Solving tribology problems in rotating machines
H. Prashad
Boca
Cambridge England
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Preface xiii
About the author xv
1Reliability analysis of rolling-element bearings1
1.1A general review1
1.2Introduction1
1.3Detection of bearing malfunction and determination of defect frequencies2
1.4Resonant frequencies3
1.5Experimental procedure3
1.6Instrumentation details and techniques4
1.7Determination of defect frequencies and energy levels7
1.8Results and discussion9
1.9Conclusions and recommendations19
1.10References20
1.11Nomenclature20
2Functional performance of rolling-element bearings for acceptance in routine applications22
2.1A general review22
2.2Introduction22
2.3Bearing test philosophy23
2.4Bearing test machine25
2.5Experimental procedure26
2.6Data deduction27
2.7Results and discussion30
2.8Overall vibration levels of bearings37
2.9Predicted life of bearings37
2.10Comparison of performance of bearings38
2.11Conclusions38
2.12References39
3Cage and roller slip of rolling-element bearings40
3.1A general review40
3.2Introduction40
3.3Characteristic defect frequencies41
3.4Experimental procedure41
3.5Spectral analysis technique42
3.6Determination of defect frequencies and energy levels43
3.7Results and discussion44
3.8Comparison of bearings51
3.9Conclusions52
3.10References53
3.11Appendix53
3.12Nomenclature54
4Diagnosis and cause analysis of rolling-element bearings failure in electric power equipment56
4.1A general review56
4.2Introduction56
4.3Bearing arrangement and nature of bearing failure57
4.4Investigations, observation of failures and data collection57
4.5Results and discussion61
4.6Conclusions64
4.7References65
5Localized electrical current in rolling-element bearings67
5.1A general review67
5.2Introduction67
5.3Bearing arrangement and the nature of bearing failure69
5.4Investigations, observations and data collection70
5.5Theoretical model and approach to determine the flow of localized current in a bearing72
5.6Field strength on track surfaces of races and rolling-elements75
5.7Magnetic flux density75
5.8Determination of time span for the appearance of flutes on track surfaces76
5.9Data deduction76
5.10Results and discussion77
5.11Conclusions80
5.12References81
5.13Nomenclature82
6Response and performance of a rolling-element bearing under the influence of an electric current84
6.1A general review84 6.2Introduction84
6.3Behaviour of grease in non-insulated bearings86
6.4Effect of current on formation of corrugated patterns on the roller track of races of roller bearings90
6.5Effect of current leakage on electro-adhesion forces in rolling friction and magnetic flux density distribution on bearing surfaces92
6.6Effect of operating parameters on the threshold voltages and impedance response of non-insulated rolling-element bearings94
6.7Impedance, capacitance and charge accumulation on roller bearings95
6.8Contact temperature, contact stresses and slip bands initiation on roller track of races96
6.9Effects of instantaneous charge leakage on roller tracks of roller bearings lubricated with high-resistivity lubricants98
6.10Capacitive effects of roller bearings on repeated starts and stops of a machine99
6.11Mechanism of bearing failures100
6.12Conclusion102
6.13References102
6.14Nomenclature103
7Effect of oil grades and clearance ratios on the reliability of cylindrical hydrodynamic bearings106
7.1A general review106
7.2Introduction106
7.3Background107
7.4Theoretical109
7.5Evaluation of viscosity coefficients110
7.6Determination of viscosity integral112
7.7Assessment of bearing performance114
7.8Effect of oil grades on temperature rise and safe loadcarrying capacity of bearings116
7.9Bearing turbulence and transition speed117
7.10Results and discussion120
7.11Conclusions and recommendations126
7.12References128
7.13Nomenclature128
8Spherical seating of hydrodynamic journal bearings130
8.1A general review130
8.2Introduction130
8.3Theoretical basis of the simplified design methodology131
8.4Evaluation of minimum values of constant of moment of friction and optimum values of the design parameters of spherical seating133
8.5Functional nomographs for evaluation of optimum values for spherical seating design parameters134
8.6Guidelines for choosing the optimum values for spherical seating design parameters136
8.7Conclusions and recommendations136
8.8References137
8.9Nomenclature137
9Life estimation of turbine oils: a methodology and criterion for acceptance or rejection139
9.1A general review139
9.2Introduction139
9.3Experimental investigations140
9.4Data deduction141
9.5Results and discussion142
9.6Conclusions and recommendations147
9.7References148
10Axial force on motor bearings: a tool for performance evaluation149
10.1A general review149
10.2Introduction149
10.3Axial force measurement technique150
10.4Experimental determination of axial force152
10.5Results and discussion152
10.6Conclusions and future studies153
10.7Bibliography153
11An analysis of the progressive increase in vibration of a large synchronous electric motor154
11.1A general review154 11.2Introduction154
11.3Possible sources of vibration155
11.4Diagnosis of causes of vibrations156
11.5System design, bearing assembly and characteristic features of the synchronous motor under investigation157
11.6Investigations and analysis158
11.7Results and discussion161
11.8Conclusions and recommendations163
11.9References164
12A study of the causes of failure of rolling-element bearings in alternators165
12.1A general review165
12.2Introduction165
12.3Design features of the alternators166
12.4The nature of bearing failure166
12.5Data collection and investigations167
12.6Causes of shaft voltage and flow of current through bearings171
12.7Results and discussion172
12.8Conclusions and recommendations175
12.9References175
13The diagnosis of the cause of a bearing problem in a synchronous condenser177
13.1A general review177 13.2Introduction177
13.3Technical details of the synchronous condenser178
13.4Experimental procedure178
13.5Measurement obtained179
13.6Theoretical180
13.7Comparison of theoretical and experimental data183
13.8Results and discussion184
13.9Conclusions and recommendations185 13.10References185
13.11Nomenclature186
14The cause of noise at the top bearings of vertical pump-motor sets187
14.1Introduction187
14.2Sump layout and construction187
14.3System layout188
14.4System behaviour189
14.5Factors causing the unusual system behaviour191
14.6Vibration spectra and analysis191
14.7Results and discussion193
14.8Design of the bearing used and its significance199
14.9Explanation of the cause of noise at the motor top bearing200
14.10Conclusions and recommendations200
14.11Bibliography202
15Modifications to the design and bearings of horizontal axis windmills used for pumping water, to achieve trouble-free, reliable operation203
15.1A general review203
15.2Introduction203
15.3Design features204
15.4Operational philosophy204
15.5Transmission system205
15.6Bearings and performance of the reciprocating pump205
15.7Recommendations209
15.8Conclusions213
15.9References213
16Magnetic suspension bearings for AC energy meters214
16.1A general review214
16.2Introduction214
16.3Design considerations216
16.4Mechanical requirements220
16.5Typical construction221
16.6Frictional torque studies222
16.7Conclusions and discussion226
16.8Bibliography227
17A new generation of rolling-element bearing with an outline of its performance advantages228
17.1A general review228 17.2Introduction228
17.3Basic concept and principle of operation of DDHPB229
17.4Theoretical analysis230
17.5Theory behind performance evaluation of bearings232
17.6Design and test conditions of DDHPB233
17.7Bearing test set-up and experimental details for testing DDHPB vis-à-vis conventional bearings235
17.8Data deduction235
17.9Results and discussion237
17.10Brief summary of the published research on DDHPB239
17.11Conclusions239
17.12References240
17.13Nomenclature241
Preface
This book presents a discussion of the solutions to various complex technical problems concerning bearings and lubricants, that have been diagnosed as closely associated with the design, quality, malfunctioning, maltreatment, and operation of machines. The various problems, their analyses and solutions discussed in this book are unique in nature, but the symptoms of the problems and related failure were projected to be closely concerned with tribology. Detailed diagnosis following repeated trials revealed the source of the problems and thereby the origin of the failures, which were dormant in the rotating machines. The solutions to these problems opened a new era and direction for development and analysis in the field of industrial tribology for tackling similar problems in power plant equipment.
The various chapters of this book deal with individual problems and their solutions, particularly pertaining to the progressive increase in bearing vibrations of a large synchronous electric motor, intermittent whistling noise from the bearings of vertical pump-motor sets, magnetization of bearings leading to premature failure in alternators being improperly located on the shaft, bearing failure of a synchronous condenser by the use of contaminated lubricant, bearing and design modification of windmills for trouble-free operation, unrecognized flow of a localized electric current in the rollingelement bearings causing flutings by the induction effects on the track surfaces of races, and various unforeseen causes leading to the bearing failure of large electric motors. Furthermore, techniques are shown for axial force measurement on a rotor to assess design and manufacturing accuracy of large electric motors, precise reliability assessment of quality and deterioration of rolling-element bearings in operation, effect of cage and roller slip on defect frequency response and functional performance tests of the rollingelement bearings to ensure their acceptance in routine applications in various industrial equipment.
The effects of viscosity, oil grades, clearance ratios, optimum values of design parameters of a spherical seating of hydrodynamic journal bearings and a regime of bearing operation have been analysed to provide trouble-free performance of the bearings in industrial equipment. The life expectancy of
turbine oils, highlighting a methodology and criterion for their acceptance/ rejection in power plant equipment for the reliable operation in the system, is very significant for maintenance engineers. A chapter on magnetic suspension bearings for energy meters emphasizes the importance of refinements that are necessary in the design and manufacturing of magnetic bearings. A chapter on state-of-the-art bearing response is also included, as this has potential in the analysis of the performance of a roller bearing operating under the influence of an electrical current.
Furthermore, the concept, development and investigation of the new generation double-decker high-precision rolling-element bearings with an outline of their performance advantages are included as a development approach through modulating bearing kinematics. The published literature on the evolution of dynamic coefficients and stress distribution on the outer surface of these bearings, their energy-efficient performance characteristics through experimental and theoretical investigations, including the effect of centrifugal forces and axial deflection, have been discussed to outline their advantages.
In short, this book deals with unique multifaceted problems and their solutions and provides in-depth analysis and investigations of bearings and lubricants and system problems, including reliability assessment and new bearing design, in 17 chapters. The book presents original typical case studies drawn from the author ’s professional experience over the past three decades in the area of industrial tribology. The work presented may prove to be useful for engineers and technologists of heavy industry, students, research engineers/scientists, academicians and others who grapple with the complex problems of industrial tribology. Various systems of units have been used in addition to SI to improve the projection and interpretation of results.
The author is extremely thankful to the large number of professionals/ engineers and colleagues from various units of Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd and from BHEL Corporate R&D Division, who have participated in different capacities in solving/rendering assistance to identify difficult and multidimensional complex industrial tribology problems closely linked with system design and operation. Thanks are due to BHEL, Corporate R&D management for providing an opportunity to handle in-depth involved systems and complex unique problems concerning industrial tribology during my professional career. Furthermore, without the silent sacrifice of my wife Darshan, my beloved daughter Shwetlana, and my loving and caring son Poojan, who allowed me to work without any interference at a time when they needed my involvement the most, this task would not have been completed. Finally, my gratitude is due to the Almighty, whose blessings, radiance, continued inspiration, pouring of booming energy and silent guidance have nurtured me from time to time to follow the path of untiring research.
Dr Har Prashad
About the author
Dr Har Prashad is a Senior Deputy General Manager at Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Corporate Research and Development Division, Hyderabad. He obtained an ME (Hons) degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1970 and, subsequently, a PhD in Tribology. He worked with the Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehra Dun, and with the Design Bureau at Bokaro Steel Ltd, Dhanbad, Bihar, before joining BHEL in 1974.
At BHEL, he was associated with the setting up of the Tribology Laboratory at the Corporate R&D Division, Hyderabad, particularly the design and development of various bearing test rigs for hydrodynamic and rolling-element bearings. He has done substantial design/development work on magnetic, dry and other special types of bearings. He has developed energy saving double decker highprecision rolling-element bearings, and established the performance of these bearings both theoretically and experimentally.
His areas of interest include diagnostic monitoring, failure analysis and bearing performance evaluation. He has done significant original work to establish the behaviour of different bearings and lubricants under the influence of electrical current. He has established electrical analogy for dynamic analysis of bearings. Assessment of flow of current through rolling-element bearings by study of magnetic flux density distribution on the bearing surfaces, theoretical evaluation of corrugation pattern, bearing life estimation, resistivity and recouping of resistivity phenomenon in lubricants, and theory that explains the causation, morphology and rate of formation of electrical current damage are some of the outstanding original contributions of Dr Prashad especially for engineers engaged in the design or operation of heavy rotating electrical machinery.
Dr Prashad has published more than 115 papers in both national and international journals, and delivered invited talks. He has patents to his credit.
He is a recipient of the Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Award–1998 along with other various awards for his contributions and publications.
Contact details:
Dr Har Prashad
1-2-319/A Gagan Mahal
Domal Guda
302 Central View Apartments
Hyderabad-500029
India
E-mail: har.prashad@gmail.com
(Ex Senior Deputy General Manager (Tribology), Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), Corporate Research and Development Division, Hyderabad, India.)
Reliability analysis of rolling-element bearings
1.1A general review
Investigations employing the high-frequency resonance technique (HFRT), which diagnoses defect frequencies of rolling-element bearings of different makes, have been carried out. Raw vibration signatures of bearings at different speeds of operation have been demodulated, and envelope-detected spectra analysed to evaluate various defect frequencies and their energy levels. A relative comparison of various bearings has been made on the basis of identified defect frequencies and severity of defects. These frequency values and their energy levels are used to monitor the intrinsic conditions of bearings as well as to establish the severity of existing or developing defects in the bearings. The investigation gives a realistic approach to monitor the intrinsic condition of a bearing. It can be successfully utilized to select appropriate bearings and for performance evaluation, and can act as a reliable tool to establish a safe bearing operational limit. Investigations can serve as a precise quality control instrument for the earliest detection of defects of even the smallest nature, and can be used as an ‘on-line’ bearing condition monitor, if required.
1.2Introduction
Normal rolling-element bearings generate an easily identifiable ball or roller pass frequency when operating. Bearing defects amplify the amplitude of these frequencies. By using the high-frequency resonance technique (or envelope detection), these frequencies can be isolated and demodulated to give an indication of bearing condition.1
Defects in a bearing generally will produce impacts when in contact with mating parts. The secondary effect of this impact is to excite resonance in the races, rolling-elements or other structural elements. These high-frequency resonances decay exponentially and are modified (modulated) at ball/roller pass frequency in a manner that can be easily detected. The basic signal is obtained using a high-frequency accelerometer located as near the bearing as
possible. The resulting spectrum is analysed to detect possible resonant frequencies. Once the frequency of interest has been found, the signal is narrow band filtered and the filtered output is envelope-detected. The spectrum of the envelope is obtained and analysed in the range of defect frequencies. The frequency of interest is generally some structural resonance, which can be found analytically or experimentally. Quite a few investigations have been reported using this technique.2-5
1.3Detection of bearing malfunction and determination of defect frequencies
In general, the possible causes of bearing failure include excessive contact stresses, misaligned loads, material flaws, lubricant failure or contamination and electric discharge between rolling-elements and track surfaces of races. In any case, malfunction is manifested as a defect in a race or a rollingelement. Such malfunction can be detected by frequency analysis from a signal obtained from a bearing, based on a position of a given fault, i.e. race or ball/roller. Impacts and vibrations will be produced at frequencies that are functions of a component and speed of operation. For example, if a race is scratched, every time a rolling element makes contact with the scratch, an impact will be transmitted through a bearing. This impact will repeat itself as a function of bearing rotation. Spectral identification at these frequencies is the basis of many diagnostic systems. The defect frequencies can be derived from kinematics analysis of the defect impacting action of the rolling-element bearings.
Assuming that the inner race is rotating and that the outer race is stationary, the following formulae can be derived6 (See Section 1.11 fornomenclature):
1.4Resonant frequencies
Resonant frequencies can be initiated by shock loading. A defect in a rollingelement bearing may excite the resonance in an inner or outer race, or in the ball/roller. Because of the interaction, a combination of resonant frequencies may be excited, thus causing ‘ringing’, which is a continuous vibration response of the bearing structure. Both races and rolling-elements can exhibit this ‘ringing’. It is characterized by an exponentially decaying, high-frequency oscillation. The ‘ring’ will appear periodically at the ‘pass’ frequency corresponding to the faults that excite it. Resonant frequencies are structural characteristics. Their frequency does not depend on the speed of rotation of the bearing. The frequency of free resonance of a rolling-element may be calculated by the following formula:7
The races will also exhibit resonant characteristics. Resonant frequencies for races can be calculated by the following relation [1.7]:
These resonant frequencies are in a free state and may alter when mounted on a structure.
1.5Experimental procedure
The drive motor assembled with bearings under test was coupled to a similar motor through a rigid coupling. The test set-up is shown in Fig. 1.1. The coupled motor acts as a generator, while the drive motor, assembled with different kinds of bearings for investigation, acts as the motor under test. The speed of the motor was varied by changing the voltage and current input to the motor. The speed was monitored by a magnetic pick-up and displayed on a digital speed indicator. All the bearings were tested under coupled mode of operation for over-speed up to 2750 rpm up to maximum speed of 2275 rpm. Bearing geometrical parameters – bearing run-out, bearing clearance, swell, inner diameter of inner race and outer diameter of outer race – before and after assembly were also monitored in each test.
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THE END.
NOTE
I am indebted for the sketch of the flight of a fugitive through the Great Pacoudrie (or Cacodrie) Swamp, in the introductory portion of this volume, to a couple of pages in the graphic and affecting narrative entitled “Twelve Years a Slave,” by Mr. Solomon Northup, a free citizen of New York, who was kidnapped in that State, and sold into bondage in Louisiana, from which he was fortunately rescued and restored to his wife and children, after a dozen years of enforced servitude.
Another acknowledgment remains to be made. The reader of the twelfth chapter of this book may already have observed that Harrington, if he had lived, would have been a believer in the theory regarding the origin and purpose of the Shakspeare Drama, as developed in the admirable work by Miss Delia Bacon, entitled “The Philosophy of Shakspeare’s Plays Unfolded,” in which belief I should certainly agree with Harrington. I wish it were in my power to do even the smallest justice to that mighty and eloquent volume, whose masterly comprehension and insight, though they could not save it from being trampled upon by the brutal bison of the British literary press, yet lift it to the dignity, whatever may be its faults, of being the best work ever composed upon the Baconian or Shakspearean writings. It has been scouted by the critics as the product of a distempered ideality. Perhaps it is. But there is a prudent wisdom, says Goethe, and there is a wisdom which does not remind us of prudence; and, in like manner, I may say that there is a sane sense, and there is a sense that does not remind us of sanity. At all events, I am assured that the candid and ingenuous reader Miss Bacon wished for, will find it more to his profit to be insane with her on the subject of Shakspeare, than sane with Dr. Johnson.
I am aware that in even making this acknowledgment, I do something to excite the rancor of the stupid and senseless prejudice which finds no difficulty in assigning the noblest works of the human genius to the fat peasant of Stratford—a man who, as Emerson justly says, lived a profane and vulgar life, and whose biography, collected after the painful labors of more than a century, does not present a single point which bears any relation to, or correspondence with, the holy and heroic pages which bear his name; while, at the same time, this prejudice derides as a mad and monstrous impossibility, the theory which ascribes those pages to Lord Bacon and his compeers—men in whose lives and careers all the Shakspearean conditions are fulfilled, and all the Shakspearealities included. But since I have decided, for reasons, to advance again, though even thus slightly, the theory I refer to, it is only fair to render due credit to its true author. I do so, earnestly wishing that her work might receive the respectful attention it undoubtedly merits; and, though the hand which wrote that glowing iliad of the glory and the genius of the Elizabethan men, will write no more, that justice might be done to the great dead scholar in her grave.
W. D. O’C.
ANTI-SLAVERY WORKS.
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Price $1.25.
LEAVES OF GRASS, CONTENTS.
Proto-Leaf. Walt Whitman. CHANTS DEMOCRATIC and Native American.
LEAVES OF GRASS.
Salut au Monde.
Poem of Joys.
A Word out of the Sea.
A Leaf of Faces.
Europe, the 72d and 73d Years T. S. ENFANS d’ADAM.
Poem of the Road.
To the Sayers of Words.
A Boston Ballad, the 78th Year T. S. CALAMUS.
Crossing Brooklyn Ferry.
Longings for Home.
MESSENGER LEAVES.
(To You, Whoever You Are.
To a Foiled Revolter or Revoltress.
To Him that was Crucified.
To One Shortly to Die.
To a Common Prostitute.
To Rich Givers.
To a Pupil.
To the States, to Identify the 16th, 17th, or 18th Presidentiad.
To a Cantatrice.
Walt Whitman’s Caution.
To a President.
To other Lands.
To Old Age.
To You.)
Mannahatta.
France, the 18th Year T. S. Thoughts.
Unnamed Lands.
Kosmos.
A Hand Mirror.
Beginners … Tests.
Savantism … Perfections. Says … Debris.
Sleep-Chasings. Burial.
To My Soul. So Long.
Making 456 pages, 12mo., first quality paper and print, with portrait of the Poet, from a painting by Charles Hine, of New York. A very beautiful and richly-bound book. No handsomer or more substantial one, for the price, has ever issued from the press, here or in Europe.
Also, in preparation, THE
AT DAY-BREAK,
A HANDSOME VOLUME OF ABOUT 200 PAGES.
Banner at Day-Break.
CONTENTS.
Washington’s First Battle.
Errand-Bearers.
Pictures.
Quadrel.
The Ox-Tamer.
Poemet.
Mannahatta.
The Days.
Sonnets, &c. &c. &c.
SUPPLEMENT CONTAINING CRITICISMS, &c.
SENT FREE.
“LEAVES OF GRASS IMPRINTS,” a handsome little 64 page volume, in reference to the above Poems, collecting American and European criticisms on the First (1855) and the Second (1857) Issues of Walt Whitman’s “Leaves.” Very instructive, curious, serious, and amusing. Send us your address, any where in the United States, and we will forward you these “Imprints,” free and prepaid.
THAYER & ELDRIDGE,
116 Washington Street, Boston.
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