Obrador assumed office as president in December 2018, PEMEX’s situation was dire. Since 1977, Mexico’s proven oil reserves have decreased substantially, and the country has been importing about 70% of its gasoline and diesel.
BY: JOSÉ ARTURO CERÓN VARGAS*
This has left Mexico increasingly vulnerable, as fuel price fluctuations indirectly threaten the national economy.
In response, the new government aimed to increase oil production and refining in Mexico to lessen reliance on imported fuels—key factors in the transportation sector that directly impact household economies. The Energy Sector Rescue Plan was developed, which included upgrading existing refineries and building a new one in Dos Bocas, alongside acquiring the Deer Park refinery in Houston, Texas.
At the beginning of President Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo’s administration, a new energy reform was implemented, designating CFE and Pemex as stateowned companies responsible for ensuring energy self-sufficiency and sovereignty. This policy aimed to reduce economic risks for the population related to rising prices of basic goods.
Since 2018, the rescue and modernization plan for the National Refining System has been initiated, including strategic decisions such as rehabilitating, maintaining, and expanding existing refineries, as well as building the Olmeca refinery (Dos Bocas). While shifting to cleaner energy sources is essential for environmental and health reasons, current global technological development prevents the complete removal of hydrocarbons as fuels to satisfy citizens’ basic needs.
The transportation sector is a vital part of any country’s economy, connecting production and consumption, supporting trade, and helping people get to workplaces, schools, and services. This sector mainly depends on gasoline and diesel refined from crude oil.
As shown in Graph 1, data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) reveal that in the United States—one of the most technologically advanced countries—hydrocarbons (oil and non-associated natural gas) accounted for nearly 93.73% of the transportation sector’s energy matrix from January to April 2025. This highlights the challenges even developed nations face in replacing fossil fuels.
During the neoliberal administrations, despite PEMEX’s oil surpluses, refining was overlooked. Gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, petrochemicals, and other derivatives were deprioritized, transforming Mexico from an exporter into an importer of fuels. This exposed public finances to risks from global price fluctuations. While importing fuels from the U.S. is convenient for short-term supply, it introduces risks such as price volatility, geopolitical reliance, currency fluctuations, and fiscal strain. On a macroeconomic level, an external shock whether it’s oil prices, U.S. export policies, or logistical crises could significantly affect Mexico’s inflation and public finances.
THE EFFECTS OF THE OLMECA REFINERY (DOS BOCAS)
The Olmeca Refinery is the most important refining project Mexico has undertaken since 1979, marking the end of the neoliberal era that prioritized free markets over national sovereignty.
Also known as Dos Bocas, the Olmeca Refinery. designed to process 340,000 barrels per day (bpd) of Maya crude, its launch has been delayed due to strict safety and technical requirements. By late 2025, it is expected to operate at more than half capacity, producing gasoline and diesel that meet international standards.
Strategically, this project is essential for decreasing Mexico’s fuel import dependence, stabilizing energy supplies, and helping keep the prices of basic goods stable. Its construction directly strengthened the southeast’s economy by creating jobs, investing in infrastructure, and increasing supply chain activity, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The latest data from PEMEX Industrial Transformation’s Directorate of Planning, Coordination, Performance, and Sustainability shows that, even during its startup phase, the Olmeca Refinery produced a total of 34,679 barrels per day of petroleum products in the first half of 2025. Of this, 14,540 barrels were gasoline and 14,454 were diesel. The gasoline produced accounts for 8.8% of the national output, while diesel makes up 15%. Graph 2 and Graph 3 shows Dos Boca´s
production on 2025.
ARTWORK: ARTURO RAMÍREZ
Santiago Del Castillo Velazco Arzubide*
Going nuclear: the power to build and destroy
NUCLEAR POWER IS AT A CRUCIAL POINT: WHILE COUNTRIES UPDATE THEIR STOCKPILES AND CONFLICTS INCREASE THE RISK OF ESCALATION, ADVANCEMENTS IN CIVILIAN NUCLEAR ENERGY PRESENT BOTH OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS FOR THE FUTURE
The discovery of the atom and its applications, both military and peaceful, has brought about profound changes for humanity. From its first and only use in armed conflict in 1945 to the launch of the first civilian nuclear reactor (Obninsk) in 1954, atomic energy has had both positive and negative impacts on the political, energy, scientific, and military spheres worldwide.
In the political and military spheres, the consequences were huge. The invention of the bomb led to the concept of MAD—Mutual Assured Destruction—which entirely changed global military strategy and is known for its “deterrence capability.” It is understood that using these weapons in combat would be so devastating that neither side would want to engage in a full-scale war.
On the other hand, in the energy and scientific fields, the peaceful and civilian uses of nuclear power have provided huge opportunities—such as meeting the energy needs of large cities and serving as a more practical alternative to traditional
nonrenewable sources. However, the endless possibilities of nuclear energy are often overshadowed by historic accidents, like the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and the Fukushima disaster in 2011.
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), as of January 2025, the global nuclear arsenal consisted of 12,241 warheads distributed among nine countries. Of this total, just two nations account for over 90%: Russia (5,459) and the United States (5,177). The legitimacy of these arsenals is based on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which recognizes Russia, the U.S., China, the United Kingdom, and France as the official nuclear-weapon states. Meanwhile, countries such as India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea do not recognize the NPT and are considered de facto nuclear powers, having successfully developed their programs.
In today’s global landscape, concerns are steadily increasing. Recent reports show that although the total number of nuclear warheads is decreasing, this reduction mainly involves older Cold Warera stockpiles. The current trend indicates that nuclear-armed countries are actively working to
modernize and expand their arsenals. Evidence of this is the record spending by the nine nuclear nations in 2024, when, according to ICAN sources, they spent over $100 billion to maintain, update, and build their arsenals.
Alongside this global trend, the number of armed conflicts involving nuclear states has also risen in recent years. According to recent reports, in June of this year, Ukraine launched a military operation against Russian bombers with nuclear payload capacity. The move could have had serious consequences depending on Moscow’s response. In the Middle East, Israel bombed atomic facilities in Iran to halt its weapons development efforts, which, while not completely destroying the program, severely undermined the existing non-proliferation regime. In Northeast Asia, North Korea has firmly rejected any attempts to resume talks on denuclearization, indefinitely delaying the possibility of disarmament on the Korean Peninsula. Finally, India and Pakistan recently engaged in intense clashes along their border — something not seen in decades — raising concerns about the risk of wider escalation in the region.
All these conflicts have demonstrated that the deterrence and perceived balance provided by nuclear weapons are unstable and have significant limitations. This serves as a warning for world leaders to bolster diplomatic efforts for resolving conflicts of such scale. Every exchange, escalation, and threat involving nuclear states poses a risk of serious consequences.
Meanwhile, the peaceful use of nuclear energy is becoming more important worldwide. Innovations—such as small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs), their potential use for artificial intelligence programs, the emergence of floating nuclear plants, and, more recently, the World Bank’s decision to lift its ban on funding nuclear projects—highlight the increasing significance of this clean yet strategic energy source for the near future.
In this new “atomic fever,” the role of the United States becomes vital, as one of the top nuclear powers both militarily and energetically. In the energy sector, it has the largest number of reactors worldwide, making it the leading producer of nuclear energy. At home, these reactors produce 19% of the U.S.’s electricity, representing 30% of global nuclear power output. Additionally, in May of this year, the Republican administration issued four executive orders aimed at revitalizing and expanding the nation’s nuclear energy industry. Among the key measures are speeding up licensing for new reactors, increasing nuclear capacity from 100 to 400 GW by 2050, using atomic reactors to power military bases, strengthening the nuclear workforce, and directing the use of advanced reactors to supply energy for AI centers, which are of strategic importance to the country.
These ambitious U.S. plans are just one part of the new “atomic fever” emerging worldwide. Here, the concept of power will be redefined through a dual race: one for energy dominance and another for military superiority enabled by nuclear technology. This race will no longer be limited to defense or energy security; “going nuclear” will mean betting on the atom as a key driver of future technological, scientific, and economic growth. This presents a major challenge for the international community, whose future will depend on how we harness both the constructive and destructive aspects of the atom.
* The author participates in the Honors Program at Universidad de las Américas Puebla and recently completed an academic stay at Kansai Gaidai University in Osaka, Japan.
North America’s economic strength depends on maintaining a trilateral trade approach. For Mexico, the challenge is to defend and modernize the USMCA, expand global market access, and remain competitive against blocs like the EU and Japan, while advocating for a rules-based global trade system.
BY: ÓSCAR OCAMPO*
North America’s future depends on staying united. Only a trilateral approach— Mexico, the United States, and Canada together— can protect jobs, ensure competitiveness, and strengthen our voice in a fragmented global economy. Division means weakness; integration is power.
At the time of writing, the global economic order is undergoing a fundamental reconfiguration.
If, during the second half of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st, the principle of international trade negotiations was to find ways to expand trade between nations, the world is now moving toward a reality in which countries seem willing to accept restrictions—once deemed unacceptable—to maintain a particular preference in access to the largest market in the world.
The European Union agreed to a 15% tariff on its exports to the United States, including vehicles, just like Japan did. This is a big jump, considering that the U.S. most-favored-nation tariff for passenger vehicles is 2.5% (excluding pickup trucks, which face a 25% tariff called the “chicken tax”).
The bet is to emerge as unscathed as possible from Trump’s second administration, even if that means accepting violations of the rules that governed international trade for decades. One must ask: what’s next for global trade? Will the World Trade Organization (WTO) remain dormant?
In 2025, we have witnessed the collapse of the system. Still, the cracks go further back—at least to the failure of the Doha Round launched in 2001, the United States’ withdrawal from the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) in 2017, and the U.S. veto in 2019 on appointing new members to the WTO Appellate Body.
Given the collapse of the multilateral system, countries need to reevaluate their trade strategies and examine the tools at their disposal. Former U.S. Trade Representative Robert Zoellick identifies four types of liberalization in what he calls “competitive liberalization”: unilateral—non-strategic; bilateral—through agreements like the USMCA; plurilateral—among a group of countries in sectors such as the Information Technology Agreement (ITA); and multilateral—WTO.
In today’s environment, each country’s trade strategy must utilize all four approaches to lessen exposure to current geoeconomic volatility. One probable result of this reorganization will be a quicker
06-07
Expanding trade with
Reforming the WTO and defending rules-based trade remain urgent for long-term growth. Mexico
regionalization of economic blocs.
For Mexico, this entails maintaining its commitment to trade openness and advocating for a review of the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) that ensures, rather than limits, market access for Mexican exports. In this context, it is crucial to support the preservation of the trilateral nature of North America’s trade relationship, not only to strengthen negotiating power but also to facilitate trade, such as in areas like technical standards or certificates of origin formats.
On a parallel track, Mexico must continue its trade policy of market expansion, first by finalizing the modernization of the trade component of the Global Agreement with the European Union and ongoing negotiations with the United Kingdom. Likewise, the country should explore mechanisms to better leverage its membership in the Asia-Pacific trade bloc (CPTPP) and its trade agreements with Latin American countries.
At the same time, Mexico should advocate for a comprehensive reform of the global trading system alongside countries committed to a rules-based order, such as the European Union, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Japan, among others. The government must have a clear vision for the new global order once the challenges of these years have passed.
The immediate challenges for the country in this environment are clear: finding a way to reduce or eliminate tariffs affecting Mexican imports into the United States, such as assembled vehicles, steel, aluminum, copper, tomatoes, and products that do not meet USMCA rules of origin. This is especially important to prevent losing competitiveness against the European Union and Japan once they finish their trade negotiations with the United States.
Equally important is obtaining a favorable review of the USMCA that maintains the trinational character of North America and boosts trade within the region.
The North American region—not just trade among the three countries—is the primary competitive advantage of Mexico, Canada, and, although it might not always be obvious, the United States as well. In the race for economic and technological dominance in the 21st century against China, the U.S. will only be truly competitive if it harnesses the demographic, geographic, and even cultural complementarity with its neighbors to the north and south of
must push for a favorable USMCA review that secures its trinational
IT’S TIME TO STOP VIEWING THE LATINO COMMUNITY
AS A RISK OR A THREAT TO THE COUNTRY
Interview with Nicolás Peña*
Our Hispanic community contributes enormously to this country— those who carry the heritage of Hispanic roots and the commitment to maintain their identity while enriching the new culture they are part of, which is the American culture.
BY: DANIEL BENET
D.B. Tell us, what is the mission of this foundation, and what impact has it had since its establishment in 1988?
N.P. The Hispanic Heritage Foundation is a national nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington D.C., with offices in Miami, Los Angeles, and other key cities across the country that are important to us. It is a foundation that has been working for over 30 years to identify, position, and prepare the excellence within the Hispanic community.
We are committed to giving our community a voice, visibility, and the opportunities it deserves in this country—a community that is, in fact, making a significant impact on this nation’s development.
D.B. The foundation has been recognized
*Nicolás
Peña is Director of Communications at the
NICOLÁS PEÑA by institutions such as the White House, the United States Congress, as well as the Mexican government and other international organizations. What do you think has been key to achieving this level of credibility?
Hispanic Heritage Foundation
N.P. First and foremost, showing the face of our community as it truly is—not just as it is portrayed by some media outlets—but highlighting the skills, the impact in different areas where it thrives, whether in communications, the economy, technology, or medicine. Our Hispanic community contributes enormously to this country—not only those who come from other countries seeking new opportunities, but also those born here who carry the heritage of Hispanic roots and the commitment to maintain their identity while enriching the new culture they are part of, which is the American culture. One of the things that has set us apart as a national organization is the backing we receive from national groups that advocate for our Hispanic community.
More than 40 organizations support the Hispanic Heritage Foundation, and believe the key has been to show our reality from the positive side—what we are capable of, what we have, and what we represent as a group.
D.B. Share with us some of the projects and programs the foundation is running that you consider to be relevant and impactful for the Hispanic community in the United States.
N.P. We have several programs. We have programs that have been impacting our community for many years and continue to do so.
For example, I can mention the Youth Awards, which this year will celebrate their 27th edition. It’s a nationwide call for high school seniors in various categories. We evaluate categories such as media, technology, health, environmental development—several areas in which these students excel and distinguish themselves.
These are also students with a deep commitment to their communities. Beyond being leaders in their classrooms, they are leaders in their communities, bringing forward many ideas and projects they put into practice even before graduating. This is a call, Daniel, that goes out across the country. We receive no fewer than 30,000 applications each year.
It’s a highly selective process. The student selection process is very rigorous. Around 250 to 300 are selected regionally, and then a national pool is chosen to honor the very best. This year, the awards ceremony took place in Washington State, where we had the five national winners from the five categories. In the fall, we will open the call for the 27th edition. What’s important about this award is not only that they receive funding to continue or strengthen their community or academic projects, or to cover university expenses, but also that they gain visibility and valuable connections.
These students become part of the Hispanic Heritage Foundation network, where they can connect with sponsors, employers, and mentors. They have opportunities to apply for part-time or full-time jobs, internships, and can access courses and training—all of which we provide through the foundation thanks to our sponsors, of course.
It’s a platform for so many students. I have countless stories of award recipients who are now nationally recognized in their fields and are part of the Youth Awards “school,” as we call it in English.
D.B. In the current context, where the Hispanic community and other communities that are fundamental to U.S. society face important challenges, where is the foundation heading?
How will it adapt to the new needs of diverse communities, particularly the Hispanic community in the United States?
N.P.I think—and here I’m speaking more from the perspective of the Hispanic community—
As a Latino living in the United States, as part of the engine that drives this country, can say the challenges remain the same.
We still need to seek alternatives and open windows that allow us to show who we are, what we do, and the positive impact we have in this country.
Enough with seeing the Latino community as a risk or a threat to the nation. It’s sad that this is still how many media outlets portray us, with negative headlines.
Yes, there are needs and difficulties, and we all face them. But an essential point is that we must develop, give visibility, and
show the reality so people know what we are truly doing here and how we are contributing. That is one of the foundation’s missions: to show the face of our excellence. And by excellence, I mean everything we do in favor of this country’s economic and cultural development. It’s remarkable. Well, you must know, being in Mexico, the influence of our culture here in the United States—in food, music, and everyday aspects. Something as seemingly lighthearted as Taco Tuesday, for example—on Tuesdays, people here regularly go out to eat tacos—is something that has become part of the culture. Now, with the changes in the political landscape and global geopolitics, the community is even more diverse. We now see more South Americans, Venezuelans, Argentinians, Uruguayans—and this mix is becoming richer and richer in this country.
I think the point is, once again, to make visible and honor the commitment we have as Latinos who are helping build this nation.
D.B. I think in that sense, positive messages reach farther and sometimes have a deeper impact. And we know you are about to hold the next edition of the Hispanic Heritage Awards. Please tell us about them, Nicolás.
N.P. We’re super excited—gearing up, preparing everything for this year’s awards. For those unfamiliar with the foundation or the awards, the Hispanic Heritage Awards are given annually during Hispanic Heritage Month. This year they will be held on September 4 in Washington D.C. and later broadcast nationwide on PBS during Hispanic Heritage Month.
We’ve been presenting these awards for over 30 years, recognizing not only artists and celebrities but also people who are making an impact in our community. And when I say community, Daniel, I mean the community in its entirety.
We have Latino astronauts, scientists, athletes—there are different categories. I think that’s what sets us apart from other major awards in the entertainment industry. The Hispanic Heritage Awards have won the hearts of Latinos because they honor contributions from many different areas. This year, we’ve already announced the Business Award, which will go to Julissa Prado, of Mexican heritage—a young woman who has been an incredible entrepreneur and built a brand that has become a multimillion-dollar success. This brand has generated substantial earnings, all from her dedication, hard work, and love for what she does. Julissa went all in, and we are honored to recognize her.
We also announced Félix Contreras in the journalism category—a journalist who has been making history through music, showcasing our musical culture not only in the U.S. but worldwide.
And we’ve announced Cheech Marin, known across generations. We are very happy about the reaction to the announcement and to see how different generations are engaging. We might be talking about the 60s, 70s, or 80s, but we also see new generations who know about Marin’s impact, and now we honor him for his significant contributions to Chicano art.
D.B. We will be there with you in Washington D.C. on September 4 to share your story from this side of the border through El Heraldo de México and Heraldo USA—a space specifically designed to highlight and inform people on both sides of the border about the work being done and the many things worth celebrating in
PHOTOART: ARTURO RAMÍREZ
Imagine a world in which our planet itself possesses a kind of intelligence—a collective consciousness capable of monitoring, understanding, and addressing its most pressing challenges.
BY: TOPHER MCDOUGAL
In my recent book, Gaia Wakes, describe the speculative emergence of just such an entity—Gaiacephalos—as humanity stands at a critical juncture, confronting vast environmental, political, and social crises. Among these is the pernicious global problem of illicit trades, particularly the devastating flow of firearms from the United States into Mexico.
Each year, tens of thousands of weapons purchased at legal gun shops in the United States find their way into Mexico, fueling violence, empowering cartels, and destabilizing entire communities. The impacts are stark: from deepening insecurity and corruption to displacement and humanitarian crises that reverberate across the Americas. This trade persists in part because current international governance is fragmentary and hamstrung by narrow national interests, exemplified by American laws such as the Tiahrt Amendments that severely limit transparency in firearms tracing.
Meanwhile, surveillance technologies evolve in troubling ways, often developed without democratic oversight by private entities or authoritarian governments, resulting in tools such as Pegasus spyware or mass surveillance systems in China. These developments reflect a dangerous global imbalance: powerful corporations and unaccountable governments gain enormous informational advantages, leaving democratic institutions increasingly blind and powerless.
How can we respond effectively to these converging crises? One possibility lies in leveraging advanced artificial intelligence tools for detecting and quantifying illicit trades, envisioning these tools as early stages of a broader planetary regulatory and immune system for patrolling the circulation of goods, resources, energy, and money.
At one analytical level, innovative AI technologies could predict illicit flows by examining anomalies in pricing, supply chains, and online behaviors. At a more granular level, geospatial data could identify specific actors and pinpoint illicit transactions through location data, visits to known trafficking points, and proximity analyses. These approaches would be mutually reinforcing: broad-scale predictive tools could guide more precise investigative technologies, while granular detections could refine larger-scale analyses.
Crucially, for these powerful tools to remain ethical and effective, their
The illicit global market is a multi-trillion dollar industry. A 2017 study estimated that the global trade in counterfeit and pirated goods alone generates between $923 billion and $1.13 trillion annually.
Illegal trades are often interconnected: The same criminal networks and trafficking routes are frequently used for different illicit goods, such as drugs, arms, and people.
While less profitable than other illegal trades, the illicit trade of small arms and light weapons (SALW) is highly consequential for human security.
The internet and social media have fundamentally transformed how traffickers find and exploit their victims.
The most profitable illegal trades are not always what you'd expect: While drug trafficking and human trafficking are major global issues, some reports suggest that the trade in counterfeit and pirated goods is even more valuable. This includes everything from fake sneakers and electronics to fraudulent pharmaceuticals, which pose a significant public health risk.
The illegal wildlife trade, valued at billions of dollars annually, is the fourth largest illegal trade after narcotics, human trafficking, and counterfeit products.
Similarly, the illegal logging industry is a multibillion dollar business that contributes to deforestation and climate change.
GAIACEPHALOS
PLANETARY LEVEL AI
development and governance must be transparent and democratic. Affected communities, represented by groups like the Movimiento de los Pueblos por la Paz y la Justicia and Stop U.S. Arms to Mexico, must have direct input. The United Nations, despite its acknowledged limitations, represents the most plausible institutional home for such governance, offering a globally accountable forum for coordination and oversight. Yet we must also reckon with the economic and political realities of AI-driven detection systems. Who funds and develops them? Pharmaceutical companies, facing substantial losses from counterfeit medicines, might serve as willing early adopters, providing financial support for developing these tools in less politically charged contexts. Success in these arenas, such as the ongoing battle against deadly fentanyl trafficking, could establish a foundational capacity subsequently appliedt to more controversial sectors like firearms trafficking. There is a pressing need to recognize and counteract the deliberate weakening of regulatory oversight by powerful lobby groups. Organizations like the NRA actively erode governmental capabilities to regulate and hold accountable private entities involved in dangerous trades. If democratic governments do not act swiftly to regain control, they risk becoming permanently unable to understand or mitigate illicit activities effectively.
History offers some encouraging examples of coordinated international responses to illicit trade, such as the Kimberley Process, a certification scheme designed to curb conflict diamonds through export and import controls of rough-cut stones. Though predating advanced AI, such frameworks illustrate the potential of collaborative efforts to internalize previously externalized harms. Ultimately, the trajectory of emerging AI governance and its role in combating illicit trades remains open-ended. It will depend significantly on how we collectively approach the challenge of “raising” these artificial intelligences—a point I have explored in other writings. Democratic engagement, ethical vigilance, and broad international participation will be decisive.
Our choice now is stark. We may passively allow corporate and authoritarian entities to dominate these technologies, exacerbating violence, instability, and inequity. Alternatively, we can foster democratic global coordination, embedding transparency and accountability at the heart of AI governance. Pursuing this latter path not only promises solutions to illicit trades but may also mark humanity’s first deliberate steps toward nurturing a planetary consciousness—a Gaiacephalos capable of addressing crises through genuine global coordination. The future remains unwritten. Whether our planetary intelligence will emerge as a coercive force or a genuinely benevolent, democratically accountable entity is up to us. Confronted with a planet wracked by illicit violence and deepening inequalities, the stakes could scarcely be higher.
ARTWORK: IVAN BARRERA
Sergio Hernández
Galindo is the author of Hibakusha, the Testimony of Yasuaki Yamashita, the name of one of the atomic bomb survivors who migrated to Mexico in 1968. "Hibakusha" is a term that means "survivor of the atomic bomb." For decades, the Hibakusha were discriminated against and singled out for fear of radiation.
BY: SERGIO HERNÁNDEZ GALINDO
ILUSTRATION: ALEJANDRO CASTILLO
HISTORY
In August 1945, eighty years ago, the war between Japan and the United States ended. On August 15, in a radio broadcast, the Japanese people heard Emperor Hirohito’s voice for the first time. Speaking in a language difficult to understand, the emperor announced Japan’s surrender and asked his subjects to “endure the unendurable and bear the unbearable.”
By then, the Japanese people had already gone through a long period of suffering and sacrifice that started with Japan’s occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and increased after the war against the United States began in 1941. For this reason, the Japanese population calls this entire period the Fifteen-Year War.
HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI
Japan’s defeat, already looming by the end of 1944, was sealed with the explosion of a devastating weapon: the atomic bomb. By August, Japan had already started negotiations with the United States; the military could no longer oppose, making the use of these new weapons unnecessary since Japan’s surrender was unavoidable. Despite this, on August 6 and August 9, the United States dropped two new weapons of mass destruction that had never been used before. Military strategists chose the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to test the impact and consequences of these powerful and destructive weapons. The bombs were dropped on civilians, and it was expected that tens of thousands would die. At the moment the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, more than 70,000 people were killed. In Nagasaki, the explosion caused 30,000 deaths. We will never know the exact number of deaths in those moments, but the most terrible part is that in the days and months that followed, thousands more perished. By the end of that fateful year of 1945, the death toll had reached 140,000 in Hiroshima and over 70,000 in Nagasaki—
mostly children, women, and the elderly.
The end of the war brought a new period of severe shortages and hardships for the Japanese people. Over 60 cities were destroyed, and nearly the entire economic infrastructure collapsed—this was the tragic legacy of the war caused by Japan’s militarist class and ultranationalist politicians. The scarcity of food, shelter, and even basic cooking utensils led to increasing poverty. Children were especially impacted, as their average weight and height dropped back to levels seen before the 1930s.
We must acknowledge that the dropping and aftermath of the atomic bombs hold great significance not only for Japan but for all of humanity. Their use and spread are issues we must all consider today, 80 years after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings. The use of these weapons showed that their destructive power could wipe out the entire world and the human race as a whole.The conflicts among world powers for military dominance after World War II sparked a race to develop increasingly powerful and destructive weapons. Today, nine countries hold these weapons of mass destruction, which are a thousand times more powerful than those dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki: the Soviet Union since 1949, the United Kingdom in 1952, France in 1960, China in 1964, India in 1974, Israel in 1979, Pakistan in 1998, and North Korea in 2006.
HIBAKUSHA
Against the tide of this arms race, the first victims of the atomic bombs in Japanese cities—the hibakusha—raised their voices to denounce, through their suffering, the terrible effects of radioactivity on humans.
In 1955, a 12-year-old girl, Sadako Sasaki, died of leukemia in Hiroshima, having been exposed at age two to the “black rain” that fell after the atomic explosion. Sadako and her schoolmates clung to the hope that by folding one thousand paper cranes and stringing them together, she would be healed. From that moment on, origami cranes became a worldwide symbol of peace and the fight against nuclear weapons.
The year after Sadako’s death, the Confederation of Atomic Bomb Victims, Nihon Hidankyo, was established in Hiroshima and Nagasaki to demand that the Japanese government support the survivors. This initial movement by the hibakusha quickly grew into calls for the worldwide abolition of nuclear tests and atomic weapons. In 2024, the surviving hibakusha, represented by this Japanese organization, received the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to create a world free of nuclear weapons and for demonstrating, through their testimonies as witnesses, that nuclear weapons must never be used again.
MEXICO AND ITS PACIFIST VOCATION
As a result of this movement and others that joined worldwide, two important dates against nuclear weapons were established. In 2009, the United Nations General Assembly designated August 29 as the International Day Against Nuclear Tests, aiming to remind people of the impacts of such tests on humanity and the environment. In line with this declaration, on September 26, the UN General Assembly announced the International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons.
Mexico has played a key role in promoting an agreement that established an entire region free of nuclear tests and weapons. The Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed by most Caribbean and Latin American states starting in 1967, created this nuclear-weapon-free zone. Mexican diplomat Alfonso García Robles received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1982 for his efforts in promoting nuclear disarmament.
THE HORROR WE MUST NOT FORGET YEARS AFTER HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI
END GLO Actress
With over fifty years of experience, actress Patricia Reyes Spíndola will be honored with the Golden Ariel at the upcoming Ariel Awards, which will be held in Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, on September 20—a piece of news she received with great excitement.
“This is one of the greatest satisfactions life has given me. I’ve always said cinema is my passion, and I’ve had the chance to live my passion many times through film. I’ve made good movies, bad ones, average ones, very good, excellent, and truly terrible ones—I’ve walked every path,” the actress said in an interview with El Heraldo de México.
For the star of Los motivos de Luz, the film that earned her the Ariel Award for Best Actress in the 1980s, the stories she has brought to the screen always pose a challenge. “That’s another of life’s great gifts to me, because when I play a real person, I try to portray them as dignified as possible.”
She remembered the film directed by Felipe Cazals: “For me, at the time, it was essential, but now, as the song says, ‘what’s past is past.’ I’ve felt great satisfaction from my films, but at 72, you know you have more past than future, so I prefer to focus on the future rather than the past.”
She reaffirmed her love for her craft: “I’ve lost track of how many movies I’ve made in 53 years, but what makes me happy is that I’m still active. I’m doing television, I’m going to do theater, and they just screened in Guadalajara a film made last year in Taiwan.”
She added, “I’ve made films in Madrid too. Life has been very generous to me, allowing me to live my passion. And for that, to receive such an important award as the Golden Ariel—it’s something that comes along when you have the passion to keep doing it, and to have your peers recognize you is one of life’s greatest gifts.”
Another major achievement for Reyes Spíndola is teaching. “I’ve been teaching since I was 21, and I’ve always had two passions: acting and teaching. I felt it was my duty to share what I learned with others if I gained knowledge. So, whatever I learned and studied, I shared because love teaching. Now I have four schools, and I ask myself, what more could I possibly ask for in life?”
“I’ll have the privilege of sharing my experience with new generations. I feel honored by that—I’m happy,” said the actress, who also won the Ariel for Best Supporting Actress for Actas de Marusia, released in 1976.
Regarding the changes brought about by streaming, she explained, “It’s the same, because you’re still working for a camera.
If you know it’s going to a platform, then you have more room to play. I think I’ve done well—I even filmed episodes for one of those vertical telenovelas. We have to adapt to the changes that come.”
Reyes Spíndola also shared who she dedicates the award to: “To my colleagues who have supported me all these years, to the directors, to the producers who made the films, and to the writers who created the stories we told.
