In this issue:
Italy: In the land of the Pretuzi. Last vestiges of transhumance
The transhumancebased sheep farming system in Romania
Droving of livestock in the pastures of Albania and the map of transhumance in 1943
The golden generation of patriotic professionals in World War II
Albania Mountain communities in support of Transhumance in the Albanian Alps
Paths of Grass and Rocks: Exhibition on European Transhumance
A land that for millennia was traversed by the passage of imposing flocks of sheep that were driven along kilometres of roads (the tratturi) towards Apulia or the Roman countryside, Abruzzo, a region in central Italy nestled between the heart of the Apennines and the Adriatic Sea, has preserved in a residual manner the practices of sheep-farming and transhumance, the latter recorded in Abruzzo territory since the 2nd century BC.
In modern times, the great transhumance routes that engaged the shepherds and their herds in long and tiring journeys on foot, mostly towards the Tavoliere delle Puglie or the agropontine countryside of Latium, are no longer travelled, and many sheep-tracks are even impassable. Today’s routes that see small flocks of sheep on their way to reach green pastures where they dwell between spring and autumn are much shorter journeys, involving stays in hilly areas or small mounts on the more accessible heights of the Apennines.
As part of the European “Tramontana” project, the LEM-Italia Association (www.associazionelemitalia. org) followed a short transhumance route between the provinces of Teramo (Abruzzo) and Ascoli Piceno (Marche).
In the north-eastern section of Abruzzo, a chain of sandstone mountains acts as a natural divider between the borders of 3 regions (Marche, Abruzzo, Lazio) and 4 provinces (Ascoli Piceno, Teramo, L’Aquila, Rieti). These are the Monti della Laga, one of the highest massifs of the Apennines. At their extremity are the Twin Mountains: the Montagna di Campli and the Montagna dei Fiori, separated from each other by the Salinello river gorges. It is a few kilometres as the crow flies from Monte Girella, one of the peaks of the Montagna dei Fiori, that we await the arrival of Battista Caterini’s flock, on the road to Macchia da Sole, a hamlet of the municipality of Valle Castellana, in the province of Teramo.
Valle Castellana has just over 800 inhabitants scattered over a vast territory in the Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park. Until the 1960s, it boasted a fervent sheep-farming activity with 65,000 head of sheep, while today, only a few shepherds remain, whose and flocks amount to about 10,000 sheep.
In these parts, unlike other important centres of pastoralism in Abruzzo, transhumance took place along two routes, either N-W in the territory of Amatrice (Lazio) or N-E in the territory of the Piceno province of Marche. Battista has chosen to embrace the profession carried out by his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, continuing to follow the same transhumance route that sees him lead his flock of a thousand sheep in the foothills, hills, and plains of a number of localities just outside the province of Teramo. In the days of his ancestors, the flock (moved from)left from the locality known as “Le Canavine” in the hamlet of Macchia da Sole, a place that is now uninhabited. This is where Battista keeps his father’s house, where he makes sheep’s milk cheese, and where his flock arrives after having left a few days earlier from the stable in Sant’Egidio alla Vibrata (Teramo) and having made its way through some towns in the province of Ascoli Piceno, from where it returns, stopping one night in Civitella del Tronto. From here, it sets off again the next day for a six-hour journey along the axis traced by the Salinello torrent, reaching Canavine, where the animals refresh themselves thanks to the abundance of grassy pastures before embarking on the last uphill stretch that will take them to Monte Girella (1814 m), where they will remain for about forty days before descending again to Macchia da Sole. This route is 110 km long. The group of sheep is accompanied by a dozen sheepdogs and
a young Macedonian man who works with Battista on a seasonal basis. Battista follows the flock on board a truck on which he transports canisters to collect for the collection of milk milked by hand during the transhumance. He is one of the last shepherds of Valle Castellana. Regretfully, With regret he confesses that he sees no future in for sheep farming since there is no generational turnover. Carrying on this trade has become arduous even for him, who comes from a family of shepherds and an already established business. Between economic difficulties, bureaucratic red tape, and health and environmental constraints, herding has become much more complex than in the past and limited, and exacerbated by constant compliance and modest rewards. This condition does not encourage young people to embark on a life of constant sacrifice and commitment, as nature and the needs of animals know no days off. A prospect, the decline of this profession, that runs parallel to the fate of depopulation in of these areas. With the demise of sheep farming, transhumance would also come to an end in the ways and itineraries historically chosen by local families. For Battista, continuing to tread the paths trodden by his ancestors is an act of commemoration and but also of resistance to give this work the dignity and quality it deserves since it is built on centuries of tradition and a necessary balance between man and nature.
At the end of June, in Lëpushë, Kelmend, a significant gathering brought together shepherds of different generations and genders, civil society organizations active in the region, and representatives of international umbrella organizations focused on transhumance. This meeting marked the culmination of longstanding efforts by various private and institutional initiatives to formalize community groups that continue to sustain livestock migration in the Western Alps of Albania. The event was convened and coordinated by anthropologist Martine Wolff, within the framework of the “Vlerat Baritore” organization, and supported by GO2Albania. The meeting also welcomed guests from the Albanian communities of Montenegro. Among the participants was Hasrat Arjjumend, president of the “Grassroots Institute” based in Canada, who also serves as co-chair of RISG–Central Asia Mongolia and is a member of RISG–Europe. While traditional livestock farming—and especially transhumance—faces serious challenges worldwide due to globalizing forces, including the strong pull of metropolitan life and the dramatic lifestyle shifts driven by rapid developments in communication technology, there is still hope for continuity in the Western Alps. This hope was embodied in the example of two youngsters under the age of 18, who shared their passion and motivation for spending summers in the high mountain pastures. Their enthusiasm served as an inspiration to all participants in the community meeting. The young shepherds, a girl and a boy, demonstrated that, in the Western Alps, there are still young people willing to inherit livestock farming—not only as the profession of their ancestors, but also with a conscious appreciation of the cultural heritage it represents and the value of mountainproduced dairy products. Nonetheless, despite these values, some shepherds voiced concerns about the lack of market access, which appears to stem both from
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The Romanian system of sheep breeding based on transhumance appeared only in the 14th and 15th centuries in a small number of villages in Transylvania, due to the development of cloth factories in the surrounding area, which was colonized by the Germans from the middle of the twelfth century1)
This system was characterized by the summering of the animals on the leased Carpathian alpine pasture, and by their respective wintering, in plain and pond areas, at a great distance from the summer grazing area (on the left bank of the Danube) and at a great distance from the localities from which the sheep owners came. These were areas with milder winters, which allowed the sheep to continue grazing under the stars, without the need to give them pre-prepared fodder. The rapid increase in the demand for wool in Transylvania and the establishment of a large market for sheep in the Danube region after the long-term occupation of its right bank by the Turks, stimulated the increase in the number of sheep and this type of wintering became necessary and particularly effective.
Under this system, in spring and autumn, the sheep grazed as they passed through an extraneous, agricultural area, between the wintering plain and the summer mountain, on routes that had been verified for generations and accepted by the locals,
1) BUCUR, Corneliu. 1978. “Invarianţă
according to custom. Pastoral associations were composed of either several owners with between 70 and 100 sheep, or two or three owners with more than 500 sheep. In the first case, some of the partners kept the sheep themselves, and in the second case, the sheep owners hired paid shepherds, who were exclusively involved in the sale of the products. There were also owners with enough sheep to organize an individual flock. Usually, a transhumant sheep herd (turma) consisted of 2000-3000 head and was divided in summer into three different groups, separately monitored. Given the large number of animals and their dispersal in space, such a herd needed a large and specialized staff.
The pastoral constructions and developments had a specific structure, being large, complex (the wooden construction where cheese was made had two or three rooms), and stable in the summer mountains, but they were improvised in the space crossed during transhumance.
The inventory of sheepfolds was rich and diversified (it was in this environment that the crinta for pressing the cheese emerged) and the techniques for obtaining dairy products, the techniques for preserving and conserving them corresponded to the need to obtain products of superior quality, able to withstand transport over long distances, with a view to marketing.
The medieval transhumance north of the Danube determined the extension of the alpine pastures and the economic development of the pond regions along the Danube and the vast uncultivated land of the Principality of Wallachia. In their movements during the spring and autumn, the transhumant herds helped to prevent reforestation and they spontaneously fertilized the land. In the same historical period, transhumance generated the first peasant capital and the first layer
of women entrepreneurs in rural Romania.
From the seventeenth century, Transylvanian transhumant shepherds founded, at the request of the princes of Wallachia, many villages south of the Carpathians, considerably influencing the demographic and socio-economic structure of this region. They played the same demographic role in Dobruja as well, after the incorporation of this province into the Romanian state in 1877.
insufficient infrastructure and from the aggressive marketing practices of the industrial food sector.
Another pressing issue raised by the participating shepherds was the unfair distribution of livestock subsidies, as current legislation tends to favour large-scale farms while excluding small herds —typically managed by households in rural lowland or mountainous areas. The need for financial support to improve hut conditions was also emphasized, whether in the form of subsidies or development grants.
Joining the discussion alongside the shepherds and other participants, representatives of the involved organizations—among them Ms. Martine Wolff, Mr. Hasrat Arjjumend, and others—expressed their appreciation for the preservation of livestock migration traditions in the Albanian Alps, and for traditional livestock farming more broadly. At the same time, they called on the shepherds to come together and organize collectively to better advocate for their shared interests. The discussion also included proposals for potential activities to be held in the region as part of the upcoming International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists 2026.
At the venue where the meeting took place, a photographic exhibition was also presented. It featured contemporary images of transhumance in
the Albanian Alps, provided by the association “Vlerat Baritore”, as well as historical photographs depicting livestock migration in Albania during the past century, provided by the GO2Albania NGO.
As part of the same visit by the representative of the Grassroots Institute, a second meeting was held in Koplik, the administrative centre of the Municipality of Malësi e Madhe. This extended meeting, which included local government representatives, focused more specifically on the legal mechanisms needed to provide financial support to mountain communities. Representatives of GO2Albania raised concerns about the “Mountain Package” Law, which—according to them—creates uncertainty for communities, particularly with regard to the use of mountain pastures in northern Albania.
Participants also pointed out that the social challenges faced by transhumant pastoralists in Albania are largely the same as those encountered by pastoral communities elsewhere in the world. Despite these difficulties, all those present agreed on the need to apply support schemes similar to those already implemented in some European countries, aimed at supporting and preserving transhumance. Attention was also drawn to the importance of defending pastoral rights to pasturelands, especially in cases where these lands fall within protected areas—such as the Kelmend Mountains, which are located within the “Albanian Alps” National Park.
A international exhibition on transhumance co-produced by Bambun APS, PanSpeech and Binaural Nodar opened in Schnals / Senales (South Tyrol, Italy) and Castro Daire (Viseu Dão Lafões, Portugal), in partnership with both municipalities.
The exhibition “Paths of grass and rock. Forms of mobile pastoralism in Europe,” cocurated by Luís Costa and Gianfranco Spitilli, addresses the vast theme of mobile pastoralism, of which transhumance is a notable example.
The space offers a contemporary exploration of transhumance, a reality common to the entire European continent, through visual and audio research materials from eight different countries (Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Austria, Poland, Romania, and Albania), provided by the Tramontana network partners: Binaural Nodar, Audiolab, Numériculture Gascogne, Eth Ostau Comengés, Bambun APS, La Leggera APS, LEMItalia, ORMA, GO2 Albania and Akademia Profil. Transhumance has been since 2019, included in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, adding additional countries with this practice in 2023, and is thus linked to a vast European socio-environmental fabric, in accordance with the auspices of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, encouraging a broad dialogue in the name of respect for cultural diversity and mutual understanding between peoples and regions.
The exhibition is supported by the Italian Ministry of Culture, through the Municipality of Senales’ PNRR project for the regeneration of small cultural sites, cultural, religious and rural heritage, funded by the European Union’s NextGenerationEU program and it has the collaboration of the Tramontana project, co-financed by Creative Europe, the Caldas da Rainha Higher School of Art and Design (Portugal) and its LiDA research center, the University of Aveiro (Portugal) and its ID+ research center the University of Molise and its research center Biocult, and the PRIN Wildebate project – Coexistence, bio-cultural friction and pastoralism in protected areas, the University of Teramo, the Central Institute of Cataloguing and Documentation of Rome, the Ethnographic Museum of Transylvania (Romania) and the Digital Itineraries project, The project is also co-financed by the Directorate-General for the Arts (Portugal) together with the Municipality of Castro Daire (Portugal).
Bilal Golemi (1899-1955)
Vasfi
Amidst World War II, there were still individuals who remained committed to their duty to the country as patriots—and to science as professionals. Fortunately, no culture or nation has ever lacked such people, including Albania, which at the time was an almost entirely an agrarian country. The significant role that agriculture and livestock played in the national economy during the first half of the 20th century made it essential to train a generation of dedicated technicians to advance these two fields. Among them were notably Vasfi Samimi (Visoka), Ilia Mitrushi Panariti, Selim Zyma, Dalip Zavalani, Jovan Adham, Grigor Vavako, Kadri Vrioni, Myslim Ballhysa, Naum Vreto, Fadil Drenova, Isuf Allamani, Jakov Milaj, Petrit Zenelhoxha, Gaqo Tashko, Kolë Kiri, and the idealist Bilal Golemi. After received an educational background at the finest European universities of the time, they chose to return to Albania and contribute to its development. Many pursued their studies without scholarships from the Albanian state, and some even faced persecution by the government of the monarch—the conqueror— and later by that of the dictator. Nevertheless, through their dedication leading farms, institutes, laboratories, directorates, ministries, reforms, and relevant publications, they addressed the specific challenges Albania faced during World War II. The topics ranged from the lack of technical knowledge and technology to the mindset of farmers and livestock breeders. Their efforts left behind a valuable legacy, not only for the agriculture sector but also for Albanian culture as a whole.
As a tribute to this contribution, VIJA presents in this issue an abridged summary of the study “Our Pastures” by Ilia M. Panariti (1904–1986), originally published in Issue No. 2 (September 1943) of the “Technical Bulletin” journal. Edited by Vasfi Samimi (Visoka), this was an official publication of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
Although Dr. Panariti is best known for his foundational contributions to Albanian botany and for his continued commitment to the development of Albanian science until the mid1980s, this article highlights one of his early works—prepared under conditions of severe data deficiencies. The study is structured in four chapters (or parts), totalling 72 pages, and is enriched with numerous tables, diagrams, maps, and photographs.
In the introduction, Dr. Panariti underscores the vital role of livestock in an economy such as Albania’s during the height of World War II. He does not shy away from a critical stance, denouncing the prevailing mindset that opposed human contribution in pasture improvement. He adopts a similarly critical approach to the uncritical importation of foreign livestock breeds, particularly when such efforts were undertaken without adequate understanding of local environmental conditions and, more importantly, without considering the technical capacities of Albanian peasants at the time.
The first chapter offers a general overview of Albania’s natural resources, gradually introducing statistical data on various aspects of the livestock economy.
In the item “Pastures in the light of figures”, this overview is given:
Furthermore, the author provides another data table, this time with the aim of comparing the area (in absolute value and percentage) of pastures in Albania with that of several European countries:
By comparing Albania’s territorial administration of 10 Prefectures at the time, the author finds that Gjirokastra and Vlora had the largest areas of pastureland, whereas Shkodra and Durrës had the smallest. Dr. Panariti goes on to classify pastures into three categories—good, moderate, and poor—based on the amount of dry grass produced per hectare, ranging from 15 to 0.5 quintals per hectare. He again criticizes the poor maintenance of pasturelands, presenting data on the total number of livestock dependent on grazing and highlighting the inadequate physical condition and low productivity of these animals during that period.
In the second part of his study, the author offers a more detailed analysis of the two main types of pastures: permanent and seasonal, discussing each in turn. Since this article is being briefly summarized in VIJA journal in the context of transhumance, we will focus only on the segments concerning permanent pastures that are usable by migratory herds. According to Dr. Panariti, permanent pastures are divided into two types: summer pastures, located in the mountains, and winter pastures, found in the lowlands. At the national level, Albania in 1943 had the following summer pastures:
Summer pastures in Albania in 1943*
After providing some details about the above pastures, Dr. Panariti briefly mentions hilly pastures, to focus more extensively on the other major category of pastures: winter pastures, in the lowlands.
Winter pastures in Albania in 1943**
4,000 Tirana
14,000 - 20,000 Martaneshi, Dibra, Luma
13,000 45,000 10,000 Malësia e Tiranës, Luma
9,500 24,000 5,000 Prefekturat afër
13,000 17,000 Shkodër 17,000 82,000 Koplik 12,000 35,000 Lezhë 12,300 25,000
While the second part of the study concludes with an analysis of temporary pastures, the third part is dedicated to pastoral economies. Citing a study by Dr. Dalip Zavalani, published in a German journal in 19381), Dr. Panariti adopts a classification of pastoral economies into 4 distinct categories, identifying the typical regions associated with each. According to him, they are the following:
• Grassland economy without migrations which lacks permanent huts: found in regions such as Sulovë, Ishëm, Peqin, Mallkastër, Fushë-Krujë, Belsh, and others.
• Grassland economy with local migrations: typical of areas like Mirditë, Pukë, Gramsh, Malësia e Krujës, and similar regions.
• Grassland economy with long migrations, represented most notably by the Kelmend of northern Albania, the communities of Lumë in the northeast, Bërzheshtë in the east, and Vrug in the south. While Kelmend is considered the oldest example of this type, the most robust and developed form is associated with the Delvina River region.
• Free pasture economy, characteristic of Albania’s coastal and marshland zones at the time, including areas such as Lezhë, the Buna estuary, Divjakë, Myzeqe, Kryevidh, and Fushë-Krujë, as well as lake areas like Maliq.
Drawing from this broad overview of livestock farming and pastoralism in Albania, Dr. Panariti enriches his study with a map depicting livestock migration routes—what is now referred to as transhumance. In this context, economies with local migrations correspond to horizontal transhumance, while those with long migrations align with what is now termed vertical transhumance.
The fourth and final part of the study addresses the concern raised in its preface: the improvement of pasturelands. After identifying the primary causes of pasture degradation— deforestation, overgrazing, and fire—Dr. Panariti outlines a number of recommended measures to restore and improve pasture conditions. Some of these proposals are as listed below:
Proposals for improvement of pastures:
• Regulation of pasture usage;
• Reseeding and restoration of grass cover;
• Replanting with appropriate forage species;
• Removal of invasive or unwanted vegetation;
• Provision of reliable water sources for livestock;
• Construction of essential pastoral infrastructure (including huts, animal pens, dairies, hay storage facilities, and manure pits);
• Installation of drinking troughs;
• Clearing of stones and other physical obstructions;
• Control of harmful or toxic plant species;
• Improvement of native forage flora;
• Application of organic fertilizers;
• Use of chemical fertilizers where appropriate;
• Irrigation of pasture areas;
• Construction of access roads to and within pasture zones;
• Planting of protective tree belts around pasturelands
• Establishment of meadows adjacent to livestock shelters;
• Subdivision of pastures for rotational grazing;
• Implementation of hydraulic works for water management;
• Insurance and protective measures against natural hazards (such as avalanches, landslides, and ground subsidence);
• Assignment of dedicated personnel for the monitoring and protection of pastures;
• Implementation of state-supported policies and programs for pasture improvement and preservation.
At the end of the study, Dr. Panariti, who at the time was serving as Senior Inspector at the Ministry of Agriculture, is notably realistic— not only in identifying and criticizing the phenomena, practices, and misguided mentalities present in Albania at that time, but also in expressing his firm conviction that, without the support and intervention of the state, the livestock sector—and pastures in particular—cannot be sustained. As for such interventions, he proposes the adoption of special laws, as well as technical and financial support from the state for this sector, because, as he states, “only in this way can the goal be achieved.”
*) Dalib Zavalani, “Die Landwirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse Albaniens”, në “Berichte über Landwirtschaft”, 140, P. Parey, 1938
No. 39, September 2025
Journal on built & natural environment