Protecting Hawaii’s Native Pollinators:
An exploration of the mutualistic relationship between Humans and the Nalo Meli Maoli
by Christina Franchesca McWhorter
Protecting Hawaii’s Native Pollinators:
An exploration of the mutualistic relationship between Humans and the Nalo Meli Maoli
A capstone design research project submitted in partial fulfillment of the Plan B requirements for the degree of:
MASTERS OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
May 2024
by Christina Franchesca McWhorter
Capstone Committee: Andrew Kaufman, Chairperson
Phoebe White, Capstone Studio Instructor
Malia Akutagawa, Capstone Committee Member
Keywords: native plants, ecosystem diversity, ecotone, symbiosis, mutualism, regenerate
Acknowledgments
Keyterms Introduction
Methodology
Design
Acknowledgments
I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family, with a special mention to my mom. Mom, your support, and willingness to listen, even when the topics may seem unfamiliar, meant the world to me and I am truly grateful. To those no longer with us— Dad, Chris (my brother), and Uncle David—I carry a piece of you with me every day. You all are deeply missed, especially during moments like this. Each of you has played an instrumental role in shaping the person I have become, and though you may no longer be here, who you were continues to inspire me.
Dr. K., thank you for piquing my interest in plants and for encouraging me to have fun and dream while always keeping me focused on the take-home message.
Phoebe, I appreciate you for always keeping me on track and pushing me to be better. Sometimes there were tears (almost) but I always knew in the end it all was worth it. You truly have made me a better and more thoughtful designer.
Kumu Malia, mahalo nui. You have always mesmerized me with the way your mind works and your openness to knowledge. I will always treasure our conversations and your admired commitment to your community.
Paul Krushelnycky, Assistant Researcher Department of Plant and Environmental Protection Sciences at UH Manoa, Sheldon Plentovich, Pacific Island’s Coastal Program Coordinator for the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and Karl Magnacca, entomologist with the Oʻahu Army Natural Resources Program; thank you. I appreciate you generously sharing your knowledge of the native Hylaeus bee and the opportunities and threats this delicate little pollinator faces and its habitat. Thank you, Ethel Villalobos, Junior Researcher, Department of Plant and Environmental Protection at UH Manoa, for speaking with me about your experience with the honeybee.
Joel Kurokawa and Matt Higa, thank you for giving me amazing graphic advice and considerations.
And a special Mahalo to Rick Barboza for all your kokua and mana'o about native plants and for always bringing new considerations into my work.
Key Terms
Ecosytem diversity:
Ecosystem diversity is the variety of habitats, the communities found in a geographic location, the beneficial services they provide, and the processes that support the ecosystem.
https://neprimateconservancy.org/biodiversity-ecosystem-diversity/
Ecotone (n):
A transition area between two adjacent ecological communities.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ecotone
Mutualism (n):
The mutually beneficial association between different kinds of organisms.
Mutualistic (adj)
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mutualism
Symbiosis:
Term describing any relationship or interaction between two dissimilar organisms. The specific kind of symbiosis depends on whether either or both organisms benefit from the relationship.
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/symbiosis-art-living-together/
Regenerate (adj):
Restore to a better, higher, or more worthy state.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/regenerate
Introduction
Understanding pollinators is crucial for maintaining ecosystem diversity. There are different types of pollinators, including various insects such as bees, beetles, moths, and hoverflies, as well as butterflies, bats, and birds.
Globally, pollinators are declining due to climate change, pesticide use, disease, habitat loss, and invasive species. This is a significant concern for agriculture and biodiversity, as according to the USDA, 75% of crops globally and 80% of wild plant species depend on pollinators. The fact that 40% of insect pollinators are at imminent risk of extinction highlights the urgent need to protect and preserve pollinators.
The Hawaiian Islands are home to a diverse array of unique flora. It is believed that approzimately 1,400 vascular plant taxa (including species, subspecies and varieties) are native to the State of Hawaii, with almost 90% of these being endemic - found exclusively in the Hawaiian Islands.
Hawaii is also home to 44% of the Nationʻs endangered and threatened plant species.
In Hawaii, pollinators face the threat of habitat loss, invasive species and loss of floral resources. Hawaiian native birds and insects play a significant role in pollinating the native ecosystems of Hawai'i. The state is home to around 63 species of native bees and 19 introduced bees. The Hawaiian endemic, yellow-faced bee, also known as nalo meli maoli, is crucial to pollinating native flora, but it is currently facing several challenges. In 2016, seven Hylaeus species were listed as endangered, making them the first bee species to be put on the endangered list. Additionally, several more bee species are threatened, or their presence has not been observed in decades. The decline of bees and their habitat is a cause of significant concern and the likely cause of more native plant species becoming endangered in Hawai'i.
This capstone explores the mutualistic relationship between humans and pollinators, with a specific focus on the nalo meli maoli (Hawaii’s endemic, yellow-faced bee), which is crucial to Hawaii’s ecosystems. This project aims to design habitats that protect and preserve these pollinators in Hawai'i, emphasizing our shared responsibility in their conservation.
This capstone hopes to answer the following questions:
- Who are the pollinators in Hawai’i?
- What are the challenges facing Hawaii’s endemic pollinators, specifically the nalo meli maoli (Hawaii’s endemic, yellow-faced bee), and how can we address them through design?
- What specific design actions can be taken to protect and preserve Hawaii’s endemic, yellow-faced bee?
- How can we all encourage and support the habitats of Hawaii’s endemic, yellowfaced bee?
Methodology
Literature Review
Hawai'i is unique in its very high level of endemic plants; however, it contains 44 percent of the nation’s endangered and threatened plant species. To better understand what is happening to the pollinators and the flora of Hawai'i, it is essential to understand who the pollinators are, what are their habitat, what are their threats, and what role they play in the ecosystems of Hawai'i. The symbiotic relationship between Hawaii’s native pollinators and native flora was examined through literature reviews. Through synthesizing native plants and their pollinators in the plant-pollinator interaction diagram (seen later in the project), it became evident that the bee is the predominant pollinator when it comes to native flora. Typically, when we think of bees, we think of the honeybee (Apis mellifera); however, in Hawai'i, there are 63 native bees under the genus Hylaeus and approximately 19species of introduced bees. After discovering that the Hylaeus spp. (yellow-faced bee) prefers native flora and only pollinates a few non-native flora, I was intrigued to find out more about the fascinating little bee. Although these species of Hylaeus utilize habit from the coastal strand to above 300m in the mountains in both wet and dry locales (Maganacca and Daly, 2003, page11), this capstone will focus only on the coastal strand to the lowlands. This is due to the lack of previous studies of the Hylaeus mauka (towards the mountain/ inland) of the coastal strand.
Interviews
The insights shared by entomologists, researchers, and a native plant specialist have truly enriched this journey to understand the native Hylaeus spp. (yellow-faced bee), the introduced honeybee (Apis mellifera), and native plants. Attempting to become an expert in one semester is impossible, and I am immensely grateful for the generosity of these individuals in sharing their knowledge, best practices, and lessons learned with me.
Insights from these interviews revealed that the primary threat to the native Hylaeus bee is invasive ants. The lack of a viable solution to control ants from encroaching on the bees’ habitat, destroying the larvae of the Hylaeus bee, or obstructing pollination is a major concern. Another significant threat is competition from non-invasive bees such as Ceratina spp. or Apis mellifera, which compete with the native Hylaeus for habitat and floral resources. Floral diversity and habitat loss due to fragmentation, development, hardening of shorelines, human recreation, changes in soil composition, and shoreline erosion further jeopardize the native bees, confining them to shrinking native ecosystems.
Historic
An analysis of colonial historic impacts and introduced flora and species is essential to understanding how Hawaii’s landscape transformed, why it now contains 44% of the nation’s endangered and threatened plant species, why the native ecosystems are disappearing, and why the native pollinators are threatened.
Precedents
In recent times, there has been a significant focus on pollinators in landscape architecture around the world. However, there is no precedent for this topic in landscape architecture in Hawai'i, and there is limited information available for tropical environments, particularly concerning native bees and their role in ecological systems.
The Sasaki project, Ananas New Community, creates pollinator paths that promote agriculture while reconnecting fragmented corridors to ecological green zones. One of the key takeaways from this project was that these corridors create an opportunity for increased biodiversity and promote agricultural yeilds.
The ahupua'a, a historical precedent, was utilized to understand ecotones as an opportunity where “in-between” zones allowed for greater biodiversity and habitat, enabling communities to meet and interact.
Investigate relationship
Upon examining the plant-pollinator interactions, it is evident that the native bees of Hawaii share a symbiotic relationship with the native flora. However, the introduction of honeybees (1857) has created a complex issue. Honeybees, which play a vital role in agriculture, compete with the native, yellow-faced bees for the pollen of native flora. Given that honeybees have access to a wider range of floral resources and with the depletion of native ecosystems the native bees now are at a disadvantage.
History
Early Polynesian settlers brought along with them stable food plants such as Ulu (Artocarpus altilis), 'Ōhi'a ai (Syzygium malaccense), Mai'a (Musa acuminata), Kalo (Colocasia esculenta) to name a few. According to Isabella Aiona Abbottʻs 1992 book, Lā'au Hawai'i, archaeological discoveries helped describe how early Hawaiians utilized the ecological resources available to them and developed a system of land use, patterns of gardening and gathering, a diet, and other cultural traditions that were in harmony with the environment (Abbott,1992, page 7).
Since the arrival of Europeans in the late 1700s, the Hawaiian landscape underwent a profound transformation. Cattle were introduced as early as 1793, and soon after, crops such as sugarcane, coffee, and pineapple became commercial monocrops that dominated the land. The Great Mahele, which occurred in 1848, allowed for private land ownership, paving the way for cattle ranching and commercial agriculture to thrive across the islands. The ranchers utilized various introduced species, such as Haole Koa (Leucaena leucocephala) and Kiawe (Prosopis pallida), and grasses like Kikuyu grass and Buffel grass for cattle fodder. In 1857, the first successful shipment of honeybees (Apis mellifera) arrived in Hawai'i. By 1890, it was discovered that the honeybee not only promoted the reproduction of the Kiawe tree for fodder, but its nectar produced an excellent light honey. As a result, commercial honey production was established and reached its peak in 1918. The honey industry in Hawai'i is still thriving and according to the Hawai'i Department of Agricuture, in 2021 the farm value of production was worth approximately 3.1 million dollars and the queen bee industry of Hawai'i is valued at approximately 10 million dollars.
The cattle industry and mono-cropped agriculture of the past have left behind polluted soils, controversial water rights, and abandoned lands. This has led to the domination of invasive plants and grasses, resulting in the loss of around 85% of Hawaii’s native flora and a landscape vulnerable to stochastic events such as wildfires, floods, droughts.
1828: Catholic Missionary Father Alexis Bachelot brought first Kiawe to Hawai'i.
1830s: Coffee becomes a ownership
1849-1851:
California Gold Rush brings boom to Hawai'i agriculture: sweet potatoes, onions, pumpkins, oranges, molasses and coffee shipped to CA.
1857
1892: First
First successful shipment of honey bees arrived in Honolulu, the german dark bees (Apis mellifera) were shipped from San Jose, California.
1890: Commercial honey production begins due to discovery that Kiawe nectar produced a good light honey.
arrived Queensland,
macadamia
macadamia trees to O'ahu from Queensland, Australia.
1901: Hawaiian Pineapple company is incorporated and begins to grow pineapple in Wahiawa. 1899
Early naturalist, R.C.L.
Perkins identified the Hylaeus (Hawaiian endemic yellow-faced bee)
Honey Production Peaks
5 10 Miles
Photo credit: Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS, Esri. TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, FAO, METI/NASA, USGS, EPA, USFWS
5 10 Miles
Photo credit: Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS, Esri. TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, FAO, METI/NASA, USGS, EPA, USFWS
Photo credit: Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS, Esri. TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, FAO, METI/NASA, USGS, EPA, USFWS
Map
Photo credit: Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS, Esri. TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, FAO, METI/NASA, USGS, EPA, USFWS
Typologies and Precedents
Pollinators are not just important; they play a vital role in humanity’s survival. As mentioned earlier, 75% of crops and 80% of wild plant species rely on pollinators. Without them, our food supply and ecosystems will not survive.
The global pollinator movement has brought increased attention to our dependency on pollinators. Pollinator landscape typologies, including community gardens, green roofs, home gardens, street gardens, islands, corridors, habitat restoration and pollinator strips, are increasingly being integrated into urban and agricultural settings. While these typologies work well in some regions of the world, most are less applicable solutions for Hawaii’s unique ecosystems and native pollinators. Due to the fragility of Hawaii's endemic, yellow faced bee the only typology currently that could work would be habitat restoration.
The historic ahupua'a precedent helped identify zones called ecotones, where the transition zones between ecosystems show increased biodiversity and act as buffer zones that allow various communities to meet and interact. Exploring the ecotone typologies reveals that these zones and edges can be sharp or blended and allow for zones of opportunity for Hawaii’s threatened ecosystems.
Limited precedents exist for incorporating ecological restoration and native pollinators in tropical areas such as Hawai'i. However, Sasaki’s Ananas New Community in Silang, Philippines, is a 610-acre urban development that endeavors to create a sustainable regional food network by developing an evolving urban district with an ecosystem that supports ecological corridors.
Mueller- Dombois, D. Ahupua‘a model after Minerbi, L. 1999, slightly modified
Key Points:
• Ecotones are transition zones where two ecological communities meet and interact.
• Ecotones act as protective buffer zone
• High level of biodiversity.
• Zone of opportunity.
• Examples of ecotones can be a forest and agricultural area or where water meets land.
Adapted from Seth Kahan’s Ecotone diagram
Ecotone
Ecotone
Habitat Patches Soft edge
Staggered Hard edge
Ecotones
Ecotones are areas of transition between two ecological communities, which can occur where water meets land or where forests meet agricultural land. These zones provide opportunities for learning and research, offering insights into the interactions between different ecosystems and the biodiversity found in these areas. By studying ecotones, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complex relationships between various ecological systems, and the role they play in the protection and preservation of Hawaii's pollinators.
Ananas New Community
Designed by: Sasaki
Location: Silang, Philippines
Size: 247 hectares; 610 acres
Completed: May 2015
Key Points:
• Pollinator paths reconnect fragmented larger corridors
• Increased biodiversity
• Pollinator habitat to support small ag. plots
• Closed loop resource paradigm
• Rethinking development- not fragmented but rather more balanced
Photos Source: www.sasaki.com/projects/ananas-new-community/
Articulated building edges to promote wind cross-ventilation
Photos Source: www.sasaki.com/projects/ananas-new-community/
Street Garden
Community Gardens Greenroofs
Home Gardens Islands
Pollinator Typologies
In the landscape architecture toolbox, there are various ways to design pollinator habitats choosing the appropriate pollinator typology is crucial in designing pollinator habitats for the endangered Hawaiian yellowfaced bee.
Habitat Restoration
Greenroofs Gardens Islands
In Hawai'i
Pollinator visitation
Seeddisp
Symbiotic Relationship
In the relationship between plants and pollinators, the pollinator benefits from consuming food rewards provided by the flower, mainly nectar and pollen. The plant, on the other hand, cannot reproduce without being carried the pollen by foraging pollinators. The plant uses the pollen to produce a fruit or seed. Therefore, plants and their pollinators form a mutualistic relationship, in which each benefit from the other.
In Hawai'i, plants and pollinators have formed a special relationship due to the coevolution over centuries where native ecosystems heavily rely on native pollinators and have a symbiotic relationship.
and
Nalo Meli Maoli and Akulikuli
BEES WASPS BUTTERFLIES BIRDS
Abutilon eremitopetalum
Abutilon menziesii
Acacia koa
Acacia koaia
Alyxia stellata
Antidesma platyphyllum
Antidesma pulvinatum
Argemone glauca
Artemisia mauiensis
Astelia menziesiana
Bacopa monnieri
Bidens cosmoides
Bidens hawaiensis
Bidens torta
Brighamia insignis
Broussaisia arguta
Caesalpinia kavaiensis
Canavalia galeata
Canavalia hawaiiensis
Canavalia kauaiensis
Canavalia pubescens
Capparis sandwichiana
Cheirodendron trigynum
Claoxylon sandwicense
Clermontia hawaiiensis
Clermontia montis-loa
Clermontia parviflora
Cyrtandra platyphylla
Delissea rhytidosperma
Dianella sandwicensis
Diospyros hillebrandii
Diospyros sandwicensis
Erythrina sandwicensis
Euphorbia celastroides var. kaenana
Freycinetia arborea
Gardenia brighamii
Gossypium tomentosum
Heliotropium anomalum
Heliotropium curassavicum
Hibiscus arnottianus
Hibiscus brackenridgei
Hibiscus clayi
Hibiscus kokio
Hibiscus waimeae
Ilex anomala
Ipomoea pes-caprae
Jacquemontia ovalifolia
Kadua affinis
Lipochaeta integrifolia
Lobelia hypoleuca
Metrosideros polymorpha
Myoporum sandwicense
BEES FLIES MOTHS BEETLES
Myrsine lessertiana
Myrsine sandwicensis
Nesoluma polynesicum
Nestegis sandwicensis
Ochrosia compta
Osteomeles anthyllidifolia
Perrottetia sandwicensis
Phyllostegia macrophylla
Phytolacca sandwicensis
Pisonia sandwicensis
Pisonia umbellifera
Pittosporum confertiflorum
Pittosporum glabrum
Pittosporum hawaiiense
Pittosporum hosmeri
Polyscias hawaiensis
Polyscias racemosa
Polyscias sandwicensis
Portulaca lutea
Portulaca molokiniensis
Portulaca sclerocarpa
Portulaca villosa
Pritchardia spp.
Psychotria greenwelliae
Psychotria mariniana
Psychotria mauiensis
Psydrax odorata
Rhus sandwicensis
Rubus hawaiensis
Rumex giganteus
Rumex skottsbergii
Santalum freycinetianum
Santalum paniculatum
Sapindus oahuensis
Scaevola chamissoniana
Scaevola coriacea
Scaevola gaudichaudiana
Scaevola kilaueae
Scaevola sericea
Sesbania tomentosa
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Smilax melastomifolia
Sophora chrysophylla
Styphelia tameiameiae
Vaccinium calycinum
Vaccinium reticulatum
Vigna marina
Vitex rotundifolia
Waltheria indica
Wikstroemia phillyreifolia
Wikstroemia sandwicensis
Wikstroemia uva-ursi
BEES WASPS BUTTERFLIES BIRDS
Abutilon eremitopetalum • Abutilon menziesii • Acacia koa • Acacia koaia • Alyxia stellata •
Antidesma platyphyllum • Antidesma pulvinatum • Argemone glauca • Artemisia mauiensis • Astelia menziesiana • Bacopa monnieri • Bidens cosmoides • Bidens hawaiensis • Bidens torta • Brighamia insignis • Broussaisia arguta • Caesalpinia kavaiensis • Canavalia galeata • Canavalia hawaiiensis • Canavalia kauaiensis • Canavalia pubescens • Capparis sandwichiana • Cheirodendron trigynum • Claoxylon sandwicense • Clermontia hawaiiensis •
Clermontia montis-loa • Clermontia parviflora • Cyrtandra platyphylla • Delissea rhytidosperma • Dianella sandwicensis • Diospyros hillebrandii • Diospyros sandwicensis • Erythrina sandwicensis •
Euphorbia celastroides var. kaenana • Freycinetia arborea • Gardenia brighamii •
Gossypium tomentosum • Heliotropium anomalum • Heliotropium curassavicum •
Hibiscus arnottianus • Hibiscus brackenridgei • Hibiscus clayi • Hibiscus kokio • Hibiscus waimeae • Ilex anomala • Ipomoea pes-caprae • Jacquemontia ovalifolia • Kadua affinis
Lipochaeta integrifolia
Lobelia hypoleuca
Metrosideros polymorpha
Myoporum sandwicense
BEES FLIES MOTHS BEETLES
Myrsine lessertiana
Myrsine sandwicensis
Nesoluma polynesicum
Nestegis sandwicensis
Ochrosia compta
Osteomeles anthyllidifolia
Perrottetia sandwicensis
Phyllostegia macrophylla • Phytolacca sandwicensis • Pisonia sandwicensis • Pisonia umbellifera • Pittosporum confertiflorum • Pittosporum glabrum
Pittosporum hawaiiense • Pittosporum hosmeri
Polyscias hawaiensis
Polyscias racemosa
Polyscias sandwicensis • Portulaca lutea
Portulaca molokiniensis
Portulaca sclerocarpa
Portulaca villosa
Pritchardia spp.
Psychotria greenwelliae
Psychotria mariniana
Psychotria mauiensis
Psydrax odorata
Rhus sandwicensis
Rubus hawaiensis
Rumex giganteus
Rumex skottsbergii
Santalum freycinetianum
Santalum paniculatum
Sapindus oahuensis
Scaevola chamissoniana
Scaevola coriacea
Scaevola gaudichaudiana
Scaevola kilaueae
Scaevola sericea
Sesbania tomentosa
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Smilax melastomifolia
Sophora chrysophylla
Styphelia tameiameiae
Vaccinium calycinum
Vaccinium reticulatum
Vigna marina
Vitex rotundifolia
Waltheria indica
Wikstroemia phillyreifolia
Wikstroemia sandwicensis
Wikstroemia uva-ursi
Honey Bee Apis mellifera
Native: Europe
Introduced to Hawai'i: 1857
Pollinates: crops, native, ornamental, and invasive flora
Social bee that lives in colonies
Size: Worker is ~1/2”, Queen is ~3/4”, Drone is ~5/8”
Nalo Meli Maoli (Yellow Faced Bee) Hylaeus sp.
Native: Hawai'i
Pollinates: Hawaiian native flora
63 species native to Hawaiian Islands
Habitat: coastal strand to high elevation wet forests
Solitary bee that are ground nesters, live in hollow stems, coral/rock, and in bark crevices
Size: ~1/4”, males are a little smaller than female
Abutilon menziesii
Acacia koa
Alphitonia ponderosa
Alyxia stellata
Antidesma platyphyllum
Antidesma pulvinatum
Argemone glauca
Argyroxiphium sandwicense
Astelia menziesiana
Bacopa monnieri
Bidens menziesii
Bidens sandvicensis
Bidens torta
Broussaisia arguta
Caesalpinia kavaiensis
Canavalia galeata
Capparis sandwichiana
Chamaesyce spp.
Cheirodendron trigynum
Claoxylon sandwicense
Coprosma pubens
Coprosma spp.
Dianella sandwicensis
Diospyros hillebrandii
Diospyros sandwicensis
Dodonaea viscosa
Dubautia spp.
Erythrina sandwicensis
Euphorbia celastroides var. kaenana
Nalo Meli Maoli (Yellow Faced Bee) Hylaeus sp.
Freycinetia arborea
Gardenia brighamii
Geranium cuneatum
Gossypium tomentosum
Hedyotis terminalis
Heliotropium anomalum
Heliotropium curassavicum
Hibiscus arnottianus
Hibiscus brackenridgei
Hibiscus kokio
Ilex anomala
Ipomoea pes-caprae
Jacquemontia ovalifolia
Jacquemontia sandwicensis
Lobelia hypoleuca
Lipochaeta lobata
Melanthera integrifolia
Melicope sp.
Metrosideros polymorpha
Myoporum sandwicense
Myrsine lessertiana
Myrsine sandwicensis
Nesoluma polynesicum
Nestegis sandwicensis
Osteomeles anthyllidifolia
Pisonia brunoniana
Pisonia sandwicensis
Pisonia umbellifera
Pittosporum confertiflorum
Pittosporum glabrum
LEGEND
Native
Crops and Herbs
Ornmental
Invasive
Unconfirmed
Honey Bee Apis mellifera
Portulaca lutea
Portulaca villosa
Psychotria fauriei
Psychotria sp.
Psydrax odorata
Rhus sandwicensis
Santalum ellipticum
Santalum freycinetianum
Santalum paniculatum
Sapindus oahuensis
Sapindus saponaria
Scaevola spp.
Scaevola gaudichaudiana
Scaevola taccada
Sesbania tomentosa
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Sida fallax
Smilax melastomifolia
Sophora chrysophylla
Styphelia tameiameiae
Tetraplasandra oahuensis
Tribulus cistoides
Vaccinium calycinum
Vaccinium reticulatum
Vigna marina
Vitex rotundifolia
Waltheria indica
Benincasa hispida
Citrullus lanatus
Coffea arabica
Ipomoea batatas
Macadamia integrifolia
Mentha spp.• Origanum vulgare
Passiflora edulis
Psidium guajava
Salvia officinalis
Salvia rosmarinus
Thymus vulgaris
Acacia confusa
Buddleia asiatica
Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora
Fragaria vesca
Hypochoeris radicata
Myrica faya
Oenothera sp.
Plantago lanceolata
Portulaca oleraceae
Rubus sp.
Schinus terebithifolius
Tibouchina urvellenana
Schinus terebithifolius
Cuphea hyssopifolia
Haole koa
Lantana camara
Prosopis pallida
Sphagneticola trilobata
Tournefortia argentea
Honey Bee Apis mellifera
Native: Europe
Introduced to Hawai'i: 1857
Pollinates: crops, native, ornamental, and invasive flora Social bee that lives in colonies
Size: Worker is ~1/2”, Queen is ~3/4”, Drone is ~5/8” Worker
Honey Bees
The initial belief that honeybees played a significant role in pollinating Hawaii’s native flora and agriculture was challenged by a deeper investigation of the topic. It was discovered that honeybees are not native to Hawai'i. Although, honeybees are one of the most important crop pollinators in the world the introduction of honeybees in Hawai'i (1857) has created a complex issue and compete with the endemic, yellowfaced bees for the pollen of native flora. Given that honeybees have access to a wider range of floral resources in Hawai'i coupled with the depletion of native ecosystems the Hawaiian endemic yellow-faced bee are now at a disadvantage.
Abutilon menziesii
Acacia koa
Alphitonia ponderosa
Alyxia stellata
Antidesma platyphyllum
Antidesma pulvinatum
Argemone glauca
Argyroxiphium sandwicense
Astelia menziesiana
Bacopa monnieri
Bidens menziesii
Bidens sandvicensis
Bidens torta
Broussaisia arguta
Caesalpinia kavaiensis
Canavalia galeata
Capparis sandwichiana
Chamaesyce spp.
Cheirodendron trigynum
Claoxylon sandwicense
Coprosma pubens
Coprosma spp.
Dianella sandwicensis
Diospyros hillebrandii
Diospyros sandwicensis
Dodonaea viscosa
Dubautia spp.
Erythrina sandwicensis
Euphorbia celastroides var. kaenana
Nalo Meli Maoli (Yellow Faced Bee) Hylaeus sp.
Freycinetia arborea
Gardenia brighamii
Geranium cuneatum
Gossypium tomentosum
Hedyotis terminalis
Heliotropium anomalum
Heliotropium curassavicum
Hibiscus arnottianus
Hibiscus brackenridgei
Hibiscus kokio
Ilex anomala
Ipomoea pes-caprae
Jacquemontia ovalifolia
Jacquemontia sandwicensis
Lobelia hypoleuca
Lipochaeta lobata
Melanthera integrifolia
Melicope sp.
Metrosideros polymorpha
Myoporum sandwicense
Myrsine lessertiana
Myrsine sandwicensis
Nesoluma polynesicum
Nestegis sandwicensis
Osteomeles anthyllidifolia
Pisonia brunoniana
Pisonia sandwicensis
Pisonia umbellifera
Pittosporum confertiflorum
Pittosporum glabrum
LEGEND
Native
Crops and Herbs
Ornmental
Invasive
Unconfirmed
Honey Bee Apis mellifera
Portulaca lutea
Portulaca villosa
Psychotria fauriei
Psychotria sp.
Psydrax odorata
Rhus sandwicensis
Santalum ellipticum
Santalum freycinetianum
Santalum paniculatum
Sapindus oahuensis
Sapindus saponaria
Scaevola spp.
Scaevola gaudichaudiana
Scaevola taccada
Sesbania tomentosa
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Sida fallax
Smilax melastomifolia
Sophora chrysophylla
Styphelia tameiameiae
Tetraplasandra oahuensis
Tribulus cistoides
Vaccinium calycinum
Vaccinium reticulatum
Vigna marina
Vitex rotundifolia
Waltheria indica
Benincasa hispida
Citrullus lanatus
Coffea arabica
Ipomoea batatas
Macadamia integrifolia
Mentha spp.• Origanum vulgare
Passiflora edulis
Psidium guajava
Salvia officinalis
Salvia rosmarinus
Thymus vulgaris
Acacia confusa
Buddleia asiatica
Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora
Fragaria vesca
Hypochoeris radicata
Myrica faya
Oenothera sp.
Plantago lanceolata
Portulaca oleraceae
Rubus sp.
Schinus terebithifolius
Tibouchina urvellenana
Schinus terebithifolius
Cuphea hyssopifolia
Haole koa
Lantana camara
Prosopis pallida
Sphagneticola trilobata
Tournefortia argentea
Pollinator visitation
Seeddisp
Germination and growth
Germination Sprout Seedling Tree Flowers Fruit with Seeds
Pollination and the Plant
featuring Honey Bee and MacNut
Nalo Meli Maoli (Yellow-faced Bee) Hylaeus sp.
Native: Hawai'i
Pollinates: Hawaiian native flora
63 species native to Hawaiian Islands
Habitat: coastal strand to high elevation wet forests
Solitary bee that are ground nesters, live in hollow stems, coral/rock, and in bark crevices
Size: ~1/4”, males are a little smaller than female
Hawaii is home to 44% of the Nation's Endangered and Threatened plant species. This capstone focuses on the Hawaiian endemic, yellow-faced bee, which is in decline, with some species not seen for over two decades. In October 2016, seven of the Hylaeus species were protected under the Endangered Species Act, making them the first bees to make the list.
Hawai'i is home to 63 species of endemic Hylaeus bees, none of which either produce honey or pollinate agricultural crops. The Hawaiian, endemic, yellow-faced bees are solitary bees and ground nesters, living in hollow stems, coral/rock, and bark crevices. They have smoky-colored wings and black legs. They are approximately one quarter of an inch in size, with the females tending to be slightly larger than the males. The females are all black, while the males have a distinguishing yellow mark on the forehead (between the eyes). These solitary bees do not produce honey but collect pollen and nectar to provide their eggs with the necessary nutrition to develop their larvae.
The yellow-faced bee competes with the introduced honeybee for pollen resources of the native flora. This, coupled with threatened habitat loss, endangered floral resources, invasive species, increased development, beach recreation, and increased stochastic events, has led to the disappearance of ecosystems and the habitat loss has resulted in high rates of endangered species across the islands. Native pollinators, such as the Hawaiian, endemic, yellow-faced bee, are now confined to small pockets of remnant habitat.
Most of the efforts, to date, to protect the Hawaiian, endemic, yellow-faced bee have been made by scientists at University of Hawai'i at Manoa, the Department of Land Natural Resources (DNLR), and the Department of Fish and Wildlife. In addition, organizations like 808 Clean Up who have been instrumental in organizing volunteers for invasive species removal and planting native flora.
The current approach of habitat restoration involves removing invasive flora, restoring floral resources, and building onto habitats within the remaining intact native ecosystems. The challenges for this conservation work include raising awareness of the bee, finding solutions to control invasive threats, such as ants, and educating the community on how human activities impact the bee's habitat.
Abutilon menziesii
Acacia koa
Alphitonia ponderosa
Alyxia stellata
Antidesma platyphyllum
Antidesma pulvinatum
Argemone glauca
Argyroxiphium sandwicense
Astelia menziesiana
Bacopa monnieri
Bidens menziesii
Bidens sandvicensis
Bidens torta
Broussaisia arguta
Caesalpinia kavaiensis
Canavalia galeata
Capparis sandwichiana
Chamaesyce spp.
Cheirodendron trigynum
Claoxylon sandwicense
Coprosma pubens
Coprosma spp.
Dianella sandwicensis
Diospyros hillebrandii
Diospyros sandwicensis
Dodonaea viscosa
Dubautia spp.
Erythrina sandwicensis
Euphorbia celastroides var. kaenana
Nalo Meli Maoli (Yellow Faced Bee) Hylaeus sp.
Freycinetia arborea
Gardenia brighamii
Geranium cuneatum
Gossypium tomentosum
Hedyotis terminalis
Heliotropium anomalum
Heliotropium curassavicum
Hibiscus arnottianus
Hibiscus brackenridgei
Hibiscus kokio
Ilex anomala
Ipomoea pes-caprae
Jacquemontia ovalifolia
Jacquemontia sandwicensis
Lobelia hypoleuca
Lipochaeta lobata
Melanthera integrifolia
Melicope sp.
Metrosideros polymorpha
Myoporum sandwicense
Myrsine lessertiana
Myrsine sandwicensis
Nesoluma polynesicum
Nestegis sandwicensis
Osteomeles anthyllidifolia
Pisonia brunoniana
Pisonia sandwicensis
Pisonia umbellifera
Pittosporum confertiflorum
Pittosporum glabrum
LEGEND
Native
Crops and Herbs
Ornmental
Invasive
Unconfirmed
Honey Bee Apis mellifera
Portulaca lutea
Portulaca villosa
Psychotria fauriei
Psychotria sp.
Psydrax odorata
Rhus sandwicensis
Santalum ellipticum
Santalum freycinetianum
Santalum paniculatum
Sapindus oahuensis
Sapindus saponaria
Scaevola spp.
Scaevola gaudichaudiana
Scaevola taccada
Sesbania tomentosa
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Sida fallax
Smilax melastomifolia
Sophora chrysophylla
Styphelia tameiameiae
Tetraplasandra oahuensis
Tribulus cistoides
Vaccinium calycinum
Vaccinium reticulatum
Vigna marina
Vitex rotundifolia
Waltheria indica
Benincasa hispida
Citrullus lanatus
Coffea arabica
Ipomoea batatas
Macadamia integrifolia
Mentha spp.• Origanum vulgare
Passiflora edulis
Psidium guajava
Salvia officinalis
Salvia rosmarinus
Thymus vulgaris
Acacia confusa
Buddleia asiatica
Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora
Fragaria vesca
Hypochoeris radicata
Myrica faya
Oenothera sp.
Plantago lanceolata
Portulaca oleraceae
Rubus sp.
Schinus terebithifolius
Tibouchina urvellenana
Schinus terebithifolius
Cuphea hyssopifolia
Haole koa
Lantana camara
Prosopis pallida
Sphagneticola trilobata
Tournefortia argentea
Plant- Native and Honey Bee Interaction Diagram
Hylaeus sp.
Threats
Sea Level Rise
Habitat
Holes in wood/ Under bark
Ants
Coastal Recreation
Ground nests Under rocks/ crevices
Flora
Pōhuehue
Ipomoea pes-caprae
'Akoko Chamaesyce celasroides
Akulikuli Sesuvium portulacastrum
Naupaka Scaevola taccada
Pa'u o Hi'iaka Jaquemontia ovalifolia subsp. sandwicense
'Ohai Sesbania tomentosa
'A'ali'i Dodonaea viscosa
Pollinate
Nest
Hylaeus sp.
Threats
Habitat
Ground nests
Holes in wood/ Under bark
Under rocks/ crevices
Flora
Lama
Diospyros sandwicensis
Dodonaea viscosa
Wiliwili Erythrina sandwicensis
Loulu Pritchardia spp.
Metrosideros polymorpha
Padanus tectorus
Santalum spp.
Pollinate
Nest
'Iliahi
‘A’ali’i
Ants:
The biggest threat posed to the Hawaiian, yellow-faced bees face is from invasive ants. This threat is either direct competition for floral resources or in the form of predation by ants, which crawl inside bee nests and prey on the larvae. Due to the remote location of Hawaiian Islands and the centuries of isolation, the Hawaiian, yellow-faced bee is vulnerable and defenseless against predatory ants. Although researchers have been working to eradicate the ants, they are still a major threat to the survival of the Hawaiian yellow-faced bee.
When designing for Hawaii's endangered, yellow-faced bee, it is vital to consider the potential impact of changes in surface or soil composition. Such changes may attract ants and pose a real threat to the bee's habitat. Therefore, it is essential to work in conjunction with bee experts to ensure that appropriate steps are taken to avoid putting the bees in harm’s way.
Bee's perspective
Scale: 3”= 1”
Hawaiian yellow-faced bee
Invasive Ants
Floral Resource
Current Restoration Efforts
In an interview with Paul Krushelnycky, Assistant Researcher at UH Manoa, discussed his experiences with the Hylaeus bee, best practices and lessons learned that he has observed through his research and restoration projects. Paul reiterated that the Hylaeus is an endangered species, designing for this bee cannot just be as simple as creating a habitat and translocating bees to a pollinator school garden, roof top, or another other novel typology. The best opportunity would be to expand from existing restoration sites so that the Hylaeus focusing on increasing the flora diversity and habitat in which to have potential opportunity to thrive.
This insight suggests, as landscape architects, supporting ongoing restoration projects is a vital approach in order to balance the design of urban development with natural systems. Specifically, how can landscape architects and allied professionals approach the subject so that we aren’t creating novel typologies but rather that we are building on and supporting the ongoing restoration efforts.
• Identify remnant native bee habitat
• Plant diverse native flora
• Install symbolic fencing
• Install markers for bee restoration
• Remove invasive flora
• surrounding native bee habit
Current Restoration Sites: Oahu
Government: Major Land Owners
Photo credit: Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS, Esri. TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, FAO, METI/NASA, USGS, EPA, USFWS
Ka'ena Ka'ena
Ka Iwi
Mālaekahana
Photo credit: Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS, Esri. TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, FAO, METI/NASA, USGS, EPA, USFWS
Ka'ena Ka'ena
Ka Iwi
Mālaekahana
Photo credit: Esri, NASA, NGA, USGS, Esri. TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, FAO, METI/NASA, USGS, EPA, USFWS
Ka Iwi: Test Site
Utilizing one of the four restoration sites on O'ahu, as test site applying how, as landscape architects, can we utlize our toolkits to solve a problem, share in the responsibility, and support the efforts our allied professionals have made on the subject of the Hawaiian, endemic, yellow-faced bee.
The site identified for this test is Ka Iwi Shorline located on Oahu's South Eastern coast between Wāwāmalu (aka Sandy's) and Makapu'u lighthouse. The climate is dry coastal with easterly winds.
In 2023, the Board of Land and Natural Resources approves Senate Bill 1254, now Act 235, in order to preserve in perpetuity Ka Iwi coast state park in its primarily wild and natural state (Relating to Kaiwi Coast, Act 235, S.B. 1254, 32nd Legislature (2023), making it Oahu's 51st park.
Photo credit: https://bigislandnow.com/2023/07/07/gov-josh-green-enacts-laws-to-protect-beaches-shorelines-and-public-land-laws/
Kalanianaole Highway
Not in scope
Test Site
Parking
Remanat
Dunes
organization 808 Clean Up, the Department of Land Management, and the U.S. Fish
revealed the destruction of the shoreline dunes caused by habitat loss and vehicles.
150'
Ka Iwi 2004
Ka Iwi 2014
Ka Iwi 2024
Photos Source: Google Earth
Onsite Flora
Buffel Grass Cenchrus ciliaris
Haole Koa
Leucaena leucocephala
Prosopis pallida
Naupaka Cenchrus ciliaris
Leucaena leucocephala
Ipomea pes-caprae subsp. brasiliensis
Pa’u o Hi’iaka Jaquemontia ovalifolia subsp. sandwicense
Sida fallax
Pohuehue
Ilima
‘Ohai Sesbania tomentosa
Hau Sesbania tomentosa
Onsite materials
Rocks and Coral Rubble
Kiawe wood
Driftwood
Beach Heliotrope
Tournefortia argentea
Boulders
Concrete barriers Sand
Site Observations
Upon initial observations of the site, it was noted that the area experienced easterly winds and was extremely hot and dry coastal. Invasive dry flora, including buffelgrass, haole koa, and kiawe was found adjacent to the bee restoration site. The parking area was essentially an empty rocky lot lined with boulders to prevent cars from driving on the beach. On the west side of the lot, some remnant dunes were seen, which were vegetated with naupaka.
Dry Invasives Adjacent to Restoration Area
Nalo Meli Maoli Restoration Area
Nalo Meli Maoli Restoration Area
Dry Invasive Grasses Adjacent to Restoration Area
Boulders to block cars from driving on beach
Nalo Meli Maoli Restoration Area
Rock Wall on shores edge
Hau on edge of parking lot
Barriers to block cars from driving on beach
Nalo Meli Maoli Restoration Area
Nalo Meli Maoli Restoration Area
Parking lot adjacent to restoration area
Basalt and coral rubble
Boulders blocking cars from coastline
Parking lot adjacent to restoration area
Parking lot
Site Users
The success of any project is a shared responsibility. It's critical to understand the needs of the community and users to ensure that they have access to the shoreline while we develop the habitat for the yellow-faced bee. The Ka Iwi site is a significant location for fishing, advanced-level diving, hiking, and beachgoers. By involving the community in this shared responsibility to protect and preserve the coastal habitat at Ka Iwi, we can create a collective vested interest in preserving the Hawaiian endemic yellow-faced bee.
Hiking
Beach going
Pacific Ocean Fishing
Diving
Kalanianaole Highway
Define the problem
After observing the site, the next step is to define the problems. The issues identified include invasive flora that is encroaching on the native habitat and bee restoration site, a loss of native biodiversity, and reduced floral resources for the native bees. Additionally, cars that drive on the beach impacting native flora and ground-nesting native bees.
Building a Team
It is crucial to form a team after analyzing the site and identifying the issue. For this site, it is vital to have a native bee scientist or conservationist on board to ensure that we do not pose any unnecessary threats to the fragile bee population. We also need a UH sea grant agent to guide us in taking appropriate measures for dune restoration, a local hui of community volunteers to assist with the execution and maintenance of the project, and a representative from the Department of Natural Resources since the site is situated on conservation land.
Native Bee Scientist and Conservationist
UH Sea Grant AgentDune Restoration
State or City Representative/ Agency Ka Iwi Coalition
Community/ Volunteers
Design Strategy
Current efforts for the Ka Iwi Shoreline are:
1. Nonprofit, 808 Clean Up, in collaboration with the community, hosts community clean-up days to remove invasive species and plant native flora, showcasing the community's invaluable role in the Ka Iwi Shoreline project.
2. The Ka Iwi bee habitat restoration, a crucial catalyst of this capstone project, is a site to provide a safe and protected environment for our native bees.
Design Strategy:
1. Dune restoration/ living shoreline: Resilient shoreline reconnecting fragmented coastal strand dunes.
2. Sand fencing: Temporary sand fencing along the shoreline assists in dune formation and prevents erosion.
3. Elevated boardwalk: Boundary for cars, allows community access to shoreline, keeps visitors on path above ground nesting bees, and reduces trampling of flora.
4. Vegetated parking edge: Buffer between vehicles and bee habitat/ boardwalk.
5. Permeable parking: Low-impact basalt gravel surface solution to reduce ground surface alteration that may attract invasive ants.
6. Vegetated buffer: Provides additional floral resources and habitat for native bees.
Not to Scale
Proposed Floral Resources for Native Bee Habitat
'Aki'aki
Sporobolus virginicus
Pohuehue
Leucaena leucocephala
Naupaka Cenchrus ciliaris
Ipomea pes-caprae subsp. brasiliensis ‘Ohai Sesbania tomentosa
Pa’u o Hi’iaka Jaquemontia ovalifolia subsp. sandwicense
Ilima Sida fallax
Beach Heliotrope Tournefortia argentea
Myoporum
Pua Kala
Argemone glauca
Proposed Materials
Kiawe Snag Bee Hotel Native Bee Habitat Sign Dune Restoration Sign
5/8” basalt gravel Sand Fencing Low impact boardwalk
Basalt and Coral Rubble
Invasive Species Removal
Kiawe Invasive Kiawe Removal
Snags and Posts
Snag Bee Hotel Sand Fencing Posts
Repurpose
Bee Habitat Dune Detail
Dune Restoration Sign
Elevated Boardwalk
Rocks and Coral rubble for bees to nest
Coastal native plants to sand, provide diverse floral for endemic yellow-faced
Target Dune Profile
Shallow root coastal plants to prevent erosion
Kiawe Snag Bee Hotel
Temporary Sand Fencing to assist in dune formation and prevent erosion Hotel to capture floral resources yellow-faced bee
Existing Profile
Design: Change Over Time
• Existing conditions
• Sand fencing: Temporary sand shoreline assists in dune formation erosion.
• Elevated boardwalk: Boundary community access to shoreline, above ground nesting bees, flora.
• Permeable parking: Low-impact solution to reduce ground attract invasive ants.
sand fencing along the formation and prevents
Boundary for cars, allows shoreline, keeps visitors on path bees, and reduces trampling of
Low-impact basalt gravel surface surface alteration that may
• Dune restoration/ living shoreline: Resilient shoreline reconnecting fragmented coastal strand dunes.
• Increased floral resources and habitat for yellow-faced bee.
Design:
• Vegetated parking edge: Buffer between vehicles and bee habitat/ boardwalk.
• Vegetated buffer: Provides additional floral resources and habitat for native bees.
• Proposed
Proposed
150'
Paste Existing Section
Paste Proposed Section
Ka Iwi Test Sites Next Steps
Pollinator Pathways Islands
Conclusion
The project outlines the challenges faced by the Hawaiian endemic, yellow-faced bee and recommends various design strategies for assisting in its conservation. Given the depletion of its native habitats, habitat restoration is deemed the most important approach for designing for this vital pollinator in Hawaii. The Ka Iwi test site serves as a model for landscape architects and allied professionals to approach the design of a habitat for the yellow-faced bee and contribute to its preservation.
In conclusion, it is of utmost importance that we support efforts to protect the pollinators of Hawai'i, especially the Hawaiian endemic, yellow-faced bee who play a vital role in pollinating Hawaii's remaining native ecosystems. Since we are dealing with an endangered species, we must support habitat restoration efforts across the islands, as we have explored along the entire Ka Iwi shoreline. By making the remaining native ecosystems more resilient, we can increase native pollinator populations and explore other pollinator habitats that can migrate utilizing typologies such as pollinator pathways over highways, islands along the center dividers, and corridors leading into urban areas.
By supporting allied professionals in their efforts to protect Hawaii's endemic, yellowfaced bee and other native pollinators, we can help restore Hawaii’s rich biodiversity.
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