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Preface
Soyfood utilization around the world varies widely. Asia utilizes soybeans primarily as traditional foods such as tofu, soymilk, and fermented products, whereas Western nations consume more soybeans in the form of refined soy protein ingredients used in food processing than as tofu or soymilk. The consumption in Asia is based on longstanding traditional eating habits and food production methods. In Western nations, the consumption of soybeans as direct human food is a somewhat new phenomenon, although it is gaining increased acceptance and significance. Soybeans in food applications became very popular after the Food and Drug Administration approved a soy protein health claim in 1999. The use of soy in various food applications is of major importance to food industries. Because soy ingredients are being applied in so many diverse food systems, they are increasingly being regarded as versatile ingredients. Not only are soybean ingredients healthy, but they also play a major role in food functionality.
Currently, a limited amount of information is available on the use of soybeans in food applications, even though many types of soy ingredients can be used in various food systems. Sometimes it is difficult to decide what types of soy ingredients and processing will be best for certain food applications. This book provides insights into the different types of soy ingredients and their processing requirements for food applications. It serves as a source of information to all who are involved with the production of foods containing soy ingredients. For readers new to this area, the book can further their understanding of soy ingredients and their many applications.
This book summarizes some of the fundamentals to be considered when applying soy ingredients to food systems. The text is an excellent starting point for research and development personnel, students, and food technologists and other professionals in the food processing field. It brings together in-depth knowledge of processing food with soy ingredients and practical experience in the application of soy in food. It offers a wealth of information about the health benefits of soy protein, the current soyfood market, and the processing of soybeans into different soy ingredients. Also discussed is the use of soy protein in baked goods, pasta, cereal, meat products, and food bars. Some of the material addresses how to process soybeans into soy milk, soy beverages, and texturized soy protein; how to select identity-preserved soybeans for various food applications; how to overcome the beany flavor of some of the soy products; and how soy protein is fulfilling the need for protein in underdeveloped countries. This book is a valuable resource for information on the technical and practical applications of soy ingredients and will be a useful guide for selecting the proper soy ingredients for various
applications. Most of the contributors to this book have at least 10 to 15 years of practical experience in their respective fields. The editor owes a large debt of gratitude to the many individuals who have provided information and inspiration.
The Editor
Mian N. Riaz, Ph.D., earned his bachelors and masters degrees in food technology from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, and his doctorate from the University of Maine, Orono. He is currently Head of the Extrusion Technology Program at the Food Protein Research and Development Center and a graduate faculty member in the Food Science and Technology Program at Texas A&M University, College Station. Dr. Riaz conducts research on extruded snacks, texturized vegetable protein, pet food, aquaculture feed, oilseed processing, and extrusion-expelling of oilseeds. He is also the editor of the book Extruders in Food Applications (Technomic) and co-author of the book Halal Food Production (CRC Press).
The Contributors
B. Bater
The Solae Company LLC St. Louis, Missouri
M. Hikmet Boyacioglu
Food Engineering Department Istanbul Technical University Istanbul, Turkey
H. Chu
The Solae Company LLC St. Louis, Missouri
Lynn Clarkson
Clarkson Grain Company, Inc. Cerro Gordo, Illinois
Ignace Debruyne
Ignace Debruyne & Associates Izegem, Belgium
Peter Golbitz
Soyatech, Inc.
Bar Harbor, Maine
Jim Hershey
American Soybean Association/ World Initiative for Soy in Human Health (WISHH) Program
St. Louis, Missouri
Xiaolin L. Huang
The Solae Company LLC
St. Louis, Missouri
Joe Jordan
Soyatech, Inc.
Bar Harbor, Maine
Rongrong Li Givaudan Flavors Corporation Cincinnati, Ohio
Frank A. Manthey
Department of Plant Sciences North Dakota State University Fargo, North Dakota
M.K. McMindes
The Solae Company LLC St. Louis, Missouri
Mark Messina
Loma Linda University Loma Linda, California
I.N. Mueller
The Solae Company LLC St. Louis, Missouri
A.L. Orcutt
Astaris LLC St. Louis, Missouri
M.W. Orcutt
The Solae Company LLC St. Louis, Missouri
Paul V. Paulsen
The Solae Company LLC St. Louis, Missouri
Mian N. Riaz
Extrusion Technology Program
Texas A&M University College Station, Texas
Brad Strahm
The XIM Group LLC
Sabetha, Kansas
Steven A. Taillie
The Solae Company LLC
St. Louis, Missouri
Wesley Twombly Nuvex Ingredients, Inc. Blue Earth, Minnesota
David Welsby The Solae Company LLC
St. Louis, Missouri
1. Soyfoods: Market and Products ....................................................1
Peter Golbitz and Joe Jordan
2. Overview of the Health Effects of Soyfoods ............................23 Mark Messina
3. Processing of Soybeans into Ingredients ...................................39 Mian N. Riaz
4. Soy Ingredients in Baking ...........................................................63 M. Hikmet Boyacioglu
5. Developing and Producing Protein-Enhanced Snacks and Cereals .......................................................................83
Brad Strahm
6. Soy in Pasta and Noodles ............................................................93
Wesley Twombly and Frank A. Manthey
7. Soy Base Extract: Soymilk and Dairy Alternatives .................111 Ignace Debruyne
9. Textured Soy Protein Utilization in Meat and Meat Analog Products ........................................................155 M.W. Orcutt, M.K. McMindes, H. Chu, I.N. Mueller, B. Bater, and A.L. Orcutt
11. Ready-to-Drink Soy Protein Nutritional Beverages ...............199
Paul V. Paulsen, David Welsby, and Xiaolin L. Huang
12. Soy Product Off-Flavor Generating, Masking, and Flavor Creating ...................................................227 Rongrong Li
13. Selecting Soybeans for Food Applications ..............................249 Lynn Clarkson
14. World Initiative for Soy in Human Health .............................267 Jim Hershey Index .....................................................................................................275
1 Soyfoods: Market and Products
and Joe Jordan
It can be eaten raw, roasted, fermented, or cultured. It can be a small, green bean or a magically transformed concoction that closely resembles hamburger, ice cream, bacon, or even a fully dressed turkey. Yes, the soybean is one of the most nutritious and versatile foods on the planet, and it is an important food platform for the 21st century.
History of Soyfoods
Even though soy is a new food for many in Western society, the Chinese have considered it an important source of nutrition for almost 5000 years. The first reference to soybeans, in a list of Chinese plants, dates back to 2853 B.C., and ancient writings repeatedly refer to it as one of the five sacred grains essential to Chinese civilization. The use of the soybean in food spread throughout the Asian continent during the early part of the last millennium, as people in each region developed their own unique soyfoods based on tradition, climate, and local taste preferences. Natto, for instance, is a product consisting of fermented soybeans that was developed at least 3000 years ago in Japan and continues to be popular in some regions of that country today.
Growth and Development in the Western World
When European missionaries and traders traveled to Asia during the 1600s and 1700s, they wrote in their journals about traditional soyfoods, such as tofu and soymilk, that they had encountered in the cultures they explored. Then, in the late 1700s, both Benjamin Franklin and a curious world traveler named Samuel Bowen sent soybean samples to the United States for cultivation. Mr. Bowen’s soybean crops, grown in Georgia, were even used to manufacture soy sauce and a soy-based vermicelli substitute. But, it was not until Asians began to emigrate to Europe and North America during the 1800s that soyfoods were consistently made by and for people in the United States. Several Chinese tofu and soymilk shops were established in cities
with large Asian populations in Europe and on the East and West coasts of the United States; however, throughout the 19th century, soyfoods tended to be made in small, family-run shops and were distributed and consumed primarily in Asian neighborhoods. During the 1920s, a number of smaller companies with ties to the Seventh-Day Adventist Church (many members of which are vegetarian) began making tofu in the states of Tennessee and California. During that same time, soy flour started to gain favor in both Europe and the United States as a low-cost source of protein in the production of meat substitutes, and, during both World Wars, large amounts of soy flour were used to help offset meat shortages.
Soybean Industry Blossoms in the United States
Large-scale development of the soybean crop and processing industry began in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s, spurred on by a rapid increase in domestic and worldwide demand for both protein meal and vegetable oil. Harvested soybean acreage in the United States more than tripled between 1940 and 1955, from 4.8 million acres to 18.6 million, while total production of soybeans increased nearly fivefold, from 78 million bushels to 374 million. As the number of acres devoted to soybeans continued to grow during the 1960s, the United States became a world soybean superpower and began exporting large quantities of soybeans, as well as the basic crush products of meal and oil, to Europe and Asia. By 1970, U.S. farmers had planted an incredible 43 million acres of soybeans and produced 1.1 billion bushels. The crop would more than double in size to 2.3 billion bushels, or 62.5 million metric tons, by 1979. Industry growth has slowed in recent years due to increased competition from other producing nations, but the United States still produces roughly 75 million metric tons of soybeans each year.
Soybeans Grow Around the World
Though still the largest soybean exporting country in early 2005, the United States has lost the dominant position it once had in the global soy trade. Brazil, Argentina, and India have all become major producers as the world’s demand for soy as food, vegetable oil, and animal feed has continued to increase. Given the amount of available arable land and water resources in Brazil, along with its low labor costs, it is expected that Brazil will eventually become the number one soybean-producing nation. Already, South America as a continent produces more soybeans that North America (combined U.S. and Canadian production). Growth in China, where this story began, has been plagued with inefficiencies and lags behind most major producing countries, although it is still the fourth largest soybean grower. In 2004, it was the world’s largest importer of soybeans as well.
TABLE 1.1
World Soybean Production by Major Producers
Production (million metric tons) 2000/012001/022002/032003/042004/05
United States75.0678.6775.0166.7885.48
Brazil39.5043.5052.0052.6063.00
Argentina27.8030.0035.5034.0039.00
China15.4015.4116.5115.4018.00
India5.255.404.006.806.50
Paraguay3.503.554.504.005.00
All others9.428.609.6010.2311.64
Total175.93185.12197.12189.81228.63
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates, March 2005.
Soybean Production and Utilization for Food
For the marketing year 2004/05, the world produced approximately 229 million metric tons of soybeans, enough to give each man, woman, and child 35 kg of soybeans each, or the equivalent of nearly 300 L of soymilk for a year (see Table 1.1). But, the world’s soybeans are not used exclusively for humans. Each year, on average, an estimated 85% of the world’s soybeans are processed (crushed) into soybean meal (used primarily for animal feed) and vegetable oil. Approximately 10% is used directly for human food and the balance is used for seed or on-farm feeding of animals or is waste material. In addition to the 10% of the crop that is used directly for human food — for products such as tofu, soymilk, natto, and miso — an estimated 4 to 5% of the soybean meal that is produced from soybean crushing is further processed into soy protein ingredients that, in turn, are further processed into various meat and food products or are used in infant formula, dairy and meat alternatives, nutritional supplements, and energy bars.
Soyfood consumption patterns around the world vary widely, with such regions as Asia utilizing soybeans primarily in such traditional foods such as tofu, soymilk, and fermented products. In Western nations, more soybeans are consumed in the form of refined soy protein ingredients (used in food processing) than in the production of tofu and soymilk. As well, Soyatech, Inc. (Bar Harbor, ME) estimates that Asian nations utilize 95% of the soybeans consumed directly as human food in the world today. The heavy consumption in Asia is based on long-standing traditional eating patterns and food production methods. In Western nations, consumption of soybeans as direct human food is a somewhat new phenomenon, although it is gaining increased acceptance and significance.
As can be seen in Table 1.2, Asian countries consume far more soybeans and soy protein equivalent per day than do Western nations. For example,
TABLE 1.2
Annual Per Capita Consumption (2001) of Soybeans for Direct Food
RankCountry(kg/yr)(g/day)
1Taiwana
Soybeans Soy Protein Equivalent (36% Protein) (g/day)
19.1552.4618.89
2 Korea (North)10.6729.2410.53
3 Korea (South)8.7924.078.67
4 Libya8.6823.788.56
5 Japan7.7321.197.63
6 China7.3120.037.21
7 Indonesia7.1619.617.06
8 Uganda4.7112.914.65
9 Nigeria2.767.572.72
10Thailand2.346.402.30
11 Myanmar1.915.221.88
12Yemen1.855.061.82
13Costa Rica1.403.841.38
14Peru1.403.831.38
15Vietnam1.273.481.25
16Canada0.681.880.68
17Zimbabwe0.651.770.64
18Philippines0.511.390.50
19India0.411.130.41
20Ethiopia0.381.040.38
21United Statesa 0.330.890.32
22Germany0.240.660.24
23Egypt0.240.660.24
24South Africa0.230.640.23
25Congo, Democratic Republic0.180.500.18 World average2.396.542.36
a Soyatech, Inc., estimates.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) food balance sheets.
in Taiwan, per capita consumption is estimated to be as high as 19.15 kg per year, and in Japan at 7.73 kg per year. In the United States, yearly per capita consumption of soybean is just 0.33 kg per year; however, world average per capita consumption is approximately 2.4 kg per year, equivalent to around 6.5 g of soybeans per day, or an estimated 2.4 g of soy protein per person per year.
Soyfoods in Asia
Throughout Asia, the soybean is used in a wide variety of traditional and modern food products. For example, in Japan, tofu is the most popular soyfood consumed, eaten at virtually all meals in one form or another, from silken tofu in miso soup for breakfast to plain or fried tofu for lunch or dinner. Also, tofu is used in dessert products and as an ingredient in cutlets and other
prepared foods. Soymilk, after a quick rise and fall in sales in the mid-1980s, is making a strong comeback in Japan due to increased interest in functional foods and beverages and recognition of the powerful nutritive qualities of the soybean. Natto, a fermented soyfood product, has historically been extremely popular in Japan and is consumed daily by many people. Natto is prized for its unique taste and form, as well as its powerful blood-thinning and cleansing qualities. Miso, another fermented soyfood, is consumed daily by many Japanese in soup broth, salad dressings, and food toppings.
In China, tofu is also very popular, as is fermented tofu, yuba (dried soymilk skin), soymilk, and a variety of regional specialties, including soy noodles. In addition, soy powder mixes and isolated soy proteins are becoming popular as food ingredients and in consumer-oriented mixes for health. In Taiwan, the art of meat substitutes and alternatives has reached new heights with meat-, chicken-, and fish-like products made from soy proteins, yuba, gluten, and tofu. In Indonesia, tempeh is the most popular soyfood and is sold at thousands of food stands and kiosks throughout the country. It is made fresh each day by many individuals who purchase inoculated soybeans the night before and by morning have fresh tempeh to sell as street vendors. Throughout Asia, in addition to tofu and other regional soyfoods, processed and packaged soymilk has grown increasingly important in recent years and has become big business in Hong Kong, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Soyfoods in Europe
European consumption of soyfoods is similar to that of the United States, with meat and dairy alternatives comprising most of the soyfood sales. Soymilk and meat alternatives sales are particularly strong in the United Kingdom, which has a relatively large vegetarian population. Wide acceptance of soymilk can also be found in Belgium, where the continent’s largest soymilk producer is located. Throughout the rest of Europe, tofu is known, but it is not as popular as meat and dairy alternatives. As in the United States, soyfoods have become more of a mainstream food item, having crossed over from the natural products market to being widely available now in mainstream supermarkets.
Soyfoods in Africa
While a pan-African consumer market for soyfoods has yet to develop, certain countries in Africa have readily adopted soyfoods due to their high protein level and nutritional quality. Some of the use is a result of food aid programs where soybean products such as textured soy flour or soybean–corn meal are distributed, while in some countries feeding programs for workers and school children take advantage of the relatively low cost and high nutritive value of the soybean. In South Africa, a modern soyfoods market has developed; fresh and aseptically packaged soymilk is available,
as well as a wide array of products made from textured soy flour and sold as soy “mince,” a low-cost ground meat replacement.
Soyfoods in the United States
In the United States, perhaps one of the more interesting markets for soy products has developed due to a number of supportive micro and macro trends, as well as a strong history of “Americanization” of foreign and ethnic foods. This is due to the United States being a large, immigrant melting pot that blends many different foods and eating traditions. In addition, a strong entrepreneurial spirit exists among both immigrants and those who are motivated by a desire to create livelihoods that benefit not only themselves but also the world at large. Soyfoods, due to their high nutritional value and their low environmental impact when compared to meat and dairy production, have become a rising star in the U.S. food marketplace.
Development of the U.S. Soyfoods Industry
The modern soyfoods industry in the United States has developed in three distinct phases. The first phase, one of discovery, took place during the 1920s, when early proponents of vegetarian diets such as Dr. John Harvey Kellogg of Battle Creek, MI, became interested in the healthful properties of the soybean. In addition to studying the usefulness of soybeans in the diets of diabetics, he also developed and marketed North America’s first meat and dairy analogs made from the soybean. During those early years, soyfoods were promoted primarily among members of the largely vegetarian SeventhDay Adventist Church and other special interest groups.
The second phase was distinctly industrial and paralleled the industrialization of American society. As mentioned earlier, soy flour had become an important component in food production during the Second World War, as meat shortages developed due to the increased protein and food needs of the armed forces and the disruption of farm commerce during the war years. Unfortunately, soy flour and protein processing was not a well-developed science at that time, and, as a result, most of the products had distinctive off-flavors and were tolerated at best, but not appreciated. The image of soybean-based foods became that of an inferior substitute and extender, to be used in times of crisis and shortage, rather than that of a nutritional alternative to meat and dairy foods for everyday use.
In the 1950s and 1960s and during the meat shortages of the 1970s in the United States, numerous food companies and meat processors used textured soy proteins to extend meat products. These early attempts were met with resistance by consumers who complained of poor flavor, texture, and color. Following this period, many food processors found it necessary to reassure consumers that their products contained no fillers or cereal additives. As this industrial phase ended, soybean-based foods were neither highly respected nor desired by American consumers.
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