources provide a valuable perspective on the subjects of biophilia and biophilic design that become relevant to the proposed thesis topic.

2.2.1 BIOPHILIA

In Biophilia, Edward O. Wilson defines the term biophilia as “the innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes”. 24 He then exemplifies this by recounting his experiences as a field biologist in places such as Bernhardsdorp, South America, and New Guinea, where he went to study ants, and explains, in detail, his encounters of the natural environment and all of the organisms he came across, along with their place and importance within the systems of life. 25 As Wilson is a biologist, his view on biophilia comes from that of a scientist’s perspective more than a design perspective, so he equates biophilia to something focused on “life”, which he implies is the world and its inhabitants around us, and believes that experiencing and learning about the living world is essential to understanding and valuing other organisms and ourselves. 26 He stresses the importance of the human connection to nature but acknowledges there is a divide between the cultures of science and humanity that is problematic and must be resolved. 27 In the same turn, Wilson also compares science to the arts. He explains that it differs in intention, with that of science being to show how or why an effect is produced and with that of art being actual production. He recognizes the similarities between the two as well, stating that they are both means of discovery and metaphor or analogy, and they both have human origins. 28 The book then digs deeper into the implications of biophilia, with the example of the innate human fear and awe of the snake. Wilson describes that this is a result of our need as humans to master and overlearn things we fear, and the fear results from human nature and the evolution of the human brain, which recognizes snakes as dangerous and something to be feared. 29 Additionally, he describes the role that evolution plays in habitat selection, explaining that the earliest humans lived in grasslands and suggesting that the human body and mind are predisposed to and drawn to life on the savanna, as a result of these early relationships with this environment. 30 Summarizing all of these points, Wilson states that the human mind is drawn toward nature due to its evolutionary history and that we are all human because of the way we affiliate with other organisms. He concludes that, to sustain human’s tendency for freedom and expansion, there need also be stewardship, conservation, and connection to the natural world in order for ultimate survival. 31

2.2.2 THE BIOPHILIA HYPOTHESIS

The Biophilia Hypothesis is a collection of chapters exploring the idea of the “biophilia hypothesis”, which Stephen R. Kellert states “proclaims a human dependence on nature that extends far beyond the simple issues of material and physical sustenance to encompass as well the human craving for aesthetic, intellectual, cognitive and even spiritual meaning and satisfaction”. 32 In it, Kellert praises Wilson’s 1984 book Biophilia for introducing this topic to society and explains that TheBiophiliaHypothesis is a compilation of works with the intention of creating a foundation and interest in further research for the idea of biophilia, which can, at the point this book was written, be described only as hypothesis, not fact. He introduces the notion that biophilia involves the suggestion that human inclination to affiliate with life and lifelike processes is five things: inherent or biologically based, part of our species’ evolutionary heritage, associated with human competitive advantage and genetic fitness, likely to increase the possibility for achieving individual meaning and personal fulfillment, and the self-interested basis for a human ethic of care and conservation of nature, most especially the diversity of life. 33 He explains the reasoning behind this book as being due to years of work on biophilia’s importance in topics like the role of nature in human cognitive and mental development, the biological basis for diverse values of nature, the evolutionary significance of the human aesthetic response to varying landscapes and species, the sociobiological importance of human altruism and helping behavior, and the role of nature in human emotional bonding and physical healing. 34 The book touches on the biological basis of the biophilia concept and offers a taxonomy of biologically-based human values indicative of the biophilia tendency in the first part, and part two addresses processes associated with the natural environment that condition human emotional, cognitive, and aesthetic development. The third part examines the cross-cultural consideration of the biophilia hypothesis, while the fourth explores the role of nature in human cognitive development and communication, and the fifth explores the connection between biophilia and human evolutionary development. The sixth and final part of the book addresses the role of biophilia in the contemporary context, in connection to moral relationships with nature and the imperatives of social change. 35 Overall, TheBiophiliaHypothesis provides a comprehensive basis for the hypothesis of biophilia and continues to be a reference for current research and literature on the topic of biophilia and biophilic design.

2.2.3THEPRACTICEOFBIOPHILIC DESIGN

The Practice of Biophilic Design pulls from the prior writings of Wilson and Kellert in its definition of biophilia, which it states is “the inherent human inclination to affiliate with nature that even in the modern world continues to be critical to people’s physical and mental health and well-being” and explains that the idea originates in human evolution, where for the majority of our history, we developed as a response to nature and its forces. 36 This paper, the joint work of scientist and professor Stephen R. Kellert and architect Elizabeth F. Calabrese, creates a case for biophilic design and its application by breaking down the topic, exploring its principles and benefits, and providing examples for general implementation across a variety of circumstances. Kellert and Calabrese describe the intention of biophilic design as seeking to create good habitat for people as a biological organism in the modern built environment that advances people’s health, fitness, and well-being and note that it further seeks to sustain the productivity, functioning, and resilience of natural systems over time. They then outline basic principles for the effective practice of biophilic design as requiring repeated and sustained engagement with nature; focusing on human adaptations to the natural world that over evolutionary time have advanced people’s health, fitness, and well-being; encouraging an emotional attachment to particular settings and places; promoting positive interactions between people and nature that encourage an expanded sense of relationship and responsibility for the humans and natural communities; and encouraging mutual reinforcing, interconnected, and integrated architectural solutions. They follow this up by explaining successful application should result in physical, mental, and behavioral benefits, such as lower blood pressure, less stress and anxiety, and enhanced attention and concentration. 37 Finally, they discuss the application of biophilic design in terms of attributes, which can be divided up between direct experience of nature, indirect experience of nature, and experience of space and place. The direct experience of nature category addresses actual contact with environmental features in the built environment and includes light, air, water, plants, animals, weather, natural landscapes and ecosystems, and fire. The indirect experience of nature category applies to contact with the representation or image of nature from its original condition or exposure to particular patterns and processes characteristic of the natural world, and includes attributes such as images of nature, natural materials, natural colors, simulating natural light and air, naturalistic forms and shapes, evoking nature, information richness, age and change over time, natural geometries, and biomimicry. The experience of space and place category addresses spatial features characteristic of the natural environment that have advanced human health and well-being and include attributes like prospect and refuge, organized complexity, integration of parts to wholes, transitional spaces, mobility and wayfinding, and cultural and ecological attachment to place. 38 They conclude the paper with the notion that the practicing of successful biophilic design is important and advantageous because of the motivation it incites to be good stewards and sustain natural environments, but also acknowledge that the successful application relies solely on humans recognizing that nature is the basis for a healthy, productive and meaningful existence.39

PRACTICE OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN

NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, by Steven R. Kellert, attempts to address the challenge of biophilic design, which he describes as the need to foster beneficial contact with nature in our built environments, where the majority of our time is spent. He defines biophilia as “the inherent affinity people have for the natural world,” and states that biophilic design is biophilia in the human-built environment. 40 The goal of this book is to connect the theory of biophilia to the practice of biophilic design through explanations and examples of research and precedents in this subject. 41 Kellert begins by providing a case for biophilic design, stressing its importance to human health and well-being, and explains that this design practice offers a deliberate, systematic, and informed approach to bringing beneficial contact with nature into the modern built environment. 42 He uses this book to provide a rationale, framework, and methodology for accomplishing biophilic design, through the presentation of basic principles, practices, and strategies. He then outlines nine principles of biophilic design, which he describes as basic conditions for successful application and as providing a foundation for effective practice and application of this design approach, before diving deeper into the actual practice of biophilic design. This is where he explains the specific design strategies for biophilic design and characterizes these within the categories of direct experience of nature, indirect experience of nature, and the experience of space and place, similarly to how he and Elizabeth Calabrese did in ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign. 43 Following this, he gives a wide variety of examples of how biophilic design can be implemented and applied across various situations. Kellert specifically calls out biophilic application in the residential setting, noting that residences often contain prominent biophilic design features and, in the cases where motivation and resources are available, natural elements are extensively employed through material, lighting, exterior views, images of nature, fireplaces, areas of prospect and refuge, naturalistic planting, and other biophilic features. 44 He states that effective biophilic design elicits the experience of beauty and harmony in a structure or landscape and helps people feel especially alive and connected with their world. 45 Kellert concludes by emphasizing the responsibility of humans in the application of biophilic design in the built environment and by again stressing the importance of biophilic design and the correct application of biophilic design to human well-being, due to its ability to transform our ethical relationship and respect for nature. 46

2.2.5BIOPHILICDESIGN:THE THEORY,SCIENCEANDPRACTICE OF BRINGING BUILDINGS TO LIFE

BiophilicDesign:TheTheory,ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife is one of the earlier works of Stephen R. Kellert in which the focus is specifically on biophilic design as opposed to biophilia. He collaborates with Judith Heerwagen and Martin Mador in editing this text, which is structured similarly to TheBiophiliaHypothesis in the fact that it is a compilation of chapters that were contributed by many different authors. The stated goal of the book is “to help mend the prevailing breach existing in our society between the modern built environment and the human need for contact with the natural world” and it attempts to do this through the collective of authors with various backgrounds offering diverse perspectives on how to achieve a society in harmony with nature. 47 This book takes an in-depth look at the subject of biophilic design, which it describes as “the deliberate attempt to translate an understanding of the inherent human affinity to affiliate with natural systems and processes into the design of the built environment”. 48 They stress that this concept is not new or innovative, as biophilic design has been seen in the built environment for much of human history, but emphasize that it is important to continue the practice of biophilic design due to the connection it facilitates between humanity’s place in nature and the natural world’s place in human society. Additionally, the book highlights the connection between biophilic design and sustainability, stating that true sustainability combines both biophilic design and low environmental impact to result in restorative environmental design. 49 In order to help readers better understand the topic, the resource is broken down into three parts: The Theory of Biophilic Design, The Science and Benefits of Biophilic Design, and The Practice of Biophilic Design. Part I, The Theory of Biophilic Design, is focused on the understanding of the concept of biophilic design and biophilia, and contains information on the nature of the concept, the neuroscience and psychology involved, and the dimensions, elements, and attributes of the practice. Part II, The Science and Benefits of Biophilic Design, provides evidence and research on the benefits of the practice, including a wide range of health, physical, emotional, and intellectual advantages in both adults and children resulting from the human-nature connection. Finally, Part III, The Practice of Biophilic Design, concentrates on the implementation of biophilic design and its place in current-day sustainable design, including aesthetics, the concept of architectural space, and greening. 50 Altogether, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory,ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife provides a comprehensive resource on the subject of biophilic design, much like the way The Biophilia Hypothesis is to biophilia, touching on as many aspects of the subject as possible.

2.2.614PATTERNSOFBIOPHILIC DESIGN

14 Patterns of Biophilic Design offers insight from an environmental consulting and strategic planning firm, Terrapin Bright Green, into the relationship of biophilic design to the built environment and some examples of the opportunities and implementation of biophilic design. They define biophilia as “humankind’s innate biological connection to nature” and biophilic design as “design that reconnects us to nature”. 51 When contextualizing this topic, the authors further describe biophilic design as a codification of human history, pointing out the relationship historic structures hold with nature and describing the basis of human desire for “(re)connection with nature and natural systems”. 52 They define nature as “living organisms and non-living components of an ecosystem” in the context of biophilic design. 53 This paper presents 14 biophilic design patterns, which they describe as having a wide range of applications for both interior and exterior environments and with the intention of addressing universal issues of human health and well-being within the built environment in ways that can be applied across various sectors and scales. These patterns are broken down into three categories: Nature in Space Patterns, Natural Analogues Patterns, and Nature of the Space Patterns. The Nature in Space Patterns category refers to the direct, physical, and ephemeral presence of nature in a space or place and includes Visual Connection with Nature, Non-Visual Connection with Nature, Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli, Thermal & Airflow Variability, Presence of Water, Dynamic & Diffuse Light, and Connection with Natural Systems. The Natural Analogues Patterns category addresses organic, non-living, and indirect evocations of nature and includes Biomorphic Forms & Patterns, Material Connection with Nature, and Complexity & Order. Finally, the Nature of the Space Patterns category references spatial configurations in nature and includes Prospect, Refuge, Mystery, and Risk/Peril.54 They explain each pattern in detail and begin to break down the ways in which each pattern can contribute to the nature-health relationship and its effect on cognitive, psychological, and physiological well-being. 55 The paper concludes by stressing the notion that, even though the science on this topic is still emerging, biophilic design is important to human well-being and the human-nature connection should be prioritized in the built environment. 56

2.2.7BIOPHILICDESIGN GUIDEBOOK

The BiophilicDesignGuidebook is a resource put out by the International Living Future Institute as a way to help teams participating in the Living Building Challenge to comply with the requirements of the biophilic design imperative, Imperative 09, and to design more biophilic projects in general. It includes a general overview of biophilic design, along with tips, topics, and content related to this subject, with the overall goal being to take the practice of biophilic design from a theory to a reality. 57 The guidebook starts out by defining Imperative 09 of the Living Building Challenge, which states that each project must be designed to include elements that nurture the innate human-nature connection and each team must explore the topic of biophilic design for at least one day, resulting in a biophilic framework and project plan. 58 The biophilic exploration is broken up into three recommended steps in order to help advise those who want to participate in the challenge: Preparing for the Exploration, Holding the Exploration, and Developing Key Documents. During the “Preparing for the Exploration” phase is when you would research the site, ecology, and stakeholders of the project, complete design exercises and determine the agenda and homework, such as gaining a basic understanding of the topic. The phase where you hold the biophilic exploration consists of facilitating introductions to the topic, agreeing on goals, exploring context, completing an initial exercise, and investigating and integrating the topic of biophilic design. The final phase, Developing Key Documents, is where you will document the exploration, create the biophilic framework and plan, and implement the framework. The framework is described as a goal-oriented document that summarizes the approach toward the integration of biophilic design in the project. 59 It is a reference document that includes the project introduction, reference information, project goals, stakeholder priorities, and biophilic design strategies. 60 The biophilic design plan is also a reference document that outlines the important information the team needs to implement the decisions of the framework and includes deliverables, responsible parties, action items, the decision-making process, example stakeholders, communication methods, tracking methods, and reference studies. 61 The guidebook overall provides a reference that helps break down an approach to implementing biophilic design in a project, giving a step-by-step process that will aid, not only in meeting the requirements of Imperative 09 of the Living Building Challenge, but also in the general application of biophilic design in any project.

2.2.8 BIOPHILIC DESIGN TOOLKIT

The “Biophilic Design Toolkit” is an online resource developed by the International Living Future Institute that provides guidance, inspiration, and support for designers looking to investigate biophilic design. The toolkit combines a collection of resources and is broken down into the fundamentals of biophilic design, success stories, design guidance, a biophilic design map, activities and a guidebook, and opportunities to further your education in the subject. It covers the introduction, the planning and design stages, and the construction and occupancy of biophilic design projects. 62 In this resource, they define biophilic design as “the practice of connecting people and nature within our built environments and communities” and explain that our brains are evolutionarily conditioned to seek out places beneficial to our health and well-being due to the foundations of human psychology resting in our reactions to the natural world. 63 The toolkit categorizes biophilic design into three categories: the Direct Experience of Nature, Natural Patterns, and People, Place, and Culture, and they identify biophilic spaces as those which “involve the use of well-recognized characteristics of the natural world in the built environment”. They define the Direct Experiences of Nature as the built environment bringing nature into the space of design and offer examples such as water, plants, animals, and light. When explaining Natural Patterns, the resource states that they create environments impacting our senses, fostering experiences of place, and providing important moments, with examples including bounded spaces, order and complexity, and sensory variability. Finally, they define People, Place, and Culture as projects that integrate history, geography, and ecology of an area to sustain the human need for culture and heritage through vernacular forms, with examples such as historic connection to place and indigenous materials. 64 The resource further breaks down each category by the wellness benefits they promote with regard to stress, cognitive function, emotions & mood, and creativity in an attempt to answer the question of “why biophilic design?” and provides evidence that all three of the categories positively impact these wellness categories. 65 In further explanation of the topic, they refer to ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign by Calabrese and Kellert in their description of the principles and elements of biophilic design and provide a card deck resource to break down these elements in even greater detail. 66 They then describe the importance of multi-sensory design in the practice of biophilic design, as the engagement of senses is an integral part of the human connection to nature. 67 This is followed by a series of example projects that display the successful use of biophilic design, including Living Building Certified Projects, Stephen R. Kellert Biophilic Design Award Recipients, and community-acknowledged projects that are shown on the biophilic design map. 68 The Design Guidance category of the resource offers guidance for the implementation of each of the three categories, but also provides key opportunities and examples of how each element can be implemented within the broader categories. 69 The resource wraps up with a collection of activities and opportunities you can take advantage of in order to expand your knowledge of biophilic design, such as certificates and online courses. 70 Overall, the “Biophilic Design Toolkit” references a variety of literature and research on the topic of biophilic design to provide a comprehensive resource on the topic for those who may be interested in learning more about or implementing the practice of biophilic design.

2.2.9CONCLUSION

Through reviewing prior works on biophilia and biophilic design, it can be concluded that all of the sources have the same or similar attitudes toward the concepts of biophilia and biophilic design: they are important and they should be emphasized. They all seemed to agree that biophilia refers in some sense to human’s innate connection to nature and that biophilic design is the way this connection is facilitated in the built environment. The sources focused on biophilia mainly prioritized the importance and benefits of the nature-human relationship, whereas the biophilic design-focused sources seemed to stress the strategies and application of this practice. In the biophilic design cases, a similar framework, reminiscent of past architectural pattern books, was followed in terms of the approach: define and contextualize, explain benefits, layout principles or goals of the approach, list examples and break them down into categories, describe applications, and reiterate importance in design as conclusion. The sources all relatively agree on principles and categorization of biophilic design and acknowledge that this application can be through literal and direct interaction with nature or indirect, and even metaphorical or allusive, interactions. Overall, the literature concurs that biophilic design, a design practice indirectly resulting from human’s evolutionary connection to nature, is beneficial in the lives of human beings, should be prioritized in current design, and requires conservation and respect for nature to be implemented successfully.

2.3 HISTORY OF BIOPHILIA AND BIOPHILIC DESIGN

Biophilic design is a practice as intertwined with human history as the concept of shelter itself. The idea is thought to originate from the understanding of human evolution, where for more than 99% of our species’ history we biologically developed in adaptive response to natural forces. 71 The connection of nature in the built environment can be traced back to things such as early ornamentation, gardens and conservatories, and biomorphic building forms. 72 According to Terrapin Bright Green in 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design, this early evidence suggests that biophilic design is “not a new phenomenon; rather, as a field of applied science, it is the codification of history, human intuition, and neural sciences showing that connections with nature are vital to maintaining a healthful and vibrant existence as a human being”. 73 While the practice can be seen in action for hundreds of years, the concept was only put into words around 50 years ago, with social psychologist Erich Fromm being the first to coin the term “biophilia” in his 1973 work, TheAnatomyofHumanDestructiveness. In its first definition, biophilia was described as “the passionate love of life and all that is alive” and “the wish to further growth, whether in a person, a plant, an idea, or a social group”. 74 From there, biologist Edward O. Wilson became known as the father of biophilia after the release of his book Biophilia, where he delves deeper into the human-nature connection and the topic of biophilia in general. In this context, biophilia is defined as “the innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes.” 75 These early definitions were largely rooted in fields of science, particularly biology and psychology, but as the concept’s awareness grew, so did its scope. Soon the discussion of biophilic design came into play, with one of its major proponents being Dr. Stephen R. Kellert. This is the point in time where the idea of biophilia began to tie into architecture and the idea of promoting or enabling this human-nature connection through our built environment. Kellert authored many books on the topic, including The Practice of BiophilicDesign, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory,ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildings to Life, and TheBiophiliaHypothesis, his joint work with Edward O. Wilson. In these, he describes biophilic design as “an innovative approach that emphasizes the necessity of maintaining, enhancing, and restoring the beneficial experience of nature in the built environment” and “the expression of the inherent human need to affiliate with nature in the design of the built environment.” 76 Additionally, he begins to break down different practices and principles of biophilic design, along with being one of the first to introduce the benefits and importance of the practice to its human inhabitants. Today, biophilic design as a practice has gained some notability, but is still underused and misunderstood by many in the design field. It has gained traction in fields such as commercial and corporate, but lacks in many other disciplines, such as residential. Firms and organizations, such as Terrapin Bright Green and the International Living Building Institute, are working to bring more awareness to the topic and increase its implementation within the field, and with more recognition, the practice seems to be on the rise.

2.4 BIOPHILIC DESIGN AS A DESIGN PRACTICE

Biophilic design as a practice is largely misunderstood. Many assume that it is just a landscape strategy or just an aspect of interior design, or that it is synonymous with sustainability. Some even deny seeing its relation to the built environment and argue it has no effect on actual built design. As a design strategy, however, biophilic design is related to all of these topics but does not fit nicely into any one box. This practice goes beyond being only a landscape design strategy or only an interior design strategy. It has links to sustainability and some of the practices are sustainable but it is not exclusively sustainable in every implementation and is not intended to be. Additionally, built design is a crucial part of the practice of biophilic design, specifically with practices rooted in the experience of space and place. Ultimately, biophilic design is a combination of landscape, interior, and built design that enables a connection to nature and is focused on the human benefit from our relationship with our environment, not necessarily the other way around. Inherently, the need to connect to nature does relate to the need for sustainability and environmental stewardship, but as design practices, they differ. To stand on its own, biophilic design establishes itself as a practice that unites multiple disciplines of design to best facilitate the human-nature connection within our built environment, through the use of direct experiences of nature, indirect experiences of nature, and experiences of space and place that link back to our evolutionary development as a species.

2.5 BENEFITS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN

One of the main draws of the practice of biophilic design is the health benefit that it promotes for its users. It is known to have positive effects on human cognitive, psychological, and physiological health and it is believed that these results are seen in humans due to the environmental connection that is facilitated through the design practices. Cognitive responses are seen when strong connections with nature provide opportunities for mental restoration, psychological benefits are mostly learned or hereditary and are affected most by past experiences, cultural constructs, and social norms, and physiological responses are a result of environmental stressors implemented through design.77 Generally, the design practice is known to help manage and reduce stress, increase cognitive performance and productivity, and improve mood and overall well-being. 78 Specifically, the wellness benefits of biophilic design can be seen in relation to different practices, such as in the following:

● Visual Connection with Nature helps lower blood pressure and heart rate, improves mental engagement and attentiveness, positively impacts attitude and overall happiness 79

● Non-Visual Connection with Nature helps reduce systolic blood pressure and stress hormones, positively impacts cognitive performance, perceived improvements in mental health and tranquility 80

● Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli positively impacts heart rate, systolic blood pressure and sympathetic nervous system activity, observed and quantified behavioral measures of attention and exploration 81

● Light helps reduce headache symptoms, speeds up problem-solving, reduces length of hospital stays, increases mental function and memory recall, improves testing scores 82

● Water helps to reduce stress, increases feelings of tranquility, lowers heart rate and blood pressure, improves concentration and memory restoration, enhances perception and psychological responsiveness, observed preferences and positive emotional responses 83

● Air

helps reduce headache symptoms, helps reduce sickness absences and doctor visits, improves testing scores 84

● Thermal Variability positively impacts comfort, well-being, and productivity, positively impacts concentration, improves perception of temporal and spatial pleasure 85

● Sound helps reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure, increases short-term memory 86

● Smell helps increase working memory, reduces pain, reduces mental stress 87

● Immersion

helps increase test proficiency, reduces aggression and violent crimes 88

● Connection with Natural Systems enhances positive health responses, shifted perception of environment 89

● Biomorphic Forms & Patterns view preferences 90

● Material Connection with Nature helps decrease diastolic blood pressure, improves creative performance, improves comfort 91

● Prospect helps reduce stress, reduces boredom, irritation & fatigue, improves comfort and perceived safety 92

● Refuge

helps improve concentration, attention, and perception of safety 93

● Complexity & Order

positively impacts perceptual and physiological stress responses, visual preferences 94

● Risk & Peril results in strong dopamine or pleasure responses 95

● Mystery induces a strong pleasure response 96

These are just some of the benefits resulting from the practice of biophilic design, and still, there are many more than what is able to be listed in this document. From this list, however, we can deduce just how beneficial this design practice can be for its human inhabitants. Just the presence of water in a project can help to reduce stress, lower heart rate and blood pressure, improve concentration and memory, and elicit positive emotional responses. This is why we need to place an emphasis on biophilic design in the residential setting: this practice will have profound effects on our wellness if it is implemented in our homes.

III. BIOPHILIC DESIGN AND THE RESIDENTIAL ENVIRONMENT

As a topic that is still gaining traction in the design world, research on biophilic design is still developing. To date, there has been a small collection of literature done on biophilic design and an equally small sample of notable built structures exemplifying this design strategy, as referenced in the previous sections of this paper. While these sources explore biophilic design extensively in the way it can be implemented, most seem to generalize this application instead of honing in on a specific discipline of design. In fact, only one of the major texts explored, Stephen R. Kellert’s Nature By Design, specifically called out the application of biophilic design in the residential environment, and even this was limited to a small blurb on the applications people consider in situations where motivation and resources are available. 97 The research that currently exists is comprehensive in the evidence for the basis of biophilic design and its strategies and applications, but is seriously lacking in the specificity of how this topic relates to the residential setting.

So how does biophilic design relate to the residential setting? The answer to this question is simple: biophilic design is a necessary part of the residential environment. So much of the benefit of biophilic design is rooted in the history of human evolution and the impact of nature and natural elements on that process; however, it is also important to note that the evolution of the home is interconnected with nature and human evolution as well. When considering Prospect & Refuge, one of the Space & Place biophilic design practices mentioned previously, we can see the link between evolution and shelter, and their connection to biophilic practices in current times. When considering the meaning behind this specific practice, and many others, particularly in the Space & Place category, you are able to see not just a connection to shelter, but a connection to shelter as a place of safety and comfort: the first home. Historical connections aside, when looking at the relationship between these two things, it is also important to consider the immense physical, mental, and emotional benefits that come with being in a biophilic environment, and where you spend the majority of your time every day. Logically, it makes sense for these two things to go hand-in-hand solely because you will receive the most benefit from these practices if they are in place in an environment where you spend the most time. With these considerations in mind, it becomes clear that biophilic design and the residential environment are interconnected and their coexistence should be prioritized due to the evolutionary link that they hold and the correlation between the possible wellness benefits and the sheer amount of time we spend in the comfort of our own home.

3.1 PRECEDENTS

While biophilic design is not commonly used at the residential level at this time, there are a few examples of built structures that can provide insight into how this goal can be accomplished. This paper will look further into Villa Mosca Bianca by Design Haus Liberty, House in Kyoto by 07Beach, Sky Pool House by Guz Architects, and the Venice House by Sebastian Mariscal, and the ways in which these precedents employ elements of biophilia at the residential scale.

3.1.1VILLAMOSCABIANCA

Villa Mosca Bianca, a holiday residence in Lesa, Italy, capitalizes on its close proximity to a lake in its design, which begins to emphasize nature in a multitude of ways. First, the stacking terraces allow for a visual connection to the surrounding landscape and water at all levels of the home. The unusual shape of the building is created with the intention of giving each bedroom views of the various environments of the surroundings, which range from pine forest to water’s edge. Additionally, a central garden courtyard is included to create a visual connection to nature, open up and brighten the interior layout of the space, and act as a passive central ventilation system. This courtyard and the substantial spans of windows in the design allow for daylighting in the space, reducing the need for artificial lighting and allowing for a strengthening of the relationship to the natural landscape. Unpolished and unsealed natural travertine stone is used prominently on the interiors, with its rough finish creating contrast within the minimal, clean house, but also creating a link back to the natural environment of the region. 98 Elements of biophilic design can be seen clearly in this home through the emphasis on the visual connection to the nearby water and surrounding landscape and with the incorporation of natural ventilation, daylighting strategies, and the use of travertine stone as a natural finish material.

Figure 1. Image of the undulating terraces, showing ample outdoor space, unique building shape, and expansive windows in design.

Figure 2. Image of interior courtyard that doubles as a ventilation strategy

Figure 3. Image exhibiting use of natural travertine stone on the home’s interior.

3.1.2HOUSEINKYOTO

The House in Kyoto, designed by architect Joe Chikamori of 07Beach, is lauded for its use of biophilic design mainly due to its focus on the Ficus tree that is positioned to grow in the living room of the dwelling. This home in Kyoto, Japan, rectifies the problem of a compact site and little outdoor space by the development of an interior courtyard in the living room space with a central Ficus tree that brings nature indoors for the family to benefit from. This Ficus tree allows for a lot more daylight in the central space through the use of a skylight, as it is required for the tree to grow. Additionally, the design of this house includes ample use of natural Hinoki wood, which is soft to the touch and also has good insulation properties. 99 Biophilic design is evident through the attention paid to daylighting and the tree that is placed in the interior courtyard of the home. These, along with the use of wood material throughout the home, work to create a connection back to nature that aligns with the principles of biophilic design.

Figure 4. Image of living room in House of Kyoto, showing interior courtyard with Ficus tree and Hinoki wood finishes.

3.1.3SKYPOOLHOUSE

Sky Pool House, a project in Singapore by Guz Architects, is unique in the way that it creates a connection to water for its residents in the design. A large swimming pool at the top level of the building allows for interaction with water in an apparent way, but the large glass cut-out in the bottom of the pool allows for connection to the water even inside the building on the floors below the pool. There is also a fishpond on the property, set against a wall of windows, which allow for unrestricted views. The calming effect of the water is prioritized in this design and the architects note that “the presence of water can reduce stress and lower heart rate and blood pressure, as well as improve concentration and productivity.” 100 The architects also wanted to emphasize the connection to nature through the extensive roof and ground gardens for the residents to immerse themselves in. This home relates to the idea of biophilic design through the emphasis put on the inhabitants’ relationship and interaction with water and through the connection to nature in the ample garden space, which are both key components of biophilic design

Figure 5. Image showing pool on top level and roof gardens at Sky Pool House.

Figure 6. Image of fishpond and ground gardens at Sky Pool House.

3.1.4VENICEHOUSE

Sebastian Mariscal’s Venice House incorporates biophilic design through the addition of an outdoor room to accompany every interior space and by allowing for natural ventilation in the design. All of the rooms have either a visual or physical connection to nature due to the large expanses of windows and the outdoor courtyard spaces with local plant life. A series of five sliding doors on either side of the courtyard can open up, allowing for 23 ft. wide openings that promote natural cross-ventilation in the design. Additionally, wood finishes are used throughout the home. 101 Biophilic design is evidenced in this residence with the addition of outdoor spaces and courtyards that incorporate local plants and through the use of a natural ventilation system and natural wood finishes.

Figure 7. Image showing openings created in the home when sliding doors are opened on the courtyard to promote cross-ventilation.

Figure 8. Image of outdoor dining space alongside courtyard, showing ample wood finishes in design.

3.1.5CONCLUSION

Through the precedent analysis, it is clear that all of the examples emphasize the connection to nature in some way through their design, ultimately making them examples of “biophilic homes.” They employ direct ways of doing this, such as through ample garden space, courtyards with greenery and trees in the home, and visual or physical connections to surrounding environments, but they also include aspects of biophilic design such as connections to water in innovative ways, implementation of natural ventilation systems, and clear access to daylighting through large expanses of windows and skylights. The use of natural material finishes, such as wood and stone, also indirectly creates a connection back to nature, which can classify as a principle of biophilic design. In studying these homes, it is evident that biophilic design is more than just the incorporation of plants into a project and can be implemented in a variety of ways through the introduction of various natural elements, both in direct and indirect ways. Additionally, these examples show that biophilic design is adaptable to the circumstances of each individual project and site, and the focus for this design approach is not necessarily on the addition of nature, but on the ways in which the elements of the design can create a relationship, either physically or mentally, between the inhabitants and the natural world.

Another conclusion that can be drawn by looking at these precedents is the clear connection between wealth and biophilic design in the built residential work we see today. These projects are some of the most prominent examples in the slim portfolio of residential biophilic projects and while they notably emphasize the design practice and its importance, they also imply that this practice is only available to the wealthiest clients due to their extravagance. As accessibility to biophilic design is one of the main interests of this thesis, it is important to recognize that the available precedents for this design practice are only precedents for implementation examples, and not precedents that demonstrate the accessibility of the practice of biophilic design. With this thesis and accompanying design project, the goal is to address this lack of representation for the accessible and widespread use of biophilic design by providing a resource that can be used by and is helpful to people of all financial backgrounds.

3.2 SIGNIFICANCE

The main purpose of this paper is to analyze biophilic design at the residential scale, which undoubtedly provokes the core question: why is biophilic design significant on the residential scale, and why is it something we should devote our time and energy caring about? Besides the multitude of proven benefits and the clear evolutionary link that enforces the connection between biophilia and the home, a major factor of this practice’s significance in the residential sphere is the sheer time that people spend in their homes. Including the time that they are sleeping, the average person in the United States spends the majority of their day in their home, and with increasing levels of remote work from home and quarantine from the recent COVID-19 pandemic, this number has only increased in the last few years. 102 With this in mind, it is only a logical conclusion to draw that a practice as beneficial as biophilic design should be a focus in this environment, but the real problem exists in why the practice is lacking in this field.

In studies testing this practice, biophilic design in the residential environment has been seen to both indirectly and directly contribute to the improvement of the quality of life of inhabitants and also to benefit the overall satisfaction of residential life, so it is clear that this application is significant, but only assumptions can be made as to what is preventing this practice from taking off in the residential field. 103 First, the current experience of biophilic design in the home is seen only in extravagant circumstances, with trees planted into the middle of living spaces and the introduction of large pools and gardens throughout the property, which is clearly unobtainable for the average person looking to implement this practice. This makes biophilic design seem out of reach and portrays the misconception that this practice can only be achieved if the occupant has a considerable amount of money to throw into its application. The second assumption, resultantly, is due to the lack of knowledge of the practice and its accessibility. While many designers have heard of “biophilic design”, it is still considered a very ambiguous practice and is not fully understood in what it means and what it entails for design. With the supposed experts on the subject still working to comprehend its meaning, it is understandable that most people outside of the design field would have little to no idea about the benefits of this practice, or that it even exists. And if they did, the previously mentioned examples would likely make them believe it is something that would not be possible in their homes, which is untrue due to the wide range of applications available. The lack of accessibility of information on what this practice is, how beneficial it can be, and the ease of implementation restricts this practice from being one that is even considered in residential design, and all of these issues can be addressed by simply raising awareness of the practice and how it can be implemented in this scale of design.

3.3 IMPLEMENTATION AT SCALE

Due to the simplicity of implementation at the residential scale, it is intriguing that biophilic design is mostly seen as extravagant gestures, or not as a focus at all. Since homes and residences are generally smaller built spaces than office buildings or corporate environments, implementation of biophilic design at this scale is far less involved. Many practices can be achieved with simple gestures, such as the introduction of potted plants, or the manipulation of shades on a window, and even those that are more difficult, like the use of green roofs or prospect & refuge spaces, are able to be employed at a narrower scope. Additionally, this practice is so beneficial at this scale due to its accessibility in terms of implementation: it can be achieved by anyone and in any home, to a certain extent. As long as the person is knowledgeable about the practice and what they are trying to achieve, many applications of biophilic design are very simple and attainable in this environment, with the involvement of designers or architects being largely unnecessary. This differs from common large-scale applications of the design practice, as these decisions are generally made and carried out through the collaboration of company leaders and designers, not necessarily the people who use the space on a daily basis. The residential scale of biophilic design not only provides more benefit for the occupants, but also gives them more control over the application of this practice in the space and facilitates direct involvement with the implementation of the practice, making it a more personal process.

IV. BIOPHILIC HOMES DESIGN PROPOSAL

In the past, pattern books were commonly used to provide easy-to-understand instructions that made architecture accessible to the masses. These were printed and bound volumes that cataloged and illustrated designs in order to help distribute this knowledge to an audience beyond designers and architects. 104 With the primary goals of making the practice of biophilic design widely available for use in the home and building off of Terrapin Bright Green’s 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, this thesis project plans to adapt the idea of the pattern book to modern times, creating a pattern book of biophilic design practices for residential use and a series of examples of how these can be implemented. Differing from the Terrapin Bright Green Pattern book, this version will apply specifically to residential settings and will be directed not only toward designers, but also any ordinary person, so as to make the practice of biophilic design easy to understand and implement at any skill level. This aspect of the project aims to specifically address the accessibility issue of biophilic design in the residential field, by the creation of a resource that can be understood and used by anyone and that will hopefully provide the knowledge of implementation for any circumstance. The goal of this pattern book will be to create a simple, easy-to-understand way of implementing biophilic design, creating a catalog of applications and strategies of this practice, and supplementing these with a series of drawings that exemplify how these practices can be applied.

Following the creation of the pattern book, this resource will be put to practice in the conceptual design of a series of residential environments across a variety of locations to exemplify how these practices can be put to use in various situations. These designs will draw directly on the information presented in the pattern book and will serve to demonstrate how the resource can be used, along with how the application of biophilic design can be seen in practice in both existing homes and new builds. These will be completed in a series so as to be inclusive of different sites and climatic conditions, further emphasizing the core purpose of making these design practices and their benefits accessible to a wide range of residential settings. These biophilic residential designs will be documented by a range of drawing types, including plans and sectional renderings, and the designs and their representations will vary in what program or residential type is shown depending on the best representation of the biophilic practices implemented. The intention of these small-scale residential design exercises will not only be to utilize information presented in the catalog and provide confirmation on how this resource becomes valuable, but to also supplement this information in an easy-to-understand visual representation of how the resource can be used for people who may not be as familiar with this topic.

The design process will begin with the creation of a pattern book-like resource that builds on the previous research of biophilic design applications by focusing specifically on the application of this design method in the residential environment. Drawing on this resource, a series of residential prototypes for various locations and climate zones will be developed to serve as an example of the ways in which these practices can be implemented in a variety of homes. This process will pull upon previous works on biophilia and biophilic design, such as the literature of Edward O Wilson and Stephen R. Kellert and the existing “pattern book” proposed by Terrapin Bright Green, to add to the current foundation for the importance and application of this practice, but will also add to the field by investigating how implementation can be specific to the residential field. The proposed pattern book and resulting designs will act as resources to the broader public to provide knowledge on how to implement biophilic design in the home and will hopefully facilitate the widespread use of this strategy and the effect of its benefits on health and wellness to a greater majority of people than it currently has reached.

Figure 9. Diagram showing connection between pattern book and prototypes.

4.1 METHODOLOGY

1. Identify the problem:

The presence of biophilic design is lacking in the residential field, both in research and built projects - why is this and how can it be addressed?

2. Complete topic research:

Investigate the origins of biophilic design and the history of the design practice. Gather information on implementation and wellness benefits. What is its significance? What are the elements of biophilic design and how are they best categorized? How does this practice relate to the residential setting and why is it currently being omitted?

3. Analyze precedents:

Look into existing examples of biophilic design in the residential field and examine the usage. Use collected precedents to build upon completed research and to help compose the design project. Consider both written work and design projects. What do these precedents say about biophilic design? What do they reveal about its relationship to the residential environment? How can these aid in the design aspect of the thesis?

4. Formulate design project:

Define the architectural project. Locate and analyze site and describe program. How can you address and contribute to the problem of limited biophilic design use in the residential setting? What is the contribution to the existing topic?

5.

Implement design:

Gather relevant information and create pattern book resource. Use this resource to design residential prototypes to exemplify biophilic design in the home. Create connections between pattern book and prototypes so they will supplement each other as resources for the accessibility of this practice.

6. Draw conclusions:

Following the completion of the research and design portions of the thesis, deduce conclusions on the findings.

4.1.1PRECEDENTS

When deciding on the best contribution for a design project with this thesis, many different precedents were analyzed, including both written and design projects. Upon deciding on a pattern book and prototyping approach, a few stood out as notable when considering how to proceed with the project. This section will take a closer look at 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, an existing pattern book-type resource in the field of biophilic design research, and multiple works of the design firm Effekt that exemplify prototyping design processes at the residential scale, including ReGen Villages, Living Places, and Urban Village.

14 PATTERNS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN

14 Patterns of Biophilic Design is a self-described pattern book resource marketed toward designers as a way to encourage and explain the implementation of this design practice. It includes 14 different elements, or “patterns”, of biophilic design and filters each into one of three different categories: Nature in Space, Nature Analogues, and Nature of the Space. 105 Each pattern is then given its own spread in the book to analyze and explain the concept further. Each spread includes the pattern name and definition, along with a description of the pattern experience, the research and benefits, the pattern objective, design considerations, and an example description. Supplementally, the spreads include a description of the overlaps and relationships to other patterns, and naturally occurring and simulated or constructed examples.

Figure 10. Image dissecting the layout of spreads in 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design by Calabrese and Kellert.

Additionally, this resource includes a separate breakdown of wellness benefits to the user according to each pattern of biophilic design included, and filters between if it is a benefit affecting stress reduction, cognitive performance, or emotion, mood, and preference. As an example, it states that the “Prospect” pattern in the Nature of the Space category has the potential wellness benefits of reduced stress (Stress Reduction), reduced boredom, irritation, and fatigue (Cognitive Performance), and improved comfort and perceived safety (Emotion, Mood & Preference). 106

This resource serves as a precedent for the pattern book aspect of the architectural project. The thesis project will draw on the information included in the pattern spread as well as the spread layout for reference, in addition to the breakdown of wellness benefits, to provide a basis for the proposed pattern book resource specific to residential design.

REGEN VILLAGES

ReGen Villages is a model for the development of sustainable and resilient eco-villages with a focus on regenerative aspects of living. This is a project done by Effekt and located in Almere, Netherlands. ReGen Villages uses a series of residential prototypes in its design, showing how variation can be created between residential typologies while keeping design consistency. In addition, this project uses a collection of different sustainable housing features which vary in usage between the various typologies presented. 107

Figure 11. Image of differing housing typologies in a prototype design process.

This project serves as a precedent for the prototyping aspect of the architectural project. For this thesis project, the focus is on biophilic design practices, much like the way that the focus of ReGen Villages is on the sustainable housing features and not the residential design. The thesis design project will look to ReGen Villages as inspiration for the prototyping of standardized residential typologies and how different elements of biophilic design can be integrated into these prototypes.

Figure 12. Image diagramming multiple housing features in a prototype design process.

LIVING PLACES

Living Places is another regenerative project by Effekt, in which the entire lifecycle is taken into consideration to enable a holistic approach to sustainable construction. It is an ongoing project in Copenhagen that is also intended to serve as an example that can be implemented globally. The project consists of a series of different residential prototypes in a catalog, that are intended to be flexible and adaptive, and aim to address the lifestyles of many different living situations in the overall community. 108

Figure 13. Image of design process breakdown showing the use of five different design principles.

There are five guiding principles of the design that are implemented in each residential building: healthy, shared, simple, adaptive, and scalable. These principles are applied differently in each building to contribute to variation between the different typologies and to best address the living situation within. 109

Figure 14. Image cataloging the differing residential prototypes of the project.

Additionally, each home design incorporates five different healthy building principles: thermal environment, light, acoustics, outdoor connection, and interior air quality. These principles are vital to the sustainable aspect of the project and are represented clearly in a series of sectional renderings that diagram out the application of each. 110

Figure 15. Image of sectional perspectives used as diagrams to emphasize the implemented design principles in the residential building.

This project serves as a precedent for the prototyping aspect of the architectural project, along with being a representational and program precedent. The thesis project will reference the process of residential prototyping in Living Places to complete the design project, along with looking at the way that the guiding and sustainable principles are applied to serve as an example for the application of five biophilic practices in each of the project’s prototypes. Finally, it will draw on the representational style of the diagrammatic sectional renderings used to display the sustainable principles in Living Places as a way to clearly present what aspects of biophilic design have been implemented.

Figure 16. Image of overall community, exemplifying different typologies.

URBAN VILLAGE

The Urban Village Project is an unbuilt project by Effekt in which a modular building system is implemented to provide affordable and livable homes in the urban environment. The project considers sustainability, affordability, and social equity and is intended for use in any urban site. It is focused on the residential environment and proposes a series of seven different residential typologies for use in a modular system, including studio, single, couple, family, duplex, shared, and rowhouse. These are demonstrated through a series of small, cut-away renderings to exhibit the different residential conditions inside. 111

Figure 17. Image showing the range of different residential typologies project will draw inspiration from.

This project serves as a precedent for the representational and programmatic aspects of the thesis design project. The designation of the seven residential typologies will be a guiding feature of the residential prototypes completed in this thesis project, with adaptations made to create stand-alone residential typologies, in addition to modular ones. The representational style of this project will also be referenced in the final delivery of the thesis drawings, to assist in displaying the completed residential prototypes for each of the seven typologies.

Figure 18. Image of a simple residential module that can be adapted into different residential typologies.

4.1.2PATTERNBOOK

This resource will break down the chosen practice of biophilic design into the three formerly stated categories: Direct, Indirect, and Space & Place. The proposed layout for the spread for each practice will include the overarching category, the pattern name, a brief description, the limitations and opportunities, and general instructions for implementation. Supplementally, each spread will include a brief analysis of difficulty level, cost, climate restrictions and opportunities, wellness benefits, and similarities to other practices.

This pattern book is intended to be a resource for anyone interested in implementing biophilic design in the home, regardless of their design background, so it will be comprehensive and thorough in explanations and organization of the presented topics. Initial descriptions of the pattern book’s objectives and important terminology will be provided, along with an organized index of practices and where they fall within the previously mentioned categories.

Figure 19. Image of proposed pattern book spread for design project.

4.1.3PROTOTYPES

The prototypes will draw from the pattern book information to create a series of designed residential environments that exemplify the ways in which biophilic design can be implemented and seen at this scale. There will be a total of seven different prototypes, and each will be a different residential typology with its own designated site conditions and climate zone. Each of the seven prototypes will include the application of five biophilic design practices, randomly chosen from the pattern book practices and ranging across the three categories, with no repeating applications. These will be designed residential environments, but biophilic applications will provide examples for both new build and existing homes. The resulting designs will be shown through various drawing types and diagrams will be included to call out the specific biophilic applications of each.

The intention of the prototypes is to demonstrate the use of the previously created pattern book resource, but also to act as supplements to the pattern book information, showing both how people can use the resource and what its use can look like in their own homes. The range of site, climate, program, residential typologies, and applied practices attempt to act as comprehensive examples to show how biophilic design can be implemented in almost any home environment, and also work to demonstrate the use of as many of the practices in the pattern book as possible.

Figure 20. Diagram of pattern breakdown in the pattern book versus the prototypes.

4.2 SITE

With the primary problem being the limited use of biophilic design in residential environments, the solution would not adequately serve its purpose being restricted to one single site location. For this reason, the design project will be a series of design solutions situated in and responding to seven of the climate zones as defined by IECC. The IECC climate zones range from 0A: Extremely Hot Humid to 8: Subarctic/ Arctic, and are classified further as Humid (A), Dry (B), or Marine (C). These climate zones are defined within the United States only and are categorized by county in order to locate the climate conditions as accurately as possible. 112 The criteria for deciding the climate zone of each location is based on average temperature, precipitation, and heating degree days, which is defined as the difference in temperature between the average outdoor temperature in a day and a given base temperature for a building space, typically 65°F. 113

The IECC climate zone designations were chosen for this project due to the range of categories that are covered and because of their precise designation of each zone, allowing for the addition of assigning site conditions in accordance with climate. Additionally, the clarity of the category names in relation to their meaning is preferred over other methods of climate zone designation, due to ease of understanding.

Figure 21. Image of current IECC climate zone designations within the United States.

With the intention of selecting a diverse range of climate zones for the prototype locations, the following types were chosen:

● 1A: Very Hot Humid

a region that receives more than 20 inches of annual precipitation and has either a 67°F or higher temperature for 3,000 or more hours or a 73°F or higher temperature for 1,500 or more hours during the warmest six consecutive months of the year 114

● 2B: Hot Dry

a region that receives less than 20 inches of annual precipitation and where the average outdoor temperature remains above 45°F throughout the year 115

● 3C: Warm Marine

a region that has approximately 5,400 heating degree days or fewer, with the coldest month’s mean temperature between 27°F and 65°F, the warmest month’s mean of less than 72°F, at least four months with a mean temperature above 50°F, a dry season in the summer, and the month with the most precipitation in the cold season being at least three times as much as the month with the least precipitation 116

● 4A: Mixed Humid

a region that receives more than 20 inches of annual precipitation, has approximately 5,400 heating degree days or fewer, and where the average monthly outdoor temperature drops below 45°F during the winter months 117

● 5C: Cool Marine

a region with between 5,400 and 9,000 heating degree days, with the coldest month’s mean temperature between 27°F and 65°F, the warmest month’s mean of less than 72°F, at least four months with a mean temperature above 50°F, a dry season in the summer, and the month with the most precipitation in the cold season being at least three times as much as the month with the least precipitation 118

● 6B: Cold Dry

a region with between 5,400 and 9,000 heating degree days 119

● 7: Very Cold

a region with between 9,000 and 12,600 heating degree days 120

To add to the legitimacy of the design exercise, site conditions were also added to accompany each climate zone selection. These conditions range from urban to rural, flat to sloped, and wooded to open land, with various levels of snow, rain, and sunlight for each. The conditions all correspond to site conditions that are seen within the actual designation of the climate zone it is associated with, and these conditions will be taken into consideration in the designing of the prototypes.

Figure 22. Map of United States depicting site locations.

4.2.1LIMITATIONSAND ADVANTAGES

Because of the connection to nature that is the main component of biophilic design, the climate and site location of the biophilic project undoubtedly become an important part of the design process. As different practices of biophilic design interact with nature in different ways, it is important to realize that all biophilic practices may not be applicable or advantageous in every location and climate zone. The following three precedents investigate the ways in which the site of these projects provides both limitations and advantages for the biophilic aspects of the homes.

• Brillhart House Climate Zone 1A: Very Hot Humid

• Venice House Climate Zone 3B: Warm Dry

• Minawetu Climate Zone 5A: Cool Humid

BRILLHART HOUSE

The Brillhart House is located in climate zone 1A: Very Hot Humid in Miami, FL. The main biophilic element of this home is the ventilated porch area that allows you to completely open up the space for cross ventilation. Since this climate is consistently warm, this strategy becomes very useful for cooling the porch and circulating fresh air through the space. This space is unconditioned but seems like it would be a pleasant space the majority of the year in this climate zone. This same practice would not be as beneficial in a colder climate zone due to the importance it places on the comfort of the outside air. Because this is an outdoor space that is not thermally regulated, the emphasis put on natural ventilation and sun shades would be most beneficial in climate zones such as these, where the outside air is warmer. It is important to note there is a clear separation between the inside, conditioned space, and the outside, unconditioned space due to the need to escape from the extreme heat this climate can experience.

Figure 23. Image showing the operation of ventilation shutters on the porch of the Brillhart House.

Figure 24. Image of Brillhart House porch that exemplifies how air and light move through the space.

VENICE HOUSE

The Venice House is located in climate zone 3B: Warm Dry in Venice, CA. The main biophilic elements of this home are the addition of exterior rooms for every interior room and the opportunity to open up massive expanses of the walls for cross-ventilation. The climate in this area is relatively moderate year-round, meaning the exterior conditions are comfortable. Because of this, the use of outdoor rooms and crossventilation through conditioned spaces is advantageous for this specific project. These biophilic design practices would not be as beneficial in most other climate zones because the extreme heat and cold of other climates would make ventilation through the conditioned space almost impossible for large parts of the year. Also, the moderate temperatures and low precipitation of this area make the use of outdoor rooms possible most days of the year, whereas this is not the case for other climates with temperature swings and high precipitation.

Figure 25. Image of garden courtyard space, looking out into an outdoor dining room in the Venice House.

Figure 26. Image showing how spaces in the Venice House open to provide natural cross ventilation.

MINAWETU

Minawetu is located in climate zone 5A: Cool Humid in Martha’s Vineyard, MA. The home employs all 14 patterns of biophilic design, but some of the main elements are the large outdoor porches and the expansive glass window walls facilitating views of the surrounding ocean and gardens. These biophilic techniques are especially important and beneficial on this site because of its coastal conditions and the differing views you get into the natural ecosystems of the area: the forest and the ocean. When applying these biophilic practices, it is important to understand if views to the surrounding site will actually facilitate a human-nature connection or not. For example, if you placed this same building in a densely populated urban, or even suburban environment, with no ocean and forest proximity, these practices would no longer be biophilic, since there is no longer a surrounding natural environment to connect with. Additionally, this is a cooler climate zone, so it is important to note that they considered the interior views to create a connection to the surroundings from the thermally controlled part of the home, because the porch use will be minimal to non-existent in the cooler months.

Figure 27. Image of expansive deck space and glass window walls at Minawetu.

Figure 28. Image showing roof and overall Minawetu grounds, including pond, gardens, and neighboring ocean.

4.3 PROGRAM

This project will produce small-scale residential designs, each situated in a different climate zone and exemplifying the possibilities of biophilic home design for these locations. The application of these practices and techniques will be shown through a variety of drawing types and will draw from the previously mentioned pattern book resource, which will provide additional in-depth information on each practice incorporated in the designs. For each climate zone, the residential design exercise will include the application of five biophilic design practices. The program shown in each design will vary depending on the biophilic design practices that are being implemented and shown, but all examples will be residential in nature and will not exceed 3,000 sq. ft. The goal is ultimately to analyze the uses of biophilic design practices in a variety of different residential settings, across a multitude of site and climate conditions, so the deliverables for these designs will vary and the typologies will range from apartment to single-family homes. These typologies will be based on the residential typologies used in the Urban Village Project by Effekt, with a few variations to accommodate common housing types seen more often in the United States. These typologies will include a tiny house (Tiny), a studio apartment (Studio), a one-bedroom home (Single), a one-bedroom apartment (Couple), a two-bedroom home (Family 1), a four-bedroom home (Family 2), and a four-bedroom duplex (Shared). The square footage of each type is as follows:

• Tiny: 334 sq. ft.

• Studio: 484 sq. ft.

• Single: 610 sq. ft.

• Couple: 729 sq. ft.

• Family 1: 1,219 sq. ft.

• Family 2: 2,048 sq. ft.

• Shared: 2,480 sq. ft.

Figure 29. Image of seven different residential typologies to be used in the prototyping exercise.

4.4 PROTOTYPE MATRICES

The following matrices were formed through random generation of pairing climate zone, residential typology, and applied biophilic design practices. Site conditions were applied in accordance with climate zone and based on the general site conditions of regions designated under the climate zone.

Figure 30. Graphic of prototype matrices.

Matrix 1

Climate Zone: Cold Dry (6B)

Site Conditions: 37°11’08” N, 107°03’14” W

Flat and open land with dry, grassy, ranch-like conditions in a rural environment

Mountain and wooded land proximity with high snow, low rain, and mostly clear and sunny conditions

Residential Typology: Tiny (Tiny Home)

Biophilic Design Practices:

● Plants (Direct) – Potted Plants

● Spaciousness (Space & Place) – Open Floor Plan

● Water (Direct) – Fishpond

● Inside-Outside Spaces (Space & Place) – Screened Porch

● Naturalistic Shapes & Forms (Indirect) – Spirals in Design

Figure 31. Tiny site plan.

Figure 32. Tiny plans.

Figure 33. Tiny section perspective.

Figure 34. Diagram exemplifying Plants in Tiny prototype.

Potted Plants Plants

retroactive landscape/interior

benefits: increased feelings of comfort and minimized stress increased productivity and performance positively impacted health and mood reduced stress and increased pain tolerance

Figure 35. Diagram exemplifying Water in Tiny prototype.

Fishpond Water

proactive/retroactive building design/landscape

benefits:

reduced stress, increased feelings of tranquility, lowered heart rate and blood pressure

improved concentration and memory restoration

enhanced perception and psychological responsiveness observed preferences and positive emotional responses

Figure 36. Diagram exemplifying Spaciousness in Tiny prototype.

Open Floor Plan

Spaciousness

proactive building design benefits: encouraged mobility and exploration

enhanced imagination and feelings of comfort observed view preference evoked feelings of curiosity and a welcoming experience

Figure 37. Diagram exemplifying Naturalistic Shapes & Forms in Tiny prototype.

Spirals in Design

Naturalistic Shapes & Forms

proactive/retroactive building design/interior

benefits:

observed view preference

reduced stress

enhanced concentration and creativity

positively impacted attitude

Figure 38. Diagram exemplifying Inside-Outside Space in Tiny prototype.

Screened Porch

Inside-Outside Space

proactive/retroactive building design

benefits: encouraged mobility positively impacted attitude and attention observed view preference enhanced feelings of comfort

Figure 39. Image of Tiny model.

Matrix 2

Climate Zone: Very Hot Humid (1A)

Site Conditions: 25°47’27” N, 80°11’08” W

Flat and densely populated area with little vegetation in an urban environment

Marina proximity in a downtown, high-rise setting with no snow, high rain, and sunny conditions

Residential Typology: Studio (Studio Apartment)

Biophilic Design Practices:

● Patterned Wholes (Space & Place) – Mosaic Tiling

● Natural Landscapes & Ecosystems (Direct) – Garden

● Complexity & Order (Space & Place) – Grid System

● Geomorphy (Indirect) – Varying Topography

● Auditory Stimuli (Direct) – Running Water

Figure 40. Studio site plan.

Figure 41. Studio plan.

Figure 42. Studio section perspective.

Figure 43. Diagram exemplifying Patterned Wholes in Studio prototype.

Mosaic Tiling Patterned Wholes

retroactive interior benefits: observed view preference and understanding of environment reduced blood pressure positively impacted mood and productivity improved overall health

Figure 44. Diagram exemplifying Natural Landscapes & Ecosystems in Studio prototype.

Garden Natural Landscapes & Ecosystems

proactive/retroactive building design/landscape

benefits:

enhanced positive health responses

shifted perception of environment

increased feelings of comfort and safety

improved attention and productivity

Figure 45. Diagram exemplifying Complexity & Order in Studio prototype.

Grid System

Complexity & Order proactive building design

benefits:

positively impacted perceptual and physiological stress responses

observed view preference fostered a sense of control and comprehension evoked feelings of calmness and awe

Figure 46. Diagram exemplifying Auditory Stimuli in Studio prototype.

Running Water

Auditory Stimuli

proactive/retroactive building design/interior

benefits:

reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure and stress hormones

positively impacted cognitive performance and increased short-term memory

accelerated physiological and psychological restoration

reduced cognitive fatigue and improved motivation

Figure 47. Diagram exemplifying Geomorphy in Studio prototype.

Varying Topography

Geomorphy

proactive building design benefits: observed view preference reduced stress enhanced concentration positively impacted attitude

Figure 48. Image of Studio model.

Matrix 3

Climate Zone: Hot Dry (2B)

Site Conditions: 33°53’49” N, 114°24’35” W

Hilly and open land with desert-like conditions in a rural environment

Proximity to rock formations with no snow, low rain, and sunny conditions

Residential Typology: Single (One-Bedroom Home)

Biophilic Design Practices:

● Haptic Stimuli (Direct) – Textured Materials

● Animal & Vertebrae Motifs (Indirect) – Animal Forms

● Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli (Direct) – Natural Ventilation

● Natural Geometries (Indirect) – Golden Ratio Proportions

● Greening (Direct) – Living Wall

Figure 49. Single site plan.

Figure 50. Single plan.

Figure 51. Single section perspective.

Figure 52. Diagram exemplifying Greening in Single prototype.

Living Wall Greening proactive building design benefits: increased feelings of comfort and minimized stress increased productivity and performance positively impacted health and mood provoked interest and satisfaction

Figure 53. Diagram exemplifying Animal & Vertebrae Motifs in Single prototype.

Animal Forms

Animal & Vertebrae Motifs

retroactive interior benefits:

provoked satisfaction, pleasure, imagination, and creativity

increased stimulation and emotional interest

reduced stress observed view preference

Figure 54. Diagram exemplifying Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli in Single prototype.

Natural Ventilation

Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli

proactive building design benefits:

positively impacted heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and sympathetic nervous system activity

observed and quantified behavioral measures of attention and exploration positively impacted mood and productivity

Figure 55. Diagram exemplifying Haptic Stimuli in Single prototype.

Textured Materials

Haptic Stimuli

retroactive interior benefits:

increased feelings of calmness and improved mental health and tranquility

reduced fatigue and perception of pain positively impacted cognitive performance reduced systolic blood pressure and stress hormones

Figure 56. Diagram exemplifying Natural Geometries in Single prototype.

Golden Ratio Proportions

Natural Geometries

proactive building design

benefits: observed view preference reduced stress

enhanced concentration positively impacted attitude

Figure 57. Image of Single model.

Matrix 4

Climate Zone: Mixed Humid (4A)

Site Conditions: 39°13’50” N, 84°32’57” W

Flat and populated area with deciduous vegetation in a suburban environment

Mid-rise apartment setting with low snow, average rain, and partly cloudy conditions

Residential Typology: Couple (One-Bedroom Apartment)

Biophilic Design Practices:

● Sensory Variability (Indirect) – Garden

● Geographic Connection to Place (Space & Place) – View of Surroundings

● Information Richness (Indirect) – Varying Colors and Patterns

● Mobility & Wayfinding (Space & Place) – Clear Pathways

● Geology (Direct) – Stone Finishes

Figure 58. Couple site plan.

Figure 59. Couple plan.

Figure 60. Couple section perspective.

Figure 61. Diagram exemplifying Geology in Couple prototype.

Stone Finishes Geology

retroactive interior benefits:

decreased diastolic blood pressure

improved creative performance and imagination

improved feelings of comfort

increased feelings of safety and relaxation

Figure 62. Diagram exemplifying Geographic Connection to Place in Couple prototype.

Views to Surrounding Areas

Geographic Connection to Place proactive building design benefits: fostered feelings of familiarity and predictability

generated a sense of place and supports self-identity

enhanced feelings or relaxation, comfort, and security

fostered a sense of stewardship and responsibility for nature

Figure 63. Diagram exemplifying Mobility & Wayfinding in Couple prototype.

Clear Pathways

Mobility & Wayfinding proactive building design

benefits:

reduced feelings of sadness, anger, and stress

positively impacted attitude and attention

observed view preference

decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressure

Figure 64. Diagram exemplifying Information Richness in Couple prototype.

Varying Colors & Patterns

Information Richness

retroactive interior benefits: reduced blood pressure

positively impacted mood and productivity improved overall health observed view preference

Figure 65. Diagram exemplifying Sensory Variability in Couple prototype.

Garden Sensory Variability

proactive/retroactive building design/landscape

benefits: positively impacted satisfaction and well-being reduced systolic blood pressure and stress hormones positively impacted cognitive performance perceived improvements in mental health and tranquility

Figure 66. Image of Couple model.

Matrix 5

Climate Zone: Very Cold (7)

Site Conditions: 47°11’54” N, 91°22’29” W

Flat and wooded land with grass and dirt conditions in a rural environment

Lake and rocky cliff and outcropping proximity with high snow, average rain, and partly cloudy conditions

Residential Typology: Family 1 (Two-Bedroom Home)

Biophilic Design Practices:

● Linked Series & Chains (Space & Place) – Connecting Rooms

● Views & Vistas (Direct) – Framed Landscape Views

● Affection & Attachment (Space & Place) – Local Stone Detailing

● Reflected Light (Indirect) – Light Colored Materials

● Natural Light (Direct) – Windows and Openings

Figure 67. Family 1 site plan.

Figure 68. Family 1 plans.

Figure 69. Family 1 section perspective.

Figure 70. Diagram exemplifying Linked Series & Chains in Family 1 prototype.

Connecting Rooms

Linked Series & Chains proactive building design benefits: evoked senses of mystery, stimulation, and enticement encouraged mobility facilitated meaning and understanding of a space

Figure 71. Diagram exemplifying Reflected Light in Family 1 prototype.

Light Colored Materials

Reflected Light

retroactive interior benefits: positively impacted circadian system functioning increased visual comfort and performance improved overall psychological and physical health

Figure 72. Diagram exemplifying Views & Vistas in Family 1 prototype.

Framed Landscape Views

Views & Vistas

proactive/retroactive building design/interior benefits:

helped lower blood pressure and heart rate

improved mental engagement and attentiveness

positively impacted attitude and overall happiness

reduced stress and positively affected emotional functioning

Figure 73. Diagram exemplifying Natural Light in Family 1 prototype.

Windows & Openings

Natural Light proactive building design

benefits:

positively impacted circadian system functioning

increased visual comfort and performance

increased mental function and memory recall

reduced headache symptoms

Figure 74. Diagram exemplifying Affection & Attachment in Family 1 prototype.

Local Stone Detailing

retroactive interior benefits: encouraged feelings of bonding, caring and emotionally connecting with others fostered a sense of stewardship and responsibility for nature

enhanced feelings of relaxation, comfort, and security

Affection & Attachment

Figure 75. Image of Family 1 model.

Matrix 6

Climate Zone: Warm Marine (3C)

Site Conditions: 37°56’34” N, 122°31’19” W

Hilly and densely populated area with ample vegetation in an urban environment

Proximity to a sandy coast with no snow, average rain, and sunny conditions

Residential Typology: Family 2 (Four-Bedroom Home)

Biophilic Design Practices:

● Reverence & Spirituality (Space & Place) – Meditation Garden

● Natural Materials (Indirect) – Wood Finishes

● Gustatory Stimuli (Direct) – Fruiting Plants

● Simulating Natural Light & Air (Indirect) – Artificial Lighting

● Thermal Variability (Direct) – HVAC Control

Figure 76. Family 2 site plan.

Figure 77. Family 2 plans.

Figure 78. Family 2 section perspective.

Figure 79. Diagram exemplifying Thermal Variability in Family 2 prototype.

HVAC Control Thermal Variability

proactive/retroactive building design

benefits:

positively impacted comfort, well-being, and productivity positively impacted concentration improved perception of temporal and spatial pleasure

Figure 80. Diagram exemplifying Simulating Natural Light & Air in Family 2 prototype.

Artificial Lighting

Simulating Natural Light & Air

retroactive interior benefits: positively impacted cognitive performance and productivity enhanced feelings of comfort improved overall psychological and physical health

Figure 81. Diagram exemplifying Natural Materials in Family 2 prototype.

Wood Finishes

Natural Materials

retroactive interior benefits:

decreased diastolic blood pressure

improved creative and cognitive performance

positively impacted attitude and mood improved comfort and view preference

Figure 82. Diagram exemplifying Gustatory Stimuli in Family 2 prototype.

Fruiting Plants

Gustatory Stimuli

retroactive landscape/interior

benefits: reduced systolic blood pressure and stress hormones positively impacted cognitive performance perceived improvements in mental health and tranquility

Figure 83. Diagram exemplifying Reverence & Spirituality in Family 2 prototype.

Meditation Garden

Reverence & Spirituality

proactive/retroactive building design/interior

benefits:

provoked feelings of transcendence, connection, meaning, and purposeful existence

decreased feelings of isolation

enhanced self-confidence and ability to bond with others

Figure 84. Image of Family 2 model.

Matrix 7

Climate Zone: Cool Marine (5C)

Site Conditions: 47°55’10” N, 122°33’51” W

Sloped and sparsely populated land with greenery in a suburban environment

Proximity to rocky coast and pine forest with low snow, average rain, and partly cloudy conditions

Residential Typology: Shared (Four-Bedroom Duplex)

Biophilic Design Practices:

● Weather (Direct) – Covered Porch

● Images of Nature (Indirect) – Photos of Plants

● Curiosity & Enticement (Space & Place) – Concealed Spaces

● Evoking Nature (Indirect) – Natural Color Schemes

● Prospect & Refuge (Space & Place) – Views from Alcove Spaces

Figure 85. Shared site plan.

Figure 86. Shared plan.

Figure 87. Shared section perspective.

Figure 88. Diagram exemplifying Images of Nature in Shared prototype.

Photos of Plants

Images of Nature

retroactive interior benefits:

reduced stress, anxiety, and fear

increased pleasure response

positively impacted attitude, concentration and stress recovery observed view preference

Figure 89. Diagram exemplifying Evoking Nature in Shared prototype.

Natural Color Scheme

Evoking Nature

retroactive interior benefits: observed view preference

reduced stress

enhanced concentration

positively impacted attitude

Figure 90. Diagram exemplifying Weather in Shared prototype.

Covered Porch

Weather proactive building design benefits: enhanced positive health responses

shifted perception of environment

reduced stress

improved feelings of comfort

Figure 91. Diagram exemplifying Curiosity & Enticement in Shared prototype.

Concealed Spaces

Curiosity & Enticement proactive building design benefits: observed view preference encouraged exploration and discovery engaged human intellect and imagination

Figure 92. Diagram exemplifying Prospect & Refuge in Shared prototype.

Views from Alcove Spaces

Prospect & Refuge

proactive building design benefits:

reduced stress and lowered heart rate

reduced boredom, irritation, fatigue

improved concentration and attention

increased comfort and perceived safety

Figure 93. Image of Shared model.

V. CONCLUSION

Biophilic design is a clearly beneficial design practice that is severely lacking in its implementation in the residential environment. This is likely due to the lack of knowledge on the newer design practice, and lack of accessibility of information on what this practice is and how it can be implemented, specifically in the home. Many examples that we see of residential biophilic design today are extremely beautiful, extravagant homes, which make it seem as though this practice is only applicable in the wealthiest of residences, when the truth of the matter is this practice can be implemented in any home, regardless of economic status, location, climate zone, and dwelling type. By an analysis of existing precedents of biophilic residential design and a review of research and literature, namely that of Edward O. Wilson and Stephen R. Kellert, along with an investigation into implementation methods and the accompanying design project proposal to this thesis, the ease of implementation of this practice becomes clear.

As a practice that has been recognized for less than 60 years, biophilic design is still relatively new in the design field. It refers to any design approach or element that works to facilitate a connection between humans and aspects of the natural environment that were influential in evolutionary development and stems from the initial research on biophilia, which is the inherent human inclination to affiliate with nature due to the evolutionary connection between humans and the natural environment.121 A framework of 72 different practices compiled from research across the three overarching categories of Direct, Indirect, and Space & Place, guide the implementation of biophilic design and assist in the understanding of how this practice can be adapted to residential use. A breakdown of the cognitive, physiological, and psychological benefits then proves the advantages and significance of the practice and begins to make the case for why biophilic design should be a focus in the home. Next, a deeper dive into biophilic design in the residential environment, what role it holds in this environment, a hypothesis into why it is currently lacking, and the ways its implementation differs segues into the design aspect of the thesis. Lastly, a proposed pattern book resource and series of prototype designs put this research and hypothesis into practice, exemplifying biophilic design and its place in the home.

The problem of the lack of biophilic design seen at the residential scale can be addressed by first addressing the accessibility issue. If information about this practice and its implementation were more widely available and easier to understand, this practice would be made more accessible to the masses. The accompanying pattern book and prototype project exemplify a way in which this problem could be addressed, by providing clearly outlined methods of implementation in the home and examples of what this might look like. The pattern book provides a guide for the seven prototyping examples, and the prototypes exemplify the application of the pattern book practices. These examples range in implementation for both existing homes and new builds and their purpose is to provide realistic ways that biophilic design can be incorporated or brought into any home.

In providing both a foundation of research in this document and the combined pattern book and prototyping project, this thesis seeks to prompt an interest in the residential use of biophilic design and propose a solution to the lack of biophilic design currently seen in the residential field by utilizing knowledge of biophilic design, its implementation, and its benefits to address the accessibility issue of this design practice and aid in the implementation of biophilic design in the home.

NOTES

1 Ji Lee and Jun Park, “Biophilic Experience-Based Residential Hybrid Framework”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 14 (2022): Hybridization and Potentiality.

2 Elizabeth Calabrese and Stephen R. Kellert, The Practice of BiophilicDesign (www.biophilic-design.com, 2015), 3.

3 Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1984), 1.

4 Erich Fromm, TheAnatomyofHumanDestructiveness (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973), 365.

5 Wilson, Biophilia, 1.

6 Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson, TheBiophiliaHypothesis (Washington D.C.: Island Press, 1993), 25.

7 Judith Heerwagen, Stephen R. Kellert, and Martin Mador, Biophilic Design:TheTheory,ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008), viii.

8 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 3.

9 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, vii.

10 Heerwagen, Kellert, and Mador, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory, ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife, vii-viii.

11 William Browning, Joseph Clancy, and Catherine Ryan, 14 Patterns ofBiophilicDesign (New York: Terrapin Bright Green, LLC, 2014), 4.

12 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 6-8.

13 Stephen R. Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilic Design (New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press, 2018), vii.

14 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, What is Biophilic Design?.

15 Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 24-25.

16 OxfordLanguages, s.v. “principle (n.).”

17 OxfordLanguages, s.v. “practice (n.).”

18 OxfordLanguages, s.v. “practice (n.).”

19 Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 24.

20 Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 24.

21 Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 25.

22 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 9.

23 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 7.

24 Wilson, Biophilia, 1.

25 Wilson, Biophilia, 3-37, 51-55.

26 Wilson, Biophilia, 2.

27 Wilson, Biophilia, 48-49.

28 Wilson, Biophilia, 62-67.

29 Wilson, Biophilia, 101.

30 Wilson, Biophilia, 106-112.

31 Wilson, Biophilia, 138-140.

32 Kellert and Wilson, TheBiophiliaHypothesis, 25.

33 Kellert and Wilson, TheBiophiliaHypothesis, 26.

34 Kellert and Wilson, TheBiophiliaHypothesis, 26.

35 Kellert and Wilson, TheBiophiliaHypothesis, 27-28.

36 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 3.

37 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 6-8.

38 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 9-20.

39 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 22.

40 Kellert, NatureByDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, vii.

41 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 16.

42 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, vii-viii.

43 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 17-25.

44 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 157158.

45 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 188.

46 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 189192.

47 Heerwagen, Kellert, and Mador, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory, ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife, vii.

48 Heerwagen, Kellert, and Mador, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory, ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife, 3.

49 Heerwagen, Kellert, and Mador, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory, ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife, vii-viii.

50 Heerwagen, Kellert, and Mador, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory, ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife, viii-ix.

51 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 4.

52 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 6-7.

53 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 8.

54 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 9-10.

55 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 1112, 24-51.

56 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 52.

57 International Living Future Institute, BiophilicDesignGuidebook (International Living Future Institute, 2018), 0-2.

58 International Living Future Institute, BiophilicDesignGuidebook, 2.

59 International Living Future Institute, BiophilicDesignGuidebook, 3-15.

60 International Living Future Institute, BiophilicDesignGuidebook, 16-18.

61 International Living Future Institute, BiophilicDesignGuidebook, 19-22.

62 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/education-livingfuture-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index.html#/.

63 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, What is Biophilic Design?.

64 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, What is Biophilic Design?.

65 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Why Biophilic Design?.

66 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Principles and Elements of Biophilic Design.

67 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Multi-Sensory Design.

NOTES

68 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Success Stories in Biophilic Design.

69 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Design Guidance for Implementing Biophilic Elements.

70 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Go Further.

71 Kellert and Wilson, TheBiophiliaHypothesis, 3.

72 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 6-7.

73 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 6.

74 Erich Fromm, TheAnatomyofHumanDestructiveness, 365.

75 Wilson, Biophilia, 1.

76 Heerwagen, Kellert, and Mador, BiophilicDesign:TheTheory, ScienceandPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife, vii-viii.

77 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 11.

78 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Why Biophilic Design?.

79 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

80 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

81 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

82 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Why Biophilic Design?.

83 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

84 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Why Biophilic Design?.

85 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

86 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Why Biophilic Design?.

87 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Why Biophilic Design?.

88 International Living Future Institute, “Biophilic Design Toolkit,” last modified May 12, 2022, https://storage.googleapis.com/educationliving-future-org/ILFI-Biophilic-Design-Toolkit-Version1-May-2022/index. html#/, Why Biophilic Design?.

89 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

90 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

91 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

92 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

93 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

94 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

95 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

96 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

97 Kellert, NaturebyDesign:ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 157158.

98 “Villa Mosca Bianca / Design Haus Liberty,” last modified May 16, 2019, https://www.archdaily.com/916988/villa-mosca-bianca-housedesign-haus-liberty.

99 Luo Jingmei, “20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives,” last modified January 15, 2021, https://www.dwell.com/article/biophilichome-design-f58257d5.

100 Luo Jingmei, “20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives,” last modified January 15, 2021, https://www.dwell.com/article/biophilichome-design-f58257d5.

101 Luo Jingmei, “20 Nature-Loving Homes Where Biophilia Thrives,” last modified January 15, 2021, https://www.dwell.com/article/biophilichome-design-f58257d5.

102 Ji Lee and Jun Park, “Biophilic Experience-Based Residential Hybrid Framework”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 14 (2022): Hybridization and Potentiality.

103 Lee and Park, “Biophilic Experience-Based Residential Hybrid Framework”, Conclusions.

104 “Pattern books: Creating the Georgian ideal,” last modified February 7, 2018, https://www.architecture.com/knowledge-andresources/knowledge-landing-page/pattern-books-creating-thegeorgian-ideal.

105 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 23.

106 Browning, Clancy, and Ryan, 14PatternsofBiophilicDesign, 12.

107 Effekt, “ReGen Villages,” last modified 2016, https://www.effekt.dk/ regenvillages.

108 Effekt, “Living Places,” last modified 2020, https://www.effekt.dk/ buildforlife.

109 Effekt, “Living Places,” last modified 2020, https://www.effekt.dk/ buildforlife.

110 Effekt, “Living Places,” last modified 2020, https://www.effekt.dk/ buildforlife.

111 Effekt, “Urban Village Project,” last modified 2018, https://www. effekt.dk/urbanvillage.

112 International Energy Conservation Code, Chapter3[CE]General Requirements, last modified December 2020, https://codes.iccsafe.org/ content/IECC2021P1/chapter-3-ce-general-requirements# IECC2021P1_CE_Ch03_SecC301.2.

113 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 3.

114 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 3.

115 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 3.

116 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 3-4.

117 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 3.

118 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 4.

119 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 4.

120 U.S. Department of Energy, GuidetoDeterminingClimateRegions byCounty (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2015), 4.

121 Calabrese and Kellert, ThePracticeofBiophilicDesign, 3.

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by hannah clark- havron