Abdullah Al Kazaz
Architectural Association 5th Year HTS Course, Term 1
Tutor: Amica Dall
Course Title: Landscape Futures
14 December 2023
Regenerative Land Management in the Marshes of Iraq
Introduction
The Iraqi marshes, situated in the vicinity of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, are an ecological and historical beacon in the nation's rich agricultural landscape. These wetlands are defined by their ancient methods of water management, such as canals and basins, and traditional agricultural practices like paddy rice farming, reflecting a longstanding harmony between human activity and natural ecosystems. Once covering an area that fluctuated between 26,000 to 90,000 square kilometers, these marshes were reduced in size due to various reasons, including draining. The population fell from half a million in the 1950s to about 20,000. It has rebounded since, as the marshes are considered to be a World Heritage site 1 .
This delicate balance faces threats: land degradation from natural seasonal droughts and human activities like overgrazing that leads to soil erosion and loss of fertile land, water scarcity intensified by upstream river diversions that reduce the inflow of freshwater needed to maintain the marshes’ ecological health, and climate change impacts including rising sea levels, rising temperatures, and altered rainfall patterns that threaten the long-term viability of the marshes’ ecosystems 2 .
Agricultural practices that sustained local communities and shaped the cultural fabric of the region date back to two millennia. Recently, these practices have experienced significant transformations due to the influences of geopolitical dynamics including the British occupation and post-colonial events, particularly the policies of the Ba’athist regime such as the draining of the marshes for oil exploration
In response to these challenges, this essay aims to introduce regenerative land management practices into the marshes, ensuring their sustainability for future generations
1 United Nations Environment Programme (2016), “Iraq’s Marsh Arabs more optimistic after World Heritage status ”
2 Water, “Iraqi Marshes. ”
Historical Context
Ancient Agricultural Practices in the Marshes
The marshes fostered a unique system of agriculture. As highlighted in ‘Agriculture in Iraq: Resources, Potentials, Constraints, and Research Needs and Priorities’, “…irrigation started 7500 years ago when the Sumerians built a canal to irrigate wheat and barley ” 3 The ancient inhabitants developed an elaborate network of canals, which were instrumental in the cultivation of various crops like wheat, barley, and dates. This irrigation system was created by digging out large storage basins to hold water supplies after which canals were dug that connected these basins to a network of ditches 4 . It facilitated the maintenance of soil fertility and the creation of a biodiverse habitat, home to a variety of reeds, aquatic plants, native fish, and bird species such as the Basra Reed-warbler and Marbled Teal
Traditional methods of cultivation in the marshes included the use of floating gardens and crop rotation. These practices were “…able to face changing times but which is also able to successfully adopt itself to a bewildering range of contrasting ecological and socio-economic conditions” 5 . The productivity of the marshes, essential to the local diet and economy, stemmed from the interdependent relationship between the people and their environment. This dynamic stands as a testament to the sophistication of ancient agricultural practices within the region.
3 Jaradat, “Agriculture in Iraq: Resources, Potentials, Constraints, and Research Needs and Priorities” , (Washington D.C.: Department of State- Middle East Working Group on Agriculture, 2002), 29.
4 Joe, “Mesopotamia Irrigation: The Innovation for Agricultural Success.” (Timeless Myths, 2022)
5 Ploeg, “The Importance of Peasant Agriculture: A Neglected Truth” , (Wageningen University & Research, 2017), 4.
The Marsh Arabs
The Marsh Arabs are the indigenous inhabitants of the Tigris-Euphrates marshlands in southern Iraq and parts of Iran. They maintained a distinctive lifestyle for thousands of years, with some historians suggesting their lineage traces back to ancient Sumerians and Babylonians. Their culture is closely tied to the marshes, reflected in their unique reed dwellings known as “mudhifs”, and an existence based on fishing, buffalo herding, and rice cultivation.
Colonialism and Geopolitical Events
The marshes experienced significant transformations under the British mandate. The mandate introduced large-scale agricultural projects and land reforms that altered traditional land management practices, "The initial modernization of Iraq’s agricultural sector involved the transformation from traditional practices to mechanization and consolidation of land holdings into vast estates during the hundred years or so preceding 1958 " 6 These changes shifted subsistence farming to cash crop cultivation, disrupting the ecological balance of the marshes
Subsequently, the marshes also experienced significant transformations under the Ba’athist regime’s policies in the late 20th century The regime’s actions aimed at draining the marshes for oil exploration and as a means of political repression that resulted in the near destruction of the marshes. By the early 2000s, approximately 90% of the wetlands were drained, leading to drastic ecological shifts including increased desertification and salinization of the surrounding waterways and soils, which in turn severely disrupted the local biodiversity and traditional lifestyles of the Marsh Arabs 7 Furthermore, the displacement of over 200,000 Iraqis living in the marshes was another direct consequence of the habitat destruction. 8
Restoration efforts ever since have led to some ecological recovery, but the marshes have not regained their full biodiversity or extent and they continue to face environmental threats
5- Transformation of the Mesopotamian Marshes: Satellite Imagery from 1973 to 2004 depicting the dramatic changes in the Iraqi Marshlands. Panel A shows the extent of the marshes in 1973, with distinct areas of permanent and seasonal lakes. Panel B reveals the marshes in 2000, after significant drainage and reduction in marsh vegetation. Panel C captures the partial recovery in 2004 after re-flooding efforts, with insets indicating areas of interest.
6 Schnepf, “Iraq Agriculture and Food Supply: Background and Issues” , (Congressional Research Service The Library of Congress, updated 2004), CRS-14.
7 Windhauser, “Protecting Iraq’s Southern Marshlands ”
8 “Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes.”
Linking Historical Practices to Modern Challenges
Sustainable farming methods included the cultivation of rice on floating gardens, the use of seasonal flooding for irrigation, and the rotation of crops to maintain soil health without artificial fertilizers Transitioning to modern agricultural approaches left a significant impact. Contemporary challenges include reduced river flows due to upstream damming, increased soil salinity, and the introduction of inefficient water irrigation systems, “As water scarcity increases and wells are drying, the cost of water is becoming too high to afford." 9
The salinity issues in Iraq’s central and southern agricultural lands areas are so severe that they significantly hinder farming productivity; hence, a focus on salinity management at the farm level is needed to improve agricultural output, "strategic focus is needed on investment in salinity management at the farm scale" 10. These modern challenges are a direct result of the historical disregard for the delicate ecological balance. A return to more sustainable, regenerative land management practices such as the restoration of traditional water management systems, implementation of organic farming techniques, and the introduction of agroforestry systems are needed.
9 IOM Iraq, “Small Scale Irrigation Infrastructure Development in Iraq: A Feasibility Review” , (IOM UN Migration, 2022), 20.
10 Jongerden, Wolters, Dijkxhoorn, “Explorative Study Agricultural Development in Iraq and the Federal Kurdistan Autonomous Region” , (2018), 23
Current Challenges
Current State of Soil and Land Health
The current state of soil and land health in the marshes reflects the cumulative impact of what has been discussed thus far. The degradation of soil quality is primarily due to salinization and waterlogging, and are active concerns in these regions As of 1973, it was estimated that at least 2.5 million hectares of Iraq’s irrigated cropland had become uncultivable due to excessive salinity, with an annual loss of 6,000 to 12,000 hectares 11 . Effective water management and drainage to control salinity are therefore needed, "…the soil has become waterlogged and the plants may suffer. This excess water needs to be removed drainage has an additional benefit – managing salinization" 12
The decline in soil quality within the marshes is illustrated in the graph below (Fig 7). It shows concentrations of key soil components such as potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfate (SO4), relevant to soil moisture versus salinity. Each dot and line denote the vulnerability of the marshes. The graph provides us with a clear visual of the soil’s current state across different marsh areas, pinpointing where the soil is thriving- The Central Marshes (indicated by purple squares) are positioned closest to the origin of the two axes, suggesting they are the least affected by extreme conditions of either high salinity or excessive moisture; and also pinpointing where it may be in distressThe Al Sanaf Marshes (indicated by blue circles) appears to be affected by high pH, salinity, and the presence of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4).
11 Schnepf, “Iraq Agriculture and Food Supply: Background and Issues” , (Congressional Research Service The Library of Congress, updated 2004), CRS-13
12 IOM Iraq, “Small Scale Irrigation Infrastructure Development in Iraq: A Feasibility Review” , (IOM UN Migration, 2022), 27.
Issues Related to Water Use and Availability
Water scarcity in the area is multifaceted. Primarily, it stems from reduced river flows, a consequence of extensive upstream damming projects in Turkey The Ilisu Dam which is part of Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Project is particularly impactful. It is a large-scale infrastructure measuring 400ft high and 1 mile wide. While aiming for energy independence, the dam has massive downstream effects like reduced water quality and saltwater intrusion from the Gulf into the Tigris River 13. Despite two decades of opposition, the dam remains a core element of Turkey’s energy strategy 14
The dam’s impact is devastating as the reduction of Iraq’s annual water supply is expected to greatly diminish agricultural land 15
Impact of Climate Change and Rising Sea Levels
Climate change and the resultant rising sea levels present concerns of equal magnitude. It is altering precipitation patterns and temperature regimes in the region, "Climate change projections suggest that rainfall will decline over the twenty-first century possibly by another 50 percent." 16. These alterations lead to increased evaporation rates and changes in the seasonal flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates, crucial for replenishing the marshes.
Rising sea levels add another layer of complexity to the challenges faced by the marshes. The increasing levels are causing saline seawater to encroach into the marshlands Its resilience is thus being tested.
13 EROS, “Ilisu Dam.”
14 Hockenos, “Turkey’s Dam-Building Spree Continues, At Steep Ecological Cost.”
15 Coordinator, “Impacts of Ilisu Dam in Iraq: A Lecture at the Marine Science Center Basra University.”
16 IOM Iraq, “Small Scale Irrigation Infrastructure Development in Iraq: A Feasibility Review” , (IOM UN Migration, 2022), 8
The situation is illustrated below (Fig 8); the potential sea level rise and moderate flood scenario for 2070, based on projective data by the IPCC.
9- Projected sea level rise and moderate flood scenario for 2070 on the current trajectory of climate change according to the IPCC’s Leading Consensus (2021).
Regenerative Land Management (RGLM)
Defining and Explaining the Principles of RGLM
RGLM is an approach to agriculture that goes beyond sustainability; it aims to actively rejuvenate and enhance the ecosystem. Regenerative practices are characterized by a holistic approach to farming that focuses on improving soil health, water retention, and biodiversity These principles involve practices like no till-farming, organic matter addition (composting), crop rotation, and integrated pest management. Regenerative practices often incorporate knowledge and techniques like indigenous land stewardship, polyculture, and natural water management, adapting them with modern scientific understanding. This synergy is crucial in creating resilient agricultural systems that can withstand and adapt to environmental changes.
Implementing RGLM in the Marshes
A concrete strategy for RGLM could be the revitalization of the ancient irrigation system. This would involve rehabilitating traditional waterways and integrating them with regulated discharge irrigation systems that reduce water waste and adapt to seasonal fluctuations.
Promoting biodiversity is another crucial aspect of regenerative practices suitable for the marshes. Specific regenerative actions include reestablishing native plant varieties such as the Papyrus sedge and the Reed mace, which are essential to the marshes' ecosystem as they filter pollutants and provide habitat for wildlife. Incorporating rotational grazing practices with native water buffalo can naturally manage plant growth and soil health. Also, engaging with the Marsh Arab communities to revive traditional fishing practices would not only sustain their cultural legacy but also ensure the ecological diversity of aquatic life.
Examples of Successful Implementation of RGLM
RGLM practices have been successfully implemented in various parts of the world One notable example is the restoration of the Loess Plateau in China (Fig 10.1) Extensive erosion had devastated the land but through a series of regenerative practices such as terracing, planting trees, and implementing no-till farming to preserve the soil structure. The area recovered remarkably. Due to its enhanced agricultural output and diversification, millions of people were lifted out of poverty, with incomes growing substantially 17
Another example is found in the restoration efforts in the Tigray region of Ethiopia (Fig 10.2). This project involved water harvesting, constructing terraces for soil erosion control, and integrating agroforestry practices that rejuvenated the land. The project won a United Nations award for achieving such a massive accomplishment of greening the drylands 18
17 The World Bank, “Restoring China’s Loess Plateau”, (World Bank Group, 2007).
18 “Tigray Project Wins Gold for Land Restoration.” (Embassy of Ethiopia, London, 2017)
These cases illustrate the transformative potential of RGLM practices. They show how integrated approaches that focus on soil health, water conservation, and biodiversity can lead to substantial ecological and socio-economic benefits. Such examples provide a blueprint for the restoration of the marshes of Iraq where community involvement and the adaptation of practices to local environmental and cultural settings are of paramount importance.
Prospects
Exploring Potential Benefits for Local Communities and Broader Iraqi Society
Implementing regenerative land management practices in the marshes of Iraq can provide significant benefits for local communities and the wider Iraqi community. These benefits extend beyond ecological restoration, contributing to socio-economic aspects as well.
For local communities, regenerative practices could mean more stable and productive agricultural yields. Regenerative agriculture can enhance food security and provide more reliable sources of income Broader societal benefits include improved environmental quality Regenerative techniques contribute to cleaner air and water, resulting from reduced chemical use and enhanced natural filtration systems in healthy soils. These practices can play a role in tackling climate change through carbon sequestration, a process involving capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it in the soil 19 . When regenerative techniques are employed, like no-till farming, they reduce the need for chemical input and improve the soil’s organic matter. This, therefore, increases the soil’s capacity to hold carbon, pulling it out of the atmosphere 20 .
Identifying Potential Obstacles to Implementing Regenerative Practices
While regenerative land management practices provide numerous benefits, several obstacles may hinder their implementation in the deserts of Iraq. The lack of awareness and education about regenerative practices among local farmers and landowners can be a significant barrier. There is often a knowledge gap in understanding the long-term benefits of such practices over conventional farming methods. This gap necessitates targeted educational programs and community outreach to provide a deeper understanding and acceptance of regenerative techniques.
Land ownership today is often fragmented or disputed, with some areas being managed by the government, while others have been reclaimed by returning Marsh Arabs or are under the control of agricultural businesses. This lack of clear land ownership possession can discourage investment in longterm sustainable practices like regenerative agriculture.
Another major obstacle is the potential initial cost and resource investment required to transition to regenerative practices. Shifting to new farming practices often requires upfront investments in training, equipment, and infrastructure. Securing funding and resources for this transition can be challenging, especially in regions with limited economic resources. Furthermore, existing policies and regulations may not be helpful to regenerative practices. There may be a need for policy reform to support and encourage regenerative practices, ensuring they are viable and attractive for local farmers.
Lastly, the geopolitical situation in the region can also pose challenges. The marshes of Iraq are independent of water flows from upstream regions, and any geopolitical tension affecting these water sources can directly affect the feasibility of regenerative practices, such as those surfaced from the construction of Turkey's Ilisu Dam. This dam has significantly reduced water flow into the marshes, potentially making it more difficult to implement regenerative practices that depend on adequate water availability
19 Serge, “Soil Carbon Sequestration through Regenerative Agriculture in the U.S. State of Vermont.”, (PLOS Climate, Public Library of Science, 2022).
20 “Agricultural Practices and Carbon Sequestration Fact Sheet”, (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2009).
Conclusion
This essay examines the historical and present-day significance of Iraq's marshlands revealing how ancient agricultural methods could address current ecological challenges. It highlights the potential socio-economic uplift these practices could provide to Iraqi communities. Recognizing the challenges, such as specific educational deficiencies and legislative obstacles, it calls for actionable research and policy reforms. The essay proposes a harmonious blend of ancestral wisdom and modern requirements for the sustainable revival and stewardship of these marshes
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