World Pipelines - March 2024

05.

08.

Shaun Reardon, Principal Cyber Security Consultant, DNV,

gas industry, drawing on DNV’s latest research into the changing attitudes towards cyber threats. PAGE

Building cyber resilience

HYDROGEN PIPELINES

15. Transition trends in hydrogen

Steve Biagiotti, Jr. P.E., Chief Engineer and Gary P. Yoho, P.E., Principal Consultant, Dynamic Risk.

22. Europe's highway to hydrogen

Kimberly Sari and Simon Roth, ILF Consulting Engineers, Germany.

REPAIR AND REHABILITATION

29. Flexible forward thinking

Håvard Høydalsvik, Head of Business Unit O&G, Rädlinger Primus Line, Germany.

INTEGRITY AND INSPECTION

33. Advancing integrity through NDT Brent Moulton, ASNT.

39.

Heavy Equipment focus

World Pipelines' annual heavy equipment focus, featuring Proline, BAUMA, Suxxesion, and Laurini.

PIG LAUNCHERS AND TRAPS

53. Pushing pig designs into the future

Dave Forster, Propipe, UK.

PIPELINE INTEGRITY TECHNOLOGY

59. It's all about the process

Dr. Chris Alexander, PE, President and Founder of ADV Integrity, Inc., USA.

64. Taking action on methane Mark Naples, Umicore Coatings Services, UK.

PIPELINE MATERIALS

68. Raising the bar for onshore pipelines

Jeff Shorter, Portfolio Director, Eugene Boakye-Firempong, Product Manager and Ronald Panti, Operations Manager, Baker Hughes.

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EDITOR’S COMMENT

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On TikTok in February there was a trend where women pranked their families by calling to announce they had landed high paying jobs working in the oil and gas sector. Videos were called things like: ‘Telling my little brother (who’s a pipeline welder) I got an underwater welding position with ExxonMobil’, or ‘Telling my dad I got an offshore drilling job for the summer’. Typically, the women call their dad, or brother, and play dumb about what the jobs would realistically entail. As the New York Post explained it: “It usually begins with the woman asking her mark if they know of the energy giant ExxonMobil, then explaining she applied for and received an apprenticeship as underwater welder — for which she’ll be paid a six figure salary.”1

The male relatives in the videos express disbelief that the (mostly young) women could fulfil the requirements of an offshore job: “That’s not anything you’d want to do”, one dad responds after a shocked, six-second pause. “Did they tell you what you’d be doing?”2

Another response goes: “You’re out in the middle of the ocean, the wind is blowing, it’s probably one of the most dangerous jobs in the world,” a dad says in response to the prank, pointing out his daughter “may die” in the role. The same dad calls the idea that the company would hire his daughter “insanity”.

The TikToks are tongue-in-cheek, and it’s funny because the viewer recognises that these calls home are a prank. The women making the videos have jobs or qualifications in unrelated fields, and their relatives are probably rightfully concerned and perplexed about their new career choice.

But it does make me think about what assumptions the general public makes about working in oil and gas. As evidenced in the trending TikTok videos, I’d say that the average person on the street sees oil and gas jobs as: well-paid and highly skilled, but also dangerous and hard to obtain.

Showcasing what it’s actually like to work in the sector is a 20 year old oil rig apprentice from Norway. Thea Uglum Håland (@theauglum) is an apprentice offshore material coordinator for Aker BP, who chronicles her daily life offshore on TikTok. She posts videos showing the everyday tasks of working offshore, and her feed is a mixture of the sublime and the mundane. Håland documents the darkness of the sea at night and stunning views from the helipad, alongside details of her 12 - 16 hour work days, the safety gear she bundles into, the glamour of laundry day, and the cramped conditions of her cabin. Her followers seem to appreciate the full picture she offers of life offshore. She’s enthusiastic and passionate about her burgeoning career and all that it entails.

Applicable

In its May 2023 report, ‘Creating the workforce for an oil and gas industry in transition’, Bain & Company addresses the challenge of recruiting and keeping talent in the sector. The report states that “Progress will require company-level actions such as strategy-informed workforce planning and radical transparency, as well as industrywide coalitions to change perceptions and drive progress.”3 The report continues: “Individual companies will need to make meaningful investments in shaping their cultures toward greater inclusion, redesigning employee value propositions, and creating equitable career paths”. Employee advocacy (when a company employee acts as a spokesperson or advocate for their employer’s brand) is part of that picture, and I’d say that Håland, and others like her, perform a valuable service to the industry by interpreting the reality of oil and gas jobs to millions of young people online.

1. https://nypost.com/2024/02/24/lifestyle/tiktok-trend-women-tell-families-theyre-offshore-oil-rig-workers 2. https://cheezburger.com/494599/18-year-old-oil-rig-apprentice-goes-viral-for-sharing-her-day-to-day-life-in-the-middleof-the-ocean

3. https://www.bain.com/insights/creating-the-workforce-for-an-oil-and-gas-industry-in-transition

SENIOR EDITOR Elizabeth Corner elizabeth.corner@palladianpublications.com

WORLD NEWS

Equitrans delays Mountain Valley pipeline to 2Q24 US energy firm Equitrans Midstream, has delayed the estimated completion of its Mountain Valley natural gas pipeline from West Virginia to Virginia to the second quarter from the first quarter, due in part to adverse weather in January, according to Reuters.

The company also boosted the projected cost to complete the project to around US$7.57 billion - US$7.63 billion, up from a prior estimate of about US$7.2 billion. Equitrans spoke about Mountain Valley in its fourth earnings report, which beat estimates.

Mountain Valley is the only big gas pipeline under construction in the US Northeast. It has encountered numerous regulatory and court fights that have stopped work several times since construction began in 2018.

The pipe, which is key to unlocking gas supplies from Appalachia, the nation’s biggest shale gas-producing region, needed a bill from the US Congress that was signed into law by

the President and help from the Supreme Court before it could restart construction.

In its earnings release, Equitrans CEO Diana Charletta said “construction crews encountered adverse weather conditions, including precipitation well above 20 year averages.”

“These conditions were far worse and longer in duration than anticipated, imposing a significant impact on productivity, which, in turn, impeded our ability to reduce construction headcount,” Charletta said.

When Mountain Valley started construction in February 2018, Equitrans estimated the 2.0 billion ft3/d project would cost about US$3.5 billion and enter service by late 2018.

The 303 mile (488 km) Mountain Valley project is owned by units of Equitrans, the lead partner building the pipe with a roughly 49% interest, NextEra Energy, Consolidated Edison, AltaGas and RGC Resources. Equitrans will operate the pipeline.

Occidental explores US$20 billion+ sale of Western Midstream

Occidental Petroleum is exploring a sale of Western Midstream Partners, a US natural gas-focused pipeline operator that has a market value of close to US$20 billion, including debt, according to people familiar with the matter (Reuters reports).

The divestment would help Occidental, which is backed by Warren Buffett’s Berkshire Hathaway, slash the US$18.5 billion debt pile it has accumulated because of acquisitions.

Occidental signed a deal in December 2023 to acquire oil and gas producer CrownRock for US$12 billion, an acquisition which would add further borrowing, four years after its

US$54 billion purchase of peer Anadarko Petroleum.

Western Midstream shares closed 5.7% higher at US$30.81 on the news, their highest finish since July 2019. Occidental shares dropped 1.6% to US$59.56, along with broad declines among energy producers.

Occidental owns 49% of Western Midstream and controls the company’s operations by also owning its general partner. Western Midstream is structured as a tax-advantaged master limited partnership, and a general partner is its controlling entity.

Bernhard Capital to buy natural gas assets from CenterPoint for US$1.2 billion

Services and infrastructure-focused private equity manager Bernhard Capital Partners is acquiring US$1.2 billion (€1.1 billion) Louisiana and Mississippi natural gas assets from US utility CenterPoint Energy.

Bernhard Capital’s portfolio company Delta Utilities has agreed to buy CenterPoint Energy’s Louisiana and Mississippi natural gas local distribution businesses which include around 12 000 miles of main pipeline in Louisiana and Mississippi

serving approximately 380 000 metered customers.

Jeff Jenkins, Founder and Partner at Bernhard Capital Partners, said the acquisition builds upon the firm’s recent announcement to acquire Entergy’s New Orleans and Baton Rouge natural gas distribution businesses, adding that “once both transactions are complete, Delta Utilities will be a leading natural gas utility in Louisiana and Mississippi and among the top 40 providers in the US”.

Enbridge: pipeline congestion may continue even once TMX starts

Growing Canadian oil production means shipper volumes may still be rationed on the Enbridge Inc. Mainline pipeline system even once the Trans Mountain Expansion (TMX) project is operating, an Enbridge executive said in February.

Calgary-based Enbridge shipped a record 3.2 million bpd of crude on the Mainline in 4Q23, helping it report quarterly profits of CAN$1.73 billion, compared to a loss of CAN$1.07 billion a year earlier.

Last year Enbridge warned the start-up of the 590 000 bpd TMX project would likely cause Mainline volumes to fall, but that notion has become a “bit of a stale concept”, said Colin Gruending, Executive Vice President of liquids pipelines.

“(TMX) has been delayed materially and in that multi-year

period of delay, supply has structurally and permanently grown,” Gruending told an earnings call.

He said those delays were a “slight tailwind” for the Mainline, which ships the bulk of Canada’s crude exports to the US.

“We may still have apportionment once TMX comes in, depending on the month or day or crude slate,” Gruending added.

Apportionment refers to rationing how much crude each shipper can move on a pipeline, and high apportionment tends to weigh heavily on Canadian crude prices.

Gruending estimated Canadian producers would add around 750 000 bpd of supply in a four year period up to the end of 2025.

EVENTS DIARY

CONTRACT NEWS

ASCO secures contract with bp for its Trinidad and Tobago operations

3 - 7 March 2024

AMPP Annual Conference + Expo 2024

New Orleans, USA

www.ampp.org

8 - 11 April 2024

Pipeline Technology Conference (ptc) 2024

Berlin, Germany

www.pipeline-conference.com

15 - 19 April 2024

TUBE Düsseldorf 2024

Düsseldorf, Germany

www.tube-tradefair.com

6 - 9 May 2024

Offshore Technology Conference (OTC) 2024

Houston, USA

www.2024.otcnet.org

11 - 13 June 2024

Global Energy Show 2024

Calgary, Canada

www.globalenergyshow.com

26 - 29 August 2024

ONS 2024

Stavanger, Norway

www.ons.no

9 - 13 September 2024

IPLOCA convention

Sorrento, Italy

www.iploca.com/events/annual-convention

17 - 20 September 2024

Gastech 2024

Houston, USA

www.gastechevent.com

24 - 26 September 2024

International Pipeline Conference & Expo (IPE) 2024

Calgary, Canada

www.internationalpipelineexposition.com

Material management and logistics provider ASCO has secured a five year contract with bp Trinidad and Tobago (bpTT).

Under the contract, which came into effect at the start of the year, ASCO will provide supply base and pipeyard management services for the Operator across all 16 offshore locations in Trinidad. bpTT has operated in Trinidad and Tobago since 1961, and is the country’s largest hydrocarbon producer, accounting for more than half of the nation’s gas production.

The award cements ASCO’s presence in the region, with its in-country headcount set to grow by 30%. The company is also making a significant investment in equipment and infrastructure to deliver this work to the highest international

ROVOP announces long term global partnership with Boskalis Subsea Services

ROVOP, a global supplier of ROV services, and the Aberdeen-based Boskalis subsidiary Subsea Services, a leading subsea provider of IRM, construction and decommissioning services, have announced a global partnership.

The partnership provides five diving support vessels (DSV) and one construction support vessel (CSV) of the Boskalis fleet, with dedicated ROV services to maximise service delivery, efficiency, flexibility and capability.

The partnership will see the placement of seven ROVOP ROV systems across these DSVs and CSV for a minimum three year period on an international basis. ROVOP will also mobilise additional ROV systems on an ad hoc basis as required.

ROVOP’s diverse fleet of vehicles allows for varying configurations onboard the Boskalis Subsea Services fleet depending on the end client requirements. This partnership is an extension of an existing relationship, which sees significant cooperation between both companies both on and offshore.

Driven by increased demand and limited supply in the subsea market, this agreement enhances supply chain reliability. Being enabled with the right ROV, operated by the right skilled offshore personnel, is key in delivering efficiency and consistency across projects.

standards.

Deborah Benjamin, Managing Director of Trinidad & Tobago, said: “Securing this contract, from the largest operator in the region is a huge achievement for the team and will be a strong foundation to further expand ASCO’s presence in the Caribbean region.

“Following this award, we have made substantive, seven figure (US$) investment to position us to deliver exceptional service standards to bp. Not only do we comply with all international standards, but we are also committed participants to the Trinidad and Tobago Safe to Work (STOW) accreditation standard. Safety Excellence is a fundamental obsession for ASCO globally and our Trinidad operations fully embrace this.”

• Pioneering Spirit completes GTA infield pipelay scope

• ABL completes German subsea pipeline installation project

• US regulators approve Saguaro connector pipeline

• Henkel signs agreement to acquire Seal for Life Industries

• Bilfinger secures contract from INEOS

• Sonatrach to supply Germany with pipeline gas for the first time

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Building cyber resilience

Shaun Reardon, Principal Cyber Security Consultant, DNV, makes the case for treating cyber security as seriously as safety in the oil and gas industry, drawing on DNV’s latest research into the changing attitudes towards cyber threats.

Pipeline security is high on the agenda globally, as attacks on critical energy infrastructure have increased in recent years. In Europe, the strategic Balticconnector gas pipeline between Finland and Estonia is still offline following damage in October of last year. The year before, in September 2022, Danish and Swedish authorities reported a number of explosions at pipes A and B of the Nord Stream 1 pipeline and pipe A of the Nord Stream 2 pipeline.

However, it’s not just physical attacks that threaten critical infrastructure. A cyber-attack in May 2021 caused the temporary shutdown of the Colonial Pipeline in the US, disrupting the flow of oil and leading the US Government to declare a state of emergency.

DNV’s latest Cyber Priority research looked at the changing attitudes to cyber security in industrial sectors. It finds that pipeline operators and the wider oil and gas industry are increasingly aware of the risk from cyber threats, and the sector is becoming more mature in its response as it builds cyber resilience.

Cyber security: The safety risk of the decade?

Oil and gas companies have been tackling IT security for decades but securing operational technology (OT) – the control systems that manage, monitor, automate and control industrial operations – is an increasingly urgent challenge. The modern hacker can do more than just steal data. They could take control or physically sabotage a pipeline or oil and gas platform. In industrial sectors cyber security risks are safety risks. Life, property, and the environment are at stake.

Among the oil and gas professionals which responded to DNV’s Cyber Priority research, three quarters said that their organisation takes cyber security as seriously as they do physical health and safety. This is a welcome sign of awareness of the threat and that the industry is taking action to address it, but more work is still required before energy companies can confidently say they treat cyber as seriously as safety. If you walked onto an oil and gas site without the relevant safety equipment, you would be stopped from working immediately. The question is whether a business would react the same if it identified a vulnerable application affecting OT. Despite increasing awareness, the answer is often ‘no’.

When compared with physical safety risks, we can look to the development of safety standards following Piper Alpha and Seacrest incidents. Before such incidents forced leaders to adopt standard protocols in the late 20th century, energy operators took an inconsistent approach to health and safety. Businesses should avoid a similar ‘wait and see’ approach to their cyber security, especially with respect to OT. It should not take a safetycompromising cyber-attack for energy companies to prioritise security protocols and standards.

Many oil and gas companies appear to be taking the risk seriously. More than six in ten oil and gas professionals say that cyber security has become a regular fixture on their organisation’s boardroom agenda, and three quarters report that cyber security is treated as a business risk within their organisations. Our study also showed that a majority (62%) of oil and gas professionals say their organisation invested more in cyber security in 2023 compared with the previous 12 months. This is positive overall, but it also suggests that a sizeable minority of the industry may still be taking a wait and see approach.

Cyber security is essential to the energy transition

Oil and gas decarbonisation and the energy transition rely on digitally connected assets, many of which are being connected to the internet for the first time, having not been designed with interconnectivity in mind. This has the potential to reduce costs, increase efficiencies, as well as support transitions such as from natural gas to hydrogen in pipelines.

Oil and gas professionals overwhelmingly (91%) believe cyber security is a pre-requisite for the digital transformation initiatives that are making the future of the energy industry possible. Among digitally advanced companies in the wider energy industry, some 79% say that digital technologies are enabling the energy transition for their organisation.

Investment is key to building defences in the face of a changing game

While digital interconnectivity presents new opportunities, it also brings new risks for asset owners. Two thirds (69%) of oil and gas professionals globally worry that their organisation is

Figure 1. The view from energy professionals on cyber security investment.

Figure 2. Levels of energy industry concern about threat actors.

Figure 3. Views on supply chain oversight and security-by-design across the energy industry.

more vulnerable than ever to cyber-attacks on their assets and infrastructure.

Only half (52%) of oil and gas professionals believe their company is investing enough in building the cyber resilience of operational technology of assets and infrastructure. This is higher than for professionals in the power and renewables sector (47%) and companies providing services across the energy industry (38%), but it still leaves half of the oil and gas industry believing they need to invest more in cyber security.

Geopolitics driving awareness

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 marked a notable step change in cyber-attacks in the energy sphere, as prominent attacks on the sector began soon after the start of the invasion. The most prominent early example affected the renewables sector. A Russian cyber-attack on satellite internet operator ViaSat in early 2022 affected customers in Ukraine, but it also deactivated thousands of wind turbines in Germany when their satellite-dependent monitoring systems were taken offline. This is on top of the physical attacks on pipelines in the Baltic Sea following the invasion.

The oil and gas industry is paying attention. Some 79% of oil and gas professionals say geopolitical uncertainty has made their organisation more aware of the potential vulnerabilities in its operational technology. And two thirds (69%) say that their organisation’s focus on cyber security has intensified as a result of geopolitical tensions.

Our research also shows how the profile of cyberattackers in the energy industry has changed since early 2022. Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the perceived threat posed by all forms of threat actors increased in the two weeks following the invasion in February 2022. Our research found that a year later, executives across the energy industry were still paying significant attention to the threat of hacktivists and hostile states, but had returned to previous levels of concern about criminal gangs and malicious insiders.

We should not forget insider threats and physical sabotage. And while OT is a newer challenge with potentially greater risk to life, property, and the environment, it is still oil and gas companies’ IT networks that face most attacks.

The industry should continue to take an integral approach to security – including both cyber and physical, and both IT and OT.

More broadly, recent geopolitical developments have brought energy security – not just cyber security – into sharp focus with the disruption of energy supplies and price shocks for energy importers.

For the first time in DNV’s power sector forecasts, for example, we now factor in the willingness of governments to pay a premium of between 6% and 15% for locally sourced energy to ensure security. This hints at the advantage that oil and gas companies could gain from greater cyber security resilience.

Regulation driving investment

Regulatory requirements are the greatest driver for the oil and gas industry to invest in cyber security, ahead even of a cyber incident or near miss.

In the EU, for example, organisations providing essential services, including in the oil and gas sector, face tougher regulation in the form of the revised Directive on Security of Network and Information Systems (NIS2), set to be transposed into national laws in 2024.

As well as widening the scope of organisations covered by regulation, this Directive increases the required standards of executive oversight and imposes new reporting requirements.

In the US, the Department of Energy is continuing to work on the National Cyber-Informed Engineering Strategy, and there is focus – including an executive order – driving vendors to provide a software bill of materials – which itemises the components in software and enables better third-party assurance.

Building a supply chain for the future

Supply chain security is a growing priority for the oil and gas industry and across industrial sectors more broadly. Oil and gas professionals rate inadequate oversight of supply chain partners’ vulnerabilities as the greatest challenge to enhancing OT cyber security, followed by disruption to ongoing operations while strengthening cyber security. Across the wider energy industry, lack of in-house cyber skills is perceived the greatest challenge, followed by oversight of their own vulnerabilities and the cost of investing in new solutions.

This suggests potential greater maturity in supply chain cyber security in the oil and gas industry, as the sector places greater focus on the challenge. But there is still some way to go, as more than a third of oil and gas professionals say their organisation does not have good oversight of supply chain vulnerabilities. Indeed, each year a huge number of vulnerabilities are discovered in products supplied to oil and gas operators.

In contrast, oil and gas professionals report that the sector lags the wider energy industry in incorporating cyber security in the early phases of infrastructure projects, following what is known as security by design. This places cyber security at the centre of newbuild projects and has been slowly gaining ground in the past decade.

One must think about the physical processes and mechanisms we have for safety in the oil and gas industry. They are embedded in projects and practice from the design stage. The same should be the case for cyber security. For the oil and gas industry, this is perhaps more of a challenge than in the wider energy industry as it operates a large amount of legacy infrastructure and assets, more than the renewables sector, for example. Compensating controls should be introduced as soon as possible to counter this, as security should always be the standard. The oil and gas industry is slowly moving in this direction.

Manage risk, but also view cyber security as an enabler

The oil and gas industry often considers five key areas of risk related to cyber-attacks:

) Financial.

) Reputational.

) Impact on people and safety.

) Damage to assets.

) Effects on the environment.

Operational excellence is key to organisations working in the sector and every day that passes without incident and impact on these risks is a successful one. While criminals may find success with easy targets, companies with robust cyber arrangements are able to enjoy the many benefits of safe, secure and continuous operations.

Companies should remain vigilant and continually evaluate what impact an attack could have on their operations and primary business processes. Would an attack shutdown production? Would customers, clients and partners be inconvenienced or harmed? Would there be a trickle-down effect on the consumer? And even what happens if critical infrastructure is shut and the pipeline providing much of a country’s gas supply is shutdown?

When so much is at stake, it’s good practice to regularly focus on raising standards and evaluating readiness. Having an approach that prepares for the worst while hoping for the best will produce operational excellence that will allow a company to resume operations as quickly and smoothly as possible. And companies will be judged all the better for it by their customers, suppliers, staff and other stakeholders.

Building resilience as an ongoing process

Oil and gas companies should know their assets well. But do they know exactly what they are connected to, what digital technologies are present, and what the attack surface looks like from a cyber security perspective? This sort of internal questioning is essential to prioritise activities to build cyber resilience.

Oil and gas companies should evaluate how they are measuring the strength of their defences and recovery plans and how they are benchmarking performance. Have they identified the improvements they need to make? Once they have systematically identified the gaps in their defences, they can put plans in place to close them.

Taking a proactive approach to cyber security can increase competitiveness, and this can be a persuasive argument in budgetary conversations. Cyber security is essential to reap the benefits of digitalisation and to deploy the technologies needed to decarbonise the world’s energy system, better positioning companies that invest in cyber security to secure their future in the energy transition.

Energy firms need to invest to ensure compliance with tightening regulation. This requires not just greater budget, but also the right mindset, company culture, and access to skills to ensure regulation-driven investment translates into greater cyber resilience. Oil and gas companies should go further than what is stipulated in regulation, focusing on resilience alongside compliance, and looking for new opportunities that may arise from managing cyber security effectively.

TRANSITION TRENDS IN HYDROGEN

Steve Biagiotti, Jr. P.E., Chief Engineer and Gary P. Yoho, P.E., Principal Consultant, Dynamic Risk, discuss the evolution of hydrogen adoption in the pipeline industry and the role it will play in reaching global net-zero goals.

The deadline to achieve the 50% reduction target set by the UN Climate Change Committee is rapidly approaching. It’s only six years away. Targets will not be achieved without substantial infrastructure changes. Europe is much further ahead than most of the 195 partner nations that have voluntarily approved the Paris Agreement. 1

Meeting ambitious climate goals will require substantial and aggressive investments in infrastructure, technology development, and regulatory frameworks to ensure efficient and sustainable production, distribution, and utilisation. Greenhouse gas emission (GHG) targets of +40% below 2005 levels by 2030 and net-zero emissions by 2050 will be virtually unattainable without incorporating hydrogen as an

element in the global energy strategy. Hydrogen, especially when produced through low-carbon methods, offers a versatile and clean alternative to fossil fuels.

The broader society accepts that climate change is occurring and that something needs to be done to slow the rate of change. Governments appear to be struggling with how to integrate hydrogen into CO 2 reduction targets within their broader energy and environmental policies. More specifically, the acceptable form of hydrogen generation continues to be a stumbling block. This pace in adopting hydrogen strategies is too slow to meet even the minimum emissions targets: more prompt and determined action is necessary.

Trends in hydrogen adoption

In the early 2000s, some forward-thinking countries, particularly those with a focus on renewable energy and sustainability, began considering hydrogen as a key component of their energy transition strategies. Initial discussions and exploratory studies on hydrogen as a clean energy carrier took place during this period. By the mid-2000s, several governments started to formalise their commitment to hydrogen by including it in their energy policy frameworks. 1, 3 Countries with a strong emphasis on reducing carbon emissions and diversifying their energy mix began setting preliminary targets for hydrogen development.

The 2010s witnessed a significant increase in the number of governments worldwide setting explicit targets and incorporating hydrogen into their long-term energy plans. Targets often included specific goals for hydrogen production, infrastructure development, and integration into various sectors, such as transportation and industrial processes. Towards the end of the 2010s and into the

early 2020s, the momentum for hydrogen targets further accelerated. Several countries announced ambitious strategies and commitments, emphasising hydrogen as a crucial element in achieving carbon neutrality goals. These targets were often aligned with international climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, reflecting a global push toward sustainable and low-carbon energy solutions. 2

In parallel, collaborations and partnerships between countries and international organisations aimed at advancing hydrogen technologies gained prominence. These efforts contributed to the sharing of best practices, research findings, and the establishment of global standards.

Overall, the setting of hydrogen targets by governments has evolved over the past two decades, mirroring the increasing recognition of hydrogen’s role in addressing climate change, enhancing energy security, and fostering a more sustainable energy landscape. The specific timing and nature of these targets depend on each country’s unique energy policy priorities and commitments to environmental stewardship.

Meeting the challenge

The path to lowering CO 2 emissions requires replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources and carbon capture. This transformative transition will require innovation and investment. These changes require the retirement and replacement of equipment, modifications to processes to maintain safety levels, and public education on the global benefits. However, change takes time.

To meet the voluntary initiative the US Greenhouse Gas Emissions targets are 50 - 52% reduction below 2005 levels by 2030 and net-zero emissions by 2050. 14 Canadian targets are 40 - 45% reduction below 2005 levels by 2030 and

Figure 1. Industry reaction to hydrogen adoption.

IT IS MY DEDICATED PASSION

for pipelines that compels me to partner with others in the industry, share best practices and collaborate on ideas for future innovations and advanced applications.

It is who I am. I am a pipeliner.

We are pipeliners too.

We share this passion and, like you, we are committed to keeping pipelines running safely and reliably. By providing top-of-the-line tools to address your threats, and applying the most advanced assessment techniques, we ensure you get the best return on your pipeline asset, both economically and environmentally.

The world counts on you. You can count on us. ©2024

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net-zero by 2050. 13 The European Union targets are based on 55% reduction below 1990 levels. 15 More governments must support and establish policies soon if the world is to meet the Paris Agreement goals. Industry Think Tanks 5 are suggesting that hydrogen must make up at least 15% of the global energy mix by 2050 to meet the goal.

However, the adoption of hydrogen into the gas delivery mixture has been slow. Companies are still evaluating projects to better understand the nuances of transporting and delivering hydrogen utilising existing infrastructure. Key technical questions to answer include:

• What is the ‘sweet spot’ with respect to the level of hydrogen that can be blended and transported with natural gas?

• What is the demand for transportation of a 100% stream of hydrogen?

Educating stakeholders

It is a logical desire to want hydrogen included in the energy network. Some assume that since it is a combustible gas, like natural gas, it can be easily blended and transported in the existing transmission and distribution pipeline network. Although this belief is partially correct, hydrogen introduces different safety, operational, tariff, liquified storage, and pipeline integrity concerns. Unlike the long successful history the industry has with natural gas, only a few specialised operations (e.g. feedstock into petrochemical processes, fertiliser production) have been working historically with hydrogen gas. However, the transportation of hydrogen in steel pipelines has had a long and successful history over the last century, albeit with limited mileage. This means there is a need to educate a large population of engineers and pipeline technicians.

The industry has responded with webinars, short courses, workshops, and conferences to help share experience and knowledge gaps. The rise in industry events that include hydrogen-related topics and symposia noticeably peaked around 2022. It is unclear whether recent activities by AGA 2 and others are meaningfully reducing the operational and integrity concerns of transporting blended hydrogen. Contrary to the general increase in hydrogen-related seminars, it appears that pipeline company operations related to pilot projects have been delayed or slowed somewhat.

An informal survey of companies at a recent industry event revealed that only a limited number of pipeline companies have established dedicated teams to focus on hydrogen projects. These are the larger operators, who typically are early adopters of new technologies and processes. Concerns are that North American operators are still taking a ‘wait and see’ approach.

In addition to educating the workforce, educating the public and local regulators will be critical. Regulators and the public are requesting risk assessments for projects to demonstrate any change associated with the new (i.e., hydrogen blended) gas composition. Regulators and the public are seeking lower risk exposures.

Setting industry standards

Hand in hand with educated stakeholders are the industry controls and best practices needed to ensure that operations limit impact to the public and the environment. As mentioned earlier, the transportation of 100% hydrogen is a more mature application and standards such as ASME B31.12 and CGA 5.6 include notably conservative design requirements for conventional storage and pipeline transportation, which can limit options and increase costs. 7, 8 However, many pipeline transportation and distribution operators are considering blending hydrogen into natural gas, at concentrations up to 30%. Low levels of blended hydrogen are not currently addressed in most North American pipeline integrity management guidelines. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Z662-23 standard has a newly developed section dedicated to the design of pipeline systems to transport hydrogen. 9

What’s driving implementation?

One significant change in the pipeline transmission industry is the increased awareness of incorporating hydrogen-compatible materials and technologies in the design and construction of pipelines. Procedural adjustments have become imperative to accommodate the distinct characteristics associated with transporting hydrogen. This encompasses modifications in inspection technologies, assessment techniques, maintenance practices, and risk assessment methodologies.

The regulatory landscape has also evolved to address the challenges and opportunities presented by the transport of hydrogen in pipelines. Regulators are demonstrating a willingness to adopt revised standards, such as NFPA 2 and CSA Z662, to provide enhanced frameworks for the safe transport and utilisation of hydrogen in pipeline systems. 6,9

Costs vary based on the mode of production (i.e. green, blue, purple, grey), the availability of water and lowcost electricity, plus the cost of equipment/infrastructure. The question of ‘decarbonisation at what cost?’ is raised to address the holistic evaluation of costs and benefits. A 2022 estimate of US$200 billion was made with only US$35 billion announced for investment in transportation and distribution. 12

Advances in research and development to make the technology more affordable and efficient will lead to greater adoption and lower hydrogen production costs. However, these improvements will have to come at a much faster pace to meet the global targets.

Regulations and subsidies

Another barrier to rapid hydrogen adoption has been assurance of commercial demand. Producers may be willing to generate hydrogen when they have plentiful resources, but they may not have access to a distribution market. Similarly, pipeline operators may be willing to accept hydrogen into the network but need reliable demand from consumers willing to receive the differential in gas price and BTU value.

How government regulations respond to these challenges is influencing adoption. Subsidies and investment backing in hydrogen production facilities are being observed in Europe and the US. The lack of subsidies appears to be stalling projects moving from concept or pilot stages to commercial in Canada.

The US has gone one step further by introducing ‘Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs’, or regional pipeline networks that will gather, transport, and deliver blended hydrogen to the market. 10 These hubs are expected to provide the stability the market seeks so that when hydrogen is produced, there will be a carrier to transport and deliver to consumers.

Engineering assessments

As production methodologies and locations evolve and the need for pipeline infrastructure develops further, pipeline operators will likely turn to standards such as CSA Z662:23 to guide the engineering assessments (EAs) required to demonstrate the reliability of pipeline systems. A Gas Technology Institute initiative, the Net Zero Infrastructure Programme (NZIP), used statistics from the US Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration that indicated more than 50% of the natural gas transmission pipe in the US were installed before 1970. 11 This vintage pipe typically has lower toughness that could be exacerbated by the introduction of atomic hydrogen into the pipeline steel under certain conditions and needs evaluation.

EAs must satisfy stakeholders by addressing:

) Project threats and risks.

) Dissociation rates of molecular hydrogen (H 2) during transport.

) The effect of atomic hydrogen (H+) on existing anomalies within pipelines that are otherwise acceptable for continued operation.

) Methodologies for determining the suitability of in situ toughness values for existing pipelines.

Material verification activities will be crucial to determining if pipeline assets are suitable for hydrogen transportation. Liquid pipelines lend themselves to

ultrasonic technologies aimed at identifying anomalies that could be susceptible to hydrogen impact. Gas pipelines have fewer options.

Operators are also considering the use of ‘carrier fluids’ such as anhydrous ammonia (NH 3) to move hydrogen molecules to production facilities where the hydrogen would be extracted. Chemically, ammonia is 82% nitrogen (N) and 18% hydrogen (H). However, even these methods are not without integrity concerns.

Conclusion

Making the industry goal of net-zero by 2050 will require acceleration of current programme efforts. The pipeline transmission industry requires modifications that extend across infrastructure, material selection, procedural considerations, and regulatory framework changes. Actions will need to be addressed in parallel and in a prioritised manner to maintain the safe and efficient integration of hydrogen into the energy mix that stakeholders expect, and that the industry has proudly demonstrated for decades. But the pace needs to improve which may include:

) Governments must drive funding support (i.e., backed loans, incentives and reduced regulatory permitting barriers).

) Rapid industry consensus through standards development to guide the technical and consistent means to address blending hydrogen.

) Increase stakeholder training and certification programmes for working with hydrogen.

) Increase the pace of technology development (equipment, materials, inspection and risk analysis) to support hydrogen transport.

) Set Engineering Assessment criteria to drive safe operations for the benefit of the public and environment.

References

1. US Dept of Energy, Hydrogen Posture Plan: An Integrated Research, Development and Demonstration Plan, December 2026.

2. Paris Agreement, UN Climate Change Conference (COP21), Paris, France, 12 December 2015.

3. American Gas Association, Impacts of Hydrogen Blending on Gas Piping Materials, June 2023.

4. IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, Impacts of Hydrogen Blending on Gas Piping Materials, Report PH4/24, October 2003.

5. PARKES, R., ‘World “won’t hit Paris climate goals” without policies to speed hydrogen take-up’: DNV, Recharge News, 14 June 2022.

6. NFPA 2, Hydrogen Technologies Code, 2020.

7. B31.12, Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines, ASME, 2023.

8. CGA 5.6, Hydrogen Pipeline Systems, Compressed Gas Association, Chantilly, VA, EIGA Doc. 121/04.

9. CSA Z662, Oil and gas pipeline systems, CSA Group, 2023.

10. Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, US Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations (OCED).

11. Net Zero Infrastructure Program (NZIP), GTI.

12. Five Charts on Hydrogen’s Role in a Net-Zero Future, 25 October 2022, McKinsey Sustainability.

13. Canadian Government Website.

14. The Long-Term Strategy Of The United States: Pathways to Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050 US Government website.

15. European Commission 2030 climate targets.

Figure 2. Data Variability used in the Engineering Assessment.

Kimberly Sari and Simon Roth, ILF Consulting Engineers, Germany, discuss navigating the future of sustainable green molecule bulk transport, offering some analysis of transport options from the MENA region to Europe.

In the coming decades, a transformative shift awaits the global energy market, transitioning from its current state to an emission-free landscape. The European Union’s (EU) ambitious objective of achieving climate neutrality by 2050 is anticipated to advance the continent in achieving secure, emission-free, lowest cost energy supply with local benefits, however the path to reach the objective is still evolving. In the White Paper titled “Bulk Transport Options for Green Molecules”,1 prepared by ILF Beratende Ingenieure GmbH (ILF) in collaboration with Dii Desert Energy, a comprehensive analysis of the transportation avenues available for green molecules from the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region to Europe was conducted.

Industry stakeholders are proactively anticipating this transition, working to align their operations with the EU’s objectives by adopting their own decarbonisation targets. Noteworthy enthusiasm is evident among industry stakeholders, with the development of green molecule supply projects; meticulous consideration being given to transportation routes for optimal efficiency; comprehensive discussions on distribution instruments; and a commitment to ensuring that the demand for green molecules is met with a commensurate supply, all amongst a gradually evolving EU-wide policy and regulatory landscape.

The intricacies of a vast value chain comprising supply, demand, transport, storage, and conversions must harmonise for the successful execution of strategic green molecule initiatives both in Europe and globally.

While the overarching vision of a climate-neutral European continent is well-defined, the identification of specific pathways to achieve these objectives remains a complex task. Consequently, stakeholders are concentrating on their respective target objectives, strategically positioning themselves to adapt to the evolving landscape. Facilitating the development of this market could be enhanced by the establishment of a comprehensive framework led by the EU, offering a transformative opportunity for accelerated progress.

The development of the market should substantially consider the concentration of physical conditions of the commodity,

ensuring a robust and scalable economy. Simultaneously, the absence of a unified global context for energy trading poses a significant challenge, as the majority of countries currently lack carbon trading mechanisms and impose no restrictions on carbon emissions.

In the context of energy transportation from MENA to Europe, ILF’s experts identified three distinct possibilities in their report. These include pipelines, designed for the direct transport of hydrogen in molecule form; offshore transport of ammonia as a hydrogen carrier via ship; and electron-based subsea cable transport of electricity.

Each option is characterised by unique transport capacities and associated costs. For a more in-depth exploration of these alternatives, please refer to the report.1

During ILF’s discussions with prominent developers in the field, including ACWA Power, AMEA Power, CWP Global, and Masdar, it is evident that their commitment to delivering green molecules to Europe is not only robust but also clearly expressed. These developers, recognised as established energy providers, exhibit active involvement throughout the MENA region. Despite common challenges in securing funds for capital-intensive and long-term infrastructure projects to bring commodities to Europe, they leverage their extensive experience and engage in collaborative efforts with stakeholders across the value chain, in addition to governments and ministries, partners, and others to successfully achieve project milestones by developing equity partnerships.

Finance challenges

Historically, the financing of oil and gas pipelines was instigated by major players in the oil and gas industry, recognising pipelines as a crucial means to bring their commodities to market to satisfy a substantial demand. In the current landscape, developers of green molecules seeking to build a business case for their product perceive an uncharted market, heightening the risk associated with an already costly infrastructure development. This contrasts with the past scenario in the mature oil and gas market, where a substantial market value and fossil-fuel financial subsidies made project financing less risky for developers and banks.

Despite common challenges, the enthusiasm and interest of green molecule developers, remain palpable. Their innovative expertise, coupled with a strong commitment to decarbonisation, propels them to address the challenges through novel approaches. This involves, amongst others, close collaboration with value chain stakeholders, and engaging in discussions with financial institutions and experienced equity partners, potentially spanning major sectors such as oil and gas, steel, and shipping.

Developing resilient transport infrastructure

Robust network infrastructure is essential for establishing a thriving hydrogen market. Insights gained from the interviews ILF held with stakeholders in the transport and distribution infrastructure, including SNAM, Westenergie and Baker Hughes,

Existing Gas Pipelines with Repurposing Plans

Existing Gas Pipelines

Planned Pipelines

Hassi R'Mel Gas Field

European Hydrogen Backbone 2030

Figure 1. Cross-continent pipelines.1

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covers 25 EU member states plus Norway, the UK, and Switzerland. Furthermore, the significance of import security is underscored by the application for the ‘Southern Import Corridor’, a project of common interest (PCI), highlighting the strategic importance of ensuring a reliable and secure supply chain within the context of the broader EHB initiative.

highlight a growing industry commitment to developing resilient transport and distribution infrastructure equipment. This dedication plays a pivotal role in ensuring the smooth evolution of interconnected infrastructure. While transport system operators – together with technical design and certification bodies – are working on harmonised standards and regulations for a hydrogen transport grid, industry players like Baker Hughes demonstrate notable technological advancements in gas compression technology. In the realm of hydrogen compressors, Baker Hughes has introduced a groundbreaking solution with the high-pressure ratio compressor (HPRC). This centrifugal compressor, featuring a stacked rotor design architecture, can achieve a higher tip speed in the future. This innovation facilitates the efficient transport of substantial quantities of hydrogen.

Repurposing pipelines

In exploring the transition from natural gas to hydrogen in both onshore and offshore pipelines, the technical feasibility and potential advantages of repurposing existing infrastructure become evident, as highlighted by SNAM’s considerations of pipeline compatibility, standards, and the potential for high repurposing rates.

The importance of a clear regulatory framework

A consistent theme echoes among emerging infrastructure project developers: the imperative need for clear, EU-level regulations that foster investments in the supply chain and facilitate the development of both new and retrofitted transport infrastructure. Additionally, a clear understanding of the expected demand for green molecules in Europe by 2030 and 2040 is crucial for determining viable transportation routes. This is especially pertinent for meeting import targets throughout the European Hydrogen Backbone (EHB) initiative, encompassing 33 European transmission system operators whose infrastructure

Given the expansive territory, questions arise surrounding resource allocation, guarantees of origin (GoO) for renewable (green) energy, and carbon credits or carbon content information comprising virtual attributes of the green molecules within the establishment of a hydrogen backbone. Additionally, the level at which power transmission system operators (TSOs) and natural gas TSOs will cooperate in aligning both sets of infrastructure is to be determined.

ILF’s report displays that currently, the reliability of transport and distribution infrastructure relies on strategic investments, often funded through research and development (R&D) projects. Stakeholders, especially TSOs and distribution system operators (DSOs), anticipate that regulatory frameworks will eventually recognise and endorse their investments as a means for future cost recovery.

The absence of harmonisation in EU-level regulations presents a challenge to the seamless integration of the EHB infrastructure’s advancement. It is evident that the future green molecule market will be policy-driven, necessitating governmental intervention to undertake substantial groundwork before a commercial market can materialise. A coordinated initiative to align regulatory frameworks is crucial for the effective deployment of developed infrastructure within the emerging industry.

Supply and demand

Offtakers, such as EnBW, have demonstrated commitments in producing and procuring green molecules, accompanied by efforts in infrastructure preparations. Despite these strides, uncertainties persist regarding the specific availability of molecules at potential offtake sites, particularly in scenarios where high-flexibility demands, crucial for power plants, become prominent. To ensure supply security, a swift scaling up and down of power is imperative, mirroring the functionality observed in underground gas storage, which currently fall short of meeting the required demand. In contrast, industries with relatively flat and less variable energy profiles exhibit less pronounced imperative for flexibility. Addressing nuanced flexibility requirements for diverse offtake

Figure 2. Hydrogen project announcements in the MENA region.1,2

Maintenance / Operational Pigging

Once a pipeline is in production, debris within the system can be more extreme, with sand or scale or wax deposits. This can require more specialist pigs to be used, where designs are more focused and offer the ability to be adjusted as part of a progressive cleaning programme.

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scenarios, especially in contexts where high-flexibility is imperative, becomes paramount for optimising the deployment of green molecules across varied industries.

Creating a competitive environment

Advocating for an EU-wide approach is considered optimal for creating a competitive environment. However, interviews conducted for ILF’s report indicate that infrastructure planning encounters obstacles due to the absence of a holistic view across the supply chain.

For example, the current focus on transport routes should expand to encompass flexibility instruments, aligning with the nature of power production profiles. When stakeholders – including TSOs concentrating exclusively on their grids, and storage system operators individually exploring the new frontier of hydrogen storage – transition from this isolated approach to a coordinated and collective strategy, it would reveal aspects pertinent to each value chain participant. This shift contributes to a more cohesive and efficient transition into this emerging market and the future EHB.

While supporting the ambitious EHB development, the need for enhanced coordination is paramount. The current focus on transport routes should expand to include flexibility instruments, also considering the nature of power production profiles. Many questions remain unanswered, such as the locations of major import and production sites, offtake centres, and the timeline and nature of developments. Achieving clarity on these critical aspects is essential for promoting a harmonised and efficient industry transition, particularly in the context of advancing the green molecule market in Europe.

Strategy

In 2020, the EU articulated an ambitious hydrogen strategy through the European Commission’s, ‘A hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe’.3 The EU is actively developing a hydrogen and decarbonised gas market package to help curb greenhouse gas emissions in the EU in line with plans for climate and internal energy market objectives. Rules that ensure sufficient cross-border capacity, fostering the creation of an integrated European hydrogen market and facilitating the unimpeded movement of hydrogen across borders, are also being negotiated.

These coordination efforts, among others, mark significant progress. However to substantiate the green molecule market in Europe and meet 2030 targets, there is a pressing need for an approved comprehensive policy. This policy must encompass the specific requirements of each value chain member, spanning the expansive territory of the EU. It should articulate clear demand projections for 2030 and 2040, accounting for the intricacies of power and electricity consumption and restrictions within each country.

Despite strides made, the lack of synchronised regulations hampers the rapid transition to the green molecule economy in Europe. The imperative regulations necessary to facilitate and finance the transition to green molecules have yet to achieve synchronisation, prompting stakeholders throughout the value chain to recognise this as a pivotal issue necessitating

global attention. Presently, national interests exert a significant influence on the trajectory of development. This divergence is evident in the varying perspectives on red hydrogen: it is a non-issue in France, where nuclear power production is predominant, but as of April 2023, it has been phased out in Germany.

Conclusion

A foundational target is the initiation of the hydrogen market development with a primary focus on carbon reduction. This approach accelerates the timeline to achieve economies of scale. However, refining this objective is equally crucial, evolving towards the overarching goal of attaining a net-zero carbon footprint. This progressive approach not only addresses immediate environmental concerns but also aligns with longterm sustainability objectives. It showcases a comprehensive and adaptable strategy for the evolution of green molecule technologies across diverse national contexts.

“Through interviews with various stakeholders within the green molecule sector, a clear observation emerged, that each participant is impacted by the constraints of other parties involved. It became evident that a unified approach to realise the overarching strategy is lacking, one that would articulate the requirements and challenges faced by each sector member” says Simon Roth, Business Area Director, ILF Beratende Ingenieure GmbH.

“To underscore the challenges confronting the sector members and facilitate a collaborative effort to overcoming constraints, Dii and ILF have embarked on preparing an additional report. This report aims to delve deeper into the perspectives of a broader spectrum of companies within the burgeoning green molecule sector, serving as a mutual aid by articulating each company’s perspective. By providing a comprehensive understanding of these perspectives, the report intends to foster a collective approach in addressing challenges in a mutually beneficial manner.”

References

1. ILF Beratende Ingenieure GmbH/Dii Desert Energy, Bulk Transport Options for Green Molecules | Focus Area: Europe and MENA Region, January 2024.

2. Dii Desert Energy/Roland Berger, Hydrogen Project Tracker, November 2023.

3. European Commission, A hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe, July 2020 .

Notes

With thanks to Paul Van Son, President, Dii Desert Energy; Dr. Jan Frederik Braun, Head of Hydrogen Cooperation (MENA Region) Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Integrated Energy Systems CINES; Gustavo Beneitez, Executive Manager Business Development, ACWA Power; Hussein Matar, Sr. Director Business Development, AMEA Power; Giulia Maria Branzi, Head of Climate Policies & Decarbonization Market Design, SNAM; Riccardo Bernabei, Director Hydrogen Project Development, SNAM; Richard Streitboerger, Trading Green Molecules Senior Originator, EnBW; Florian Lindner, Business Development, Westenergie; and Mark Crandall, CEO CWP Global.

The full study Bulk Transport Options for Green Molecules, which takes a look at global hydrogen trade, cross-continental pipelines and the economy and features selected interviews, is available for download.

Håvard Høydalsvik, Head of Business Unit O&G, Rädlinger Primus Line, Germany, discusses the material and cost benefits of composite pipe solutions and introduces two flexible pipe systems, one for trenchless rehabilitation and the other for aboveground installation.

When ageing pipelines reach the end of their service life, the operators traditionally tend to replace them with new steel pipes that require open trenches. The situation is similar for the above-ground transport of potentially hazardous fluids: conventional high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe is used. But more and more pipeline operators are thinking outside the box. Flexible, fabric-reinforced pipes increasingly find market acceptance as well as international standards and guidelines have been

established to secure safe and reliable operation. In addition, a volatile oil and gas price environment has made engineers more open to implementing new technologies.

Such innovative composite pipe solutions offer several material and cost benefits to pipeline operators. This article provides an overview of these benefits as well as an introduction to two products made in Germany. While Primus Line® Rehab is designed for the trenchless rehabilitation of pressure pipelines, Primus Line® Overland Piping is suitable for the temporary above-ground transport of potentially

hazardous fluids. The text also explains why the manufacturer relies on highquality materials for safety and quality aspects.

The Primus Line® flexible pipe –structure and products Composition

The Primus Line flexible pipe for both rehabilitation and above-ground installation consists of a liner and a connection technology developed specifically for this system. The liner itself is composed of three layers. The inner layer is adapted to the respective

medium to be transported and, like the outer layer, is made of abrasion-resistant polyethylene (PE) or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). The latter has a high chemical resistance that withstands contact with highly corrosive hydrocarbon compounds which is important for surface applications.

The outer layer protects the fabric in the middle from external influences during transportation and installation. For aboveground applications, TPU provides maximum protection from UV light and abrasion, as well as the flexibility required for repeated installations and rewinding of the reusable system.

The middle layer, the reinforcement, is a seamless woven aramid fabric. For pipeline rehabilitations, this layer absorbs all tensile forces and operating pressures without relying on the existing host pipe. For above-ground installations, it allows complete stand-alone absorption of even very high operating pressures. For higher pressure levels in the medium- and highpressure range of rehabilitations, only Kevlar® is used. The lowpressure system consists of an aramid/polyester hybrid fabric for a cost-benefit optimised and economical rehabilitation solution. All types are both strong and flexible.

To complete the Primus Line flexible pipe and provide a pull-tight connection, purely mechanical and resin-tightened connectors are available, either flanged or welded. For aboveground applications, there are also specialised quick couplers compatible with Victaulic notches. These are used to connect several flexible pipelines. They can also be connected to pumps or other piping equipment.

Primus Line Rehab

The Primus Line system was originally developed as an innovative technology for the trenchless rehabilitation of pressure pipelines for various media such as water, gas and oil. Now called Primus Line Rehab, it is suitable for the transport of different fluids and is also approved for drinking water in many countries like the US, Canada, Australia, Spain, France or Germany.

Primus Line Rehab has ideal flow characteristics due to the extremely smooth inner coating. The system is optimised for high-, medium- and low-pressure requirements. It is available in diameters from DN 150 to DN 500 and can pass bends up to 90°.

Preferred fields of application are, for example, pipelines for the transport of drinking water, fire water, industrial water, process water, crude oil, refined petroleum products, diesel, natural or coke gas and more.

Primus Line Overland Piping

This product, available in diameters from DN 150 to DN 350, is specifically designed to create leak-free above-ground pipelines for demanding and potentially hazardous media such as raw water, process water, flowback water, fire water, industrial or treated wastewater.

The fact that it is a spoolable and reusable solution that can be deployed up to 500 times not only simplifies its installation, but also makes it an environmentally friendly solution compared to commonly used alternatives such as trucking and HDPE piping. In addition, Primus Line Overland Piping can be installed quickly.

Benefits of both flexible pipe systems

The three-layer structure of the pipe is the basis for both its strength and its flexibility, resulting in the following benefits for the operator:

Figure 1. Primus Line®’s three layered composition.

Figure 2. All-terrain: due to its flexibility, Primus Line Overland Piping naturally adapts to the ground.

Safety

The flexible pipe is reinforced with seamless woven Kevlar fabric. This synthetic fibre is up to ten times stronger than steel and twice as strong as glass fibre or nylon. This para-aramid core gives the pipe a very high factor of safety (FoS), leading to a burst pressure at least 2.5 times the allowable working pressure, depending on the medium being transported.

The installation teams do not have to work with hazardous materials on site: standard machinery equipment is used for assembly. Another advantage for above-ground applications is that there is no need for hot work such as welding or butt fusion. Instead, the aforementioned connectors or quick couplers are used.

A further safety aspect is that the entire production process is closely monitored. In addition, a sample of every pipe produced is pressure-tested in-house before delivery to the construction site.

Cost advantage

In contrast to an open trench rehabilitation, Primus Line Rehab saves time in terms of implementation time and installation speed: up to 10 m/min. and up to 2500 metres per pull reduce installation time to a minimum, allow for quick re-commissioning and only short service interruptions. The standard equipment used for installation is not only reducing the footprint at the construction site, but also secures a low up-front investment for installation companies. And the

rehabilitation with Primus Line extends the service life of the pipeline by at least 50 years.

In the case of temporary above-ground transport applications, the Primus Line flexible pipe scores with low storage space requirements: depending on the diameter, up to 4 km of the pipe can be transported on a single transport reel. Therefore, on-site storage space is reduced to one tenth of that required for HDPE pipes. In addition, the flexible pipe is fully reusable which has been proven in long-term bending tests.

Figure 3. Primus Line Rehab can also be used for subsea pipelines. Here the flexible pipe is coming ashore.

Primus Line customers are convinced of using the nonmetallic piping solutions to decrease their total cost of ownership (TCO). In addition to capital expenditure (CapEx) savings, they relate to significant operating expenditure (OpEx) reductions due to the elimination of ILI pigging costs, chemical cleaning costs, and production losses associated with required maintenance downtimes. As a result, clients report TCO reductions of up to 60%, depending on the project characteristics.

Efficiency

A trenchless method makes pipeline rehabilitation almost independent of weather conditions during installation. Thanks to its composition, Primus Line Rehab is also independent of the host pipe, absorbs the pressure itself and allows operating pressures up to 82 bar and burst pressures up to 206 bar. It resists thermal expansion of the host pipe and ground movement. No curing, steaming or bonding is required in the field which contributes to shorter installation time as well.

1000 metres and more are available as continuous lengths for above-ground applications with Primus Line Overland Piping. These long lengths limit the number of connections and therefore weak points. This also results in fast deployments of up to 6 km/d. This is up to 12 times faster than HDPE installation, as confirmed by customers. Furthermore, Primus Line Overland Piping conforms naturally to the surface, can handle large volumes of fluid up to 500 l/sec. and is very lightweight at 2.5 - 6.1 kg/m.

Environmentally orientated

Both Primus Line flexible pipe products can be installed with reduced use of machinery: only a winch, mini-excavator or a truck with the coiled pipe on a reel is necessary. This results in a significant reduction of the on-site carbon footprint, in case of rehabilitations up to 90% compared to dig-and-lay. For above-ground applications, the CO2 emissions associated with trucking fluids during operation are completely eliminated. Primus Line Overland Piping reduces waste because it is reusable and it can be installed through bushland, nature parks or waterways without damaging the environment. The minimal impact on the environment is also an advantage of Primus

Line Rehab. It does hardly affect daily life, its small pits and reduced road work avoid major closures or diversions.

Quality

Starting with the procurement of raw materials, Rädlinger primus line GmbH sets high standards and works exclusively with renowned manufacturers. All incoming goods are carefully checked for quality. To obtain safe and reliable products, Rädlinger Primus Line trusts in the following raw materials, selected for their specific properties, to obtain an optimal end product with the desired features of strength and flexibility:

) Kevlar is a high-strength, lightweight para-aramid synthetic fibre known for its exceptional tensile strength and durability. Its ability to withstand mechanical stress, resist abrasion and adapt to changing terrain makes it the perfect reinforcement material for flexible pipes. Kevlar’s thermal stability makes it ideal for a variety of environments.

) Polyethylene (PE) is an ideal material for the inner and outer pipe layers. It offers exceptional flexibility, high abrasion resistance, bonding ability and workability. PE provides durability and protection for the pipeline.

) Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) is the optimal polymer for the inner and outer layers of the flexible pipes. It offers exceptional flexibility, impact resistance, high abrasion resistance, chemical compatibility, excellent resistance to UV radiation, moisture, extreme temperatures, bonding capability and processability. TPU ensures durability, protection and reliable performance of the pipeline in above-ground environments. Laboratory tests have shown TPU to be up to five times more abrasion resistant than HDPE.

The products themselves are subject to continuous quality control using optoelectronic measuring instruments. These record all process parameters and allow a continuous control of the consistency and wall thickness of each layer of the pipe. In addition, each production batch is given an ID for unambiguous traceability and is exposed to a burst pressure test that reliably confirms the maximum operating pressure. Connectors undergo a thorough visual and mechanical inspection. Customers receive technical documentation summarising all results.

Bottom line

The unique safety, cost, efficiency and environmental benefits of the Kevlar-reinforced flexible pipe, combined with its chemical resistance, flexibility, strength and bendability make it suitable for a wide range of applications across the hydrocarbon value chain. From trenchless pipeline rehabilitation in hard-to-access areas to temporary aboveground water transfer systems used for water supply during fracture operations or as emergency bypasses in refinery environments: Primus Line is a safe, reliable and sustainable solution for oil and gas operators.

Figure 4. Welding not necessary: the assembly team mounts the connectors on site with hand-held tools.

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Advancing integrity through NDT

Brent Moulton, ASNT, discusses the importance of NDT methods, particularly ultrasonic testing and eddy current, whilst drawing on a case study from the Trans Alaska Pipeline System.

As structures that very often are out of sight, pipelines are rarely out of mind. Their construction and planning generate significant controversy even when it is well understood how vital they are for the transport of essential commodities such as crude

oil, natural gas and chemicals. Much of the controversy revolves around safety and the perception that pipelines may be inherently unsafe for the public and the environment. Given that pipeline routes occasionally cover some of the most challenging terrains on earth, concerns are not entirely unfounded. What is missed in much of

the debate over pipeline construction and operation is the extraordinary steps taken to ensure their upkeep and operational integrity.

To ensure the durability and safety of these structures, comprehensive inspections are conducted on a consistent and rigorous schedule. Key to these inspections is nondestructive testing (NDT) well tested and thorough procedures for maintaining pipeline infrastructure, while also minimising the potential environmental and safety hazards resulting from various forms of failure. NDT tools and methodologies allow for detailed examination of pipeline composition and condition, ensuring continued operational efficiency and safety, all while preserving the integrity of these facilities without operational interruption.

As well understood and applied as NDT is, no technology stands still. NDT tools and methods are becoming significantly advanced. So, it is necessary and timely to examine NDT and consider what can be done to ensure the latest generation of these procedures are expertly applied. Doing so may even help to quell concerns about pipeline safety overall.

A case study in NDT excellence

Stretching over 800 miles through a particularly harsh landscape, the Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) is widely regarded a marvel of engineering. It also faces unique challenges due to the extreme environment and scale of its operation.

While the size of TAPS is staggering, its true marvel lies in the meticulous NDT methods that maintain its integrity. This often unnoticed yet powerful discipline safeguards the reliability and longevity of the pipeline. NDT techniques are critical for detecting potential flaws that could lead to operational disruptions at the least, or environmental catastrophes at the worst.

Transporting crude oil through pipelines such as TAPS comes with a daunting set of risks. An obvious example is the potential for leaks and spills, which can contaminate soil and groundwater, impacting ecosystems and human health. Natural disasters, such as earthquakes and floods, pose further threats. Additionally, the flammable nature of crude oil means that a breach anywhere along TAPS’ route could lead to fires or explosions.

Over time, the components that make up TAPS and other pipeline systems can suffer from corrosion and wear, making them more susceptible to failures. All of this necessitates rigorous maintenance and regular inspections to ensure pipeline integrity and prevent accidents. Moreover, the environmental implications of transporting crude oil are significant as pipeline construction and maintenance can disrupt natural habitats and landscapes. Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach, including stringent regulatory compliance, qualified inspection personnel, and advanced evaluation methods to minimise the risks associated with transporting crude oil through pipelines. Foremost among these methods is NDT.

Figure 1. Moulton standing along a cross country pipeline in Alaska.

Figure 2. Moulton performing straight beam ultrasonics, inspecting the internal structure of the pipeline.

The frontline of pipeline inspection

NDT is a suite of techniques that allows for the detailed examination of structures, materials, and components without causing any damage. Applied to TAPS and similar pipelines, this approach enables the system to remain in service even as it is being examined internally and externally for defects. NDT can detect flaws, assess structural integrity, and predict potential failures throughout the entire length of a pipeline, such as TAPS. It can go where humans cannot. Recent innovations in technology can even inform forecasts on when significant improvements will be needed.

TAPS’ integrity is maintained largely through the regular application of NDT methods, particularly ultrasonic testing (UT) and eddy current testing (ECT), to detect potential weaknesses or damage in the pipeline.

UT is a foundational inspection method in pipeline inspection. It uses high-frequency sound waves to detect flaws in materials. Its effectiveness is particularly noteworthy in the context of pipelines, where it is used to detect corrosion, cracks, and weld defects. UT is particularly valued for its accuracy and ability to provide real-time feedback, making it indispensable in ongoing maintenance routines. The advantages of UT include its deep material penetration capability, high sensitivity to small defects, and its ability to provide immediate, precise results including the location and size of the detected flaws. With pipelines that can stretch numerous miles, such as the 800 miles of TAPS, quick and effective test methods like this are needed to examine the full length of the structure. Its efficacy, however, can be compromised on rough or irregular surfaces, thus requiring skilled operators for accurate application and interpretation.

ECT offers a complementary approach to UT, proving particularly beneficial in detecting surface-level flaws, which is crucial considering the diverse challenges posed by large-scale structures like TAPS. ECT operates on the principles of electromagnetic induction to inspect conductive materials. In this method, a coil carrying an alternating electric current is positioned near the test material, creating wave-like or eddy currents. Flaws in the material alter

these current flows, detectable through a secondary coil or by observing changes in the primary coil’s characteristics.

This method is primarily employed for detecting surface and near-surface defects but is also useful for thickness measurements and conductivity assessments. Its high sensitivity to small surface cracks and adaptability for inspecting materials of various shapes and sizes make ECT invaluable for detecting surface anomalies in pipelines. This is especially pertinent for TAPS, which meanders through challenging thermal and seismic environments, crosses numerous streams and rivers, and navigates drastic elevation changes such as the 4739 ft elevation at Atigun

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Pass and the steep 145% grade at Thompson Pass in the Chugach Mountains. These geographical variations present unique challenges for NDT personnel, making ECT’s ability to inspect without direct contact and handle complex geometries incredibly beneficial.

ECT’s limitations to conductive materials and effectiveness primarily for surface or near-surface defects are balanced by its advantages of immediate feedback and the capability to inspect complex geometries without direct contact. In pipeline inspections, particularly for TAPS with its diverse geographical and locational challenges, ECT is a vital supplementary tool to UT, offering an additional layer of assessment in areas where UT may face limitations.

Standardisation in NDT practices

The standardisation of NDT methods such as UT and ECT ensures uniformity and consistency in the assessment of pipeline integrity, a critical aspect for upholding safety requirements across the industry. By adhering to standards, the industry ensures that the evaluation and maintenance of pipelines is carried out with the same level of rigour and precision regardless of location or project. This uniformity helps to mitigate risks associated with pipeline operations.

The pipeline industry benefits from standardised NDT practices as they ensure consistent safety and integrity checks. Standardised practices also facilitate training and skill development among NDT professionals, as they provide a clear, consistent framework for understanding and applying NDT techniques. But standards and regulations do not remain static. A set of universally accepted procedures, rules, and best practices consistently develops as technology evolves to guide NDT professionals in conducting inspections and evaluations. Efforts to modernise NDT practices not only bolster the safety and reliability of pipeline infrastructure like TAPS, but also foster a culture of excellence and shared responsibility within the NDT community.

Coming opportunities and challenges

The pipeline industry, exemplified by massive projects like TAPS, is undergoing rapid evolution, driven by the advent of new materials and innovative construction methods. These modern materials and techniques offer enhanced efficiency and durability, but also introduce new complexities in maintaining pipeline integrity. As such, there is an escalating need for NDT methods that can adapt to these novel challenges. The introduction of advanced composites and alloys, used in constructing sections of TAPS, for instance, demands NDT techniques that can effectively assess these materials without compromising their structural integrity. This new dimension of the pipeline industry necessitates a shift in the NDT industry’s approaches, pushing the boundaries of traditional methods to ensure applicability in the face of these changes.

In response to these emerging needs, technological advancements are rapidly reshaping the landscape of NDT. Automated inspection systems and the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) are at the forefront of this

transformation. For expansive and critical infrastructures such as TAPS, automated systems offer the opportunity to conduct more frequent and consistent inspections, a vital factor in ensuring the pipeline’s continuous operation and safety. AI integration takes this a step further by providing sophisticated data analysis capabilities. Implementing AI algorithms can lead to more nuanced and accurate interpretations of inspection data, identifying potential issues that might escape manual analysis. This integration of automation and AI into NDT not only streamlines the inspection process, but enhances its overall effectiveness, marking a significant leap forward in pipeline maintenance.

The implications of innovations in automation and AI are profound, particularly in enhancing NDT accuracy and ensuring more comprehensive coverage in inspections. Accuracy is crucial in the inspection of vast pipeline networks such as TAPS, where even infinitesimal flaws can escalate into significant issues. Automated systems, with their precision and consistency, mitigate the risk of human error, a critical factor in maintaining the safety and integrity of pipelines. Moreover, the comprehensive coverage provided by these advanced NDT systems ensures a more thorough assessment of the full pipeline’s condition. The ability to analyse and monitor vast stretches of pipeline with enhanced accuracy and reduced risk of mistakes is invaluable in preemptive maintenance strategies. Innovations in automation and AI not only bolster the safety and reliability of pipelines such as TAPS, but also signal a new era in pipeline maintenance, where technology and tradition converge to meet the challenges of the modern world and perhaps help to ameliorate associated controversies.

Blending traditional and innovative methods

While standardised practices provide a foundation of reliability and safety, the dynamic nature of both the pipeline and NDT industries demands an adaptive and forward-thinking approach. Integrating traditional NDT methods with cutting-edge techniques such as AI-driven analysis, advanced sensor technologies, and automated inspection systems can significantly enhance the efficacy and scope of inspections. This blend of NDT tactics allows for a more robust, comprehensive approach to pipeline integrity, combining the proven reliability of conventional methods with the precision and efficiency of modern innovations. New methodologies, however, impose the need for new requirements. NDT professionals must be equipped to tackle current demands while also being prepared for future challenges. To accomplish this, technical education programmes and companies must implement proactive strategies that underscore the importance of continuous learning and adaptation in the field, ensuring that NDT remains at the forefront of industrial safety and reliability.

The importance of advanced learning and mentorship

Despite the significant advancements in NDT technology, there remains a notable gap in specialised training. As

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NDT methods become more nuanced, awareness and understanding of these methods must also become more widespread. Educational and training curricula often trail behind these rapid innovations, leading to a scarcity of programmes that cater to high-level NDT proficiency. This gap not only limits the potential for current professionals to advance in their careers, but also hinders the industry’s overall progress. As such, there is a growing demand for specialised training programmes and certifications that are in sync with the latest developments in NDT technology, ensuring that professionals are not just competent in fundamental practices, but also adept at handling the complexities of modern NDT methods.

Addressing the gap in advanced NDT training and career development, organisations like the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) and initiatives such as The National Inspection Academy play a pivotal role. ASNT offers a range of educational resources, certification programmes, and continuous learning opportunities tailored to the evolving needs of NDT professionals. Its efforts in developing comprehensive training materials, conducting workshops, and hosting conferences keep practitioners current in the latest innovations and best practices in the field. Similarly, The National Inspection Academy, with its focus on practical, hands-on training, supplements these efforts. It provides specialised programmes that delve into the advanced aspects of NDT, offering an immersive learning experience. Here, trainees not only gain technical proficiency but also develop a well-informed understanding of real-world NDT challenges under the mentorship of experienced professionals.

An integral part of the NDT learning and certification process must be access to mentors. Mentorship in NDT is not just about imparting technical knowledge, it’s about seasoned professionals guiding apprentices through the nuanced realities of NDT applications. This transfer of knowledge goes beyond textbook learning, encompassing the sharing of hands-on experiences, problem-solving strategies, and insights into the subtleties of advanced NDT techniques. Mentorship helps bridge the gap between theoretical learning and practical application, fostering a deeper understanding of the field. It also plays a crucial role in inspiring and motivating new NDT professionals, helping them navigate their career paths within this specialised field.

Experienced professionals passing down their knowledge and expertise are fundamental to the growth and development of the NDT field. As veterans in the field share their experiences, tips, and tricks of the trade, they cultivate a new generation of NDT professionals who are well-equipped to tackle the challenges the modern pipeline industry faces. This cyclical process of learning and teaching is what keeps the field dynamic, ensuring that NDT continues to evolve and adapt in line with technological advancements and pipeline industry needs. The continuous development of NDT expertise hinges on this vital exchange between seasoned experts and emerging professionals in the field.

The future of NDT

Advancements in NDT technology highlight a pressing need for advanced career training and specialised certification. Addressing this requirement is essential for the continuous development of the field and the cultivation of the next generation of NDT experts. Coupled with mentorship, such improvements will guarantee that NDT professionals are equipped not just to address the challenges of today, but also have the critical thinking skills to innovate and adapt to the unforeseen demands of the future. This commitment to advancement and education will cement NDT’s role as a custodian of industrial safety and reliability in the years to come.

Ensuring the integrity of vital pipeline infrastructures such as TAPS depends on the collective effort of the industry and the entities that develop and implement standards that advance NDT practices, keeping pace with the dynamic landscape of the pipeline industry. With its vast expanse and unique environmental challenges, TAPS exemplifies the necessity of cutting-edge NDT practices in ensuring pipeline integrity and safety. The ongoing efforts by organisations like ASNT and The National Inspection Academy in advancing NDT education and training cannot be overlooked in ensuring NDT personnel are equipped to maintain such infrastructures. As TAPS continues to operate in its demanding conditions, it serves as a reminder of the relentless need for innovation, skill development, and mentorship in NDT.

As the industry rapidly evolves with new materials and construction techniques, NDT must also adapt, embracing a blend of traditional methods and innovative technologies. The integration of automated systems and AI into NDT is redefining the landscape of pipeline maintenance, enhancing accuracy, reducing human error, and providing comprehensive coverage in inspections. This shift not only safeguards the sprawling networks of pipelines such as TAPS, but also represents a significant step toward a future where pipeline integrity is more widely assured. Enhanced confidence in inspections, technology and professional skill may be the key to decreased resistance and controversy.

About the author

Brent Moulton began his career in 2016 working across the Midwest as an assistant where he performed UT inspection on various components at ethanol plants. Once the pandemic hit in 2020, Brent took a two year sabbatical to work at an NDT training school, where he was able to share his knowledge of NDT. As an American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Level III in UT and Magnetic Particle Testing, he now spends much of his time in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, working on pipelines. He also advocates for the industry as a Face of NDT for ASNT and is a Cofounder and Instructor at The National Inspection Academy, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit that specialises in NDT training.

Heavy equipment focus

In World Pipelines’ annual heavy equipment focus, four companies present a selection of heavy equipment for oil and gas pipeline construction projects. Showcasing pipelayers, pipe rollers, pipe handling equipment and more, the companies offer details on the product specifications and capabilities of large-scale heavy equipment designed to tackle the biggest of production, site and environmental needs.

BAUMA, GERMANY

BAUMA Germany has a tradition spanning three generations for trading in construction machinery. BAUMA buys and sells mainly wheel loaders, bulldozers and articulated dump trucks, as well as skid loaders, mobile excavators, industrial and crawler excavators. All machines are from well-known manufacturers such as VOLVO, CAT, Komatsu, LIEBHERR, Hitachi, Bomag and HAMM. BAUMA is a regional dealer for Volvo and Hamm compact class machines (up to 10 t) and holds dealerships of several other equipment manufacturers.

Presently, the company owns approximately 90 pipelayers and welding tractors for manual and automatic welding. With its fleet of equipment, BAUMA can bridge the temporary need for pipeline equipment for pipeline construction companies worldwide. Apart from the machines for oil and gas, BAUMA owns an inventory of around 300 other machines in its rental fleet, mostly for the domestic market and neighbouring countries.

BAUMA is not focusing on one particular brand of pipelayers, since local markets have different preferences. BAUMA has an equipment hub in Edmonton, Canada to provide CAT pipelayers for North America and Canada. Local maintenance and repair is a must as downtime on the jobsite has to be avoided.

BAUMA is a member of IPLOCA and PLCAC and tries to maintain the spirit of a family business with limited overhead, be most flexible for their customers, and follow an attractive approach offering added value. BAUMA is open to discuss flexible solutions with customers, such as straight sale, rental only, rental with purchase option, or sale with buyback. This flexibility is appreciated by contractors as they are often unsure whether or not they need the machines for future projects.

Case study

At this moment, BAUMA is supplying over 20 LIEBHERR pipelayers and paywelders for a Turkish 48 in. pipeline, which are serviced and repaired locally. The project ‘Western Black Sea Phase-2 and Phase-3 Natural Gas Pipeline Project Construction Work‘ by the Joint Venture AHM ENERGY and TALU CONSTRUCTION is particularly challenging as the contractor faces inclinations of about 40° which requires a lot from the machines and a careful operation of all equipment.

On this project, BAUMA’s paywelders, the LIEBHERR SR714LGP, work together with the CRCEvans Internal Welding Machine (IWM) and P-625 dual torch technology for the back-end units. While BAUMA supplies the welding tractors with onboard generators, according to agreed specifications, CRC-Evans installs its automatic welding equipment on them. This is a proven procedure for realising a high number of field joints per day.

Ahm Engineering Energy Construction San. Ltd.

AHM ENERGY was established in Eskişehir in 2007 and operates in the oil and gas, energy and construction sectors. Industrial facilities, infrastructure and superstructure projects, a wide range of projects in the field of energy (pipelines, gas distribution stations construction etc.), construction and contracting works constitute its main field of activity. The Quality System, which is constantly improved with new

Figure 1. Lowering-in on inclinations.

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TALU Construction Industry and Trade Inc.

TALU CONSTRUCTION was established in 2019 by Civil Engineer Gönül Talu, one of the doyens of the sector, with the aim of continuing to serve the sector with more than 60 years of experience and knowledge gained from 100 construction projects with a total value of US$30 billion, which were successfully completed in the state and private sector, at home and abroad. Working with the principle of ‘completing the project with the best quality’, TALU CONSTRUCTION focuses on carrying out all kinds of superstructure and infrastructure constructions, buildings, roads, highways, bridges, dams, coastal and port constructions, improvement and environmental projects at home and abroad. It has an effective workforce,

experience and modern technology.

The project

Phase-2 of the ‘Western Black Sea Phase-2 and Phase-3 Natural Gas Pipeline Project Construction Work’ project includes the construction of approximately 89 223 m long, 48 in. diameter natural gas steel pipeline system, including two line valve stations, two take-off valve stations, one pig receiver, one pig thrower station and one line valve.

Phase-3 consists of the construction works of approximately 86 156 m, including two line valve stations, one pig receiver station, one hot-tap valve and one line valve.

Phase-1 line end covers the distance between Zonguldak Kardeşler line valve connection station and Sakarya province Dağdibi pig station.

The geographical area where the Western Black Sea natural gas pipeline is located is a region with difficult conditions (rainfall and land cover). Considering the difficult terrain conditions where the project is located, LIEBHERR machines were preferred because they are strong, durable and have the potential to facilitate difficult conditions. The fact that LIEBHERR equipment is frequently used in such large projects due to its working potential and that it has a wide equipment range has also proven the correctness of the decision with the study of LIEBHERR equipment. Protection at the forefront is offered with fast, dedicated, friendly technical support and service opportunities. In future projects, working with LIEBHERR equipment will be preferred and recommended by the contractor.

Figure 2. Lowering-in 48 in. pipe.

Figure 3. Unloading pipe from a pipe carrier.

LAURINI, ITALY

This article will discuss a pipelayer called SanSone (also known as ‘sideboom’ among industry insiders), but first let’s introduce the company behind this project.

Laurini, a company founded in 1955 and based in a small town near Parma (northern Italy), is considered a market leader of padding and screening machines. However, its hallmark has always been its willingness to innovate and that is why today the company can count dozens of patents suitable for pipeline construction, and also more recently for the maintenance of motorway tunnels. SanSone is Laurini’s latest project in the pipeline industry: a ‘New Generation Pipelayer’ entirely designed and made in Italy.

The Laurini team has been working a lot on this project, taking into account feedback collected from customers and machine operators from all over the world, over decades of presence on jobsites. SansOne is the result of years of research, development, great effort and an eye for detail.

SansOne is designed to satisfy the needs of the customers from both sides: the contractor and the operator. This is something that Laurini always aims to do.

Here are ten reasons to choose the SansOne Pipelayer:

) Technology: it uses the most recent technology and, consequently, has the best and latest technology compared to all other pipelayers on the market.

) Stability: it has the best stability thanks to a very low centre of gravity – 90 cm/35 in. – and the best weight/ load capacity ratio, therefore it is very useful on steep slopes.

) Intuitive use and visibility: the two joysticks are very sensitive and act proportionally on the command of all functions. Also, it has extraordinary front and rear visibility because the engine bonnet is designed with the nose lowered (thanks to the radiator being positioned laterally), while the fuel tank behind the seat has been embedded in the frame to give the best rear visibility.

) Comfort: it has a swivel seat for excellent operator comfort. The operator’s seat can rotate to the left up to 90° in 15° intervals, at the operator’s choice. Together with the seat, all the controls and the display rotate, incorporated in the armrests (of our production). The operator doesn’t need to continuously twist their neck to the left, giving advantages of health, comfort, safety and visibility. Also, it can be equipped with a full visibility cabin with heating and air conditioning.

) Lifting capacity: there are three models with an effective lifting capacity of 45, 70 or 100 t. The latter model has the highest lifting capacity at 4 m distance.

Figure 1. SansOne 45’s working in team (SNAM project in Italy).

) Transportability: SansOne 100 can be disassembled to facilitate transport and easily reassembled on site in four hours; more specifically there is the possibility of disassembling the two tracks by means of hydraulic pins and being able to transport the machines disassembled in containers, saving more than 70% in shipping cost. The pins are coaxial with the hydraulic cylinders that control them to ensure maximum thrust during insertion and extraction. One machine can be transported in three containers (two 40 ft and one 20 ft), while two machines can be transported in five containers (four 40 ft and one 20 ft).

) Safety: it is equipped with the latest anti-tipping system integrated with load control that always works based on the extension of the counterweight and signals the instantaneous condition to all the operators of the laying team.

) Easy maintenance: the engine is turned the other way around, with the hydraulic pumps in front, for easy access for maintenance.

) Versatility: it can be supplied with electronic or hydraulic servos thanks to the two different Danfoss control technology. On demand, it can be equipped with an articulated and patented arm that helps offset the steep slopes.

) Reliability: because SansOne is a welldesigned and solid product, with low maintenance needed, Laurini decided to give the possibility to the customer to extend the guarantee from 24 - 36 months.

These are only ten reasons why this traditional, but at the same time revolutionary, machine is the most innovative pipelayer on the market, suitable for every pipeline jobsite around the world.

Figure 3. SansOne 45 in a sloping jobsite.

Figure 2. SansOne 100 disassembled and put in containers for shipment.

PROLINE PIPE EQUIPMENT, CANADA

If you’re in the pipeline construction business, you understand the importance of having the right equipment to help you get the job done. One piece of equipment that can significantly improve your efficiency and safety is a horizontal pipe roller.

River and road crossings can be a difficult undertaking when building a pipeline. Stringing the pipe through a bore comes with several challenges and issues. Protecting the pipes coating is integral for the longevity of the pipe.

Proline Pipe Equipment is proud to be a leading international supplier of pipeline solutions for the pipeline industry. Based in Edmonton (Canada), Proline offers an extensive inventory of high-quality products designed to meet the needs of our customers worldwide. Since 1967, our dedication to innovation, uncompromising craftsmanship, and unbeatable customer service have helped us earn a reputation for excellence.

Proline’s horizontal pipe rollers

Designed and manufactured by Proline Pipe Equipment our horizontal pipe rollers have been used throughout the industry for years. We take great pride in the quality of our rollers and thoroughly inspect each unit before it leaves our shop. The rollers come in a number of sizes to accommodate almost every project.

Benefits

) Multiple sizes and ranges for different pipe diameters with one roller.

) Heavy duty options for tougher jobs.

) Stackable up to three high on larger models.

) Capacity up to 50 000 lb.

) Wide footprints for stability and safety.

) Heavier models include lifting hooks.

) Urethane rollers help protect a multitude of coatings.

Improving pipeline project efficiency

Our design team is always hard at work coming up with the best products for our customers. They always take into account what field application would look like and design around that premise. That’s why we are very excited to announce a new ground-breaking product to our pipe roller lineup.

Hourglass rollers

The horizontal pipe roller or hourglass roller, is a smaller roller with a 2000 lb (907 kg) capacity. The stand itself weighs 75 lb (34 kg). You can fit 15 rollers on a standard pallet which makes it ideal for shipping and storage. The wide footprint of the stand’s base gives the stand stability on softer ground. This stand will handle pipe from 2 - 24 in.

y Weight: 75 lb/34 kg.

y Capacity: 2000 lb/907 kg.

y Footprint: 24 in. x 16 in. x 9 in. H/61 cm x 41 x 23 H.

The big brother to the 2 - 24 in. roller is the hourglass roller for up to 48 in. pipe. The stand weighs 140 lb (63.5 kg). You can get 10 rollers on a standard pallet.

Figure 1. Proline’s Rolli Cradles lower pipe on to the 2 - 48 in. heavy duty horizontal rollers.

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100,000 lb Line Pull

As with its smaller brother, HD bearings, a urethane coated roller with shaft and a flat wide plate for stability, this roller can accommodate pipe from 2 in. up to 48 in. It is both economical and sturdy for the larger jobs.

y Weight: 140 lb/63.5 kg.

y Capacity: 4000 lb/1814 kg.

y Footprint: 30 in. x 18 in. x 12 in. H/76 cm x 46 x 31 H.

Heavy duty capacity rollers

The HD urethane rollers help to protect coatings on larger diameter pipe during river or road crossing installations. They have been designed so with transportation purposes in mind. There are angled iron pockets for easy stacking to three high to transport and four high for storage. There are forklift pockets for positioning the roller under pipe and for loading on a flat deck. It also has two lifting eyes. The wide footprint

makes it stable, and the deep ‘V’ pocket secures the pipe for maximum safety.

Proline’s 2 - 30 in. HD Roller

y Weight: 655 lb/297 kg.

y Capacity: 12 000 lb/5443 kg.

y Footprint: 52 in. x 32 in. x 25 in. H/132cm x 82 x 64 H.

Proline’s 2 - 48 in. HD Roller

y Weight: 1300 lb/590 kg.

y Capacity: 15 000 lb/6804 kg.

y Footprint: 70 in. x 50 in. x 30 in. H/178cm x 127 x 76 H.

Proline’s 16 - 48 in. TANDEM adjustable roller

The HD urethane rollers are angled iron pockets for easy stacking to four high for transportation and storage. There are forklift pockets for positioning the roller under pipe and for loading on a flat deck. It also has two lifting eyes. This pipe roller has a lower profile, and the rollers are adjustable for the different size of pipe from 16 in. and up. The wide footprint makes it stable for maximum safety.

y Weight: 1605 lb/728 kg.

y Capacity: 50 000 lb/22 680 kg.

y Footprint: 70 in. x 38 in. x 27 in. H/176 cm x 95 x 67 H.

To calculate the external pullback force, there is an easy formula (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Proline’s 2 - 30 in. heavy duty horizontal rollers stacked four high for storage.

Figure 3. Calculating external pullback forces on the surface vs. rollers.

SUXXESION, NETHERLANDS

Human life is demanding energy all over the planet and pipelines are the veins of the world. We, Suxxesion, have been participating in important pipeline projects from the Gulf of Mexico to Malasia and India.

Our biggest performance, however, is Nord Stream 1 and 2. All 440 000 pipes were handled using our equipment at least five times per pipe before being loaded into the supply boats to the pipelaying vessels.

The pipe and sheet handling took place in Germany and Russia at the pipe producers and coaters. Due to the political circumstances, both pipelines are not in use for the time being.

Based on lessons learnt, Suxxesion is constantly improving its products for the benefit of its clients to improve life time, reduce cost of ownership and, thus, reliability of the equipment, wherever in the world it is in operation. This means not only the handling and storage of pipes along the stretch, but also in the fore field at the pipe mills and coating yards. To upgrade the logistics CPW awarded orders for the supply of our Suxxesion multi-tool to handle pipes at the stock yard, but also in the factory to handle pipes going from one production line to another. We have equipped two material handlers and one reach truck to handle maximum four or five pipes at a time. With our equipment almost all telecranes became obsolete. By using Suxxesion

multi-tools, the loading time of trucks was reduced to a minimum. With a one-man operation the work became safer and pipe damage due to handling was almost zero.

As stipulated pipelines are the veins of the world and have proven to be very reliable for transportation of large volumes of mainly hydrocarbons over long distances. If humankind will be able to make the energy transition, pipelines for hydrocarbons will be upgraded for hydrogen transport or sweet water. Sweet water is needed to irrigate land which became too dry due to the disappearance of the local habitat. So, pipeline projects will not stop and pipelines will contribute to bringing prosperity to all living beings on the planet. Suxxesion hopes to contribute to these future projects by building more sophisticated pipe handling equipment for mutual interest.

Figure 1. Suxxesion DEHK 600 double pipespreader 60 t lifting capacity.

Figure 2. Suxxesion multitool type 180 HS integrated in material handler to handle max four pipes in one go (lifting capacity 18 000 kg).

World Pipelines asks UAVOS, USA, about automated scanning and area surveying solutions for pipeline construction.

How has your automated scanning and area surveying solution specifically benefitted a pipeline construction project?

Used across an area of around 150 km, UAVOS’ drones covered the area 20 times faster than it would have been possible to on the ground, as well as being three times cheaper than traditional methods involving ground teams.

Therefore, the oil and gas company has saved around US$400 000 through gathered data accuracy. Moreover, this technology means geological prospecting can be undertaken at the most inaccessible areas, at any time of year.

What type of drones do you utilise for the magnetic mapping process, and why are they suitable for oil/gas pipeline construction?

Having been sufficiently manoeuvrable to fly at the required altitudes, ranging from 50 – 100 m, an unmanned helicopter for beyond visual line-of-sight with a robust gasoline-powered engine UVH-170 has the benefit of:

) Increased performance with carrying capacity, flying range and extended temperature range (from -30°C to +40°C).

) Better engine cooling especially designed to perform in a tropical climate, or in a hot and moist environment.

) Not requiring any additional take off or recovery equipment (does not require a runway), which makes it perfect for operations in hard-toreach areas.

) Can fly forwards and backwards, and hover in the air for some time.

) The UVH-170 is equipped with satellite communication data link, which supports Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) flight.

) Ability to operate in hover flight.

) Ability to operate in windy conditions with gusts more than 14 m/sec.

) Ability to operate without GPS signals.

Borey fixed-wing UAV has been used for aerial photography tasks. It is considerably more efficient for such missions as it is much cheaper than an unmanned helicopter. Moreover, it is able to operate at a low altitude if necessary. The unique mobility of this system allows quick transportation and deployment in minutes.

What are the key features or technologies that enable your solution to be successful?

Proprietary UAVOS’ software speeds up the analysis process and reduces the analysis costs.

AI-based data processing enables digitalisation of the whole pipeline area on a large scale:

) Autonomous data collection and automated drone post-flight data analysis.

) Big data platform processing.

) Digital twin for maintenance.

) Artificial neural networks (ANNs): classification, object detection, and image segmentation.

Moreover, all UAVOS’ drones offer high-quality cameras capable of achieving survey-grade results, accurate to within a fraction of an in. UAVOS’ GSG 201 Gyrostabilised 2-axis gimbal with a day and thermal camera and Laser Rangefinder are specifically designed for inspections and surveillance missions. Both hardware and software are developed and manufactured in-house.

The pipeline inspections efficiency ensures magnetic mapping surveys. This is a geological prospecting technique allowing initial information on rock formation and structure to be obtained by measuring the geomagnetic field at the surface.

How accurate and reliable is your solution in capturing data and generating survey results for oil/gas pipeline construction?

The process of data collecting with drone surveying is called drone photogrammetry.

It is the process of measuring real-life distances from overlapping photos that take into account all different angles and perspectives. The process done with a drone allows a degree of accuracy that is very difficult for traditional surveying to match.

In a single surveying flight, drone data processed with a surveying software can produce a full map of the surveyed site with accurate measurements of distances, surfaces, elevations, volumes, and provide GPS points represented in either two or three dimensions.

UAVOS’ methods provide accurate measurements such as horizontal distances and surfaces for large areas for GIS import:

) High-definition images (resolution: 2 cm/pixel accuracy: up to 5 cm).

) Data visualisation through a geographic information system (GIS).

) Drone images are corrected for image distortion and stitched together during post-processing to create a highly-accurate orthomosaic.

What are the specific data outputs and deliverables that can be obtained from your scanning and surveying solution?

Following each drone inspection, our clients receive a detailed report and deliverables including:

) High-definition images and video (GEO tagged for use in GIS software).

) Orthomosaic images for large areas for import into GIS.

) Digital surface model (DSM), digital terrain model (DTM) or DEM files.

) RGB imagery.

) Digital infrastructure objects in shapefiles.

How does your solution handle the challenging terrains or difficult weather conditions commonly encountered in oil/ gas pipeline construction?

Automated scanning and area surveying has been carried out by the UAVOS’

UVH-170 gasoline powered unmanned helicopter which is able to operate in harsh environments such as windy conditions with up to 14 mps and temperatures from -30°C to +40°C. Moreover, the UVH-170 does not require a runway, which makes it perfect for operations in hard-to-reach areas.

Are there any integration capabilities with other software or systems commonly used in pipeline construction, such as GIS or project management tools?

UAVOS’ team of pilots, mapping professionals, and GIS experts use modern mapping technologies, such as GIS and GPS, to map, collect, and analyse geographic data. This method contributes to improved communication and efficiency, as well as better management and decision making.

How does your solution address any regulatory or compliance requirements related to pipeline construction and surveying?

The pipeline industry often goes above and beyond minimum regulations through standards and best practices developed by company or in coordination with state partners.

UAVOS’ team works closely together with customers to keep the project safe following their rules and regulatory requirements.

Figure 1. Drone operator launching the Borey unmanned aircraft.

Figure 2. The UVH-170 unmanned helicopter is ready to operate.

PUSHING PIG DESIGNS INTO THE FUTURE

Dave Forster, Propipe, UK, describes taking an open approach to developing new pipeline pig designs and types.

For many years pipeline pigs have remained virtually unchanged from their ‘modern’ layout. Although there have been significant improvements in elastomeric materials (such as polyurethane used for sealing discs, guiding discs and conical cups) which have resulted in pigs that have extended wear life and resilience, the basic design

parameters adopted during pig design remain unchanged. Foam pigs, cup pigs and bi-directional disc pigs have been the mainstay of most pigging campaigns, and the pipeline

industry has taken a relatively risk-adverse approach, being content to use these well-proven designs.

Changes in subsea completions and the need to find cost and time-savings has introduced an appetite for change and led to the need for more creative pig design thinking. Risk of blockages and the associated costs of repair have also led to increased product testing, which has in-turn allowed the introduction of new designs of pipeline pig.

New design development

Propipe is developing new pipeline pig designs that take their cues from the ‘modern’ layout but also push pig designs into the future. These designs are being proven at Propipe’s In-House Test Facility and then field-proven on projects worldwide. This work is helping to unlock the ‘dark art’ of pig design and allowing pigs to be developed to meet even the most exacting of demands, as well as allowing clients the opportunity to see pigs in action and to both learn and contribute to the pig design and testing process. This open approach enables clients to gain valuable knowledge and an understanding of how the pigs will perform and (more importantly) what to expect if, or when, things change offshore.

With the increasing need for pigs to pass through multidiameter pipelines this has also forced the development of new pig types. Where traditional multi-diameter pipelines have diameters that have stepped around 50 mm from minimum to maximum bore (such as 8 in. x 10 in. or 18 in. x 20 in.), now diameter changes up to 100 - 200 mm, with lines such as 16 in. x 20 in. or 32 in. x 24 in. are becoming more prevalent.

Propipe wheeled-support pigs were developed specifically for multi-diameter pipelines where good centralisation is required to maintain a constant seal through all ID’s and features. The pigs use a series of wheel mounted arms mounted to a central suspension system. This allows the suspension arms to move as a collective unit and provide constant support and centralisation. This action ensures that the pig does not drop its centreline below the pipeline centreline, which in turn means that the sealing discs are always centrally held within the pipeline, giving 100% seal efficiency.

Conventional pipeline pigs use rigid polyurethane guide discs to support the weight of the pig and guide it through the pipeline, but these guide discs can suffer from compression set or slow recovery (when used for large diameter changes), which can mean a loss of seal. Sealing discs that are held centrally within the pipeline provide maximum sealing ability, which ensures maximum dewatering ability.

In many cases, piggability trials and offshore operations have confirmed that wheeled-support pigs can be run with a small number of seals and provide extremely high dewatering performance. The low running DP also helps to ensure that the pig is allowed to perform at its optimum without any speed-affected loss in performance. Pigs can carry brush modules, bypass jetting units plus both standard gauge and/or Trident SMART gauge systems.

Figure 1. 24 in. x 32 in. wheeled-support pig.

Figure 2. Foam pigs.

Although the primary aim of the wheeled-support pig is to allow dual or multi-diameter pigging, by utilising a rolling support system and removing the guide/support discs required by conventional bi-di pigs, running pressures through the pipeline system also reduce significantly. This lowering of the running pressure can offer significant cost savings when considering liquids removal operations, such as pipeline dewatering.

Wheeled-support pigs for dewatering

A 24 in. x 70 km pipeline system running from shore to offshore, offshore Africa comprised a main line ID of 572 mm, with subsea structure and topside pipework with at 558 mm and 533 mm.

At the end of the system there was also a localised restriction (connector) of 518 mm, plus two adjacent check valves along with 5D and 3D bends (the 3D having an ID of 533 mm).

The system was to be dewatered from Onshore Terminal to Offshore Wellhead Platform, with the 518 mm reduced ID connector being the last feature that the pig would pass as it entered the receiver.

In the above scenario, the dewatering pig train would pass through the system and at each point where the ID reduced, the train would effectively stop until sufficient pressure built up to push the pigs into the smaller ID. As the smallest ID’s were at the end of the line, it would require the complete system pressure to be raised in order to finally drive the pigs into the receiver. The estimated cost for the air compressor spread necessary to charge the pipeline was in the order of US$2 - 3 million.

Although the ID range from 572 mm - 518 mm is well within the capabilities of conventional disc-type pigs, in order to minimise the required pressure to pass through the reduce ID sections, Propipe wheelsupport pigs were chosen for the operation.

Test to develop the best

To optimise and prove the capability of the wheel supported pig design, a series of tests were undertaken at the Propipe test facility in Hartlepool, UK, during July 2020.

For the testing programme a test rig was manufactured to simulate the critical pipeline features. The test rig included the system IDs, system bends, 3D and 5D and two fabricated check valves to replicate the system check valves. Initial testing of the pig design with water identified a potential clash point in the check valves. After some changes to the initial base case design, the pig was re-introduced and performed well when being driven with water. Having proven the pig design when driven with water, testing focused on actual dewatering (compressed air driven) testing. The pig repeatedly passed successfully through the test rig when driven with compressed air.

Running pressure in the pipeline and larger sections of the subsea structures was around 0.2 bar. In the smaller sections (including the smallest 518 mm ID connector), the pressure increased to 1.4 bar. With a conventional bi-di pig, in the same situation, it would not be unreasonable to expect a pigging pressure of around 2.5 bar through the smaller ID section. The cost to raise pipeline pressure over 70 km from 1.4 to 2.5 bar would be significant.

Alongside the reduced drive pressure, the pig was required to, using an air compressor spread onshore, dewater the pipeline system to a residual water film of 0.1 mm or better. For a bi-di pig this can be challenging as making the guides/supports flexible enough to pass through the smaller ID, often results in poor centralisation in the larger ID, hence increasing the potential for the seals to allow residual water to be deposited in the line behind the pig. As the wheel pig relies on a variable mechanical support system it keeps the sealing discs in full contact with

Figure 3. Test rig with riser tower.

Figure 4. Wheeled-support pig.

the pipewall, so the seals are 100% efficient and low residual water values can be achieved.

Based on an industry standard for dewatering of carbon steel pipes, a residual water film thickness of 0.1 mm was used as a base line for acceptance. In the results obtained during testing, the achieved equivalent residual water film thickness was 0.061 mm and 0.078 mm which is significantly better than the industry standard of 0.1 mm.

Project pigs were run offshore in 2021 and performed exactly according to expectations. Significant savings were made due to reduced air compressor spread and vessel time. The additional engineering and testing time taken to prove the suitability of the wheeled-support pigs can be entirely justified with the savings made during offshore operations.

Future designs under development

Foam pigs are cylindrical bullet-shaped pigs, usually used for short pipeline runs or progressive cleaning campaigns. They are generally seen as throw-away items with poor wear resistance and strength. Their advantage is their ability to pass significant restrictions without big pressure increase or risk of blockage. Conversely, bi-di or disc pigs use metal bodies, onto which polyurethane elastomer sealing discs and guide discs are fixed. The bi-di pig is the workhorse of the offshore pipeline industry and is considered reliable, robust, and very adaptable.

Propipe foam disc pigs are a further development of these two pipelines pig types, taking the flexibility and compressibility of polyurethane foam and mimicking the performance advantages of metal-bodied disc or cup pigs. Foam disc pigs are designed to be used in any pipeline application where metal-bodied pigs are not suited or where the changes in internal bore are considered too large. The non-metallic construction of the foam disc pigs allows safe use in coated pipeline and pipelines using exotic materials such as stainless steel or inconel cladding. Foam disc pigs are constructed around a core body of polyurethane elastomer. This provides strength for the pig, preventing excessive flex or nose-diving under load. The discs of the pig are cast from medium density polyurethane foam. The resulting pig provides a superb design for multi-diameter pipelines.

A development of this design has allowed a 24 in. x 45 km pipeline feeding into a 34 in. x 305 km pipeline to be successfully pigged. An existing production pig uses petal-flaps to help flush the pig from the 34 in. line, but now the client wished to develop a pig that could clean in both diameters, pass wyes and also provide a safe non-metallic design. Propipe has designed, tested and supplied the pig, which was able to run as expected and also collected 350 kg of debris.

What next?

Taking into account the diameter changing abilities of wheeled-support pigs and the flexibility of foam disc pigs, it seemed a natural step to combine the two:

) For a project in South-East Asia, pigs were developed for 10 in. x 12 in. and also 8 in x 12 in. dewatering operations.

) The proposed pigs were tested by Propipe and functioned correctly without change. Dewatering performance was good, removing more liquid than industry expectations based on an equivalent water film thickness of 0.1 mm.

Figure 5. Foam disc pig.

Figure 6. Foam wheeled-support pig.

IT’S ALL ABOUT

THE PROCESS

Dr. Chris Alexander, PE, President and Founder of ADV Integrity, Inc., USA, offers a framework for accelerating the adoption of advanced technologies for pipeline integrity.

Ensuring the continued safe operation of high-pressure transmission pipelines requires the use of advanced technologies. It involves the development, integration, and application of technologies that meet specific needs associated with the operation of ageing assets. In the context of pipeline integrity, applicable technologies include

inline inspection (ILI) tools, in-the-ditch NDE inspection equipment, in-situ monitoring devices, high-strength liners and spoolable pipes, and repair methods like composite reinforcing systems. Unfortunately, technologies in the pipeline industry are often slow to be adopted and are not deployed at the rate required to maintain the ageing infrastructure. There are several reasons for the slow adoption, including overly restrictive regulations, failure of technology companies to demonstrate validated performance, cost, and risk aversion on the part of pipeline companies.

Although technology adoption starts as a technically driven matter, adoption is eventually driven by commercialisation and implementation. It is often these latter stages where technologies ‘fail to launch’ that can eventually lead to technology companies going out of business. Deploying technologies is important for maintaining the integrity of pipelines, but there are other reasons as well. First, even though pipelines are the safest means for transporting oil and gas, there continues to be widespread opposition to their use, including existing and newly constructed pipelines. The use of advanced technologies communicates to the broader public that the pipeline industry is committed to safe operation. Secondly, for the pipeline industry to continue providing energy that is necessary for our economy it is essential that we attract talented personnel. Thirdly, the use of advanced technologies is attractive to investors, who will provide much needed capital for new projects and continued technology development.

This article provides a framework that can be used to accelerate technology adoption and offers commercial guidance for how a technology can be deployed before its capabilities are fully realised. The goal is to assist technology companies, regulatory agencies, and pipeline operators to position technologies to maximise their impact on the safe and reliable operation of pipeline systems.

Technology adoption framework

In the pipeline industry there are multiple elements and players involved in bringing technologies to market. This is illustrated in Figure 1, where the key elements are identified (technology, regulatory, operational, and commercial). As illustrated in this graphic, successful technology deployments can only occur when there is a beneficial convergence of these four elements. The key stakeholders who contribute to this convergence include technology companies, pipeline operators, regulatory agencies, investors, research organisations, and consultants. Although it is important to identify the elements and stakeholders, recognition is not enough. A process is required to help stakeholders shepherd the process of advancing technology adoption.

Provided in Figure 2 is a framework that illustrates the process by which a technology can traverse from a concept at the basic technology research level to full acceptance and usage associated with the deployment and scale level. This entire framework is identified as the technology adoption process (TAP). Listed below are four phases of the TAP, each having been ascribed a relative scale, to provide key stakeholders with a means for assessing the level of advancement associated with each phase. The four phases of the TAP include the following:

) Technology readiness level (TRL): The use of TRLs during the ‘development’ phase has gained wide acceptance across many industries and has recently gained traction in the pipeline industry. Although TRLs are critically important, adoption of technologies requires far more than ensuring a technology works properly and is sound from a technical perspective.

) Regulatory acceptance levels (RAL): Many industries do not have the level of regulatory oversight as does the pipeline industry and perhaps do not require this consideration; however, technology companies who are not cognisant of the need to address regulatory oversight do so at their own peril. Engaging regulators early in the technology development process is strongly encouraged. It has been the author’s observation that regulatory agencies in North America support technology innovation, with many modern regulatory codes fostering performance rather than prescriptive guidance when it comes to technology usage.

) Commercial readiness index (CRI): In addition to TRLs and RALs, technology companies and pipeline operator ‘champions’ should consider how the technology will be commercialised once some level of basic technology research has been completed. This does not require that a purchase of the technology be made, but consideration for market potential and pricing is warranted early in the process.

) Operational readiness level (ORL): The final stage is actual deployment of the technology within the pipeline company, identified as operational engagement. As noted in Figure 2, the five ORL steps start with the field trial and end with deployment and scale. Once the latter step is

Figure 1. Framework for the technology adoption process.

Celebrating 70 Years of Canadian Pipeline Excellence

PIPE LINE CONTRACTORS ASSOCIATION OF CANADA

WOMEN OF STEEL

• Building Canada’s infrastructure for 70 years

• Advocating for the unionized pipeline construction industry with government through labour relations, policy review, pipeline standard codes and more

• Supporting worker safety, recruitment, training and leadership development programs for members

• Fostering a Canadian-based workforce with specialized technical, trade and craft skills for pipeline construction and maintenance

reached, both technology company and operator can reap benefits from the arduous process that is often required to get a given technology to this point. It is not unusual that a period spanning 5 - 7 years is required before the full deployment of a technology is achieved.

As technology companies and pipeline operators seek to advance technologies, the TAP framework provides a series of steps that can be referenced and utilised to establish roles and responsibilities for key stakeholders (including technology companies, operators, regulators, and investors). The ‘unsung heroes’ among this group are often the champions within pipeline companies who advocate for technology adoption. Without their contributions and willingness to take risks associated with championing technology adoption among their peers, technology adoption often stalls and fails to get the traction required for deployment and widespread use.

The following section of this article provides guidance for how a technology can be commercialised by addressing three specific activities, that start with identifying industry gaps and end with addressing future opportunities for technology deployment.

Commercial guidance for technology advancement

According to the US Bureau of Labor statistics, 21% of businesses fail within the first year, 40% of businesses fail within the first three years, 50% within five years, 66% within 10 years, 73% within 15 years, and nearly 80% within 20 years.1 Over the long run, 90% of all startups fail. Unfortunately, technology companies in the pipeline industry are no exception. The significant failure rate of start-up businesses begs the question – is there anything that can be done to increase the likelihood that a business will not only survive, but thrive? While there is no ‘silver bullet’ that guarantees a company’s success, there are three elements that are worthy of careful consideration, discussed in greater detail in the sections that follow.

) Identify industry gaps.

) Connect people, companies, and technologies.

) Expectations for the future.

Identify industry gaps

The best businesses are built in the gaps. These gaps can include the introduction of new technologies, enhancement of processes, or improvements in customer service. Robert Herjavek from the Shark Tank TV show stated, “Don’t start a business. Find a problem. Solve a problem. The business comes second.” It’s critically important for both start-ups and existing businesses to be vigilant about customer needs and make sure the goods, services, and technologies they offer the marketplace are needed. Companies that meet customer needs that no one else can meet are ideally positioned for success.

Business owners and leaders must be strategic in identifying marketplace needs and pivoting as required to ensure the goods, services, and technologies they offer are needed. With our rapidly changing economy, the need for businesses to pivot is critically important. Those that don’t might find themselves out of business.

Connect people, companies, and technologies

Almost every aspect of life involves relationships, and running a business and advancing technologies are no exception. Most technology companies employ well-trained and educated sales teams who are responsible for communicating the capabilities of the technology. Brand recognition is achieved through effective social media campaigns. Research that validates the performance of technologies can be communicated to the industry through technical reports and conference articles. Companies that are effective in establishing and maintaining connections are the ones that grow the fastest and are the most successful in terms of their ability to generate healthy profits.

Figure 2. Key elements in the technology adoption process.

Another critically important contributor to technology advancement are pipeline-focused conferences and exhibitions including the bi-annual International Pipeline Conference in Calgary (IPC), the Pipeline Research Council International’s annual Research Exchange (REX), and the annual Pipeline Pigging and Integrity Management (PPIM) conference in Houston. ADV Integrity, Inc. also launched the ADV Connect platform as a means for advancing technologies and training next generation leaders in the pipeline industry.

Expectations for the future

What defines the leaders of great companies is their preoccupation with the future. In looking towards tomorrow, great companies are focused on increasing revenue, growing profits, and reinvesting a portion of their profits to increase customer value. There is no doubt that predicting the future is extremely challenging; however, every company has access to metrics that can be used to estimate market trends and evaluate customer responses. It is surprising how few companies spend time evaluating the future and utilising existing insights to direct current activities. This is especially important from a business development perspective and knowing when to ‘accelerate’ marketing and sales activities. In the pipeline industry, identifying and helping advance technologies that can impact future performance should be given special consideration. Being aware of changing regulations can also help technology companies and pipeline operators evaluate future activities and make the necessary steps to take advantage of any favourable rulings.

Closing remarks

Technology plays a central role in our ability to safely transport oil and gas products in pipelines. The focus in most technology deployments involves an assessment of technology readiness and the ability of the technology to perform as designed; however, equally important are considerations associated with regulations, commercialisation, and operational engagement. The need for advanced technologies is even more important given our ageing infrastructure, as the pipeline industry continues operating assets that are in some cases more than 70 years old. A framework and process are needed to maximise the likelihood that useful

technologies are deployed to serve the people and companies that need them most. When this happens, everyone wins including technology companies, regulatory agencies, pipeline operators, and the public at large.

References

1. Based on businesses that opened in 2002 (https://clarifycapital.com/)

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Mr. Damodaran Raghu for his contribution to the commercial readiness index and Mr. Russel Treat for his creation and contribution of the operational readiness index.

Mark Naples, Umicore Coatings Services, UK, discusses using data to tackle methane leaks in the oil and gas sector.

Across the vast network of pipelines in place in the oil and gas sector, methane leaks are too often out of sight, out of mind. As governments worldwide grapple with the climate crisis, energy suppliers face their own challenge. The sector collectively operates a vast pipeline infrastructure, and as these networks age, the problem

of methane leaks is only growing worse.

In the US alone, 2.6 million miles of pipelines carry natural gas and petroleum products to their destinations each year.1 Many of these are approaching retirement age; more than half are over 50 years old, and some were installed in the 1960s or even earlier. But with most of this network buried out of

sight underground, failing welds and other damage can be easy to ignore until it is too late.

This ageing network is already having serious consequences for the planet. Worldwide, more than 1000 ‘super-emitting’ events were identified in 2022, each leaking at least a ton of methane into the atmosphere every hour – with the largest recorded event releasing

the equivalent of 67 million running cars.2 Combined, the global energy sector was responsible for an estimated 135 million t of methane emissions that year, upholding its role as one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions.3

Tackling these leaks requires a clear understanding of where they are occurring. Unfortunately, this can feel impossible to achieve. The

sheer scale of land that must be checked renders handheld sensors ineffective at best, and alternatives such as satellite monitoring are impractical for most businesses. As a result, the true extent of methane emissions from the energy sector remains obscured.

Without a clear picture of where leaks are occurring, the oil and gas sector cannot begin taking

effective action against methane emissions. But at the same time that infrastructure is ageing, the technologies that can support it are developing rapidly. By exploiting the latest advancements in detection systems, it is becoming easier than ever to identify problem sites and repair infrastructure to limit their impact on the planet.

A clear and present danger

Faced with an ageing pipeline network and emissions of this scale, the energy sector finds itself racing against the clock. In terms of how it affects the climate, methane is something of a ticking timebomb. Compared with other common greenhouse gases found in industry, such as CO2, methane has around 28 times the global heating potential. Research has shown this gas is responsible for 30% of the rise in recorded temperatures since the Industrial Revolution, and compared with pre-industrial levels, methane concentrations in the air today are around two and a half times greater.4

This high heating potential is due to methane’s unique chemical characteristics; in particular, how well it absorbs and retains energy. Methane only lasts for around 12 years once released, compared with centuries for CO2, but during

this time it traps much more energy in the form of heat –typically between 80 – 100 times more than the equivalent quantity of CO2

As a result, methane is often thought of as one of the easiest targets in the fight against climate change. The fast pace at which it degrades, combined with its high potential to cause damage, means taking action on methane today can have almost immediately visible effects on total greenhouse gas emissions.

Pipes under pressure

Much of the responsibility for methane emissions rests on the shoulders of the oil and gas sector. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that a third of all humanrelated methane emissions emanate from the oil and gas industry, and leaks are a major contributor to this. According to one report, leaks from bolted joints contribute 170 million t of emissions each year.5 As infrastructure ages, this problem will only get worse.

For decades, the sector has broadly recognised leaking pipelines as a necessary cost of doing business. In part, this is due to the landscape these businesses operate in. Often presiding over thousands of miles of pipelines, the challenge here is not just in fixing, but finding leaks in the first place. Suppliers looking to accurately track methane leaks must monitor an impossibly large area, often with little more than hand-held infrared cameras or sensors, relying on engineering models to fill in the gaps.

This technique often leads to leaks being missed as it relies on being in the right place at the right time. Without dedicated sensing equipment, emissions can be difficult to quantify. The problem is that the exact scale of methane emissions in oil and gas production is difficult to assess. There is currently a gulf between the information gathered by researchers and that reported by official bodies, and until this gap is closed by more accurate data, effective action against methane will be impossible.

Although attempts are being made to monitor this problem, the scale of activity is often insufficient. While researchers may use satellite data to assess methane leaks, the picture painted by official figures is far from accurate. Studies have repeatedly found that methane exists in the air in much higher concentrations than data provided by the industry would suggest. In the US, methane pollution between 2010 and 2019 was revealed to be 70% higher than official estimates after the National Academy of Sciences suggested that government methane detection systems were inadequate.6

The incentives for action here are not purely environmental. Methane emissions come with a significant cost, with around US$19 billion of natural gas being wasted every year – potential profits that are literally vanishing into thin air. A more rigorous gas detection approach, supported by technology, could enable more gas to be captured and sold, and have a real impact on a business’s bottom line.

The oil and gas industry has the most significant opportunity to reduce methane emissions and fight back against rising emissions. But without understanding where the

Figure 1. Modern sensing technology is highly scalable and available in increasingly small form-factor devices thanks to advances in laser absorption spectroscopy.

Figure 2. Controlling and limiting the reflective properties of filter lenses is crucial to sensor performance.

problems are occurring, how can businesses hope to clamp down on them? There are trillions of data points within arm’s reach describing everything from location to cause of emissions all across the planet – all that is needed is the necessary tools to collect them.

Laser absorption spectroscopy

Technology for monitoring emissions has advanced by leaps and bounds in recent years. From satellite instruments capable of tracking leaks from space to transformational change in remote sensors, today’s oil and gas companies have access to a wide range of systems that can help in this struggle.

Until now, many businesses have relied on handheld gas detectors to track their emissions. But with increasing global regulation around methane emissions and reporting, innovative technology incorporating CH4 narrow bandpass filters enable measurements to be taken at a distance using a precision emitter and detector system, that provides a capable solution to the gas detection challenges within emissions monitoring. This process – known as laser absorption spectroscopy –enables businesses to identify and monitor leaks and to build a complete emissions profile.

Laser absorption spectroscopy is based on how light passes through a medium. Beams of infrared (IR) light are passed through a sampling chamber containing a filter, which prevents all but the required wavelengths from reaching the detector. This ensures that only the wavelengths of light that are absorbed by the particles of gas being monitored transmit. By changing the filter, operators can ensure different wavelengths reach the detector, meaning the equipment can be used to detect a range of gases and particles.

Compared with other sensors, laser absorption spectroscopy devices enable fast response times and accurate results without the need for additional gases to operate. These detectors are now capable of continuously monitoring for combustible gases and vapours within the lower explosive limit and notify users with an alarm if required. This technology can be used within both oxygen-deficient and enriched areas, and is immune to sensor poison, contamination, and corrosion.

Completing the picture

Technology such as this makes achieving an accurate picture of leaks in the oil and gas industry a realistic proposition. Umicore works with OEMs to simplify its gas detection systems, focusing on functionality and cost, while also helping to drive advances to open new opportunities for progress, using its devices in ways it had never previously considered. With more than 35 years of experience in thin film design and manufacture, its custom IR designs offer a range of tools that are ideal for all kinds of gas detection and analysis.

Embracing data will be key to helping businesses take action on climate change. By improving their understanding of where precisely emissions are occurring, oil and gas suppliers will be able to take informed steps against methane leaks.

Although it will never be possible to prevent all methane emissions, it is becoming more important than ever to act on those that can be controlled. Heavy industries dealing with hydrocarbons and natural gas have a duty to do their part – but first, they must be able to identify and understand where their efforts must be targeted. Only when the picture is filled in will the sector be able to break its reputation as a major polluter, and actively contribute to a healthier world.

References

1. https://www.statista.com/statistics/197932/us-pipeline-system-mileage-since-2004/

2. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/06/revealed-1000-super-emitting-methane-leaksrisk-triggering-climate-tipping-points

3. https://www.iea.org/news/methane-emissions-remained-stubbornly-high-in-2022-even-as-soaringenergy-prices-made-actions-to-reduce-them-cheaper-than-ever

4. https://www.iea.org/news/methane-emissions-remained-stubbornly-high-in-2022-even-as-soaringenergy-prices-made-actions-to-reduce-them-cheaper-than-ever 5. https://cumulusds.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Cumulus-Environmental-Impact-of-Bolted-Joints. pdf

6. https://www.iea.org/news/methane-emissions-from-the-energy-sector-are-70-higher-than-official-figures

Shorter,

Boakye-Firempong, Product Manager and Ronald Panti, Operations Manager, Baker Hughes, detail the benefits of RTP pipe performance for onshore oil and gas pipelines, referring to improved corrosion resistance, rapid deployment, low maintenance, and a smaller carbon footprint.

Jeff

Portfolio Director, Eugene

Carbon steel pipelines are ubiquitous in oil and gas operations, delivering hydrocarbons to refineries and petrochemical plants and transporting refined products to end users. Although carbon steel has become an accepted material for pipelines, it is not the only option available, and in many applications, it is not the best choice.

Pipeline owners have been dealing with the same challenges associated with carbon steel pipe for decades. Originally adopted for oil and gas transportation because of its strength and affordability, carbon steel became

the go-to solution for pipeline owners in the sector despite its shortcomings.

First and foremost, carbon steel is susceptible to corrosion. According to data published by the US Department of Transportation Pipeline & Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), internal corrosion accounts for approximately 60% of all pipeline corrosion incidents in transmission and gathering pipelines. Exposure to corrosive chemicals can lead to wall thinning and weakening and eventually to leaks. Carbon steel is particularly vulnerable to hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) and sulfide stress cracking (SSC) when exposed to hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Coatings, cathodic protection, and corrosion-resistant linings can mitigate this issue, but they can be costly and require constant surveillance and maintenance to ensure their continued efficacy. Carbon steel also becomes brittle at low temperatures and suffers rapid cracking propagation failure.

Installation poses a host of additional challenges – some of which are cost related, while others impact asset integrity. Because carbon steel pipe is produced in 40 ft lengths, welding is required to join the pipe. The reliability of the pipeline is determined by the quality of the welding. Inexpert welds and improper designs can result in weaknesses that could lead to uncontrolled releases and failures. To avoid such events, the welding process must follow stringent procedures, and welds must be extensively tested to ensure their quality. This requires skilled welders to perform the work, appropriate non-destructive testing to verify the quality of the welds, and a considerable time investment, all of which impact project economics.

There also are environmental concerns associated with carbon steel. Leaks and spills pose obvious environmental risks, but the carbon-intense process of producing carbon steel is another serious consideration for pipeline owners who are working to reduce the carbon footprint of their operations.

The benefits of RTP

Reinforced thermoplastic pipe (RTP) is gaining ground as an alternative to carbon steel in applications below 3000 psi and temperature below 230°F (110˚C). One compelling reason for using RTP is its corrosion resistance. Thanks to its thermoplastic liner, cover and non-metallic reinforcement material, there is no corrosion mechanism. That not only translates into a longer service life with less maintenance, it also means RTP is ideal for sour service because it is not vulnerable to hydrogen-induced cracking.

RTP has better flow characteristics than carbon steel because the internal plastic lining is smoother than steel, providing greater throughput with the same inner diameter. So, less pumping is required to move product through an RTP pipeline, consuming less energy.

There is no wax adherence to PPS or Nylon liners because they are a natural repellent of wax.

RTPs also have much better thermal insulation properties compared to carbon steel pipe. In steel pipe, bore fluid loses heat faster and allows wax crystallisation to occur. On the other hand, RTPs keep the bore fluid above wax crystallisation temperature over a longer distance. Thus, less pigging and cleaning will be required for removing wax.

In addition, RTP does not require corrosion inhibitors, which can weaken the protective iron oxide layer on the steel, and in the case of inhibitors that contain hydrogen sulfide scavengers, can promote hydrogen absorption into the steel and lead to hydrogen embrittlement. RTP pipe is lighter than carbon steel, which impacts installation time and cost. A narrower right of way is required to install RTP pipe, and reduced trenching is required for pipe burial. Also, given that RTP pipe is flexible, it can be installed with long sweeps/bends lowering energy loss during transmission compared to the 45˚ and 90˚ elbows typical on steels lines.

Improvement by design

With the implementation of a new, proprietary manufacturing process, it is now possible to produce spoolable RTP pipe up to 8 in.

The process begins with melting polymer pellets and feeding the liquified polymer through an extrusion head to form the liner, which is pulled to size through a vacuum tank. The material used for the inner lining of the pipe depends on the performance characteristics required for end use:

) HDPE delivers four times the erosion resistant of regular steel pipe.

) Nylon provides gas permeating resistance and deters paraffin deposition.

) PPS delivers the greatest resistance to permeation and performs well in corrosive environments.

A tiebond (aka adhesive) layer is next, followed by an HDPE or PERT layer for high-temperature strength. A coextrusion process forms these three layers simultaneously into a single pipe, minimising the possibility of delamination between layers.

The pipe is then fed through a controlled cooling chamber to ensure it is solidified before reinforcement. Tapes are wrapped helically around liner at a 55˚ lay angle. The reinforcement materials used are:

) Aramid fibre, which delivers the best tensile strength-toweight ratio.

) Glass fibre tape, which allows for sour service to pressures up to 1500 psi and provides optimal weight-to-pressure resistance.

) Steel wire tape, which offers pressure resistance up to 3000 psi.

Figure 1. RTPs experience reduced pressure drop compared to steel pipe.

The final step in the process is to extrude a thermoplastic cover layer, protecting the inner layer from the environment during installation and operation.

Simplified installation delivers dividends

Spoolable RTP pipe is not only superior to steel in performance, but also easier to install. Unlike carbon steel pipe, which generally is shipped in 40 ft lengths, 8 in. spoolable RTP pipe can be delivered to the installation site in 400 ft continuous length on a reel. The simplicity of the unspooling process permits 2000 ft of 4 in. RTP to be deployed in 10 minutes.

The swaging process for end fitting and coupling is much simpler, safer, and more economical than welding steel pipe. Using a round die, workers can connect lengths of pipe by pulling the die around the outside of a fitting to connect one pipe to the next, incorporating a coupling on each end of an RTP pipe. Welding a 2000 ft section of 8 in. pipe would require one joint every 40 ft, equating to 50 welds over the length of the line. The time required for a single weld is affected by the climate and local workforce requirements, but assuming two to three welders are working in favourable conditions, a fair estimate is 3.5 - 4 hours per weld. With welds every 40 ft,

a 2000 ft section would take 175 - 200 hours to install, adding weeks to the process.

Rigorous testing proves the technology

The pipe material, manufacturing process, and the couplings that introduce a ‘system’ for connecting lengths of pipe, must all be qualified to the criteria set forth in API Specification 15S, which outlines requirements for the manufacturing and qualification of spoolable reinforced plastic line pipe for use in oilfield and energy applications.

The API 15S specification was introduced via a joint industry project (JIP), Implementation of Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe in the Oil and Gas Industry, in 2002. A group of 30+ oil companies, RTP manufactures, raw materials suppliers, testing labs, and independent subject matter experts developed the rules that would assure the reliable performance of reinforced thermoplastic pipes. The current edition, issued in 2022, establishes stringent requirements for manufacturing in addition to performance criteria for spoolable pipes.

API 15S specifies reinforced plastic line pipe qualification based on the design and functional requirements – including pipe deployment and operational loads – defined by end users. The standard defines qualification requirements for raw materials used in pipes and end fittings, covering chemical/ ageing resistance, blistering resistance, permeation of liner material, mechanical properties of reinforcement material, and weathering resistance of the jacket material. It delineates the full-scale qualification testing required on pipe and end fitting, cross referencing to other industry standards. Pressure rating is qualified through a 10 000 hr regression test for pipe using nonmetallic reinforcement and burst testing for pipes using metallic reinforcement. End fittings are qualified with an elevated temperature test and must survive 1.5x design pressure at 30ºF to 45ºF above design temperature for durations ranging from several hundred to thousand hours.

Temperature cycling, operation MBR, lowest allowable operating temperature, cyclic pressure, and RGD tests qualify pipe and end fitting for critical operational loads, while handling MBR, spooling, respooling, axial load capacity, impact, external load tests address critical installation loads.

The extensive qualification requirements in API 15S make it one of the most comprehensive industry standards for reinforced plastic line pipe.

To test the performance of the 8 in. spoolable RTP pipe, designers looked to ADV Integrity, Inc., a third-party entity that provides full-scale testing, numerical modelling, and failure analysis.

RTP at work

On one installation in environmentally sensitive wetlands areas in East Texas, approximately 25 000 ft of 6 in. pipe was installed to transport produced water. Installation required ditches to be opened and closed the same day, so trenching had to be carried out, the pipe laid, and the trench filled in before the end of each workday. Workers were able to safely install 3000 ft of RTP pipe a day without need of heavy equipment on the worksite and with fewer people. The need for less heavy equipment and fewer people on site resulted in

Figure 3. Pipe design can be customised to the needs of the application.

Figure 2. Various liner choices available to satisfy application requirements.

a lower impact on the installation site and fewer safety risks for workers.

Reducing the carbon footprint of midstream operations

Internal evaluation to determine the cradle-to-grave lifecycle emissions of nonmetallic pipe demonstrated up to a 75% lower carbon footprint (CFP) than carbon steel.

Baker Hughes carried out a life cycle assessment (LCA) following internationally accepted standards as outlined in ISO 14067, ISO 14040, and ISO 14044. They compared the CFP of traditionally used API X42 metallic pipes to a glass fibre reinforced RTP alternative manufactured and installed by Baker Hughes. The test scenario was a hypothetical field installation of 15 000 ft of non-metallic and metallic pipe connecting five wells to a separator.

Findings from the study show that within every life stage, non-metallic pipe has a lower carbon footprint compared to metallic pipe. These results were reviewed and third party certified by Aspire Sustainability.

What’s next

There is a growing recognition that RTP delivers benefits that stem not only from improved corrosion resistance, but also from rapid deployment, low maintenance, and a smaller carbon footprint.

Designers are focusing on innovations that will address the challenges associated with economically manufacturing larger diameter RTP lines, achieving higher temperature and pressure thresholds, and expanding fluid compatibility. And as they push the boundaries of today’s performance, they will enable broader use of RTP pipes for transporting oil and gas as well as hydrogen and CO2 as the industry progresses towards the energy transition.

Already, JIPs and government funded research projects are assessing and qualifying RTPs in new clean-energy applications. Within the API 15S subcommittee, an ad-hoc group was formed in early 2023 to assess RTP for hydrogen, CO2, and ammonia transportation. PHMSA has awarded funding for a research project that will investigate integrity impacts of hydrogen gas on composite/multi-layered pipe.

As even more capable designs are introduced, they will open the door to using RTP products in a broader range of applications, improving the safety and environmental impact of the energy industry and enabling cost, time, and operational savings.

Figure 4. Lifecycle emissions comparison of non-metallic and metallic pipes, kg CO2 eq. (Table taken from page 36 of the Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG) Life Cycle Assessment for Comparing Non-Metallic vs Metallic Pipe Products Report).

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