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Rajat Datta (Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi)
P. J. Marshall (King’s College, London)
Nigel Rigby (National Maritime Museum)
This series offers high-quality studies of the East India Company, drawn from across a broad chronological, geographical and thematic range. The rich history of the Company has long been of interest to those who engage in the study of Britain’s commercial, imperial, maritime and military past, but in recent years it has also attracted considerable attention from those who explore art, cultural and social themes within an historical context. The series will thus provide a forum for scholars from different disciplinary backgrounds, and for those whose have interests in the history of Britain (London and the regions), India, China, Indonesia, as well as the seas and oceans.
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All Rights Reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this work may be photocopied, stored in a retrieval system, published, performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded or reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner
The right of W. G. Miller to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
First published 2020
The Boydell Press, Woodbridge
978-1-78327-553-3 hardback 978-1-78744-930-5 ePDF
The Boydell Press is an imprint of Boydell & Brewer Ltd PO Box 9, Woodbridge, Suffolk IP12 3DF, UK and of Boydell & Brewer Inc. 668 Mt Hope Avenue, Rochester, NY 14620–2731, USA website: www.boydellandbrewer.com
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Cover image: map taken from ‘Nederlandsch Oost-Indie’ by A. Baedeker (Rotterdam, Otto Petri, 1870 (?)), Engraved by D. Heyse.
For Janet Miller (née Carnie) and Margaret Joy Miller (née Dodds)
“Pedagang orang paling giat di antara umat manusia ini, Tuan. Dia orang yang paling pintar. Orang menamainya juga “saudagar”, orang dengan seribu akal … Perdagangan membikin orang terbebas dari pangkat-pangkat, tak membeda-bedakan sesama manusia, apakah dia pembesar atau bawahan, bahkan budak pun.”
Pramoedya Ananta Toer
“Traders are the most dynamic of all people. They are also the cleverest. They are also referred to as a “saudagar”, people with a thousand schemes … Trade also frees a person from being concerned about other people’s status; traders don’t differentiate between individuals, be they important people, those of low rank, or even slaves.”
Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Jejak Langkah (Hasta Mitra, 2000) pp. 400–1
List of
Preface
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
Introduction: the Indian origins of the British country trade 1
Chapter One Merchant friends: country traders and the Malays I
Chapter Two Political allies: country traders and the Malays II
Chapter Three Inadvertent imperialists: country traders and British officials
Chapter Four Smugglers and enemies: country traders and the Dutch
Chapter
ILLUSTRATIONS
Maps
1 The Malay Archipelago and surrounding countries, with places mentioned in the text. xxi
2 The western Malay Archipelago, with places mentioned in the text. xxii
3 The eastern Malay Archipelago, with places mentioned in the text. xxiii
Figures
1 European ships of various countries anchored at Whampoa, near Canton, in the Pearl River, late eighteenth century. Chinese artist. (Goteborgs stadsmuseum. In the Public Domain and published with permission under Creative Commons). 10
3 From a View of “Batavia Roads”, 5 October 1815 from the “Indefatigable” by Joseph Arnold. (Published with the permission of the National Library of Australia, PIC volume 560 R79650). 23
5 View of the Entrance to Dorey Harbour, or “New Albion” as it was referred to by English country traders in the 1790s, with Forrest’s vessel, “Tartar Galley”. (From Thomas Forrest, A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas, (1780) (1969), plate 12, opp. page 150).
6 Robert Townsend Farquhar in 1817 when Governor of Mauritius. (Reproduced with the permission of the National Archives Department, Coromandel, Mauritius).
7 View of Ternate with ships, in about 1860 (A lithograph by C. W. Mieling, from S. A. Buddingh, Reizen over Java (1859–61)).
90
112
121
158
The author and publisher are grateful to all the institutions and individuals listed for permission to reproduce the materials in which they hold copyright. Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders; apologies are offered for any omission, and the publisher will be pleased to add any necessary acknowledgement in subsequent editions.
PREFACE
Historians have long acknowledged the importance of country traders in the increase in English trade with China and in the expansion of British influence in Southeast Asia in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
However, comparatively little is known about the individuals who carried out this trade. From amongst the hundreds of ships’ captains who engaged in innumerable commercial transactions between 1770 and 1820, only a few have received any great attention. An account of the life of Francis Light has been published because of his association with the founding of Penang while Thomas Forrest has received some attention because of the published accounts of his ground-breaking voyages. No diaries or ships’ logs are readily available, even if they exist at all. A couple of general reminiscences of life at sea which include some references to the country trade may be found, but are not detailed and were written decades after the events they describe. The only extant description of life on a country trader ship is to be found in a series of letters written by a youthful 3rd Officer, John Adolphus Pope, who sailed in the Western part of the Malay Archipelago between 1786 and 1788.
The reason for the paucity of documented material lies in the fact that unlike the actions of the servants of the large trading companies, the operations of the country traders only came into official records when there was some misadventure, when they were allotted an official task or when they fell foul of Company procedure.
The present work is an attempt to fill this vacuum. It will show how important the impact of the country traders was, firstly, on a selection of the Malay societies with which they came into
contact, for British trade and empire building, and as an irritant to the Dutch administration. It will demonstrate through the experience of numerous individuals how they contributed in a variety of ways to these historical developments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The late David Bassett first stimulated my interest in country traders.
I am most grateful to the following people who provided advice, guidance and support during research for this work: Radin Fernando, Anthony Reid, Robert Cribb, Barbara Andaya and Annabel Gallop.
Russell Jones, Khasnor Crouch, Dianne Lewis, James Fox, Greg Fealy, Virginia Hooker, George Quinn, Jan Herivel, Terry King, Campbell Macknight, Andrew Smith, Margaret Steven, Peter Worsley, John Bastin, Huw Bowen, Roxanne Missingham and Michael Laffan all assisted me in different ways.
Ann Smith read and edited the entire manuscript and made significant suggestions about the arrangement of the work. Any errors remain mine alone.
Peter Sowden of The Boydell Press bore with unstinting patience my many queries and guided me during the publishing process.
The work could not have been undertaken without the assistance of the staff of the ANU Library, the National Library of Australia, the British Library and the Bodleian Library.
I am also grateful to Karina Pelling, CartoGIS, College of Asia and the Pacific, ANU, for the production of the maps.
The following institutions were most generous in granting permission to reproduce the illustrations included in the text: Goteborgs stadsmuseum, Goteborg, Sweden; National Library of Australia, Canberra, Australia; National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, UK; Asia Pacific and Africa Collections, British Library, London, UK; National Archives Department, Coromandel, Mauritius.
A NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND UNIT CONVERSION
Spelling of place names follows that of contemporary English usage, hence “Amboyna”. Alternative versions are given in parenthesis on the first occasion the word occurs in the text, e.g. “Ambon”, “Amboina”.
Weights and measures
1 picul = 60 kg (133 lbs) = 100 katis (cattee)
ABBREVIATIONS
ASAA Asian Studies Association of Australia
Bod. Lib Bodleian Library, Oxford
BFC Bengal Foreign Consultations
BKI Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie
BL British Library
BpolC Bengal Political Consultations
BSC Bengal Secret Consultations
EIC East India Company (Great Britain)
IIAS International Institute for Asian Studies (Netherlands)
ISEAS Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore)
JMBRAS Journal of the Malaysian Branch Royal Asiatic Society
KITLV Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkekunde
MBRAS Malaysian Branch Royal Asiatic Society
MpolC Madras Political Consultations
MMC Madras Military Consultations
MPC Madras Public consultations
NA National Archives (The Hague, Netherlands)
NIAS Nordic Institute of Asian Studies
NS New Series
OIOC Oriental and India Office Collections. British Library (Asia Pacific and Africa Collections)
SFR Sumatra Factory Records
SOAS School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
SSR Straits Settlements Records
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