LNG Industry - September 2025

September 2025

CONTENTS

73 A market that measures up

Hans-Peter Visser, Analytical Solutions and Products B.V., the Netherlands, argues the need for fully automated LNG custody transfer measurement systems.

81 The critical role of gas detection in

16 Navigating the turbulent waters of global gas and

LNG market dynamics

Kateryna Filippenko, Research Director, Global Gas Markets, Wood Mackenzie, provides an insight into the future of global gas and LNG within a transitioning energy market.

22 Solving issues with anhydrous pumps

Chuck Blackett, Chief Engineer, Niche Cryogenic Services, and Eric Ford, Vice President of Marketing, Graphite Metallizing Corp., compare the demands placed on pumps handling LNG and anhydrous ammonia.

27 The next (modular) step

Mark Butts, Alex Cooperman, and Yogesh Meher, CB&I, assess mid scale modular LNG tank technology as a tool for reducing costs and scheduling.

35 A cooler approach: Part one

In the first part of a two-part article, Andreas Knoepfler, Director Product Management, Wieland-Werke AG (Business Unit Thermal Solutions), and Dr Lotfi Redjem Saad, Head of Heat Transfer Department, Technip Energies, describe the use of enhanced heat transfer technologies for LNG pre-cooling heat exchangers.

41 Balancing the cost, reliability, and performance of LNG compressors

Christian Gemperli, Business Development Manager, Services Division at Burckhardt Compression, considers the factors affecting compressor maintenance and how they impact the wider business.

48 Bridging operations, people, and progress

Frano Zivkovic and Daniel Perianu, STS Marine Solutions, discuss the role of the LNG Superintendent – and the impact they can have on efficient and safe LNG operations.

52 Making the methane link

Ryan Mattson, Vice President, Oil & Gas, and Alison Boyer, Director, GHGSat, look into the link between methane reduction and the ability to meet soaring LNG demand.

59 Shining a renewed spotlight on methane emissions management

Julien Boulland, Sustainability Strategy Leader at Bureau Veritas Marine & Offshore, France, outlines the challenges that may be highlighted by new methane regulations, and the importance of overcoming them in order to meet net-zero targets by 2050.

62 Delivering energy security and reshaping global markets

Justin Bird, Executive Vice President of Sempra and CEO of Sempra Infrastructure, USA, provides an overview of how LNG projects in America are building the infrastructure needed today to help power the future.

69 Confidence you can measure

Dr Joey Walker, EffecTech, UK, explores the nature of traceability for in-situ LNG analysers.

industrial safety

Alexander Barbashin, Customer Marketing Manager, MSA Safety, advocates for the importance of effective and dependable gas detection systems in LNG operations.

85 Simulation for success

Thitiya Tangtanawit, Lead Instrument Engineer at Engineering Department, CTCI Thailand, establishes the importance of operator training simulations for LNG terminals.

95 The key to sealing and protection for the LNG industry

In a recent discussion with Jessica Casey, Editor of LNG Industry, Romuald Machac, Sales Manager Oil and Gas, Hutchinson, maps out the importance of continual innovation in the LNG industry regarding safety solutions.

98 The LNG mobility leap is

coming from India

In a discussion with LNG Industry, Vijay Kalaria, Global Head of Marketing and Sales, LNG, INOXCVA, evaluates the prospect of LNG expansion in India and beyond.

103 LNG's electric avenue

Justin Ellrich, Black & Veatch LNG Technology Manager, details the challenges and solutions for electric drives in LNG projects, now and for the future.

107 Gastech 2025 preview

LNG Industry previews a selection of companies that will be exhibiting at this year’s Gastech in Milan, Italy, from 9 – 12 September 2025.

117 Protecting LNG infrastructure with corrosion mitigation

Ricky Seto, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation, highlights the importance of advanced corrosion under insulation mitigation and the role it plays in optimising LNG tank maintenance.

123 Revolutionising LNG asset protection with insulation solutions

, Mario Silvestro, Product Manager, Seal for Life, and Mark Krajewski, Senior Director of Technical Services, Aspen Aerogels, examine the benefits of using aerogel insulation and polyisobutene systems for LNG new builds

Sempra Infrastructure, headquartered in Houston, is focused on delivering energy for a better world by developing, building, operating, and investing in modern energy infrastructure, such as LNG, energy networks, and low-carbon solutions that are expected to play a crucial role in the energy systems of the future. Through the combined strength of its assets in North America, Sempra Infrastructure is connecting customers to safe and reliable energy and advancing energy security.

Efficiency on shore with our compression solutions

Burckhardt Compression offers a complete portfolio of compressor solutions for BOG management.

Our cutting-edge compressor solutions are designed to effectively manage and utilize BOG, ensuring optimal performance and compliance with stringent industry standards. Explore our comprehensive range of products and services tailored to meet the unique demands of BOG onshore applications. From innovative compressor solutions to expert maintenance and support: we are your trusted partner in maximizing the value of your LNG operations.

Learn more: https://www.burckhardtcompression.com/applications/ boil-off-gas-bog-onshore/

Visit us at Gastech Milan, Booth no. M10

JESSICA CASEY EDITOR

COMMENT

Managing Editor

James Little james.little@palladianpublications.com

Senior Editor

Elizabeth Corner elizabeth.corner@palladianpublications.com

Editor Jessica Casey jessica.casey@palladianpublications.com

Editorial Assistant

Abby Butler abby.butler@palladianpublications.com

Sales Director

Rod Hardy rod.hardy@palladianpublications.com

Sales Manager Will Powell will.powell@palladianpublications.com

Production Designer Siroun Dokmejian siroun.dokmejian@palladianpublications.com

Head of Events

Louise Cameron louise.cameron@palladianpublications.com

Event Coordinator

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Digital Events Coordinator

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Digital Administrator

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Senior Web Developer

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We’ve reached September, which may mark the beginning of a new school year for some, studies at university, or the start of work after the summer break. Other’s might have a chance to go on holiday, taking advantage of cheaper prices once kids return to school, while some (like us at LNG Industry), might be dusting off their passports to travel to Milan.

Of course, I’m talking about Gastech. It’s that time in the oil and gas calendar again where experts gather in one place to discuss current trends, recent developments, and plans for the future. As mentioned, Gastech is returning to Milan for 2025. As the finance and fashion capital of Italy, it acts as a great backdrop to unlock business growth opportunities and explore the latest solutions, technologies, and services to drive the energy transition.

A new specialised industry area at Gastech 2025,AI::Energy offers a chance for attendees to discover how the sector is responding to the twin challenges of artificial intelligence (AI) revolutionising energy systems while simultaneously increasing global power demand, for example through the rapid rise of data centres.1 The industry area will provide insight into how digital innovation across the energy chain – from automation and predictive analysis to grid optimisation and emissions tracking – is driving the next energy era.

The articles in the September issue of LNG Industry also offer various examples of how digital developments can help LNG companies and operations meet the requirements of customers, and the world at large.

GHGSat’s article considers the link between methane reduction and the ability to meet LNG demand, and how the use of technologies such as drones and satellites can help detect and quantify methane at a previously unavailable and unimaginable scale and accuracy. ASaP look at fully automated LNG custody transfer measurement systems, which are crucial for ensuring accuracy, transparency, and efficiency in the transfer of LNG and meeting the evolving needs of the industry, ultimately contributing to the growth and sustainability of the LNG market. Meanwhile, CTCI considers the importance of operator training simulations for the LNG industry, making the case for these high-fidelity platforms that combine process control logic, safety systems, and human performance into one seamless example (including digital twin integration and AI for adaptive learning paths) as a way to allow operators to practice hands-on skills without risk to personnel or assets.

The LNG Industry team will be exhibiting at Gastech in Milan from 9 – 12 September. Feel free to pick up a copy of the September issue or have a chat with us at Booth M112.

While we wait to see how AI will help and transform the LNG industry, here’s an ode to LNG, written by AI:

In steel-bound tanks so cold and tight, A gas becomes a liquid light.

They cool it down to minus cries, So vapour bends and liquefies.

In ships it sails the open blue, A quiet force, both old and new.

To warm our homes, to light the night –LNG, the silent might.

References

1. ‘Optimising energy transformation through innovation’, Gastech, (2025), www.gastechevent.com/ visit-aienergy

Dream. Design. Deliver.

Few companies have the scale and expertise to handle a project’s full range of needs—from design to dismantlement. But as an engineering, procurement, construction, and project management leader, Bechtel delivers excellence throughout every phase.

COMMENT

STEVE ESAU

CHIEF OPERATING OFFICER, SEA-LNG

As the industry accelerates its efforts to achieve net zero, the LNG pathway continues to prove its capabilities as the most practical and realistic marine fuel solution available for deep-sea shipping today.

And it is a solution global shipping is increasingly adopting. Not just to cut carbon, but to reduce local air pollution too, improving the health of those living and working closest to international shipping. Amid tightening regulations, market volatility, and shifting public expectations, LNG and its pathway has moved beyond the ‘alternative fuel’ label and firmly into the mainstream – marked by its impact and potential.

The start of the year demonstrated a continued trajectory for LNG as a marine fuel. 87 new LNG dual fuel vessels were ordered from January – June 2025, up from 53 in the same period in 2024. According to DNV, the total number of such vessels (in operation or on order) is now over 1360. Critically, the majority of 2025 orders have been for large, emissions-heavy container ships, signalling strong confidence in LNG’s emissions reduction capabilities and long-term potential.

LNG bunkering volumes are also seeing notable growth. Volumes in Singapore rose by 18% in the first five months of 2025; Shanghai experienced a 60% increase; and Rotterdam grew by 7%.

These figures go beyond simply LNG, as liquefied biomethane (bio-LNG) bunkering accelerated in the early parts of 2025, with operations taking place in key ports across Europe. The use of bio-LNG is reaching the cruise sector, container liners, ferries, OSVs, car carriers, tankers, bulkers, and small scale LNG carriers over the past 12 months.

Increasingly stringent regulations – such as MEPC83’s Net Zero Framework and FuelEU Maritime – present significant challenges for shipping. In an analysis conducted by SEA-LNG using Z-Joule’s POOL.FM evaluation model comparing ammonia, methanol, and methane, LNG pathway dual-fuel vessels were found to provide the lowest cost option due to their lower carbon intensity, with a 4.5 – 5-year payback vs VLSFO. The analysis also suggests that the high FuelEU Maritime penalty price will incentivise the demand for bio and e-fuel versions of LNG, which is something we are already seeing with the rapid growth in bio-LNG bunkering in north-western Europe.

A key advantage of LNG lies in its pathway to decarbonisation through bio-LNG in the short term and then liquefied e-methane. Bio-LNG is chemically identical to LNG, and fully compatible with existing LNG engines and bunkering infrastructure, negating the need for new transportation and storage infrastructure, as required for ammonia and methanol. But, because of its composition, it can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by more than 100% compared to marine diesel on a full well-to-wake basis.

Bio-LNG is currently the lowest cost ‘green’ fuel for shipping and is growing in use and popularity. In August, SEA-LNG member, Gasum, and Finnish shipping company, Wasaline, agreed that Gasum will provide only bio-LNG to Wasaline’s ferry, Aurora Botnia, going forward. In June 2025, Molgas conducted the first biomethane bunkering from the Dunkerque LNG terminal. In July 2025, another SEA-LNG member, Titan Clean Fuels, supplied 100% bio-LNG to UECC’s car carrier fleet as part of the company’s ‘Green Gas Month’. And in April 2025, the 7500 m3 vessel, Avenir Ascension, began operating on 100% biomethane for 2025 to reduce emissions by more than 3500 t.

Additional investment in renewable hydrogen energy infrastructure is required for all marine e-fuels. However, e-methane can also utilise the existing global energy network for LNG and existing LNG bunkering infrastructure afloat and ashore. e-methane has the potential to achieve full emissions reduction capabilities and achieve the IMO’s net-zero goal by 2050.

The LNG pathway offers a safe and scalable, pragmatic, and practical solution for an industry increasingly under pressure to decarbonise. And to do so quickly. The fuel’s immediate emissions reduction capabilities offer a viable method to achieve the IMO’s 2030 goals, while the adoption of bio-LNG can reduce GHG emissions by more than 100% – all while using existing infrastructure and technology. Furthermore, e-methane’s scaling potential, offering owners and operators the opportunity to fully decarbonise, only incentivises the industry (and its financiers) to invest in the assets needed to produce the fuel.

Recent newbuilding decisions have demonstrated LNG’s growing influence amongst key players, underpinned by extensive operational experience, safety record, and commercial viability. This is no longer a ‘what if’ solution, but a mainstream option for owners and operators to drastically reduce emissions and achieve compliance. Figure 1. The LNG pathway.

LNGNEWS

South Korea

Hanwha Aerospace, Hanwha Energy, and Korea Southern Power

to develop global LNG value

chain

Hanwha Aerospace has signed a memorandum of understanding with Hanwha Energy and Korea Southern Power to strengthen co-operation in the global LNG sector and advance the development of an integrated LNG value chain.

The signing ceremony, held at The Plaza Hotel in Seoul, marks the start of a new public–private collaboration to secure competitive LNG procurement and diversify supply sources. The agreement is designed to strengthen Korea’s access to US LNG in a more favourable trading environment and to address the need for stable energy supply chains amid heightened geopolitical risks and global market uncertainty.

Under the agreement, the three companies will collaborate on joint procurement of US LNG, enhance domestic supply stability through LNG swaps, and expand information sharing in the global LNG market. Hanwha Aerospace and Hanwha Energy will leverage Hanwha Ocean’s LNG carrier fleet to create an integrated LNG value chain from sourcing to transportation and delivery, with the aim of strengthening order potential and generating synergies across the Hanwha Group.

UK

Centrica invests in Grain LNG

Centrica plc has acquired the Isle of Grain LNG terminal (Grain LNG) in partnership with Energy Capital Partners LLP (ECP) from National Grid Group for an enterprise value of £1.5 billion.

National Grid and Garden Bidco Ltd (Bidco), which is owned 50:50 by Centrica and ECP, have entered into a sale and purchase agreement pursuant to which National Grid has agreed to sell and Bidco has agreed to acquire the entire issued share capital of National Grid Grain LNG Ltd and Thamesport Interchange Ltd, which together comprise National Grid’s LNG terminal business at Isle of Grain. Centrica and ECP will hold the investment in Grain LNG through a jointly controlled entity with customary governance provisions,

Central America

Crowley's fourth Avance Class vessel begins maiden commercial voyage

Crowley’s latest Avance Class ship, Torogoz, has made its inaugural commercial service, departing from Port Everglades, Florida, to serve Central America. The vessel’s commencement is a capstone on the company’s initiation of the four-vessel, Avance Class containership fleet.

With a capacity of 1400 TEUs (20-ft equivalent units), including 300 refrigerated containers, the ship is specifically designed and equipped to quickly and frequently deliver cargo, including apparel, fresh produce, food products, pharmaceuticals, and textiles, between the US and El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.

Torogoz, like the other Avance class vessels, is powered by lower-emission LNG.

The Torogoz follows the operation of its sister ships: Tiscapa, Quetzal, and Copán. All four of the Avance Class ships are named to honour the cultural aspects of Central America, where Crowley has operated shipping and logistics services for more than 60 years.

Torogoz, also known as a turquoise-browed motmot, is the national bird of El Salvador. Revered by Mayan and other Mesoamerican civilisations, the bird has likely lived on the continent for thousands of years and has long held spiritual significance in the region.

including reserved matters.

Completion is expected to occur in 4Q25, conditional upon certain regulatory approvals being received, including approval under the National Security and Investment Act and certain mandatory anti-trust approvals.

The Grain LNG management team will continue to operate the terminal as an independent company. Supporting the operation, Centrica can leverage operational knowledge and experience from its existing Barrow and Easington gas processing terminals. In the longer term, there are options to develop projects in hydrogen and ammonia and a combined heat and power plant, areas in which Centrica is already active across its broader portfolio.

Brazil

Furui Energy launches Brazil's first bio-LNG project

Furui Energy Service has held a kick-off meeting for Brazil’s first bio-LNG project. The event was attended by Li Huaibing, General Manager of Furui Energy Service, along with representatives from the company’s Overseas Sales Department, Overseas Project Department, Technology Department, Procurement Department, Furui Do Brazil, and executives from one of Brazil’s leading large scale agricultural companies.

The project is designed to process 200 000 m3/d of biogas, with the core objective of efficiently converting abundant organic waste resources into high-purity bio-LNG. Leveraging Furui Energy Service’s advanced biogas purification and liquefaction technology, the project ensures that the final product fully complies with local standards in Brazil.

South Korea New LNG carrier delivered

for QatarEnergy

The LNG carrier Al Zuwair has been completed and delivered at the HHI Ulsan Shipyard of HD Hyundai Heavy Industries Co. Ltd. The vessel will be deployed under a time-charter contract with QatarEnergy, one of the world's largest LNG producers.

Al Zuwair is the third of 12 new LNG carriers being built for QatarEnergy by a joint venture comprising NYK, Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha, Ltd., MISC Berhad, and China LNG Shipping (Holdings) Ltd. This delivery marks the first of these vessels built at HHI. Al Zuwair also represents the first instance in which the NYK Group will provide ship-management services for the consortium.

The ship is powered by two X-DF 2.1 iCER engines, highly fuel-efficient dual-fuel engines capable of using fuel oil and boil-off gas as fuel. Additionally, the vessel is equipped with an air lubrication system and a reliquefaction device that effectively uses surplus boil-off gas. These innovations promote efficient navigation and help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thereby minimising environmental impact.

Saudi Arabia

Asyad Group completes transport of ultra-heavy cryogenic tank

Asyad Group, Oman's global integrated logistics provider, has completed a high-precision breakbulk operation, transporting an ultra-heavy LNG cryogenic tank for Gas Lab Asia, moving the cargo from Northern India to Dammam, Saudi Arabia.

The operation involved transporting a 115 t pressurised tank, 28 m in length and 5.5 m in height. The cargo was hauled overland for 1500 km from Northern India to Mumbai Port over a period of three weeks before being shipped across the Arabian Sea to its final destination in Dammam, Saudi Arabia.

The challenges of this operation stemmed from the sensitive nature of cryogenic gas storage tanks, which demand precise temperature and pressure control. Specialised equipment and custom handling were essential throughout the entire process. The entire move was executed through detailed engineering assessments, route planning, compliance checks, and last-mile co-ordination to ensure safety, integrity, and efficiency at every stage.

THE LNG ROUNDUP

X Van Oord completes first bio-LNG bunkering

X Gasum provides bio-LNG to Wasaline for carbon-neutral shipping route X Latham advises on acquisition of Grain LNG X Havila Voyages secures new LNG agreement

LNGNEWS

09 – 12 September 2025

Gastech Conference & Exhibition Milan, Italy

www.gastechevent.com

16 – 18 September 2025

Turbomachinery and Pump Symposia 2025 Texas, USA

https://tps.tamu.edu

19 – 21 October 2025

Americas LNG Summit & Exhibition Louisiana, USA www.americaslngsummit.com

03 – 06 November 2025

ADIPEC

Abu Dhabi, UAE

www.adipec.com

02 – 05 December 2025

World LNG Summit & Awards

Istanbul, Türkiye www.worldlngsummit.com

02 – 05 February 2026

21st International Conference & Exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG2026)

Ar-Rayyan, Qatar

https://lng2026.com

09 – 10 March 2026

LNGCON 2026

Barcelona, Spain

https://lngcongress.com

North America

Seaspan Energy and Anew Climate partner to deliver low carbon marine fuel

Seaspan Energy and Anew Climate have entered into a strategic agreement to offer delivery of renewable LNG (R-LNG) to customers on the North American West Coast.

As part of the service offering, Anew will supply renewable natural gas (RNG) certified by the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC) and provide pre-audit services to Seaspan required for ISCC certification. The RNG will comply with global standard frameworks like the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) Net-Zero Framework and the FuelEU Maritime Regulation in the EU.

The initiative aligns with emerging guidance from the IMO, which has preliminarily approved measures to encourage emissions reductions like those associated with the use of alternative fuels such as R-LNG.

USA

Vanguard Renewables and CGM CMA to advance maritime decarbonisation

Vanguard Renewables, a leading provider of environmental services and renewable natural gas (RNG), has announced a commercial partnership with the CMA CGM Group, a global leader in sea, land, air, and logistics solutions, designed to support the decarbonisation of its shipping activities.

Under the terms of the agreement, CMA CGM will make a strategic minority investment in Vanguard Renewables through its energy fund PULSE, ensuring access to significant volumes of RNG to be delivered on a long-term basis. The agreement highlights the critical role that Vanguard’s RNG is poised to play in the decarbonisation of the maritime industry.

Vanguard Renewables offers a leading network of solutions to divert organic waste from landfills and collaborates with food and beverage manufacturers and retailers seeking organic waste disposal options. The company produces RNG through proprietary anaerobic digesters that are powered by farm and organic waste. Vanguard Renewable will dedicate up to four projects to CMA CGM production. With this option, CMA CGM can access high-quality, low carbon intensity RNG produced by Vanguard Renewables’ large scale facilities across the US.

The company’s investment in Vanguard Renewables comes as the International Maritime Organization (IMO) recently announced its Net-zero Framework. Under the draft regulations, shipowners must reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or face financial penalties if they exceed a GHG fuel intensity threshold. This partnership highlights the potential of LNG vessels as a transitional solution toward bio-LNG, playing an active role in advancing the decarbonisation of the shipping industry.

Vanguard Renewables’ position as a producer of RNG from both dairy and food waste gives customers the opportunity to optimise the cost of GHG abatement.

Guggenheim Securities, LLC served as financial advisor to Vanguard Renewables in connection with this transaction.

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LNGNEWS

PECC2 signs AiP for Cong Thanh LNG project

Cong Thanh Thermal Power Joint Stock Company and the Doosan Enerbility (Korea) and Power Construction Consulting Joint Stock Company 2 (PECC2) joint venture have signed an agreement in principle to implement the 4500 MW Cong Thanh power plant project (Phase 1: 1500 MW; Phase 2: 3000 MW).

Attending the signing ceremony was Nguyen Cong Ly –Chairman of Cong Thanh Group (on behalf of Cong Thanh Thermal Power Joint Stock Company); Yeonin Jung – Vice Chairman of Doosan Enerbility Group; and Nguyen Chon Hung – Chairman of the Board of Directors of PECC2, along with representatives of the Board of Directors from the three parties.

Cong Thanh thermal power project is located in Nghi Son Economic Zone, Thanh Hoa Province, with imported LNG as the main fuel and using combined cycle gas turbine technology. The conversion to LNG fuel has elevated the project, helping to increase value and open up prospects in the energy development process in Vietnam.

The operation of the project not only ensures the supply of electricity to Thanh Hoa province, but the project also supplies electricity to the Northern load centre area. With the increasing load demand, the operation of the 4500 MW Cong Thanh LNG power project is of great significance in providing electricity for the socio-economic development needs of the country.

Axpo completes Spain's first container ship STS bio-LNG bunkering operation

Axpo has completed Spain's first ship-to-ship bio-LNG bunkering operation at the Port of Algeciras in the large container shipping industry. A volume of over 4000 m3 of ISCC-certified bio-LNG was delivered to the CMA CGM FORT BOURBON. This operation builds upon Axpo's recent LNG bunkering successes in key ports, including Málaga, Algeciras, and Sines.

The bio-LNG was sourced via virtual liquefaction at the Enagás regasification plant in Cartagena.

The bio-LNG service at the Cartagena regasification plant has been certified by the EU’s International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC EU) since July 2024, guaranteeing that the facility meets all the environmental, social, and traceability criteria established by the European Commission. Cartagena is a critical LNG infrastructure hub in the Mediterranean, playing a key role in supplying next-generation marine fuels and supporting broader European decarbonisation goals. This innovative sourcing strategy underscores the growing flexibility of LNG infrastructure that allows it to accommodate sustainable alternatives.

The standard proof of sustainability certificate for this delivery was issued at the beginning of August 2025 by Enagás.

Bahamas Nikkiso selected for LNG-to-power project

Nikkiso Clean Energy & Industrial Gases Group has been contracted by NPG (a joint venture to be formed by Shell and a subsidiary of FOCOL Holdings Ltd) to provide LNG regasification and cryogenic equipment for the New Providence gas project in Nassau, the Bahamas. The project involves an LNG receiving terminal in support of additional power generation at Clifton Pier. It aims to deliver lower-carbon infrastructure by using LNG to feed new and retrofitted gas turbines which previously used diesel. Nikkiso CE&IG will manufacture and deliver the LNG

packaged regasification system which includes high-pressure submerged centrifugal pumps installed in a modular pump skid; a gas-fired water bath vaporiser and associated power distribution and control systems; an insulated pipeline featuring Nikkiso CE&IG's vacuum jacketed system; and site critical ancillary equipment. The group will also provide engineering services in support of the project.

The packaged regasification system, with capacity of 55 million ft3/d, features a modular, standardised design which will reduce system integration time and cost.

We build: Cryogenic Storage Tanks, Intermodal ISO Tank-Containers, Marine Cargo Tanks, Peak-Shaving Plants, LNG Terminals, and LNG-Cooled AI Data Centers.

USA

Port Canaveral completes bunkering for world's largest cruise ship

Royal Caribbean International’s Star of the Seas, the world’s largest cruise ship, has been refuelled with LNG for the first time at Port Canaveral ahead of her maiden voyage.

The LNG fuelling was completed by JAX LNG and Seaside LNG, which dispatched bunker vessel Clean Everglades to supply Star of the Seas with enough fuel to last a few weeks. The entire operation took approximately seven hours, and was monitored by Canaveral Fire Rescue’s Fireboat2, the specially outfitted marine firefighting rescue vessel, Brevard County Sheriff’s Office Marine Unit, and the U.S. Coast Guard.

Star of the Seas set sail on her maiden voyage from Port Canaveral 16 August 2025 and launched week-long cruises to the Caribbean and the Bahamas from the end of August 2025.

Singapore Seatrium and Karpowership sign LOI for Powership integration and FSRU conversions

Seatrium Ltd has announced the signing of a letter of intent (LOI) with Karpowership.

Under the LOI, Seatrium will carry out the integration of four New Generation Powerships (floating power plant), with an option for two additional units. Karpowership will deliver the hulls and key equipment for the four Powerships to Seatrium Singapore, where integration works will begin in 1Q27. Seatrium’s scope of work includes mechanical and electrical, equipment integration, mechanical completion, and pre-commissioning.

The agreement also includes the conversion, life extension, and repairs of three LNG carriers into FSRUs. This involves the installation of regasification modules, spread-mooring systems, and the integration of critical supporting systems such as cargo handling, offloading, utility, electrical, and automation systems.

India

ADNOC Gas signs LNG supply agreement with Hindustan Petroleum Corp.

ADNOC Gas plc and its subsidiaries has announced the signing of a heads of agreement with Hindustan Petroleum Corp. Ltd (HPCL) to supply 0.5 million tpy of LNG for a 10-year term.

The agreement underscores ADNOC Gas’ expanded global footprint, particularly across the high-demand Asian LNG market, reinforcing its role as a reliable global supplier of LNG. The long-term contract strengthens ADNOC Gas’ partnership with key Indian players as it continues to support India’s energy security, building on recent agreements with Indian Oil Corp. and GAIL India Ltd.

The LNG will be supplied from ADNOC Gas’ Das Island liquefaction facility, which has a production capacity of 6 million tpy. As the world's third longest-operating LNG plant, Das Island has shipped over 3500 LNG cargoes worldwide since starting operations.

THE LNG ROUNDUP

X Sempra and ConocoPhillips sign offtake agreement for Port Arthur LNG Phase 2

X SAMSUNG E&A secures FEED contract for Abadi LNG project

X Coastal Bend LNG and Solvanic announce carbon capture FEED study

X Venice Energy signs sale agreement for Australian LNG terminal project

Kateryna Filippenko, Research Director, Global Gas Markets, Wood Mackenzie, provides an insight into the future of global gas and LNG within a transitioning energy market.

As the midpoint of the 2020s approaches, the global gas market stands at a critical juncture. The world now faces a new energy era shaped by geopolitics, technology, and environmental imperatives. This article, drawing on data from Wood Mackenzie’s Lens Gas and LNG platform, explores the key trends reshaping global gas and LNG markets through 2050.

From Europe’s evolving energy strategy to the impact of new LNG investments, these factors are not only driving market changes, but delivering wider implications for the future of global gas and LNG markets. As the industry navigates this period of transformation, understanding these dynamics will be crucial for stakeholders aiming to position themselves effectively in the changing energy landscape.

A tale of two growth phases

The global gas and LNG markets are poised for significant transformation over the coming decades. Wood Mackenzie’s analysis reveals two distinct growth phases leading up to 2050, with varying trajectories across different regions:

z The expansion era (2025 – 2035): Global gas demand is projected to grow by 15% through 2035, supported by a 33% growth in Asia and 15% increase in North America – and despite an 8% reduction in Europe. LNG demand will grow faster, expanding by 56% or 230 million tpy through 2035. This surge is primarily driven by new LNG supply sources reducing prices and consequently boosting demand.

z The transition phase (2035 – 2050), post-2035: Global gas demand is expected to peak and then begin a gradual decline as the energy transition accelerates. However, LNG demand will keep growing – albeit at a much slower pace – as domestic gas supply declines in key LNG importing regions. The period after 2035 marks a shift, with Northeast Asian and European LNG demand declining, while South and Southeast Asia become the only source of growth, alongside LNG bunkering demand.

These projections paint a picture of a market in flux, presenting both challenges and opportunities. From technological advancements and environmental policies to geopolitical shifts and changing consumer preferences, the industry must navigate a multifaceted and often unpredictable terrain. In an era where adaptability and

foresight will be key differentiators, companies that can anticipate and respond to these shifting dynamics will be better positioned to thrive in this evolving landscape.

Resilience amidst transition

As European decarbonisation targets are proving more difficult to achieve, the region’s gas demand is showing resilience in the near term. Current trends indicate that European gas consumption will remain relatively stable through the end of this decade, with demand projected to reach approximately 454 billion m 3 by 2030. This stability reflects a slower-than-anticipated electrification of non-power sectors and highlights increasing headwinds for meeting Europe’s 2030 decarbonisation targets.

However, the long-term outlook still points to a gradual decline. Beyond 2030, more stringent decarbonisation policies and technological advancements are expected to take effect, initiating a downward trend in gas consumption. Nevertheless, natural gas will continue to play a significant role in Europe’s energy mix for decades to come. Wood Mackenzie’s analysis suggests that even by 2050, European gas demand will still stand at a substantial 241 billion m 3 . As research delves deeper into these issues, it becomes clear that the European gas market is entering a new era. While the immediate future suggests stability, the longer-term outlook points to significant changes that will reshape the industry. Understanding these trends and their implications will be crucial for anyone operating in or observing the European energy sector.

Bracing for a new era of LNG pricing

The LNG market is gearing up for a significant shift in pricing dynamics. While geopolitical tensions continue to drive price volatility in the near term, a wave of new supply from 2026 will put downward pressure on prices.

Both European benchmark Transfer Title Facility (TTF) prices and Japan-Korea Marker (JKM) spot delivered ex-ship (DES) prices are expected to soften in late-2020s and early-2030s as the new supply wave arrives to the market – bolstered by the new US LNG projects.

As LNG demand continues to grow, new supply will be required in the long term, pushing the prices to the level defined by the cost of developing new LNG projects. These are expected to increase on the back of higher liquefaction fees and stronger US benchmark Henry Hub prices supported by higher US domestic demand. Interestingly, the Asian spot price premium for LNG over European TTF prices is projected to widen over time, reflecting growing demand for US LNG in Asia.

As the market enters this new era, adaptability to both short-term volatilities and long-term structural changes will be key to success in the global LNG market.

Navigating the tariff tightrope

Trade tensions pose a significant risk to the future of gas and LNG markets. While Wood Mackenzie’s

Figure 2. A new wave of LNG projects.

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current outlook does not include tariffs imposed since 2 April 2025, the potential for an all-out trade war presents considerable downside risk to GDP growth assumptions.

The company anticipates the most likely outcome to be comprehensive trade agreements between the US and its partners, with some US tariffs remaining at a weighted average of 7.5 –10%. This scenario would likely result in a short term lowering of global GDP growth, with negative effects on the US economy, though avoiding recession.

In the gas and LNG sector, European demand would likely soften, while the anticipated surge in Asian LNG demand would be more muted. US gas requirements, however, would find support from growing LNG supply needs.

A new investment wave

LNG supply growth will remain limited in 2025, but a new wave of LNG projects is about to hit the market with supply growth averaging over 34 million tpy in the period from 2026 to 2029. With the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) pause now lifted, players are positioning for a new wave of US LNG investments, adding to investments in the Middle East, Canada, and elsewhere. Wood Mackenzie anticipates 108 million tpy of new LNG supply will take final investment decision (FID) through to 2027, ensuring a continuous flow of LNG supply growth throughout 2035. However, with LNG demand growth slowing down after 2030, the market is poised for a period of excess supply – there is a risk US LNG cargo cancellation might be required to balance the market, particularly in the 2030 – 2032 period.

For industry stakeholders, it presents both opportunities and risks, emphasising the need for careful market analysis and flexible business strategies.

Navigating the uncertain waters ahead

While natural gas has established itself as a vital bridge from traditional high-carbon fossil fuels such as coal and oil to renewable energy sources, the global gas market of 2050 will be vastly different from today’s.

Ripe with opportunities for those prepared to navigate its challenges, success in this more complex, interconnected, and volatile landscape will hinge on strategic foresight, operational flexibility, and innovation. By addressing the following challenges and seizing opportunities, the gas industry can secure its position in the evolving energy landscape of 2050 while playing a vital role in the global energy transition.

z The gas and LNG industry must prioritise reducing greenhouse gas emissions across the value chain, particularly tackling methane, which is a relatively cost-effective measure, and Scope 3 emissions, particularly post-combustion emissions, which account for the majority of gas-related emissions. Collaboration with consumers to develop carbon capture and storage (CCS) solutions will be crucial. While policies in some regions offer incentives for such initiatives, the gas industry needs to take more decisive action and deploy significant capital, especially in regions like Asia where carbon-pricing policies lack impact.

z Maintaining LNG’s competitiveness is fundamental, with additional supply needed by 2030 to meet growing demand. Governments must balance net-zero aspirations with security of supply, ensuring LNG availability as a backup for other low-carbon technologies. Governments must strike a balance between net-zero aspirations and security of supply, ensuring LNG availability as a backup if other low-carbon technologies fall short. Japan’s pragmatic approach to energy planning, which considers various scenarios, serves as a model for other nations to follow.

z The LNG industry must support a diverse range of buyers and import countries, adapting to their specific needs and market conditions. This includes offering flexible pricing and contract terms for mature markets and providing support for infrastructure development in emerging markets. Clear, consistent, and co-ordinated advocacy is essential to convince stakeholders of the benefits of gas as a transition fuel. The industry must demonstrate its commitment to long-term sustainability, even at the expense of short-term profits. Collaboration with renewable energy developers can strengthen messaging around the role of gas as a reliable backup power source.

With the choices made today shaping the energy landscape for decades to come, the question for industry leaders is not whether change is coming, but how best to position themselves to thrive in this new energy landscape. For those with the ability to transform silos of disparate data and deliver the interconnected insights required to navigate these turbulent waters, the opportunities are immense.

Figure 3. The evolving energy landscape of 2050.

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Chuck Blackett,

Chief Engineer, Niche

Eric Ford, Vice President

of

Marketing,

Cryogenic Services, and

Graphite Metallizing Corp., compare the demands placed on pumps handling LNG and anhydrous ammonia.

Anhydrous ammonia’s primary use is in agriculture as a fertilizer, but it is also used in the clothing, pharmaceutical, and refrigeration industries. Since it is anhydrous, meaning it contains no water, it has enhanced fertilization qualities.

There are many similarities in the cryogenic pumps used for anhydrous ammonia and LNG as they both utilise submerged motor in-tank retractable designs that operate at

low temperatures. However, there are differences that those operating and maintaining this equipment should become familiar with.

Like LNG pumps, in-tank ammonia pumps have the motor and pump submerged in the process fluid through a tank column via a retraction system that utilises a foot valve at the bottom. The most significant difference in the in-tank pumps for ammonia vs LNG is that the ammonia duty machine is split

in half. In an ammonia application, the bottom half of the unit (wet end) is similar to an LNG pump with product-lubricated bearings. The upper half of an ammonia pump (dry end) contains the vibration instrumentation and the motor, which are sealed from the ammonia and under pressure from a nitrogen purge system. With the motor and pump being isolated from each other in the ammonia application, the design relies on two shorter shafts that are magnetically coupled. In an LNG application, on the other hand, the lower pump end and the upper motor end share a common shaft and all components are open to the process fluid.

Key properties of anhydrous ammonia

Several of the properties of anhydrous ammonia make life challenging for pump operators. These include a low net positive suction head (NPSH) available and a low level of viscosity, which can lead to fluid slippage and poor pump efficiency. Low lubricity paired with warmer fluid temperatures can contribute to a higher frequency of bearing and bushing failures, as well as other mechanical issues.

Perhaps the biggest difference with LNG is temperature. Whereas LNG pumps deal with fluids in the -162˚C range, ammonia pumps typically deal with fluids at temperatures around -35˚C. This permits the use of a wider range of materials. As a result, tanks and vessels are often made of carbon steel, as are other components upstream of the machines. One consequence of this is that there is usually far more debris found in those fluids than in LNG applications. Another difference relates to manufacturer clearances for ammonia pumps. In-tank cryogenic pump original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) typically use running clearances that are tighter than the guidelines contained in API 610. The result of this is that much higher rates of wear are typically found in warmer fluid pumps than on LNG pumps.

Galling and thrust loads

Galling is another issue commonly encountered in the pumps that operate in ammonia and LNG service. The typical aluminium and bronze bushings and wear rings deployed by pump OEMs can lead to galling due to operating at such tight clearances. Under high pressure, metal-on-metal contact occurs with resultant adhesion, surface roughening, and material transfer. Frictional damage can precipitate component failure.

The ball bearings used in anhydrous ammonia and LNG service are not designed to deal with high thrust loads.

The main ball bearing is the most common point of catastrophic failure in ammonia and LNG pumps. During steady state operation, thrust loads are mitigated with a thrust balancing system. A properly functioning thrust balancing system relies on tight running clearances that are often well outside of API 610 guidelines. OEMs use bronze and stainless steel in these tight running clearance areas. Due to this, the balance system often fails due to excessive wear. Once the thrust system no longer functions, the main ball bearing fails under high thrust loads. The use of graphite-metal alloy products in these tight running clearance areas of the thrust balancing system can extend equipment life. Additionally, thrust loads are present during start-up. If the machine’s main bearing is failing before the thrust balancing system wears out, it is best to upgrade the machine with bearings rated for the loading conditions at start up.

Bushings, too, are a weak spot. In normal plant operations, bushings used in anhydrous ammonia and propane pumps have been found to fail after little more than 50 hours. One plant reported bushing failures after an average of 84 hours. Another facility experienced the failure of a new bushing during a one-hour factory performance test. The factors contributing to the poor performance of bushings include the tendency to use bushings made from metals such as bronze and aluminium, poor lubricity, fluid temperature, and tight manufacturing clearances. Graphite-metal alloy bushings solve these performance issues with their self-lubricating and non-galling features. These should be utilised instead of bronze or aluminium whenever these pumps have maintenance challenges.

Maintenance safety

Perhaps the biggest challenge in the servicing of anhydrous ammonia pumps is safety. Whenever a unit must be removed or installed, there is ammonia gas present. Exposure to ammonia gas brings with it risk of serious injury or death. Explosive risk is very real, too. To make matters worse, the work is often done under demanding deadlines – the cost to the plant for having these pumps offline is very high so they need to be fixed or upgraded rapidly. Nevertheless, the opportunity presented by a pump repair to upgrade should be used to bring both the operation and maintenance procedures and the machines into full compliance with the latest safety standards and industry best practices. A machine that lasts longer reduces owner exposure to environmental issues, explosive atmospheres, and risk.

Case study

At one site, a retrofit was needed for an Ebara Elliott Energy in-tank vertical pump in liquid anhydrous ammonia service at an ammonia manufacturing plant. The single stage wet-end of the pump unit was designed with two product-lubricated 6317 bearings, with the dry-end utilising two greased 6320 bearings.

The specifications for the pump in service at the manufacturing plant are shown in Table 1.

The pumps operating in the ammonia production plant are critical assets with specific reliability requirements. Without the pumps, the facility cannot contractually meet its obligations or export ammonia to the market. These pumps deliver the plant’s final product. Further, if the pump outage is long enough (16 days if the tank is empty when the

Table 1. Specifications for the pump in service at the case study manufacturing plant.

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outage occurs), the entire production plant must be shut down as there is no further storage room in the tank that these pumps operate in.

When the pumps were initially commissioned, the vibration on both units was extremely high, reaching peaks of 0.8 in/s-rms. A new cryogenic pump of this size should vibrate at 0.2 in/s-rms or less. Additional data collection and spectrum analysis showed the vibration was at the operating frequency (1x). After the units were returned to the OEM, no mechanical failures were noted, and the balance of all components was verified.

After failed attempts by the OEM to meet the owner’s requirements by adding an additional ball bearing, the owner released the spare pump to Niche Cryogenic Services (NCS) to be completely redesigned. In reviewing the as-found conditions of the machine, the bearing housing design and bearing spacing in the wet-end, along with the bearing clearances in the dry-end were found to be contributing to heavy levels of 1x vibration. The shaft in the wet-end needed to be lengthened, and two extra bearing areas were required

to stabilise the wet-end’s rotating assembly. Instead of bronze, aluminium, or rolling bearing components, NCS installed graphite-metal alloy bushings, given that:

z Similar bushings in ammonia service elsewhere have operated for tens of thousands of hours without issue instead of failing after an average of 84 hours.

z The new components were available in custom sizing, allowing for the lowest L/D ratio and were available in less time than other solutions explored.

z The replacement bushings are self-lubricating, non-galling, and help improve pump efficiency and longevity.

Several design changes were part of the project. Initially, the wet-end pump shaft concluded within the bore of the inducer. The inducer was thru-bored, and a new retaining method was used. The new shaft retained the same diameter through the inducer but extended out past the inlet housing’s suction bowl 5 in. into the available foot valve area. A custom housing was designed to hold the new bushing to support the bottom of the shaft out past the suction of the machine and provided the support needed in that area.

In addition, the 6317 pump bearings were originally spaced 6 in. from each other. The use of a spool piece and longer shaft allowed for these bearings to be spaced out to 37 in. by moving the upper 6317 bearing from its original position into the top of the spool. A custom upper bearing retainer in the wet-end was designed to house a new bushing at the top end of the pump’s shaft between the upper 6317 bearing and the over-hung magnetic coupling at the top of the shaft. In the dry-end of the machine, the bearing retention, bearing housing clearances, and housing registers were modified to ensure better axial alignment of the motor shaft and female magnetic coupling to the wet-end’s rotating assembly.

The repair shop co-ordinator asked for the graphite-metal alloy bushings to be supplied undersized so that they could finish machining them to an exact clearance, after installation in the housing. The inside diameter of the graphite-metal alloy bushing will close in about the same amount as the interference fit on the outside diameter of the bushing. These bushings were machined in place with a spiral groove design on the inside to allow more fluid flow and prevent the accumulation of debris.

Due to the critical nature of the work being done on the anhydrous ammonia pumps, extra bushings were ordered in case they experienced any issues with installation or machining that might need to be quickly corrected due to the time sensitive nature of returning the pump to service. If any mistakes were made, they had backup spares immediately available. However, the spare components were not needed.

After the modifications supported by the installation of the two graphite-metal alloy bushings, the vibration levels fell to between 0.01 – 0.03 in/sec. rms, down from 0.8 in/sec. rms prior to the upgrade. The pump has been in operation since December 2024 without any issues. After this success, the owner elected to retrofit another two units with the same design, including the graphite-metal alloy bushings, to increase uptime while reducing future maintenance costs and risks.

Figure 1. A graphite metal alloy bushing is installed in custom housing at the machine’s inlet allowing for the maximum shaft diameter to be extended and stabilised.

Photo: Niche Cryogenic Services.

Figure 2. A millwright installing a Graphalloy bushing in a custom housing into an anhydrous ammonia pump to address rotor instability. Photo: Niche Cryogenic Services.

Efficient and cost-effective construction of LNG storage tanks is vital for the global energy landscape. The growing demand for natural gas, coupled with the need for energy security, makes optimising LNG storage a priority. Streamlining the construction process of LNG tanks can lead to faster project completion, reduced costs, and increased LNG availability, ultimately benefitting both producers and consumers. Remote locations present significant challenges for on-site construction due to limited accessibility, lack of infrastructure, difficulties with transportation of materials and personnel, potential environmental constraints, and increased logistical complexities, often leading to higher costs and potential safety concerns. Construction in harsh climates can be unpredictable and costly. Additionally, high labour cost areas pose a significant challenge to the economics of a project. All these issues and concerns can be mitigated by applying modular tank technology.

As CB&I continues to innovate LNG tank designs and product delivery models to help reduce risks, improve construction schedules, and optimise overall project economics, the company has developed a comprehensive mid scale modular tank design and execution plan.

Mark Butts, Alex Cooperman, and Yogesh Meher, CB&I, assess mid scale modular LNG tank technology as a tool for reducing costs and scheduling.

Although this article focuses on the application of modular tank technology to LNG storage, this technology and delivery model can be applied to any refrigerated product that is typically stored in double-walled tanks. Many countries are implementing stricter regulations for LNG storage, making full containment tanks a more attractive option for compliance. Full containment tanks provide enhanced safety, as the secondary liquid container is designed to both contain cryogenic product liquid and provide controlled product vapour release in case of excessive boiling. Steel full containment tanks are allowed by current LNG industry regulations (NFPA 59A-2023) and have both the primary and the secondary liquid container constructed from cryogenic grade steel. Full containment tanks are superior from a siting and real estate utilisation perspectives compared to single or double containment tank systems.

Double wall steel full containment modular LNG tanks made at the fabrication facility include the following components:

z Elevated foundation base slab with pedestals.

z Primary and secondary liquid containers with cryogenic grade steel shell and bottom (normally 9%Ni material).

z Non-brittle bottom insulation.

z Suspended deck with insulation.

z Resilient blanket wall insulation.

z All internal components including pump wells.

z Tank umbrella roof.

z All top side components, including pump platform with all piping and valving.

z Tank access system including stairways and ladders.

z Electrical, instrumentation, and fire protection systems.

Since ground and marine transportation expose the transported module to both dynamic and vibration loads, brittle materials and those sensitive to vibration should not be included. For example, cellular glass and perlite concrete should not be used for bottom insulation due to their brittleness. Additionally, perlite insulation, which is sensitive to excessive vibration, should also be excluded from the transported module.

Once the modular tank is delivered to its destination, the remaining work at the site is minimal and should be limited to activities, such as:

z Installation of insulation components sensitive to dynamic loads and vibrations that occur during shipping, such as loose-fill perlite.

z Tank hydrotest is a mandatory field operation, as the main purpose of the hydrotest is to verify performance of the foundation and reliability of the underlying soil.

z Tank final commissioning and connection to the facility piping and electrical power systems.

The design of the modular tank and traditional field erected tank are similar. However, appropriate changes are to be made to the design, materials, and details to facilitate transportation of the modular tank to its destination.

Transportation of modular tank

Transportation of a modular tank typically includes both ground and marine components. Ground transportation of the complete module may be performed using several self-propelled modular transporters (SPMTs). Special vessels with adjustable deck elevation are normally required for module loading and marine transportation.

A comprehensive transportation study is essential for modular tank execution, encompassing both ground and marine transportation components. This study is crucial, as transportation restrictions typically determine the size and configuration of the modular unit.

To fit within the transportation restrictions from either ground or marine transportation or both, modular tanks have a higher aspect ratio when compared to conventional field-erected tanks of similar capacity. This higher aspect ratio makes modular tanks more sensitive to seismic overturning. However, because an elevated foundation with pedestals is necessary for transportation of a modular tank, seismic isolation is a natural solution in cases of high seismicity where isolators can be easily installed beneath the pedestals.

Ground transportation challenges

Loads from ground transportation may impose dimensional restrictions on either the diameter or height of the module. The restrictions on the tank diameter are dictated by width of the transportation route, including roads, bridges, and railway crossings, as well as by obstructions on the sides of the road such as power lines, ditches, and walls. The module height may be restricted by overhead power lines, height of overpasses, or other restrictions applied by local regulations. The tank footprint should allow for a sufficient number of SPMTs to be placed under the base slab to lift and move the module.

Selecting the optimal SPMT arrangement is a significant consideration for ground transportation of the modular tank. Enough SPMTs must be placed underneath the slab to lift and move the module, particularly when the road width is much narrower than the tank footprint. Additionally, in cases of narrow roads, parts of the base slab and the steel tank that overhang the

Figure 1. Module transportation on a road narrower than the tank footprint.

transporters may remain unsupported, potentially leading to overloading during transportation.

To illustrate this challenge, Figure 1 shows the base slab of a 41 m diameter modular tank transported on a 32 m wide road. The stresses in the base slab are shown on Figure 2. The base slab and the tank structure above are deformed, as the overhanging portions of the unit have no support. To avoid failures of the outside SPMTs, the centre SPMTs apply more pressure to the underside of the base slab to pick up more load and relieve the load from the outside SPMTs. This results in further deformation of the base slab, causing tensile stresses in the base slab to significantly exceed its concrete tensile strength. Furthermore, excessive downward deformation at overhanging portions may cause distortion and buckling of the steel tank superstructure.

Roads narrower than the tank footprint may present a significant transportation challenge. CB&I addressed this issue by developing a proprietary (patent pending) method of transporting the modular tank under pressurised conditions, generating internal pressure in the tank module using dry air. Shell uplift due to internal pressure relieves loads on the overhanging portion. At the same time, pressure adds more load to the inside SPMTs and allows distribution of the module weight more evenly among all transporters. The base

slab deformations, loads on transporters, and stresses in the base slab are all within the acceptable limits, as shown in Figure 3. Also, the steel tank superstructure is not distorted or buckled.

It should be noted that while there are no physical limits on the modular tank size, both ground transportation restrictions and marine vessel availability make tank capacities up to 60 000 m3 with diameters smaller than 45 – 50 m the most viable configurations for modular execution.

Larger modules will require extra wide roads for ground transportation, large marine loading/unloading facilities, and extra wide deck vessels, which, while they exist, are of very limited availability and higher freight costs. On the other hand, a significant number of vessels are available with a deck width up to 50 m and sufficient length to transport up to three tank modules. Transportation of multiple tank units on a single vessel minimises the number of sea voyages and reduces overall transportation cost.

Marine transportation

A marine transportation study should select the most optimal shipping route considering the time of the year, weather patterns, shelter ports, etc. The study should determine maximum horizontal, vertical, and angular accelerations

Figure 3. Base slab stresses for pressurised module transported on narrow road (Pa).

Figure 2. Stresses in the base slab for narrow road transportation (Pa).

that can be applied to the shipped module during its sea voyage. The modular unit, along with its restraints on the ship deck, should be designed to accommodate the expected loads. Similar to ground transportation, marine transportation may have an impact on the size and geometry of the tank module. The factors affecting configuration of the module are the shipping loads and availability and freight cost of the appropriate size vessel.

The tank module should be designed for accelerations applied during maritime transportation. As the vessel has all six degrees of freedom, all credible load combinations due to ship motions should be considered. Also, the location of the module on the ship deck in relation to the ship’s centre of gravity and rotation datum needs to be accounted for in the design of both the module and the module-to-deck restraints, since additional eccentricity loads are to be applied to the modules located closer to the bow or the aft of the vessel. Figure 4 shows an example of marine transportation of multiple modules.

Also, it is beneficial to keep the modules under low pressurisation with dry air to minimise the possibility of moisture ingress during the sea voyage. Appropriate pressure controls and pressure/vacuum-relieving devices should be included.

Cost and schedule

Cost reduction due to the use of mid scale modular tanks can be realised based on the following factors:

z Construction in a controlled environment in low-labour cost locations.

z Year-round construction with mitigated weather-related interruptions.

z Repetitive processes for multiple tanks utilising benefits of the established facility.

Overall project schedule reduction can be achieved based on the following:

z Site preparation and foundation construction are no longer on the critical path – tank construction can start in the fabrication facility even before the site earth work has begun.

z Reduction in dependency on weather-related interruptions and site conditions.

z Repetitive nature of work in the off-site fabrication facility.

z Minimising the amount of field work.

Case study

In order to evaluate the benefits of mid scale modular tanks when compared to traditional field-erected execution in challenging areas, a cost and schedule evaluation was performed on six modular full containment LNG tanks of 37 500 m3 fabricated in southeast Asia and delivered to a site located on the west coast of North America. This was then compared against a single field-erected 225 000 m3 full containment LNG tank, having a concrete secondary container constructed at the same site. The comparison showed more than 30% reduction in cost and approximately one year reduction in schedule.

The comparison of four 32 500 m3 modular tanks fabricated in southeast Asia and shipped to a site in Australia against two 65 000 m3 full containment field-erected tanks at the same site, having both primary and secondary liquid containers made from steel, showed approximately 10% reduction in cost and two months reduction in schedule.

Conclusions

The company’s project delivery model ensures high-quality and cost-effective solutions for projects. Many customers draw on the company’s deep knowledge and extensive LNG experience early in a project’s development, allowing CB&I to provide input, recommendations, and project-specific solutions that enhance the long-term value of the facility. The company’s integrated EPC resources enable CB&I to self-perform all aspects of the project, from conceptual design to tank commissioning.

Modular tanks are most beneficial for projects in remote locations or harsh climate areas or in regions with high labour costs, especially when multiple identical tanks are required.

In making the decision on the use of modular tank technology, both ground and marine transportation studies are very important to ensure that the modules can be safely and economically delivered to their destination.

For marine transport, the availability of suitable vessels that can accommodate the size, weight, and quantity of modular tanks is crucial. Freight costs, which can fluctuate significantly, also need careful evaluation. Ground transportation requires meticulous route planning to comply with road restrictions, including height and width. Both ports and inland transportation networks need to have the capacity to handle the movement of these modular tanks.

The use of brittle materials should be avoided. Vibration sensitive material should not be included in the transported tank modules.

Finally, field activities should be limited to vibration-sensitive tasks, such as installing tank perlite insulation material, conducting the tank hydrotest to verify the adequacy of the foundation and soil, and performing commissioning activities, including tank purge and cooldown.

Figure 4. Marine transportation.

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A cooler approach: Part one

In the first part of a two-part article, Andreas Knoepfler, Director Product Management, Wieland-Werke AG (Business Unit Thermal Solutions), and Dr Lotfi Redjem Saad, Head of Heat Transfer Department, Technip Energies, describe the use of enhanced heat transfer technologies for LNG pre-cooling heat exchangers.

Global natural gas liquefaction capacity reached about 495 million tpy in 2024.1

Since the first greenfield deployment of GEWA-PB (process boiling) technology for Qatargas debottlenecking in 2003, the authors’ dual enhanced tubes have gone on to equip the pre-cooling heat exchangers of more

than about 185 million tpy of LNG capacity in operation or under construction, demonstrating the highest level of reliability and outstanding performances. All applications to date have been on Honeywell’s (formerly Air Products) propane pre-cooled MR processes. In preparation of a world which suddenly became thirsty for LNG,

existing and new facilities are looking for any opportunity to push further efficiency, offering highest production rates at lowest power consumption while decreasing carbon footprint and achieving attractive investment decisions (CAPEX).

To reach this level of expertise, Wieland Thermal Solutions and Technip Energies (T.EN) have engaged in a state-of-the-art development programme that includes scientific work and dedicated product development, highly accurate test equipment with specifically adapted procedures in combination with feedback from existing operations in the field of LNG, and other industrial size facilities, such as ethylene plants.

Part one of this article will describe the test equipment used, and achievements made in developing dual enhanced tubes with its enhanced heat transfer surfaces, which are in the meantime widely used in the liquefaction process of LNG plants.

Part two will focus on heat exchanger design aspects and the enormous potential of optimising heat transfer equipment, reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and demonstrating the advantageous impact on LNG production capacity and beneficial operations efficiency by minimising the approach temperatures in the associated heat exchangers.

Fundamental process scheme

The C3/MRTM liquefaction process (Figure 1) from Honeywell combines a pre-cooling section using propane (C3) as refrigerant followed by a mixed refrigerant (MR) for liquefaction. The pre-cooling cycle ensures natural gas cooling down to approximately -35˚C while liquefaction operates from -35˚C down to -160˚C. The pre-cooling cycle represents about 30 – 35% of the total refrigerant compressor shaft power

and any kind of increase in efficiency would be of interest.2 One major portion of this pre-cooling equipment are large propane evaporators (often referred to as chilling trains), removing heat from the natural gas and from the condensing MR, which will be used in the liquefaction part. Typically, a chilling train is composed of three or four kettle type heat exchangers installed in series. This equipment can be very large and heavy. Every action to achieve a more compact or more efficient process will be beneficial for all actors: to the manufacturer by proposing a lighter heat exchanger with a reduced need of steel reducing the equipment carbon footprint; to the EPC company by delivering a more compact heat exchanger reducing all surrounding weight (piping, concrete, steel structure, etc.), resulting in cheaper transport and installation and lower overall carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions; and finally, to the operator by proposing a more economic and efficient process scheme, i.e. a lower carbon footprint per tonne of LNG.

The application of optimised heat exchanger technology, using dual enhanced nucleate boiling tubes GEWA-PB (Figure 2) by T.EN and Wieland, has proven successful since the first installation in 2003. Once Qatar North Field East (NFE) and North Field South (NFS) and other ongoing new installations move to operation, the global LNG capacity will be more than about 185 million tpy of natural gas that will be pre-cooled as a result of this technology.

Test equipment

In collaboration with T.EN, a unique test bench has been designed, built, and commissioned at Wieland Thermal Solutions in Germany to carry out shell side heat transfer measurements with hydrocarbons, called ‘KoMeT-1’ (Figure 3). This hydrocarbon evaporation and condensation test facility is used for pool boiling measurements at very low heat fluxes, particularly tuned to the operating range of C3/MR pre-cooling conditions. Since it is not easy to receive feedback from the field, this equipment allows for an additional source of information.

Goals and challenges

The purpose of carrying out boiling tests and collecting measurement data with hydrocarbons is:

z To describe fundamental heat transfer characteristics of enhanced nucleate boiling surfaces.

z To incorporate know-how in specific heat transfer correlations.

z To benefit from the use of heat transfer correlations in the design of heat exchangers for LNG pre-cooling heat exchangers.

By designing and building a unique test equipment like ‘KoMeT-1’, several challenges had to be met. First, the safety requirements of handling explosive fluids in a factory environment had to be considered in the test rig design, building, and construction, and in all test procedures. Second, with the highly enhanced surfaces and the corresponding high heat transfer coefficients, measurement accuracy became more challenging than ever. In this case, electrical heating was evaluated, installed,

Figure 1. C3/MR process scheme.

Figure 2. Enhanced boiling tube GEWA-PB.

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and used, which has been proven to be a reliable and practical way of heating.

Test capabilities and test conditions

To comply with actual operating conditions in LNG and ethylene production, KoMeT-1 has been setup to handle the test range as displayed in Table 1.

Table 1. Test conditions

Fluids available

Pure fluids (C2 to C5) and mixtures with two of these components

Temperature range -30˚C < T < 70˚C

Operating pressure

Maximum of 50 bar

Safety

Based on many years of experience with pressurised test facilities using synthetic refrigerants, the new challenge was to deal with flammable and potentially explosive atmospheres. For that reason, the test concept has been designed to a fluid volume of less than 500 g of hydrocarbons. The entire test facility is positioned in a dedicated room with additional precautions, e.g. an encapsulated ‘bell’, which covers the test chamber and is working under vacuum conditions. Additional equipment is in accordance with the European Directive to work with equipment for potentially explosive atmospheres (ATEX). If there is an issue with any kind of leakage or the system pressure is too high, the safety procedures will immediately release an acoustic alarm, and an emergency programme will be initiated. Amongst other aspects, this includes a controlled release of the test fluid and purging with nitrogen before opening the test chamber. The equipment and test procedures have been certified by an independent third party, TÜV Süd in Germany.

Procedure of experimental measurements

To achieve accurate test data, it was mandatory to work on a dedicated procedure for preparing test specimen and to ensure repeatability regarding all operating conditions, particularly when measurements at low wall to saturation temperature differences are conducted. To support this, measurements have been fully automated and the data acquisition and software has been tailored to the necessary requirements. Thus, the following parameters are safely collected for boiling tests:

z Wall temperature (PT-100) in several locations.

z Liquid and gas phase bulk temperature (PT-100).

z Pressure in gas phase.

z Electric power to calculate heat flux.

Test results for shell side boiling

The following paragraph will briefly describe propane shell side boiling characteristics of plain and enhanced surfaces.

Initial measurements have been carried out with plain tubes and results have been thoroughly reviewed and compared with literature, confirming proper functioning of KoMeT-1 test facility. An important lesson has been that experimental data and available correlations from literature vary significantly. One main reason for this is the tube surface roughness, which depends on the material and on the manufacturing process. The heat transfer performance measured for plain tubes met expectations and it has been proven that the shell side pool boiling heat transfer coefficient (ho) vs heat flux is dependent of the saturation temperature – test results are shown in Figure 4. It has been confirmed that ‘ho’ increases steadily with increasing heat flux. When the saturation temperature is increasing, the curve shifts to higher levels. This behaviour agrees with experimental data and correlations from literature.

Figure 5 compares propane pool boiling heat transfer coefficient of a carbon steel plain tube to a carbon steel dual enhanced nucleate boiling tube (GEWA-PB) at the same test conditions. With specific enhancements for boiling, the shell side heat transfer can be substantially increased. One key advantage

Figure 3. KoMeT-1 test facility.

Figure 4. Pool boiling of propane on carbon steel tube.

of Wieland enhanced surfaces is the specific improvement of the boiling heat transfer coefficient at low heat fluxes

(respectively wall superheat temperatures). This is very important for the design of most compact and efficient refrigerant chillers and reboilers.

Figure 6 shows nucleate boiling characteristics of an enhanced boiling tube vs a low finned tube at the same wall superheat of 2 K. It is noticeable that enhanced surfaces have significantly better performance, and the number of nucleate boiling formation is by far higher than for low finned surfaces. Even at extremely low wall to saturation temperature differences the enhanced surfaces still perform, and nucleate boiling is still active at a wall superheat of as low as 0.16 K (Figure 7).

Tube side heat transfer

For a balanced heat transfer characteristic between shell and tube sides, an additional tube internal enhancement for gas cooling, condensation, and subcooling is the most preferred – if not mandatory – option. Although this article focuses on shell side heat transfer characteristics, it should be mentioned that tube side enhancements further improve the overall heat transfer coefficient by a more balanced distribution of the heat transfer resistance between the outside and inside.

Summary and outlook

Part one of this article focused on the development and performance of dual enhanced nucleate boiling tubes, a key innovation resulting from the collaboration between T.EN and Wieland (Business Unit Thermal Solutions). The article highlighted the advanced testing capabilities of the KoMeT-1 facility, which has been instrumental in refining the design and validating the performance of these enhanced tubes under realistic LNG pre-cooling conditions. This partnership has combined cutting-edge know-how and rigorous testing to optimise heat transfer efficiency and reliability, setting a new benchmark for LNG pre-cooling technology.

Part two will shift the focus to the broader implications of these advancements, presenting a real-world case study to highlight the potential of Smart Enhanced Chillers (S.E.C.) in optimising LNG production. This next section will explore how these innovations contribute to further reducing GHG emissions, optimising CAPEX, and achieving superior operational performance in LNG facilities.

References

1. ‘2025 World LNG Report’, International Gas Union, (22 May 2025), www.igu.org/igu-reports/2025-world-lng-report

2. PROVOST, J., ‘Enhanced Heat Transfer Solutions’, LNG Industry, (April 2017).

Note

This article is based on a paper presented at LNG2023: KNOEPFLER, A., LANG, T., and PROVOST, J., 3, 2, 1 ... K, Nucleation! or Recent Improvements in Enhanced Heat Transfer is Further Reducing Temperature Approaches in LNG Pre-Cooling Heat Exchangers, (July 2023).

Co-authors

 Aline Buffet, Technip Energies.

 Dr Jean El-Hajal, Wieland Thermal Solutions.

 Thomas Lang, Wieland Thermal Solutions.

 Jérémy Provost, Technip Energies.

 Dr Nicolas Rambure, Technip Energies.

Figure 5. Pool boiling performance of plain tube vs Wieland enhanced nucleate boiling tube (GEWA-PB).

Figure 7. Boiling at 0˚C of propane with 0.16 K wall superheat on Wieland enhanced boiling tube (GEWA-PB).

Figure 6. Boiling at 0˚C of propane with 2 K wall superheat. Left 30 fpi low fin tube, right Wieland enhanced boiling tube (GEWA-PB).

Christian Gemperli,

Business Development Manager, Services Division

at Burckhardt Compression, considers the factors affecting compressor maintenance and how they impact the wider business.

In the intricate ecosystem of global energy logistics, LNG transport vessels serve as the arteries that keep the world’s energy demands flowing. At the centre of their operational infrastructure lies a vital piece of machinery: the reciprocating compressor. These workhorses are essential to maintaining cargo integrity, managing boil-off gas (BOG), and ensuring efficient fuel gas supply systems onboard. The reliability and efficiency of these compressors are not mere technical ideals, they are commercial imperatives that directly impact vessel uptime, safety, regulatory compliance, and profitability.

Reciprocating compressors are integral to the operation of LNG transport vessels, ensuring efficient gas handling

and maintaining cargo integrity. As the LNG industry evolves, influenced by market dynamics, environmental regulations, and technological advancements, the maintenance strategies for these compressors must adapt accordingly.

The current LNG landscape

The LNG market is experiencing significant growth, driven by increasing global demand for gas and the need for efficient transport solutions. Advances in compressor technology have led to the development of systems with enhanced monitoring and control features, allowing for precise adjustments to varying operational conditions.

These innovations reduce downtime and maintenance costs, making LNG compressors more cost-effective and reliable than ever before.

However, the market also faces challenges, including regulatory hurdles related to environmental protection, safety, and operational standards. Compliance with these regulations requires extensive resources and time, potentially increasing the complexity of project implementation and operational processes. In addition, the shortage of skilled personnel for the installation, operation, and maintenance of LNG compressors can lead to operational inefficiencies and increased maintenance costs.

Risks of extending maintenance intervals

Without proper engineering justification, extending maintenance intervals can have detrimental effects on compressor performance and safety. Reciprocating compressors are complex machines with components that require regular inspection and maintenance to function correctly.

Neglecting scheduled maintenance can lead to issues such as component failures or wear, and increased vibration levels – something that may not be immediately apparent, but can cause significant damage over time. Such failures not only lead to costly repairs, but also pose safety risks to personnel and the environment.

Implementing condition or performance monitoring techniques is essential for early detection of potential issues. For instance, using accelerometers and velocity transducers can help monitor vibration levels and detect abnormalities in compressor performance, allowing for timely maintenance interventions.

The business case for compressor reliability

For shipowners and charterers alike, reliability is non-negotiable. Charter agreements often include strict clauses for uptime, fuel efficiency, and emissions performance. Any deviation from these standards due to equipment failure can result in substantial penalties, lost revenue, or even cancelled contracts. A failed compressor could delay loading or discharging operations, thereby breaching delivery schedules or chartering contracts.

In LNG transport, compressors are typically tasked with reliquefying BOG or compressing it for use in dual-fuel engines. Any interruption in this process compromises cargo stability and fuel supply, with immediate repercussions for voyage performance.

Reliability also intersects with safety. Reciprocating compressors operate under high pressures and in volatile gas atmospheres. A failure can quickly escalate to a hazardous situation, including gas release, particularly in confined, onboard machinery spaces. This makes routine maintenance, high-quality component sourcing, and condition monitoring not just cost-control measures, but essential risk mitigation strategies.

How gas prices influence maintenance spending

Gas prices have a significant trickle-down effect on how shipping companies manage maintenance budgets. When LNG prices are high, the pressure to maintain continuous operation mounts. Owners are more inclined to invest in preventive and predictive maintenance to avoid costly breakdowns that could sideline a vessel at a time of peak profitability.

However, when gas prices decline, especially during cyclical lows or global demand contractions, operators often face pressure to tighten budgets. Unfortunately, maintenance is one of the first areas to be impacted. The temptation to defer scheduled inspections or delay component replacements can lead to severe long-term consequences. Compressor performance degrades incrementally when maintenance is neglected, and the result is a higher total cost of ownership due to eventual failures, expensive emergency repairs, or reduced component life.

Figure 2. A Burckhardt Compression Laby®-GI Compressor installed on an LNG carrier.

Figure 1. For shipowners, trust in the maintenance supplier comes from a good working relationship and proven experience in the field.

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Prudent operators understand that compressor reliability is not the place to cut corners, even in leaner times. Data shows that the cost of a planned shutdown for maintenance is substantially lower than the cost of unplanned downtime due to failure. As such, strategic investments in reliability continue to offer a solid return, even when gas prices fluctuate.

Environmental regulations and compliance

Environmental penalties and regulations are becoming more stringent, with a focus on reducing emissions and enhancing sustainability in the LNG sector. Operators must ensure that their equipment complies with these regulations to avoid penalties.

Advances in compressor technology have led to the development of systems designed with sustainability in mind. The new generation of compressors focuses on minimising emissions and optimising energy use by integrating advanced sealing technologies and eco-friendly components. These innovations significantly reduce leaks, increase performance, and improve inefficiencies that contribute to environmental pollution.

Supporting shipowners with service agreements

To navigate the tension between reliability and budgetary constraints, many shipowners turn to long-term service agreements or performance-based maintenance contracts with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and specialist service providers. These agreements bundle routine inspections, machine diagnostic services and data analytics, spares provisioning, and emergency responses into a predictable service model.

Partnership agreements have many advantages for both the customer and the service provider. This is borne out of the reliability figures for equipment covered under the partnership compared to those of customers that prefer to work without such an agreement. The former operates around 98.5% reliability whereas the latter has figures around 88 – 92%.

Considering this, as well as the associated costs and penalties, a partnership agreement is certainly the best way forward. Correctly drafted, it works for the benefit of both parties, minimising costs for the shipowners, and ensuring

service providers have the parts and resources available when they are required.

Predicting the future

A robust service agreement does more than just outsource maintenance; it transfers part of the operational risk to the service provider. With remote diagnostics, digital twins, and predictive analytics becoming the norm, service providers can now offer guarantees on compressor availability and even take responsibility for performance metrics like uptime or energy efficiency.

For example, condition-based maintenance plans, supported by data and performance analysis and real-time diagnostics, enable service engineers to identify wear patterns long before they manifest as mechanical failure. These agreements can also reduce inventory costs, as critical spare parts are stocked strategically in alignment with vessel routes and port calls.

Replacing parts just prior to the moment they fail ensures unplanned downtime is avoided. The trick is knowing when that point will be reached, and this can be best achieved when the service provider has the experience and expertise of an OEM combined with the industry knowledge of a maintenance provider.

However, from the shipowner’s perspective, they must have complete trust in the maintenance supplier and this comes from a good working relationship and proven performance in the field. Working under a partnership agreement enables the supplier to have an intimate understanding of the customer’s equipment. Data from previous visits is available, discussions with maintenance crew members are recorded, and the whole experience is one of familiarity.

In contrast, visiting a machine for the first time, without any operating history or maintenance records, can be a daunting task. For the sake of continued reliability, some components will be replaced just to be sure the equipment will continue to operate until the next planned intervention. With better access to operating data and knowledge of component performance, it is possible to maximise service life and keep maintenance costs within budget.

Matching demands with abilities

It is important to emphasise that service providers have varying capabilities which need to be matched to the demands of the customer. LNG carriers operate across the globe, constantly moving between exporters and importers. Any downtime for maintenance needs to be minimised so shipowners carefully plan interventions to coincide with the vessel’s itinerary. Operating on this scale needs a service provider that can match the ship’s global movement and be capable of deploying resources to coincide with the maintenance schedule.

An important benefit of engaging in a partnership agreement is that it gives the operator priority for any response to unplanned maintenance requirements. When the vessel is carrying a cargo worth US$400 million, the operator needs their maintenance provider to respond immediately to any call for assistance.

Figure 3. Prudent operators understand that compressor reliability is not the place to cut corners, even in leaner times.

While the details of any contract are crucial, in partnership agreements it is essential to understand the scope of work that will be delivered by the maintenance provider. Some will restrict it to just the compressor, whereas others with wider knowledge will include auxiliary systems, pipework, and controls. The ability to take a holistic approach to maintenance is vital. Understanding the interconnections between individual components and how they affect performance is essential to delivering a comprehensive service of the cargo handling system.

Incremental uptime improvements

While headline-grabbing failures make the case for compressor reliability stark, it is often the quiet, incremental gains that deliver the most value. A 0.5% improvement in compressor uptime across a fleet of LNG carriers could equate to several additional operational days per year, each of which can be worth tens of thousands of dollars.

These improvements are typically achieved through a number of actions; for instance, improved materials that reduce component wear and energy consumption as well as enhanced sealing technology that minimises gas leakage and emissions. Refinements in valve design also extend service intervals and improve efficiency, while digitisation, including real-time analytics, fine-tune operational parameters based on voyage conditions.

Such incremental gains also improve a vessel’s environmental performance, which is increasingly a key metric in both regulatory compliance and charter competitiveness. Emissions penalties are on the rise globally, and compressors with the lowest leak rates and energy-efficient designs help vessels meet environmental targets.

Finding the best solution

Optimising compressor uptime and minimising the total cost of ownership requires a proactive approach to maintenance and operations. Implementing advanced monitoring systems provides real-time insights into compressor health and performance. These systems allow operators to identify inefficiencies, predict maintenance needs, and make informed decisions to enhance reliability and reduce costs.

A professional, high-quality service cannot be delivered on a shoestring budget, but at the same time, value for

money can still be achieved. Including key performance indicators in the contract can ensure a mutually beneficial relationship that supports shipowners in achieving long-term reliability cost-effectively.

Compared to OEMs, independent service providers are not constrained to working on a single brand, but they are usually smaller organisations. However, the knowledge and resources available to an OEM enable enhanced support, especially in terms of advanced materials and cutting-edge technologies. Combining these benefits with the ability to work across any brand would offer the ideal solution for shipowners.

Technological advancements

As the industry enters a new era of smart maintenance, tools such as ATEX-certified smartphones and tablets now enable real-time collaboration between ship crews and onshore engineers, even within hazardous zones. Devices are rugged, intrinsically safe, and capable of hosting diagnostic apps, video calls, and work instructions, facilitating immediate troubleshooting even mid-voyage.

Continuing on the hardware front, advanced condition monitoring platforms like Burckhardt Compression’s diagnostic services are revolutionising compressor reliability. These platforms collect and analyse data from pressure transducers, vibration sensors, and temperature gauges to detect anomalies long before human operators can. The result is lower maintenance costs and maximised equipment lifespan.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning are beginning to play a role too, helping maintenance teams predict failures and recommend maintenance activities based on historical and real-time data. Such systems reduce human error and allow for smarter resource planning, further improving the total cost of ownership and reliability.

Conclusion: A strategic asset, not just a machine

In today’s highly competitive gas transport sector, reciprocating compressors are no longer seen as standalone pieces of equipment. Instead, they are strategic assets that influence voyage performance, commercial contracts, and long-term fleet economics. Prioritising their reliability and efficiency is not just an engineering decision, it is a business one.

Maintaining cargo handling systems or reciprocating compressors on LNG transport vessels involves navigating complex challenges, including market fluctuations, environmental regulations, and technological advancements. By adopting proactive maintenance strategies, leveraging technical expertise, and embracing innovative technologies, operators can ensure the reliability, safety, and efficiency of their compressor fleets.

Shipowners, charterers, and service providers that embrace this mindset are better positioned to succeed in a volatile and demanding marketplace. As LNG continues to play a vital role in the global energy transition, those who manage their cargo handling equipment or compressors with foresight and precision will stay ahead of the curve.

Figure 4. Understanding the interconnections between individual components is essential to delivering a comprehensive service.

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Frano Zivkovic and Daniel Perianu, STS Marine Solutions, discuss the role of the LNG Superintendent – and the impact they can have on efficient and safe LNG operations.

As the LNG industry expands and adapts to meet growing global energy demands, the role of the LNG Superintendent has become increasingly vital. Positioned at the heart of complex cargo operations, particularly ship-to-ship (STS) transfers, the LNG Superintendent is more than a technical advisor. They are a bridge between vessels, cultures, and operational philosophies, ensuring both safety and efficiency in an evolving sector.

Understanding the role

The LNG Superintendent plays an advisory and supervisory role in LNG cargo operations, with a strong focus on communication, co-ordination, and technical expertise. While LNG terminal

operations are familiar territory for most shipboard officers, STS operations introduce a new set of variables. Not all Masters and Chief Officers have STS experience – and even fewer have both terminal and STS familiarity. That is where the LNG Superintendent steps in.

From explaining the operational nuances of STS vs terminal transfers to managing expectations around equipment use, especially cargo hoses and boil-off gas (BOG) systems, the Superintendent ensures that all parties are aligned. For example, while terminal operations often utilise high-duty compressors, STS transfers rely on free flow vapour transfer. Given the limited hose diameters (typically 8 – 10 in.), patience and close monitoring of tank pressures are essential.

Navigating complex procedures

Some of the more intricate operations under an LNG Superintendent’s oversight include gassing up and cooldown of cargo tanks. Though vessels have detailed procedures for

these tasks when alongside terminals, STS operations require significant adaptation. Equipment limitations, particularly regarding hydrocarbon content in the inert gas/methane mixture and handling warm vapours during early cooldown stages, require careful judgment and experience.

In more complex offshore operations – such as a triple banked STS transfer from an LNG carrier to an FSU and then to a small scale LNG vessel – the challenge increases exponentially. Mooring stability, sloshing limitations, weather constraints, and the interchange of small semi-pressurised vessels all create a unique operational environment. Here, the LNG Superintendent collaborates closely with Mooring Masters and vessel crews to co-ordinate safe and effective cargo transfers.

The human element

While technical expertise is critical, the LNG Superintendent must also master the art of communication. They do not carry direct responsibility for the cargo itself; their effectiveness lies

in how well they guide, communicate, and collaborate. Working with senior officers who may have extensive LNG experience but limited STS exposure requires diplomacy, cultural awareness, and emotional intelligence.

Pre-cargo transfer meetings and safety briefings are key opportunities to establish rapport. Making the crew feel comfortable, encouraging open communication, and demystifying

the role of the ‘Superintendent’ helps create a safer and more co-operative environment. Onboard toolbox talks, especially with the bosun and deck crew, can be the difference between a seamless hose connection and a problematic start.

Planning before boarding

A significant portion of the Superintendent’s work occurs long before setting foot on a vessel. Thorough planning is the foundation of a successful operation. This includes:

z Reviewing compatibility studies.

z Co-ordinating risk assessments.

z Preparing joint plans of operation (JPO).

z Ensuring compliance with OCIMF, SIGTTO, and other regulatory guidelines.

z Managing equipment checks (LNG kits, fenders).

Proper documentation, early engagement with stakeholders, and clearly established communication channels can prevent complications later. A well-planned operation turns risk into routine.

Beyond the deck

The LNG Superintendent’s role extends far beyond the vessel. Participating in LNG industry summits and technical congresses offers invaluable insight into market trends, technological innovations, and stakeholder expectations. Superintendents may also contribute to the procurement, testing, and maintenance of specialised LNG STS equipment, linking operational knowledge with strategic planning.

This holistic involvement – from initial project planning to operational execution – ensures continuity and adds value throughout the LNG supply chain.

Adapting to an evolving industry

While STS operations for LNG are still developing compared to oil tanker operations, they are rapidly gaining traction. As LNG increasingly serves not only as a cargo but also as a marine fuel, the need for STS expertise is growing. Newbuilds equipped with dual-fuel engines and the expansion of small scale LNG distribution networks are indicators of a robust future.

For the LNG Superintendent, this presents opportunity and responsibility. They must evolve with the industry, adapting to new technologies, training methodologies, and regulatory environments while maintaining the core focus on safety, collaboration, and operational excellence.

Conclusion

The LNG Superintendent stands at the crossroads of tradition and innovation, person, and process. They ensure that complex transfers are conducted safely, efficiently, and harmoniously. It is a role that demands sharp technical skills, unshakeable calm under pressure, and a deep understanding of human dynamics.

In an industry where no two operations are the same, and where every team is different, the LNG Superintendent is the constant: a trusted guide, a vital communicator, and a steward of safe LNG transfer operations.

Figure 1. Superindendent opens a nitrogen gas bottle required to power the STS kit.

Figure 2. Superintendents and the crew in the process of cargo hose connection.

Figure 3. Both Superintendents, each on either vessel, communicating about the follow up sequence after hose connection.

Ryan Mattson, Vice President, Oil & Gas, and Alison Boyer, Director, GHGSat, look into the link between methane reduction and the ability to meet soaring LNG demand.

Today, demand for energy is climbing rapidly, growing at a faster-than-average 2.2% pace in 2024, according to the International Energy Agency. These international energy needs have implications for the LNG market: with its growing prominence as a more responsible alternative energy source, LNG will likely be a cornerstone of meeting these requirements.

Figure 1. Three of GHGSat’s satellites in orbit.

Indeed, when looking specifically at LNG demand, Shell forecasts that global needs will rise by around 60% by 2040, largely driven by economic growth in Asia and the energy needs of artificial intelligence. 1

At the same time, however, the energy sector faces shifting geopolitical headwinds around production and policy, creating uncertainty around the infrastructure investments required to meet this international energy appetite. LNG producers face a quandary: how to invest confidently to position for the market uptick in energy needs, while also ensuring operations remain as streamlined as possible to weather market uncertainty.

In this environment, operational efficiency is critical – and methane reduction has emerged as a key production practice to boost efficiency while also mitigating environmental risks.

In recent years, innovative technologies (satellites, aircraft, drones, etc.) have come online that are able to detect and quantify methane at a previously unimaginable scale and accuracy. The availability of precise emissions data has unlocked methane reduction as a lever to maximise the efficiency of oil and gas operations while simultaneously supporting progress towards global environmental targets. This article explores the economic and environmental impacts of leveraging data to reduce methane emissions, and provides a strategic guide for developing a methane reduction strategy.

Optimising operations with methane data

For the LNG sector, the availability of methane data empowers operators across the supply chain, optimising operations in three primary ways.

First, methane data enables operators to eliminate the financial losses associated with methane emissions. Once informed and aware of emissions sources, operators can take quick action, ultimately resulting in effective mitigation that keeps valuable product from escaping into the atmosphere. For example, partnering with one operator, GHGSat detected and measured a methane plume at 1039 kg/h and alerted operator team members

on the ground within hours, who then took swift corrective action. Follow-up satellite measurements confirmed mitigation. The end result was that the operator action saved US$147/h, or US$1.3 million annually, based on the 2024 average Henry Hub spot price.

Methane emission data collected over an operation can also be an indicator of the overall health of the assets involved with the production cycle. Attribution of sources to specific infrastructure allows operators to see the trends in the field and make informed decisions on maintenance programmes, as well as capital spending for operational improvements.

Finally, armed with methane data, LNG suppliers can export to nations that maintain stricter regulatory policies on emissions intensity, broadening their markets. For example, with its emissions requirements that also apply to energy imports, Europe’s new EUMR legislation has global implications. Europe is the top global LNG import market – and the US is the largest supplier of LNG to the EU, accounting for almost 45% of the continent’s imports. Initial stages of a ramp-up of requirements around emissions intensity began in 2025. Beyond Europe, Japan, South Korea, and other gas importers are reportedly in the beginning stages of understanding emissions intensity across their gas supply chain as well. Ultimately, to reach these markets, LNG producers and suppliers will need a precise and granular understanding of methane emissions to ensure that their product is viable – or risk being shut out.

Effective methane reduction

Of course, the benefits of reducing methane go beyond a business case. Because methane has a warming effect roughly 80 times stronger than carbon dioxide over a 20-year period, reducing its levels in the atmosphere can have a swift impact on the climate. In the near-term, every tonne of methane reduced will be equivalent to over 100 t of carbon dioxide reduced over the subsequent five years.

For LNG producers, the question has transitioned from why to pursue methane reduction, to how to do it effectively. Energy demand drove the pioneering technological advancements necessary to first commercialise LNG. Now, an upcoming predicted new surge is creating an incentive to find a competitive advantage against other LNG producers and suppliers, ensuring market access and maximum operational efficiency. Emissions data is a cornerstone of these efforts, identifying opportunities for continuous improvement.

Emissions monitoring technologies

Over the past decade, emissions monitoring technologies have matured and scaled to generate this data. In fact, with the onset of various

Figure 2. GHGSat’s methane-detecting satellites, roughly the size of a microwave, prepared for launch.

Process improvement

is ensuring plant availability while ensuring compliance.

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tools to measure emissions today, operators may feel overwhelmed with the options available. There is no longer a lack of data; instead, the challenge facing operators is how to build a strategy to effectively embed available data into operations and workflows.

The first step is to determine the appropriate technology for different assets, regions, and monitoring requirements. With options ranging from drones or aircraft to space-based technologies like satellites, there is no single silver bullet. Rather, available technologies complement each other and are best fit for purpose to meet different operational requirements.

Drones allow for targeted emissions-monitoring campaigns that pinpoint the source of an emission with high sensitivity, detecting tiny methane leaks. However, drone monitoring requires significant time and personnel resource investments to conduct, and can be difficult to deploy in more isolated regions. With similarly low detection thresholds, aircraft also excel at specific and targeted campaigns, and are typically less costly than ground-based detection.

Moving from Earth to space-based technologies, there are several types of satellites capable of detecting methane. Regional mapper satellites monitor large areas at a country or regional scale, alerting to the presence of significant emissions. However, their lower resolution and higher detection threshold means that while they can identify large scale emissions, they are challenged to pinpoint the exact source, and will not catch methane leaks at smaller thresholds which, for the oil and gas sector, means that regional mappers do not catch the bulk of leaks.

High-resolution satellites can bridge the gap between ground-based technologies and regional mapper satellites, by tracing the source of a methane emission down to individual industrial facilities. With detection rates of 100 kg/h, high-resolution satellites are able to determine even relatively small emissions though, of course, they do not have the sensitivity of aircraft or drones, which can detect emissions at thresholds closer to 1 kg/h. However, satellites are able to monitor

infrastructure at a far more frequent cadence than ground-based technologies, which ensures that leaks do not go undetected for long.

For operators, the relative advantages of different technologies create building blocks for an effective methane monitoring strategy.

For remote assets, high-resolution satellites provide foundational data. With the ability to monitor frequently and in detail, subject to none of the on-the-ground logistics challenges, high-resolution satellites are a cost-effective option to provide granular and actionable data at an operationally useful cadence. Regional mapper satellites also play a co-ordinated role with high-resolution satellites, working in tandem in a ‘tip and cue’ approach to flag large emissions so that high-resolution satellites can be tasked to determine the exact source. Aircraft or drone technologies are complementary to this approach, augmenting regular satellite monitoring with targeted surveys, or used for rapid response to manage critical incidents.

Conclusion

With a near-decade of experience working with the oil and gas industry to enable emissions reduction, GHGSat has seen the power of cutting methane in action. Providing near-continuous monitoring services that trace leaks to individual pieces of equipment, GHGSat delivers data directly to industrial operators, typically within hours of a leak being identified, reaching the community able to take action. With this approach, GHGSat has been able to mitigate over 14.5 million t CO 2 -e since the launch of its first satellite in 2016, equal to the emissions from more than 33 million bbl of oil being consumed. Looking ahead, soaring global demand for LNG, coupled with increased scrutiny on emissions intensity, creates a requirement for verifiably responsible LNG production. With a strengthened ability to optimise resources and efficiency, LNG operators that embed methane intelligence into operational strategy will be best positioned to capture a growing market, particularly in regions with tightening emissions regulations. The maturation of emissions monitoring technologies offers a powerful toolbox for reducing methane, protecting asset integrity, and unlocking access to discerning energy markets. By embracing a data-driven approach to methane management, LNG producers and suppliers can secure their role in the future energy mix.

References

1. ‘Asian economic growth expected to drive 60% rise in LNG demand to 2040’, Shell, (25 February 2025), www.shell.com/ news-and-insights/newsroom/ news-and-media-releases/2025/ lng-demand-expected-rise-bysixty-percent-by-2040.html

Figure 3. Satellite methane detection measurements from oil and gas infrastructure in Central Asia.

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Julien Boulland, Sustainability Strategy Leader at Bureau Veritas Marine & Offshore, France, outlines the challenges that may be highlighted by new methane regulations, and the importance of overcoming them in order to meet net-zero targets by 2050.

Following the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) meeting in April 2025, the maritime industry will need to adapt to the new regulations that establish mandatory marine fuel standards and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions pricing for shipping, designed to support the industry’s net-zero GHG emissions targets by 2050.

The MEPC is the lead decision-making body for all environmental measures that fall under the IMO’s remit. The agreement reached at their meeting in April 2025 – MEPC 83 – was the culmination of many months of hard negotiations and technical discussions among the represented parties, with the outcome resulting in a compromise between keenly contested views on the right path forward. Scheduled for formal adoption in October 2025, before entry into force in 2027, the agreed measures will apply to large ocean-going ships over 5000 GT, which emit 85% of the total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from

international shipping. As part of the revised IMO GHG Strategy, targets including a 20 – 30% reduction in GHG emissions by 2030, and a 70 – 80% reduction by 2040 were adopted into MARPOL Annex VI. To support these efforts, the IMO has introduced a new global fuel standard in which vessels must evidence their annual GHG fuel intensity (GFI), calculated using a well-to-wake approach. Vessels emitting above the GFI thresholds will need to acquire remedial units to balance its deficit emissions, whilst those using zero or near-zero GHG technologies will receive financial rewards.

The viability of LNG

The emphasis on a well-to-wake approach is crucial to the future of all alternative fuels. The term ‘well-to-wake’ encompasses the entire lifecycle of a fuel, from production to delivery, as well as use onboard ships, accounting for all emissions that are produced throughout. This requires shipowners and operators to collect and declare additional information when considering the GHG intensity of a specific fuel. In effect, it means that owners and operators will account for the emissions their operations produce, but also the upstream fuel production process that precedes it.

The implications of the latest announcements from the IMO on established transition fuels such as LNG are significant. The measures provisionally agreed during MEPC 83 include regulatory revisions covering methane slip – a term used to describe the unintentional unburned methane emissions that escape from the engine into the atmosphere – which includes the development of a framework designed to measure and verify actual tank-to-wake emissions factors from methane and nitrous oxide for marine diesel engines.

Beyond the transition period, the viability of LNG under the soon-to-be-approved GFI standard is not obvious. Due to the fact that the IMO’s Net-Zero Framework mechanisms are more stringent than FEUM (provided methane emissions stay at the same level), LNG will become non-compliant from 2028. In contrast, the FEUM regulation provides more flexibility mechanisms, such as banking, borrowing, and pooling. Additionally, the FEUM regulation includes a system of energy allocation that allows for the maximised use of low-carbon fuels in the FEUM balance. This gives LNG as a marine fuel more leeway to remain compliant under the FEUM framework, compared to the more stringent IMO Net-Zero Framework. As with fuel oil, LNG will have to be blended with its renewable counterpart to reach compliance.

Bureau Veritas Marine & Offshore (BV) has longstanding expertise in supporting the development of LNG viability in areas such as production and liquefaction, as well as transportation and delivery. Primarily, BV offers classification expertise for large and small scale LNG carriers, floating LNG (FLNG) units, as well as FSRUs, and FLNG gas-to-power units. Furthermore, the company provides technical and safety support to owners and operators that are fitting newbuilds or retrofitting in-service vessels to use LNG as a fuel. However, the advent of methane slip represents a major, and indeed growing, concern for owners and operators of LNG-fuelled ships. This issue is further compounded by the wider release of fugitive emissions – a reference to methane that is released at any point during transportation or use –that may be released from a range of points during the lifecycles of an LNG-fuelled vessel. This could be upstream

during the processing phase, unwanted leaks that may occur as the natural gas is transported through pipelines, necessary ventilation onboard to avoid creating a hazardous environment, even down to the combustion process, where fugitive emission may occur as the gas travels through the piston rings.

The IMO’s new Net-Zero Framework does also include new guidelines to support onboard measurement of methane and nitrous oxide for marine engines, whereas these measurements have typically been based on default methane slip factors which represent assumed percentage of methane fuel that escapes unburned from engines. Due to the lack of standardised measurements, the industry has devised various approaches in an attempt to accurately quantify these emissions.

One approach has been to measure the engine emissions when a vessel is sailing, to capture more precise real-world data. However, these measurements are subject to variation depending on the speed and load of the specific vessel. Alternatively, tests have been conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, during which an engine will be monitored whilst running on a pre-determined cycle using different load levels, which offers the possibility of standardising testing for a variety of engine types. Promisingly, it has been suggested that more accurate onboard measuring processes will provide a clearer picture of the fugitive methane emissions that are actually generated on LNG-powered vessels.

Due to the composition of methane, once it has been released into the atmosphere it is almost impossible to trap which means that – unlike carbon dioxide – similar approaches such as air capture of carbon are ineffective. As a result, technical solutions are being developed to ensure direct prevention of methane emissions. For instance, improvements are currently being made to the internal architecture of engines to reduce the number of areas that unburnt methane can be secreted, whilst improving combustion processes.

Case study

As a leading classification society, BV has been supporting the maritime industry in its efforts to accurately account for, and reduce, methane emissions. In April 2025, BV classed the CMA CGM SEINE, a 24 000 TEU LNG dual-fuel container ship. The CMA CGM SEINE integrates a WinGD W12X92DF-2.0 dual-fuel main engine, alongside an Intelligent Control by Exhaust Recycling (iCER) system. This configuration is designed to significantly reduce methane emissions and ensure compliance with IMO Tier III emissions standards when operating in ‘diesel + iCER mode’, as well as achieving an Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) reduction. The solution supports superior combustion control, using inert gas to adjust the gas/air mix, which reduces both fuel consumption and emissions and has been found to reduce the advent of methane slip by up to 50%.

Together with BV Solutions Marine & Offshore (BVS), who provided advisory services throughout the project, BV worked with the engine manufacturer and shipyard to test the parent engine, following which an Engine International Air Pollution Prevention (EIAPP) certificate was issued, establishing a foundation for compliance across the series, in support of CMA CGM to go further on their path to decarbonisation.

This also illustrates how further emission reductions can be achieved through machinery optimisation and engine enhancement, building on an already optimised vessel design.

New initiatives

In light of the lack of regulatory guidance, BV released the Methane Emission Measurements (MEM) notation in 2022, which was developed to provide a standardised test methodology for measuring methane emission from an engine in laboratory conditions, enabling more accurate methane emissions comparisons between engines.

Upstream initiatives have also been developed in order to support these efforts. The most notable one is the launch of the United National Environment Programme’s (UNEP) Oil & Gas Methane Partnership 2.0 (OGMP 2.0), a reporting and mitigation programme specifically designed to offer a comprehensive measurement-based framework for the oil and gas sector, to improve the accuracy and transparency of methane emissions reporting. BV has developed a range of comprehensive solutions to support effective emissions mitigation. These include its Measuring Reporting and Verification (MRV) Inventory that offers rigorous verification processes to ensure accuracy of methane emissions data, which allows owners and operators to meet OGMP 2.0 guidelines.

It is clear that the issue of methane management and abatement is both multifaceted and complex, involving a variety of stakeholders, both upstream and downstream. As a result, cross-industry collaboration is fundamental to

developing the tools, guidelines, and regulations required to ensure the efficacy of future abatement measures. In acknowledgement of the need for the development of unprecedented collaboration, both within the industry and beyond, BV has established the Future Shipping Team (FST) which is a global, collaborative, diverse, and inclusive team that spans the entirety of the organisation. The team brings together over 300 subject matter experts across 15 workstreams to co-ordinate knowledge sharing, research, and development across BV and the wider group. Leveraging its experience in maritime and the expertise of a TIC leader active in all industry sectors, the FST aims to support clients that want to challenge the status quo and make future-proof choices on sustainability, technology, and innovation.

A fuel of the future?

As most alternative fuels remain at a nascent stage of development and viability, LNG is widely regarded as the preeminent transition fuel that will support the industry in its efforts to achieve the IMO’s net-zero GHG targets over the coming decades. However, the outcomes from MEPC 83 have placed a renewed spotlight on the industry’s efforts to manage its methane abatement challenge, whilst integrating new measures designed to support more accurate accounting of its impact. During this period of significant regulatory evolution, BV remains at the forefront of industry efforts to understand and navigate their methane emissions, providing guidance and expertise to support owners and operator’s compliance efforts.

Justin Bird, Executive Vice President of Sempra and CEO of Sempra Infrastructure, USA, provides an overview of how LNG projects in America are building the infrastructure needed today to help power the future.

As global energy demand continues to grow and geopolitical dynamics become more complex, LNG is expected to become a critical component

Figure 1. Rendering of Port Arthur LNG Phase 2 development project.

in establishing the US as a leader in global energy markets and as an energy provider of choice to allies worldwide.

The expansion of artificial intelligence and data centres is forecasting substantial new power demand around the globe, while international tensions have disrupted energy supply chains and underscored the value of diversified and reliable energy sources.

The current energy landscape calls for significant investment in LNG infrastructure development to effectively leverage America’s abundant natural gas resources. The ability to scale American LNG exports represents both an economic opportunity, reducing America’s trade deficit while helping create jobs and tax revenues for local communities, and is an important tool for positioning the US as a leading energy player.

The transformation and global impact of US LNG

Sempra Infrastructure is at the forefront of this global response, leveraging its deep experience and proven track record to help meet the world’s evolving energy needs. Through its dual-coast LNG export strategy, the company is poised to deliver American natural gas to

key international markets from the Gulf and Pacific coasts of North America, strengthening US energy leadership and helping to drive economic growth while supporting critical energy security to allied nations.

The company’s role builds on the transformation of the US LNG sector, with the company’s own evolution reflecting broader industry shifts. Starting with two regasification terminals in Mexico and Louisiana that were converted to LNG export terminals, the company exemplifies how the shale revolution fundamentally reshaped not just domestic energy markets, but global supply chains, expanding global access to American natural gas and positioning the US as a global LNG leader in less than two decades.

This transformation was critical as demand patterns shifted. While Asia had traditionally driven LNG growth, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine created new demand as European nations looked to diversify their energy supplies. US LNG quickly helped fill this critical gap, reinforcing transatlantic energy security and demonstrating America’s reliability as a global energy partner. Analysts project global LNG demand will exceed 600 million tpy by 2040, 1 underscoring the need for scalable, dependable energy solutions.

Beyond meeting immediate energy needs, LNG serves as a crucial enabler of grid reliability and energy security. It provides a dependable baseload power source with significantly lower emissions than coal or fuel oil, while offering essential backup during periods of low renewable generation. These operational advantages, combined with LNG’s role in strengthening US diplomatic and trade relationships, make it important for both developed and emerging economies.

Sempra Infrastructure is well-positioned to drive the next generation of energy, building on its development of Cameron LNG and advancement of construction projects like Port Arthur LNG and Energía Costa Azul (ECA) LNG. These efforts are helping to strengthen global energy markets and fuel investment, innovation, and opportunity in North America.

A track record of success

Cameron LNG in Hackberry, Louisiana, showcases Sempra Infrastructure’s capabilities in world-class energy development. The facility, which achieved full commercial operations in 2020 and reached its 1000 th cargo in July 2025, demonstrates the company’s expertise in large scale project execution and ability to provide reliable and cost-effective energy to customers.

The three-train liquefaction facility has the capacity to export approximately 12 million tpy of LNG and was developed in partnership with TotalEnergies, Mitsui & Co., Mitsubishi Corp., and NYK Line. As a key asset in the US LNG export network, Cameron LNG serves as a testament to the company’s ability to help meet the world’s growing energy needs.

A growing export hub in southeast Texas

Port Arthur LNG in Jefferson County, Texas, marks the next phase of the company’s growth. Phase 1 is

Figure 2. Port Arthur LNG Phase 1 currently under construction in Jefferson County, Texas.

Figure 3. Cameron LNG in operation since 2019 in Hackberry, Louisiana.

under construction and has the potential to produce approximately 13 million tpy of LNG once completed. The facility will include two liquefaction trains and two storage tanks and supporting infrastructure, with direct access to the US Gulf through the Sabine-Neches Waterway. Train 1 is expected to begin commercial operations in 2027 and Train 2 in 2028.

Sempra Infrastructure and ConocoPhillips jointly own the Phase 1 project, which includes fully subscribed purchase agreements with ConocoPhillips, RWE, Orlen, INEOS, and Engie. The proposed Phase 2 expansion project has the potential to double the facility’s total nameplate capacity through the addition of two liquefaction trains. This increased capacity would expand Sempra Infrastructure’s ability to serve emerging markets and help meet growing global demand.

The Port Arthur LNG project serves as both a gateway for global energy and a driver of local economic development. Over 1000 Southeast Texas residents work in construction, engineering, administrative, and operations roles on the Phase 1 project, which will support up to 6000 jobs at peak construction and create 200 permanent positions once in service. The proposed Phase 2 project could add an estimated 2000 construction jobs and 60 long-term roles, helping to strengthen the region’s workforce.

The project also benefits local businesses. More than 307 regional contractors have been engaged,

with over US$609 million invested in locally sourced goods and services. These collaborations are helping to expand regional supply chains and contributing to sustained economic growth.

Building infrastructuretomorrow’s

The Port Arthur LNG facility is anticipated to be central to a broader, integrated energy system designed to enhance reliability and reduce emissions. Currently under construction, the Port Arthur Pipeline Louisiana Connector will deliver natural gas to the proposed liquefaction facility in Jefferson County, Texas.

This effort reflects a comprehensive development strategy aimed at positioning Port Arthur as a leading energy hub that leverages the full capabilities of Sempra Infrastructure’s integrated business model to deliver energy systems for the future.

Leveraging a strategic advantage in Pacific markets

The company’s Pacific Coast efforts aim to further strengthen this approach. The company is advancing the ECA LNG terminal in Baja California, Mexico, where Phase 1 is under construction. The ECA LNG Phase 1 project will be a single-train liquefaction facility that produces approximately 3 million tpy using US-sourced natural gas. The facility will be the first LNG terminal in the Pacific Coast to export US natural gas.

The construction project has purchase agreements with TotalEnergies and Mitsui & Co., Ltd. The facility’s location enables faster access to Asian markets by approximately 7 – 8 days and avoids the Panama Canal, helping reduce shipping costs, improve reliability and speed of delivery, and lower transportation-related emissions.

ECA LNG reflects the increasing importance of US natural gas in the Asia-Pacific region as countries are phasing out coal and seeking diversified energy sources.

Looking ahead

As global energy demand continues to grow, America’s LNG infrastructure is poised to connect energy resources with global markets worldwide.

Sempra Infrastructure’s dual-coast approach positions American natural gas as both an economic driver and a strategic asset, reinforcing the nation’s role as a reliable energy provider in an increasingly intricate global landscape. America’s position as an LNG leader offers allies the consistent, diversified supply they need to power their economies and build resilient energy systems for the future.

Through construction projects like Port Arthur LNG and ECA LNG, Sempra Infrastructure is helping to deliver on that position, building the infrastructure today to help power tomorrow’s energy future.

References

1. ‘Shell LNG Outlook 2025’, Shell plc, (2025).

Figure 4. Energía Costa Azul LNG Phase 1 currently under construction in Baja California, Mexico.

Figure 5. Port Arthur LNG Phase 1 project is driving economic growth and community impact across Southeast Texas.

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Dr Joey Walker, EffecTech, UK, explores the nature of traceability for in-situ LNG analysers.

LNG is approximately 600 times denser than natural gas in its gaseous form, making each shipment a high-stakes transfer of significant value. In this context, even small measurement errors can translate into substantial financial exposure, reinforcing the need for accurate, traceable analysis throughout the custody transfer process.

As the LNG industry increasingly adopts direct in-situ composition analysers, the need for robust, traceable calibration has become critical – particularly for custody transfer and regulatory compliance. In contrast to traditional vaporiser-gas chromatograph (GC) systems, which are routinely calibrated using certified gas standards,

direct measurement analysers operate within the cryogenic liquid phase and lack a straightforward calibration pathway. This presents unique challenges in validating their measurement accuracy, as conventional gas-phase calibration methods are not directly applicable. Without a traceable and representative calibration process, the reliability of direct analysers remains uncertain, limiting their acceptance in high-stakes applications.

This article presents a novel calibration method that condenses a certified natural gas mixture into LNG, enabling a probe to be tested directly within the liquid phase. 1 By comparing the probe’s response to a traceable reference obtained via independent vaporisation

and analysis, this method delivers true calibration under realistic cryogenic conditions. The approach meets ISO 17025 traceability requirements and represents a significant advancement in ensuring the reliability and regulatory defensibility of direct LNG measurements. Ultimately, this closes the long-standing accuracy gap in direct analyser deployment and supports their wider adoption in commercial operations.

In a 2019 study conducted under the GERG framework, a Raman-based direct LNG composition analyser was shown to meet the mass-based GHV uncertainty limit of +/-0.07%, as specified in the GIIGNL Custody Transfer Handbook. This performance was achieved only after an additional verification step using a high-quality certified LNG reference material, provided through EffecTech’s traceable calibration service.

For nearly a decade, this service has enabled operators to independently validate in-situ analysers under cryogenic conditions, ensuring compliance with fiscal and regulatory standards. As direct measurement technologies gain wider adoption, this type of traceable, real-world calibration is increasingly recognised as essential for ensuring trust in LNG custody transfer.

Limitations of traditional calibration approaches

Currently, LNG composition measurement is predominantly performed using vaporiser-GC systems. This method has a long-established track record with a wide range of commercial vaporisers and analysers available. However, despite its maturity, the approach is not without significant challenges – including issues with sample integrity during vaporisation and the complexity

of system maintenance. All GCs in these setups are calibrated using a traceable calibration gas, typically daily, allowing for continuous verification of analyser performance and early detection of drift or malfunction.

In contrast, in-situ analysers – which operate directly in the cryogenic liquid phase – do not offer the same ease of calibration. As they measure composition without vaporisation, their calibration must be performed under actual cryogenic conditions using a liquid-phase reference. This presents a major barrier: certified LNG reference materials are not readily available and traditional traceable gas standards are unsuitable. Without a cryogenic-phase calibration method, the performance of in-situ analysers cannot be verified with the same level of confidence – an issue that becomes particularly critical in custody transfer applications where accuracy directly impacts commercial value.

Why traceability matters

In high-stakes applications, every measurement must be accompanied by a clearly defined uncertainty that reflects confidence in the result. Without this, the reported value is effectively just an informed estimate – unacceptable in both regulatory and commercial contexts. In LNG custody transfer, even small inaccuracies in composition can lead to substantial financial discrepancies.

For example, consider an LNG cargo offloading 200 000 m³ at an import terminal. At current spot prices, such a shipment may be worth around US$25 million. A 1% uncertainty in the total energy transferred translates into a fiscal exposure of US$250 000 for a single delivery. With multiple cargoes offloaded each week, the cumulative impact of higher uncertainty can result in millions in potential financial risk annually.

Uncertainty matters but traceability is the mechanism that makes that uncertainty meaningful. It allows uncertainty to be trusted, quantified, and defensible, ensuring that all contributing measurements are rooted in recognised standards. Without traceability, uncertainty is just guesswork, leaving buyers, sellers, and regulators without a solid basis for decision-making.

Traceability ensures that each measurement can be linked, through an unbroken chain of comparisons, to the SI unit of amount of substance (the mole). This chain captures every source of uncertainty – from the reference material to the analyser – and defines the overall reliability of the result. A measurement without traceable calibration and quantified uncertainty lacks accountability and is unsuitable in contexts where quantifying financial or regulatory risk is essential. The traceability chain for EffecTech’s in-situ calibration of LNG analysers is given in Figure 2.

Primary reference gas mixtures (PRGMs) are characterised by exceptionally low uncertainties and provide a shorter, more robust traceability chain to the SI unit. Using a PRGM is like reaching for the sharpest tool in the box – it represents the gold standard in calibration, particularly when validating measurement accuracy for custody transfer.

Figure 2. The traceability chain for EffecTech’s in-situ calibration of LNG analysers.

Figure 1. The EffecTech cryostat.

The strength of PRGMs lies in their ability to minimise uncertainty from the outset, allowing smaller contributions to the final uncertainty budget. This is especially important in LNG transactions, where composition affects the calculated total energy transferred. Even slight deviations in uncertainty can influence the commercial risk of the LNG, making the use of PRGMs essential for reliable fiscal metrology.

The LNG production and measurement process

To meet this challenge, EffecTech developed a system that has supported traceable LNG calibration under cryogenic conditions for more than a decade. Certified LNG reference mixtures are prepared using a cryostat system capable of condensing PRGMs under tightly controlled cryogenic conditions. This system utilises a heat exchanger capable of flowing varying amounts of liquid nitrogen for precise temperature control.

The initial step in the process involves calibrating the analyser and optical probe using traceable light sources for both intensity and wavelength. This calibration includes alignment verification and drift correction to ensure measurement integrity. Wavelength and intensity calibration procedures vary by manufacturer, with each adopting proprietary techniques tailored to their specific analyser design. Once the optical calibration is complete, the optical probe is inserted directly into the cryostat. Next, the central sample chamber is fully evacuated, and the cooldown phase commences. At a predetermined temperature, the PRGM is introduced into the chamber, where it gradually condenses into its liquid state.

To ensure equivalence between the gas-phase reference and the condensed liquid, the LNG is periodically sampled, vaporised, and analysed independently. This validation step confirms the consistency of the liquid-phase composition and forms a critical link in the overall traceability chain. The LNG liquefaction and measurement process is illustrated in Figure 3.

The three pillars of measurement integrity

The LNG composition reference generated through this process can be used in three distinct ways: to calibrate, validate, or verify an analyser’s performance. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they each play a unique role in ensuring measurement integrity:

z Calibration is measurement with adjustment, aligning the analyser’s output with a known reference by applying corrections. It typically spans a range of temperatures, pressures, and compositions to model real-world conditions and ensure predictive accuracy.

z Validation confirms that a calibrated analyser performs accurately under expected conditions, such as during commissioning. It typically involves testing a single LNG composition at defined operating conditions to demonstrate fitness for purpose.

z Verification is a routine check to confirm that the analyser continues to meet expected performance without requiring further adjustment. It provides ongoing assurance in system accuracy and helps detect drift or malfunction before critical thresholds are exceeded. This principle underpins many condition-based monitoring systems, where periodic verification safeguards against unexpected measurement failures and supports proactive maintenance.

Together, these three steps form the foundation of trustworthy measurements. Each plays a distinct role in ensuring that an analyser not only starts off with a defined accuracy and precision that is fit for purpose, but continues to deliver reliable results over time. In high-stakes applications like LNG custody transfer, maintaining confidence in analyser performance is not a one-time event: it requires continuous oversight. Implementing all three processes is essential for building and sustaining the metrological integrity needed for regulatory compliance, fiscal accountability, and operational peace of mind.

Conclusion

As the LNG industry continues to adopt in-situ measurement technologies, the need for traceability has never been more critical. In high-value applications such as custody transfer, even small uncertainties can translate into substantial financial risk. Traditional calibration methods fall short when applied to cryogenic liquid-phase analysers, creating a gap in measurement assurance that cannot be ignored.

By enabling direct calibration, validation, and verification in the liquid phase using traceable reference materials of the highest quality, the methodology outlined in this article provides a practical and metrologically sound solution. It ensures that uncertainty is not just acknowledged, but is trusted, quantified, and defensible. In doing so, it supports the wider adoption of in-situ LNG analysers, strengthens confidence in energy transactions, and protects commercial interests in a rapidly evolving global gas market.

References

1. WALKER, J., HOLLAND, P., VARGHA, G., and SQUIRE, G., ‘New facility for production of liquefied natural gas reference standards’, Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, Vol. 73, (January 2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jngse.2019.103069

Figure 3. The LNG liquefaction and measurement process.

Hans-Peter Visser, Analytical Solutions and Products B.V., the Netherlands, argues the need for fully automated LNG custody transfer measurement systems.

Custody transfer refers to the process of transferring ownership and responsibility of a product or commodity from one party to another. It involves the transfer of physical possession, as well as the associated rights and obligations related to the product. Custody transfer is commonly applied in industries such as oil, gas, petrochemicals, and utilities,

where the accurate measurement and verification of quantities and qualities of the transferred material are crucial for commercial transactions and accountability. In the context of LNG, custody transfer specifically involves the transfer of ownership and responsibility of LNG from the seller to the buyer. It encompasses the accurate measurement of the quantity and quality of LNG

being transferred, typically at loading terminals, storage facilities, or during ship-to-ship transfers. Custody transfer ensures transparency, accuracy, and fairness in commercial transactions by providing a standardised process and reliable measurement systems to determine the value and quantity of the transferred LNG.

It is important to note that the specific details and procedures of LNG custody transfer may vary depending on the parties involved, contractual agreements, regional regulations, etc.

Current standards

LNG custody transfer is based on the GIIGNL Custody Transfer handbook 6th edition and ISO 8943: 2007. The ISO 8943: 2007 is focused on the quality of the LNG by means of composite sampling and online analysis (e.g. gas chromatograph), while the GIIGNL has an overall coverage. The GIIGNL also advises how to determine the quantity of the LNG transferred, which is done by means of gauging.

Gauging is a manual procedure, taking into account various measured physical properties and process parameters, consulting tables, and the need for a highly skilled and experienced surveyor. This is a labour-intensive, time-consuming, and costly process where accuracy and reproducibility depend on the quality of the surveyor. Everyone knows that one surveyor is not like another surveyor, and that even the best surveyor has a bad day. In other words, there is a human error factor which may impact the determination of a high US dollar value of an LNG cargo.

More and more end-users, especially in the US, request a fully automated custody transfer measurement systems (CTMS) where the quality sampling can also be automated based on flow proportional sample intervals. EPC contractors ask for complete LNG CTMS, as well as their requirements, to have a complete skid build CTMS with clear battery limits and a single point of contact during project execution, commissioning, and start-up.

The need for online measurements and metrological traceability

With the current technology in place, it is possible to measure the flow of LNG either via Coriolis flow meters or Ultrasonic flow meters.

The major challenge for LNG flow meters has been metrological traceability and how to determine the accuracy of an LNG flow meter. Based on studies and tests, there was the assumption that there was a correlation between LNG and water measurements for LNG, which are currently used in the market. Recent tests show differently and, to be sure that LNG flow meters measure correctly during use, they need to be calibrated at cryogenic conditions with LNG. Recently, a new standard – ISO 21903: 2020 – was published by the International Standards Organization (ISO) to specify the metrological and technical requirements for flow meters that can dynamically measure LNG and other refrigerated hydrocarbon fluids.

VSL’s calibration and test facility for LNG flow meters

In March 2023, the Dutch National Metrology Institute, VSL, (re)opened its brand-new European Center for Flow Measurement on the Rotterdam Maasvlakte in the Netherlands. The test facility includes the LNG calibration and test facility for LNG flow meters for mass and volume at cryogenic conditions with LNG. VSL can determine any output signal utilising the master meter method of calibration. This calibration facility is traceable to the National Standard of the Netherlands, has a low measurement uncertainty (CMC), and is currently the only one in the world. All of VSL’s flow meter calibrations,

Figure 1. LNG custody transfer between jetty and LNG carrier.

Figure 3. Example of a quality certificate.

Figure 2. LNG inline flow meters (Coriolis).

including LNG, are well accepted around the world. Before now, the maximum flow meter size is 8 in.

Currently, for CTMS of LNG, several dynamic measurement systems are already delivered, installed,

and in operation. Typical applications are LNG run-down line measurements and LNG allocation measurements.

Flow meters are typically built on so-called skids, whereas nowadays the complete quality package can also be integrated, including the LNG probe/vaporiser, the online quality measurement, and the composite sampling.

The market (especially in the US) is requiring a more and more complete CTMS with ultrasonic flow meters up to 36 in. Measurement systems including the complete analysis and sampling part are now available.

It is even possible to integrate the analysis and sampling of both the cooling line and boil-off gas (BOG) return line to create a complete energy transfer equation. The challenge for large size LNG flow meters is how to calibrate them.

Continuous improvement of analytical measurement and sampling of LNG

With an average production of more than 20 LNG quality measurement and sampling systems per year, ASaP sees it as an obligation to the market to continuously innovate and answer every analysis and sampling-related question for every cryogenic application properly and effectively. In-depth application and system knowledge combined with extensive field experience creates more and more insights and value to all using its systems.

In May 2022, an article was published in LNG Industry about the most cost effective and accurate way to measure and sample. The purpose of this article was to outline the importance of continuously ensuring the proper operation of the analysis and sampling systems, and obtaining the highest available accuracy possible for high US dollar LNG cargo values.

ASaP’s proprietary software, Analysis Information Module (AIM), is multifunctional:

z The CTMS operating and control system.

z The online and continuous performance monitoring system.

z The maintenance optimiser.

Figure 4. VSL LNG test facility.

Figure 5. Complete LNG custody transfer measurement system.

Figure 6. Operating screens of ASaP’s AIM.

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This enables the software to automatically generate both the cargo quality certificate and the bill of lading. If these two important documents are generated automatically, there must be a guarantee that the measurements and calculations are 100% matches with the LNG cargo characteristics, which is ensured with applications such as AIM.

A new feature in AIM is the online generation of the LNG phase envelope. The phase envelope is determined by the measured process pressure and temperature near the sample take-off probe, and the measuring results of the gas chromatograph downstream from the sample take-off probe. Based on the phase envelope and the sample take-off conditions, the degree of sub-cooling can be determined continuously and online.

As specified in ISO 8943: 2007, a sample must be taken at the highest possible degree of sub-cooling. Until now, it was never possible to determine the actual degree of sub-cooling; with advances such as AIM, an update of the degree of sub-cooling is given every 10 seconds.

Recently, the value of a new feature as part of an online phase diagram of LNG determination became clear. During the start-up of an LNG factory, it was assumed that the LNG transfer line was completely filled with LNG and that measurements were done under the right conditions.

However, due to the start-up, there was a two-phase situation in the transfer line, which made the analysis results invalid. Further investigation based on the AIM software revealed that one of the LNG sample points at the extraction sample probe was not installed at the shipyard.

Being aware of this flaw, a new extraction probe could be manufactured and installed on time. If the installation of the sample extraction probe had not happened at this time, the next opportunity would have been five years later during a maintenance shutdown in which the analysis and sampling results would not have been correct. Due to the standardisation feature of the online phase diagram determination, this measurement error with a huge financial impact was prevented.

Automatic performance control and audit trailing

Coming back to LNG volume measurement, level gauging is still the one and only accepted method for large custody measurement volume measurements.

LNG level gauging is complex, requires experience and knowledge, and is labour intense. It all comes down to the skill set of the independent surveyor.

ASaP recently delivered multiple LNG CTMS with inline LNG flow meters to automate the whole LNG batch loading process.

Applying a flow meter for LNG custody transfer can help fully automate and audit the whole delivery batch process, from commencing to terminate delivery, without any human intervention and/or risk of human error.

The CTMS is able to detect a constant flow at the end of the ramp-up period and start sampling and measuring directly without any operator intervention. Another major benefit is that the flow-weighted sampling is done continuously and in real time, measuring the average energy content of the LNG as closely to the ‘true’ measurement as possible and thus resulting in getting paid for every Btu transferred by the LNG.

Two of ASaP’s CTMS’s were delivered for NextDecade’s Rio Grande project, the system architecture of which is shown in Figure 9.

End-user recognition and appreciation

During the last day of the factory acceptance test (FAT) in April 2025, ASaP conducted a wrap-up talk with Ahmed Taha, Hydrocarbon Accounting Engineer of NextDecade, about his experience during the FAT at ASaP of his two LNG CTMS. He was impressed with the team’s knowledge and experiences, and believes the company’s systems helps place them ahead of what is currently

Figure 7. LNG level gauging system.

Figure 8. LNG custody transfer delivery scheme.

available in the market, as well as saving time and effort.

Conclusion

The implementation of fully automated LNG CTMS is crucial for ensuring accuracy, transparency, and efficiency in the transfer of LNG. Traditional methods, such as manual gauging, are labour intensive, time consuming, and prone to human error, which can significantly impact the financial value of LNG cargoes. The adoption of advanced technologies, including Coriolis and Ultrasonic flow meters, along with the integration of online quality measurement and sampling systems, addresses these challenges by providing reliable and precise measurements.

Moreover, the market’s growing demand for complete CTMS solutions underscores the need for comprehensive systems that include

In conclusion, the continuous innovation and improvement in LNG CTMS are essential for meeting the

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Terminal Piombino Italy

Figure 9. Structure of a fully automated LNG CTMS.

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Alexander Barbashin, Customer Marketing Manager, MSA Safety, advocates for the importance of effective and dependable gas detection systems in LNG operations.

In industrial environments where flammable or toxic gases are processed, stored, or transported – such as oil refineries, petrochemical plants, and LNG terminals – gas detection systems are a fundamental element of operational safety. These systems serve as early warning mechanisms that protect people, assets, and the environment by identifying the presence of hazardous gases before they reach dangerous levels.

Within the LNG sector, where methane is handled at extremely low temperatures and under high pressure,

accurate gas detection becomes even more critical. False alarms can result in costly downtime or complacency towards real alerts, while undetected leaks can have catastrophic consequences. As global demand for cleaner energy sources increases, LNG facilities are growing in size and complexity, making reliable gas detection technology more vital than ever. Tailored gas and flame detection systems help keep LNG facilities safe and operating efficiently.

Case study: Enhancing gas detection at a major LNG terminal in India

A leading LNG operator in Gujarat, India, responsible for a substantial share of the country’s gas supply, recently completed a major upgrade to its gas detection infrastructure at one of its key terminals. The operator manages two LNG receiving and regasification terminals, together handling over 20 million tpy of regasification capacity. These facilities play a vital role in ensuring energy security and supporting industrial growth across the region.

This case study outlines the replacement of conventional infrared (IR) open path detectors with laser-based open path gas detection technology at the second terminal in Gujarat. The transition significantly improved reliability in methane detection, reducing false alarms and enhancing operational integrity.

Project overview: Transition to enhanced laser diode spectroscopy technology

At the customer’s second terminal, the site had been equipped with six conventional IR open path gas detectors positioned along key process areas for methane leak detection. Over time, the IR-based system began triggering frequent false alarms, primarily due to interference from atmospheric moisture and environmental particulates such as mist, fog, and dust. These false alarms created avoidable operational disruptions and, more critically, eroded trust in the alarm system, potentially jeopardising response times in the event of actual gas leaks.

The objective was clear: replace the underperforming detection system with a more robust and reliable solution that could operate with high accuracy even under challenging ambient conditions. The operator initiated a vendor evaluation process to identify a system that could meet the plant’s stringent performance and safety standards.

Solution: Deployment of enhanced laser diode spectroscopy methane laser detectors

After a comprehensive technical assessment, the operator selected a laser-based open path gas detection system, Senscient ELDSTM (enhanced laser diode spectroscopy) to detect methane (CH₄). The system was chosen for its exceptional ability to differentiate between genuine gas leaks and environmental interference, thanks to its highly selective laser-based detection mechanism.

Unlike conventional IR detectors, which can be influenced by broad-spectrum interference from water vapour or particulate matter, the ELDS system uses a highly specific wavelength tuned to methane’s absorption spectrum. This allows it to more accurately detect gas concentrations even in the presence of environmental moisture, avoiding many of the issues faced by typical IR-based technologies.

The detection units were installed with support from a regional gas safety integrator. System integration included the alignment of laser transmitters and receivers over fixed detection paths, interface testing with the plant’s distributed control system (DCS), and validation of detection performance under different weather scenarios.

Figure 1. The laser-based sensors were installed to replace legacy infrared detectors that had suffered from reliability issues in humid environments.

Figure 2. The terminal plays a key role in India’s energy supply, handling high volumes of LNG imports and distribution.

Figure 3. The ELDS system’s ability to maintain detection integrity under adverse environmental conditions was a key factor in its selection.

Measurable impact: Reliability and safety enhancement

Following the installation of the new detectors, the LNG terminal reported zero false gas alarms over the six-month observation period. System logs confirmed consistent performance across a variety of weather conditions, including high humidity and coastal mist, environments that had previously compromised IR sensor reliability.

The reduction in false alarms resulted in several operational benefits:

z Improved process continuity: The terminal experienced fewer unnecessary shutdowns or slowdowns, improving throughput efficiency and maintenance planning.

z Enhanced safety assurance: Operators and safety personnel were able to rely on alarm signals, knowing they accurately represented hazardous conditions.

z Cost efficiency: Fewer unnecessary operational responses to false alarms led to a reduction in lost time and unplanned costs related to diagnostics or maintenance interventions.

Broader implications: Operational resilience in LNG facilities

cryogenic temperatures, leak detection accuracy is paramount, not just for compliance, but for the protection of personnel, assets, and surrounding communities.

Laser-based open path detection offers a viable alternative to traditional IR sensors in environments prone to interference. In this case, implementation was carried out without major structural alterations, offering a streamlined transition with minimal disruption to operations.

In addition, the ELDS system’s integrated self-diagnostic features reduce maintenance demand, enabling predictive maintenance strategies that further enhance plant uptime.

Conclusion: A case for laser-based detection in LNG infrastructure

The LNG operator’s decision to shift from IR to laser-based detection has delivered measurable performance improvements at a mission-critical terminal. By reducing false alarms, the facility not only safeguarded its operations, but also reinforced its safety culture and regulatory compliance.

This case underscores the value of applying technologydriven, site-specific solutions to enhance reliability and environmental resilience in energy infrastructure. The experience in Gujarat serves as a model for similar terminals facing performance limitations from conventional IR gas

Thitiya Tangtanawit, Lead Instrument Engineer at Engineering Department, CTCI Thailand, establishes the importance of operator training simulations for LNG terminals.

LNG terminals are critical infrastructure within the global energy supply chain. They play a central role in receiving, storing, regasifying, and delivering natural gas to end users. These operations involve managing cryogenic fluids, high-pressure systems, complex control networks, and high-stakes safety procedures all of which require a highly skilled and confident workforce. This is where operator training simulation (OTS) becomes vital.

An OTS is a computer-based dynamic simulation platform that mimics the real behaviour of a working LNG terminal. It replicates physical processes, control logic, instrumentation behaviour, and alarm responses in a virtual environment. This allows operators to practice hands-on skills such as start-ups, shutdowns, line-ups, and emergency responses without risk to personnel or assets.

Unlike passive learning, OTS-based training is immersive and experiential. Trainees interact with the same HMI screens, control sequences, and field equipment logic they use in the actual plant.

They learn by doing and, when mistakes are made, the simulator provides immediate feedback supporting reflective learning and performance improvement.

Numerous case studies in the energy sector show that operators who train with OTS respond faster, more accurately, and more consistently under pressure. Simulation also supports team co-ordination, as operators and field staff rehearse procedures and role clarity together especially during shift changes and critical transitions like cold start, high boil-off gas (BOG) load, or send-out ramping.

OTS system design and architecture

Designing an effective OTS for an LNG terminal requires more than just a dynamic model. To truly reflect real plant behaviour, the system must be tightly integrated with the same engineering datasets that define the actual distributed control system (DCS) and safety instrumented system (SIS). These databases contain

the control logic, alarm functions, interlock logic, and shutdown sequences that govern plant behaviour in both normal and emergency modes.

The OTS was built using the latest DCS/SIS configuration data, ensuring a high-fidelity simulation environment that mirrors real-world operations. Each scenario – from routine start-up to a compressor trip – is governed by the same control response logic and timing as the live system.

The OTS system includes a comprehensive architecture composed of multiple interlinked modules:

z Model station (MDL): Executes the process simulation, replicating thermal and hydraulic dynamics throughout the plant.

z Instructor workstation (ITF): Allows trainers to monitor operator actions, pause simulations, inject faults, and guide sessions based on pre-defined or spontaneous events.

z Human interface station (HIS): Provides operators with the exact same user interface and graphics as the actual DCS ensuring familiarity to live operations.

z Field operated device station (FOS): Simulates physical field devices like manual valves, MOVs, and sensors.

z Engineering station (ENG): Enables engineers to modify logic, update alarm settings, or build custom training scenarios.

z DCS/SIS simulator station (SIM): Emulates the real-time behaviour of control loops and safety functions, including start-up sequences, trips, and interlocks.

z SIS alarm station: Mimics emergency shutdown logic and alert handling, enabling operators to rehearse responses to SIS-initiated trips and overrides.

z OTS network and data storage: Stores simulation results, operator scores, and session logs – used for long-term performance tracking.

z Large screen system (video wall): Used for team-based training or classroom review, with multiple operators.

z Printer and logging system: Generates detailed records of each session, including alarms triggered, actions taken, and compliance with SOPs.

This modular architecture ensures that the OTS supports individual and group training, basic operations and advanced fault recovery, and live demonstrations during classroom sessions. It is not just a simulator – it is a full scale training environment.

To build this digital twin of the LNG terminal, the OTS vendor incorporated the following upstream design documents and datasets:

z The latest piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs).

z Verified heat and material balance (H&MB) reports.

z Full equipment list and tag specifications.

z Simulated ambient conditions reflecting seasonal operating cases.

z Defined battery limits and process boundary conditions.

z Control parameters for all major systems: LNG tanks, BOG/SOG compressors, vaporisers (ORV/IFV), pumps, exchangers, and metering skids.

z Manual and automated field devices, including control valve logic.

Figure 1. OTS system architecture.

z Cold utilisation modes, start-up cases, and malfunction scenarios.

z Vendor data for specialised equipment packages, including unloading arms, instrument air compressors, nitrogen systems, and metering skids.

Model validation and system testing

Before the OTS is released for hands-on use, it must be thoroughly validated against real plant documentation and expected operating behaviour.

The validation process included three key steps:

1. Process completeness: P&IDs were reviewed tag-by-tag to confirm all valves, instruments, and control loops were represented accurately.

2. Steady-state accuracy: Simulation results were matched against heat and material balance data to ensure flow, pressure, and temperature stayed within design tolerances.

3. Dynamic response testing: Start up, shutdown, and upset scenarios were run to verify alarm logic, interlocks, and mode transitions between Unloading to Holding mode accurately reflected actual control behaviour.

This process established confidence in the simulator’s accuracy, giving both trainers and operators the assurance that what they learn on the OTS reflects what they will experience in the field.

Training pillars: Core competencies for LNG operations

To deliver meaningful outcomes, an LNG terminal ’s OTS curriculum is structured around five core training domains. Each one is grounded in actual plant risks and responsibilities, aligning simulation tasks with operator accountability.

Process safety management

Operators practice failure detection, interlock navigation, and emergency response reinforcing the mindset that safety starts with anticipation, not reaction.

Personal safety and field behaviour

Simulation is not just for the control room. Field operators are trained on local responses to trips, valve status confirmation, and manual actions. Scenarios reinforce safe distances and co-ordinated action under time pressure.

Environmental responsibility

BOG handling, flare minimisation, and waste control are integrated into the training. Operators rehearse the proper transitions during send-out ramp-down or shutdown to avoid unnecessary emissions and protect compliance margins.

Community communication and emergency preparedness

Operators simulate high-stress incidents where communication clarity is essential. Role-play includes notifying control rooms, responding to sirens, and communicating with public safety co-ordinators all in line with emergency response plans.

HSSE reporting and incident logging

Post-scenario reviews include digital logbook entries, requiring operators to document their response timeline, decisions made, and alarms acknowledged. This builds traceability and reinforces audit-quality data habits.

Scenario-based learning: Building real-world readiness

At an LNG terminal, the OTS programme is centred around scenario-based learning. Rather than using static instruction

Figure 2. OTS user interface and facilities.

Figure 3. OTS alarm-trip simulator UI.

Figure 4. OTS instructor’s simulation work station.

Figure 5. Evaluation panel summarises tank level deviations, response timing, and penalty.

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or generic drills, each session is driven by real-world operating conditions pulled from live plant logic. This ensures that the challenges faced in simulation directly reflect the ones that may occur in actual operation.

The simulator tracks every detail of the trainee’s performance: timing, alarm acknowledgment, decision paths, and recovery steps. Control loop behaviour including interlocks, delay responses, and field feedback is built into the model. Alarms behave just as they would on the plant DCS, allowing operators to build reaction time and pattern recognition through repetition.

Scenarios are designed with progressive complexity. New operators begin with simple start-up tasks or tank line-ups. More advanced scenarios introduce slow pressure drift, BOG compressor instability, or low send-out transitions – requiring operators to use trend data and alarms to prevent escalation.

Example scenarios include:

z Maintaining stable tank pressure during a six-hour holding period.

z Responding to subtle temperature drift in the ORV outlet.

z Executing a compressor restart after trip, with interlock checks.

z Managing recondenser performance during rising BOG load.

z Performing a controlled transition into zero send-out mode.

These simulations are not just educational – they are strategic. They develop operator reflexes, strengthen cross-functional communication, and instill procedural fluency well before real conditions demand it. In LNG terminals, holding mode becomes the foundation for mastering LNG tank management, BOG control, and system readiness –making it the anchor for operator training in routine yet critical conditions.

Evaluation and reporting features

z Real-time trainee scoring based on pre-defined statistical criteria.

z Supports up to 150 evaluation panels, with 15 displayed per page.

z Allows grouping by scenario type (e.g. feed handling, pump trip).

z Enables instructors to assess performance trends, timing, and decision accuracy across multiple scenarios.

Holding mode: The backbone of operational readiness

In an LNG terminal, holding mode is often misunderstood as an idle state. In reality, it is a dynamic, delicate balance of pressure, temperature, and boil-off management. The OTS makes this clear to operators by treating holding mode as a full training scenario complete with active recondenser control, BOG load variation, and trend analysis.

In this holding mode, no LNG is being transferred to the customer and remains pressurised LNG in the system. Operators must monitor tank pressure closely and maintain flow through the recondenser using low pressure LNG to absorb vaporised gas. If the system begins to drift, compressor cycling, tank stratification, and alarm flooding can occur. Simulation tasks in holding mode include:

z Recognising slow tank pressure build up.

z Balancing recondenser load with variable LP LNG feed.

z Responding to compressor surge or low suction alarms.

Figure 6. Simulation tasks for trainee.

Figure 7. The overall regasification in holding mode.

z Performing periodic checklist verifications on safety-critical systems.

These simulations sharpen operator awareness, enhance control loop response, and build confidence to act early before issues escalate.

Holding mode model is chosen as the highlight OTS scenario because it represents routine terminal operations. Unlike occasional unloading, it involves daily pressure control, BOG handling, and system readiness – making it the most practical and frequent training case.

Mistakes in holding mode (e.g. missing pressure trends, BOG overload) can lead to zero send-out violations, safety trips, or flaring.

Emergency model as zero send-out KPI: Avoiding unplanned shutdowns

A key performance target at the terminal is maintaining ‘No Zero Send-Out’ – ensuring continuous delivery despite equipment issues or demand drops. The OTS prepares operators to manage this balance through hands-on scenarios. When send-out flow declines, operators must prevent tank pressure build up by:

z Adjusting ORV/IFV vaporiser load.

z Activating kickback loops to protect high pressure pumps.

z Switching BOG compressors to low-load mode.

z Preparing for a fast, controlled restart.

These proactive steps are practiced repeatedly in simulation, helping operators avoid shutdown triggers and preserve operational continuity. Each decision is reviewed in debriefing to reinforce precision, timing, and confidence under pressure.

In holding mode, stability is critical. Overfeeding seawater to ORVs during low send-out can overheat outlet vapour, destabilise control loops, and raise pipeline pressure, potentially triggering shutdowns. Simulating these scenarios trains operators to act early and protect the ‘No Zero Send-Out’ KPI.

Future outlook

OTS has become the cornerstone of operational readiness in modern LNG terminals. More than just a training interface, the OTS is a high-fidelity platform that connects process control logic, safety systems, and human performance into one seamless environment. Examples include digital twin integration, syncing live plant data with the simulation to support predictive training; artificial intelligence for adaptive learning paths; adaptive learning paths, tailored to individual operator performance; and immersive virtual reality modules for field simulation and spatial awareness.

Low flow <30% Ramp down ORV load

Minimum stable flow Activate kickback or idle high pressure pumps

BOG build up

ORV outlet temperature, unstable

Resume send-out

0100-FC-330 to 410

0100-FV-210, SDV-211A/B

Start standby BOG compressor PCS panel, compressor, auto start

Switch to IFV or alternate ORV

Prime metering valves, pre-pressurise

0100-SDV-331B to 411B

0100-XV-470A/B

OTS contributes to net zero and environmental, social, and governance targets by enhancing operational efficiency and reducing the risk of incidents that may lead to emissions by minimise flaring, energy waste, and unplanned shutdowns. This proactive approach supports lower carbon emissions and aligns with sustainability commitments, making OTS a strategic tool for achieving environmental and governance objectives.

Prevents over-open; matches vaporiser to demand

Protects high pressure pump from low flow via SIS logic

Load-based trigger via PCS or manual OTS start

Controlled by seawater flow permissive (2oo2)

Pipeline pressure logic enables valve operation

in holding mode and send-out of natural gas through the export gas metering.

Figure 8. OTS’s simulator in normal load

Table 1. Emergency model as zero send-out KPI: Avoiding unplanned shutdown

OTS)

2-5 FEBRUARY 2026

In a recent discussion with Jessica Casey, Editor of LNG Industry, Romuald Machac, Sales Manager Oil and Gas, Hutchinson, maps out the importance of continual innovation in the LNG industry regarding safety solutions.

The market is facing mixed dynamics, with LNG’s constant growth driven by sustained demand in Asia and massive infrastructure investments. Meanwhile, the oil market is experiencing a downturn due to falling oil prices, impacted by over production and slowing demand. Overall, the sector is facing short-term overcapacity, high volatility, and growing pressure from the energy transition.

Romuald Machac (RM), Sales Manager Oil and Gas at Hutchinson, explained the solutions available to the LNG industry to improve safety and hazard protection in a talk with Jessica Casey (JC), Editor of LNG Industry

JC: What are the main challenges you are currently facing, and how are you addressing them?

RM: In an oil and gas industry that is constantly evolving, ensuring the safety and performance of installations

has never been more critical. Industry players are facing diverse challenges: stringent regulations, environmental transition, and political instability that can impact supply chains and project timelines. In this context, Hutchinson positions itself as a key partner by ensuring the safety and durability of installations and operational reliability in hazardous environments through customised sealing and protection solutions.

Existing, and typically used cryogenic spillage protection (CSP)/passive fire protection (PFP) products, are epoxy paints known for their high chemical, mechanical, and corrosion resistance. They are mainly used in LNG facilities, which store LNG at around -162˚C, to protect metal surfaces from cryogenic spillage and fire hazards. However, they require a long installation time under favourable weather conditions (temperature and humidity) as multiple layers must be put on top of each other to meet different protection or

insulation needs. The question of constant performance over time, and with this time itself being requested by the market to be longer, Hutchinson’s teams have developed Zaltex, a new complete insulation solution with strong mechanical resistance.

Zaltex is a multilayer solution designed to offer dual PFP and CSP with thermal insulation. In environments where space optimisation and weight are important, Zaltex provides an efficient and compact alternative to traditional systems. Lightweight and easy to install, this solution significantly reduces maintenance requirements (non-destructive inspection) while ensuring full compliance with the most demanding industrial standards.

JC:

What

are the applications for these types of solutions?

RM: At Hutchinson, Zaltex is a highly versatile material and a solution that can be used across a wide range of industrial applications. One of Zaltex’s primary uses is the protection of the structure against accidental cryogenic spillage, and/or fire hazards, serving both as protection and thermal insulation that helps to maintain the integrity of the structure behind it. It can be used on various types of infrastructure such as LNG plants and offshore platforms and vessels.

JC: What are the key features of this solution for industrial insulation and protection?

RM: Zaltex in particular is composed of basalt fibres and phenolic composite foams, offering high thermal resistance across a wide temperature range – from cryogenic levels up to extreme fire. This stability under extreme conditions makes it suitable for long-term protection in scenarios involving fire or cryogenic spills, helping to maintain the safety of both facilities and personnel in high-risk industrial environments.

One of the strengths of Zaltex is its customisation. The panel’s density and surface finish can be fully tuneable, making it ideal to meet specific projects with strict technical specifications, whether related to space constraints, mechanical resistance, installation constraints, or thermal performance. This flexibility ensures optimal performance without compromising safety or efficiency.

Panels like these offer a balance between mechanical strength and thermal insulation. With its high mechanical resistance of 10 MPa or more, Zaltex helps to ensure the safety of installations, even under harsh operating conditions. It is a certified solution and offers long-term reliability, complying with industry standards.

JC:

Could you tell us more about which

certifications are necessary to qualify a solution

and what they involve?

RM: In order to qualify use in high-risk industrial environments, products must undergo a series of rigorous tests to ensure they meet international safety and performance standards.

For PFP, Zaltex has been tested according to standards such as ISO 22899-1 for jet fire resistance and UL 1709 for hydrocarbon pool fire exposure. These tests simulate extreme fire conditions to verify that the material can maintain its integrity and insulation properties for up to two hours, which is critical for protecting both infrastructure and personnel during emergency situations.

Table 1. Technical properties

Figure 1. Zaltex panels’ easy installation.

Figure 2. High mechanical resistance.

On the CSP side, Zaltex has passed cryogenic exposure tests such as ISO 20088-1 and is also certified with ISO 20088-3. These tests replicate sudden LNG spills or leaks, where temperatures can drop below -162˚C (tested at -198˚C). These tests evaluate the material’s ability to resist thermal shock, prevent cracking, and maintain mechanical stability under rapid temperature change for structures. Most of these tests have been witnessed by classification societies resulting in receiving certifications from their side.

JC: Who do these solutions address?

RM: Solutions such as Zaltex can be used wherever there are cryogenic fluids and/or inflammable products. This includes large scale industrial and energy infrastructure projects, particularly those operating in high-risk environments where safety, durability, and compliance are essential.

Hutchinson works closely with EPC contractors who are

JC:

What role could these solutions

play in the long-term evolution of the global LNG market?

Figure 3. Solutions of insulation and protection for LNG structures.

In a

discussion with LNG Industry, Vijay Kalaria, Global Head of Marketing and Sales, LNG,

INOXCVA, evaluates the prospect of LNG expansion in India and beyond.

During a discussion with LNG Industry, Vijay Kalaria, Global Head of Marketing and Sales, LNG, INOXCVA, reviewed the current position of LNG in India, exploring its adoption as a mobility fuel and the steps that must be taken to expand and support LNG infrastructure in the region.

LI: What is driving the adoption of LNG as a mobility fuel in India and globally?

VK: The push for LNG as a mobility fuel is gaining momentum due to the urgent need to find cleaner, more economical alternatives to diesel, especially in the heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) segment, which contributes nearly two-thirds of particulate emissions in India’s road transport sector. This segment consumes close to 34 million tpy of diesel, making the environmental and economic case for LNG very compelling.

LNG offers significant benefits, including up to 30% lower carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, negligible particulate matter, and near-zero sulfur and nitrous oxide emissions. LNG also

offers a cost advantage in fuel savings of more than 10%, and an improved mileage of another 10% in some use cases, which further strengthens its global appeal.

Indian authorities are aiming to convert one-third of 6 million trucks to LNG by 2032, supported by plans for 1000 LNG stations in the next 3 – 5 years. Globally, China has over 1 million LNG trucks and 4000+ stations, supported by toll waivers and subsidies. Europe, Southeast Asia, and Latin America are similarly expanding LNG infrastructure under their decarbonisation agendas.

LI: How are companies contributing to India’s transition towards cleaner mobility through LNG?

VK: INOX India is among those leading the clean mobility shift by offering comprehensive cryogenic solutions. Beyond LNG fuel tanks, the company is building complete LNG and LCNG fuelling infrastructure, fuelling stations, dispensers, and turnkey solutions alongside large Indian public sector undertakings (PSUs) such as IOCL, BPCL, HPCL, and GAIL,

as well as some of the largest private players. LNG fuelling infrastructure is enabling long-haul mobility with nearly 1000 LNG-powered trucks on road currently. By installing two 990 l tanks, trucks could cover up to 2400 km in range.

INOX India, India’s first and only IATF 16949-certified LNG vehicle fuel tank manufacturer, ensures safety and efficiency through post-installation services like training, operational support, and regulatory compliance. Each installation contributes to cleaner air, reduces imports bills, and lowers fleet operating costs, supporting India’s energy transition one route at a time.

LI: What differentiates these types of LNG mobility solutions from others in the market?

VK: INOX India’s fuel tanks are designed for long-haul performance, meeting rigorous global standards for safety, durability, and thermal efficiency. Beyond LNG fuel tanks for vehicles, the company offers turnkey solutions from cryogenic storage to station commissioning and training. INOX India also owns and operates a fleet of LNG tankers in India for servicing LNG fuelling stations across the country.

As early movers, investing in LNG infrastructure development over a decade ago, this foresight has given the company a head start in innovation, partnerships, and manufacturing readiness, making INOX India a trusted name in India’s LNG mobility journey.

LI: Tell us about the plans the company has made to ramp up LNG fuel tank manufacturing.

VK: INOX India is committed to scale up its LNG fuel tank manufacturing capacity to 30 000 units annually, a gradual tenfold increase as the demand grows. This will be implemented at our facility in Savli, Gujarat.

With growing interest from original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) like Tata Motors, Ashok Leyland, and others, this capacity expansion will help eliminate supply bottlenecks and meet the surge in demand swiftly and efficiently. This move will also generate skilled green jobs in manufacturing and drive localisation of clean mobility components.

LI:

How can companies support the LNG infrastructure ecosystem beyond just fuel tanks?

VK: Companies can help by supporting the full LNG mobility ecosystem. Along with vehicle fuel tanks, INOX India designs and commissions critical infrastructure including fuelling stations, LNG trailers, mini-LNG terminals, cryogenic storage tanks, vaporisers, regasification systems, and LNG transport logistics solutions.

These modular and scalable solutions enable regional distribution, particularly in remote and industrial areas, and align with India’s goal of deploying 1000 LNG stations in the next 3 – 5 years. INOX India works with PSUs to implement high-impact projects, leveraging engineering excellence and global certifications like PESO and IATF 16949.

The company also supports demand aggregation by aligning tank supply with OEM vehicle rollout. With regulatory approvals expanding LNG use in hazardous goods transport, demand for infrastructure is rising, thus positioning companies like INOX India as enablers of nationwide LNG infrastructure.

LI: Which vehicle segments are you seeing the most traction in for LNG mobility?

VK: LNG adoption is strongest in the heavy commercial vehicle (HCV) segment, long-haul trucks, logistics fleets traversing India’s highways, and State Transport Corp. buses. These vehicles, being major diesel consumers and polluters, are ideal candidates for switching to LNG fuel. OEMs like Tata Motors, Ashok Leyland, and others are rolling out LNG models, with INOX India supplying high-performance cryogenic tanks tailored for long-haul use.

Driven by cost savings of more than 10% over diesel, and additional fuel savings of 10%, and increasing environmental, social, and governance commitments, sectors like cement, steel, coal, automotive, fast-moving consumer goods, and solar manufacturing are integrating LNG into their fleet strategies.

Policy support through the ‘Draft LNG Policy’, which targets over 2 million LNG trucks by 2030, and INOX India’s readiness to scale up, makes this a high-growth segment. As infrastructure matures, opportunities will expand into public transport and municipal logistics as well.

LI: What kind of partnerships are companies building to promote LNG mobility?

VK: At INOX India, we are building strategic partnerships across the LNG ecosystem through collaborations with OEMs to align tank supply with vehicle launches and fleet expansions.

The company is also working with PSUs, as well as private players on LNG station development, supporting the national target of 1000 stations over the next 3 – 5 years.

Figure 2. INOXCVA’s LNG fuelling station in India.

Figure 1. INOXCVA’s LNG fuel tank mounted on a truck.

A key partnership for INOX India is our agreement with Adani Total Gas Ltd (ATGL) – under which both companies have preferred partner status for LNG/LCNG equipment and services. This includes joint initiatives in LNG stations, satellite plants, vehicle conversions, and hydrogen solutions.

INOX India is engaging with logistics players and fleet aggregators to promote LNG’s advantages and is exploring opportunities in South America, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa to position India as a global LNG mobility hub.

LI:

What are some of the key challenges for LNG adoption in mobility and how can they be addressed?

VK: LNG adoption faces challenges such as limited refuelling infrastructure, higher upfront vehicle costs, understanding and dealing with boil-off gas (BOG), and low awareness among fleet operators.

Another challenge is the infrastructure gap. Fleet operators are hesitant to invest in LNG vehicles if there are not enough readily available refuelling stations, especially along their regular routes. Conversely, infrastructure providers are reluctant to build expensive stations without a guaranteed customer base of LNG vehicles.

INOX India is helping bridge these gaps through its vision to significantly scale up its manufacturing of LNG fuel tank supply for OEMs, enabling faster market rollouts. The company also works closely with PSUs on station

deployment and supports demand aggregation by connecting OEMs, station developers, and fleet operators.

With end-to-end capabilities in design, manufacturing, compliance, and deployment, the company is building a self-sustaining LNG ecosystem. By aligning with national energy goals like raising gas’ share in India’s energy mix to 15% by 2030, companies such as INOX India are paving the way for widespread and inclusive LNG adoption.

LI: What is the future vision of INOXCVA for LNG mobility in India and other emerging markets?

VK: Our vision is to enable a cleaner and more resilient transport sector using LNG as a transition fuel, reducing emissions while offering operational and economic viability.

We are scaling up capacity, deepening partnerships, and enhancing global certifications to provide India-built LNG solutions to the world. Our 30 000 m3 tank capacity ensures readiness as fleet and OEM demand accelerates.

Beyond India, the company is targeting Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and South America where LNG is emerging as a viable option for decarbonising logistics. We aim to be not just a supplier, but a global leader in helping create the right LNG infrastructure.

With electric auto-charging infrastructure still limited in heavy-duty transport, very high up-front CAPEX, and limited driving range, LNG is a practical bridge to a cleaner future. INOX India is committed to making this transition real, affordable, and enduring for India and beyond.

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Justin Ellrich, Black & Veatch LNG Technology Manager, details the challenges and solutions for electric drives in LNG projects, now and for the future.

Continued growth of global LNG supply in a more emissions-conscious world is shifting the technologies employed throughout the natural gas value chain, particularly in liquefaction facilities. Motor-driven liquefaction solutions (e-LNG) are integral to achieving emissions reduction goals, but come with unique challenges not experienced by the traditionally gas turbine-driven designs. As LNG projects look to utilise this technology, it is imperative they understand it is not a one-size-fits-all solution. Specifically, interactions with the electric grid and its impact on reliability are different across geographies based on the existing infrastructure and source of generation. Achieving net-zero emissions with motor drive technology is also still reliant on the further development of renewable power with the volume and reliability necessary for large scale LNG in close proximity to the terminal.

Current state

Electric motors generally have a long history in LNG refrigeration services as the majority of small and mid scale facilities are motor driven. While some issues related to electrical stability have been encountered, these are historically relatively low power applications and do not experience all the challenges seen today in scaling up the technology to large facilities. While the technologies for motors and variable speed drives are mature in isolation, the combination of these as multiple parallel loads that become a large portion of the grid power consumption (especially in remote locations or islanded power scenarios) has led to instability in operations and reduced reliability. Solutions currently in practice and being studied for future applications include:

z Limiting the size of motors and paralleling compression per train.

z Drive selection in light of experience at size, harmonics/power factor, and ride-through capability.

z Mid scale train size, including nearshore floating LNG (FLNG) applications in development

z Removing cascading failures via single loop refrigeration to achieve availability targets.

Economics

Separate from the emissions-reduction benefits of e-LNG, economic considerations have been integral in the adoption

of electric technology or, in some instances, lack thereof. In such cases, it can be more cost-effective overall to choose gas turbines to drive LNG compression. e-LNG is lower in liquefaction plant costs because the motor itself is cheaper and requires less maintenance than gas turbines, resulting in more overall on-stream time across the life cycle of the asset. But while direct equipment costs for e-LNG are predominantly lower, overall cost reductions are not necessarily realised when significant generation and transmission infrastructure must be added or OPEX for electricity is high. There often are cases in which the installation of electric motors requires significant upgrades to surrounding transmission infrastructure and installation of a high-voltage substation. Adequate and competitively priced renewable power is necessary to compete with natural gas generation or direct gas turbine drives. The unfortunate current reality is there are not enough baseload renewables on the grid in many areas to power the electric motors at the scale needed for a larger LNG production plant, or that the available electricity is too intermittent or expensive to make the investment worthwhile.

Challenges

The maturity and experience list of motor-drive LNG plants may give a false sense of security regarding

performance in any location. As the scale of motor-driven LNG trains has increased, so too have the impacts to electrical infrastructure. This challenge actually flows both ways – external grid disruptions or voltage dips can bring a train offline, but harmonics and power factor of the LNG facility can cause significant disruption to the grid as well. Moreover, the larger portion of a grid area’s power the LNG plant consumes exacerbates the potential problems, so more remote areas without other significant electricity consumers have to tackle added complexity. While the general reliability and maintenance programmes for motors lead to greater availability than gas turbines if compared in isolation, these complex electrical interactions have shown in some instances to negate that advantage, but proper planning and technology selection can overcome it.

Solutions

Projects in British Columbia, Canada, are leading the way in wider adoption of electrification and decarbonisation. This is enabled by the geography and current grid infrastructure that boasts a large amount of baseload hydropower at economical rates. More generation and transmission infrastructure will be needed there to support new projects, but this region has a head start and is unique from many others. Further electrifying of medium to large scale LNG projects is nearly identical to the data centre boom so prevalent in the news. Hundreds of megawatts are needed for each project that either the current grid struggles to support – and may still be composed of higher-carbon sources – or is composed of intermittent renewables that may not meet reliability requirements.

Akin to many of the current data centre strategies, an ‘island’ or ‘captive’ power plant to serve only the LNG project has several references and others in development. While this does eliminate grid limitations, using a traditional combined cycle configuration still emits at levels that may not meet decarbonisation goals and can be 15 – 30% more costly with larger plot space required. Also of note when comparing a power plant with motor-drive design to direct gas turbine drives is the approximately 5 – 7% losses through the electrical system that debits efficiency gains that may be realised. However, a centralised power plant is a better target for carbon capture but is dependent on regulatory incentives and nearby sequestration capability to be viable, so externally sourcing the power will usually be preferred if available.

Whether low-carbon electricity access is suitable or an issue as discussed, the interaction of the large motors with the internal or external grid is critical to reliably producing LNG. Variable frequency drives (VFD) are commonly used for these applications for process control but more importantly for the dampening of impacts to electrical systems. The drive technologies themselves, load commutated inverter (LCI) and voltage source inverter (VSI),

Figure 1. Motor-driven compressor in PRICO® LNG facility.

Figure 2. Integrated LNG combined cycle power plant configuration.

are both mature with widespread use. But each has strengths and weaknesses that must be overlaid with specific project parameters, so there is not a simple and easy choice applying to all scenarios. This is an expansive topic on its own and the details are not covered herein, but early understanding and modelling of the system from each motor back to the point of common grid interconnection and beyond is necessary to make the proper selection that balances power factor, harmonics, and reliability – not just the drive itself, but the ability to ride-through external disruptions – that are unique to each project and location.

Mid scale liquefactions trains, generally 0.25 million – 2 million tpy, are commonplace in one-off applications for smaller volumes of gas. However, the market has been accelerating adoption of mid scale trains with multiple in parallel to reach larger overall LNG capacities. There are several benefits from this configuration, but from an electrification perspective, this size results in smaller motors with greater experience and more predictable behaviour. Black & Veatch’s PRICO® technology is now employing parallel compression in mid scale trains to reach 1.6 million – +2 million tpy to provide a more capital-efficient solution (additional capacity with less trains) while remaining within comfortable motor sizes to better manage the electrical system risks.

Beyond compression

Focus is placed on refrigeration compressor drivers when thinking about electrification because the majority

of emission sources are replaced going from turbines to motors, but the need for process heat in the gas treatment section of an LNG plant also usually requires fuel consumption that can be targeted for reduction or elimination. Similar to other discussions previously, electric solutions for heating are widely employed and mature. The challenge when applying to larger scales is the current limitation of such equipment needing multiple units in parallel to achieve large duties, so the additional space, weight, and electrical equipment necessary makes retrofitting more difficult and must be planned early for greenfield developments to incorporate properly into the layout.

Conclusion

Even if current market conditions or renewable power availability do not support short-term e-LNG economics, adopting electric drives with consideration of future market changes and premium pricing for low-carbon cargoes or to more quickly respond to regulatory shifts may be advantageous to greater position a facility to smoothly transition to low-carbon operation even years after start-up. Motor and drive technology is mature, but the complexity lies in the layers of process and electrical system design and regional grid infrastructure planning, which must be well understood and is paramount to selecting the proper technologies for liquefaction trains to produce LNG reliably while also achieving emissions reduction goals.

CRYOGENIC PUMP

LNG Industry previews a selection of companies that will be exhibiting at this year’s Gastech in Milan, Italy, from 9 – 12 September 2025.

Alkegen

Alkegen is a global leader in developing and providing high-performance specialty materials designed to positively impact the environment by saving energy, reducing pollution, and improving fire safety for people, buildings, and equipment.

The company is introducing a new line of ultra-low-dust aerogel insulating technology materials engineered for industrial environments: AlkeGel Ember, AlkeGel Glacier, and AlkeGel Fyre. These fibre-enhanced aerogels offer advantages in their improved product handleability, fire resistance, and acoustical performance.

Aspen Aerogels. The world’s longest LNG unloading line is 5.6 km (3.48 miles) long. Cryogel® was used to fully insulate and protect the critical asset with zero contraction points. It provides all-weather performance while saving time, space, and weight.

Baker Hughes. Baker Hughes’ LM9000 aeroderivative gas turbine – the most efficient gas turbine in the 65+ MW power range.

Bechtel. The Corpus Christi Liquefaction Stage 3 expansion includes Bechtel’s EPC execution of seven mid scale trains, powered by Chart Technologies with motor driven refrigeration compressors. Source: Cheniere.

Compared to traditional aerogel blankets, Alkegen’s aerogel technology has 80% less dust and can be installed up to 20% faster. AlkeGel offers excellent handleability; it is easy to cut, lightweight, and gets the job done without the expensive personal protective equipment that traditional aerogels require.

Aspen Aerogels, Inc.

Stand E142

For more than two decades, Aspen Aerogels has been setting the standard in cryogenic insulation, delivering field-tested and trusted aerogel blanket solutions. Cryogel® Z has been specified in nearly 50 major LNG liquefaction and regasification projects around the world.

Cryogel Z offers protection from cold splash, jet fire, and acoustic exposure – all while simplifying installation, lowering total installed cost, minimising thermal losses, and improving profitability.

Visit the booth to see how the company’s legacy of aerogel innovation is helping the LNG industry move forward –efficiently, safely, and sustainably.

Baker Hughes

Stand C50 and AI::Energy Zone, Hall 24

Baker Hughes is an energy technology company that provides solutions to energy and industrial customers worldwide. Built on a century of experience and conducting business in over 120 countries, its innovative technologies and services are taking energy forward – making it safer, cleaner, and more efficient for people and the planet.

BASF

Stand L10

BASF’s gas treatment portfolio, featuring OASE® acid gas removal and Durasorb® adsorbent technologies, are instrumental in delivering essential gas treatment solutions to its customers. Throughout the value chain, BASF combines experience, reliability, and innovation, establishing itself as a distinct supplier and partner in the gas industry. The company’s diverse portfolio encompasses acid gas removal, heavy hydrocarbon removal, and dehydration, addressing fundamental gas treatment needs. BASF has a global manufacturing and logistics footprint to provide customers with a reliable supply of specialty chemicals and adsorbents. BASF actively promotes sustainability across the value chain, facilitating the transformation of the chemical industry towards achieving net-zero emissions.

Bechtel

Stand K16, Hall 18

Bechtel is a trusted engineering, construction, and project management partner to industry and government. Since 1898, the company has helped customers complete over 25 000 projects in 160 countries on all seven continents that have created jobs, grown economies, improved the resiliency of the world’s infrastructure, increased access to energy, resources, and vital services, and made the world a safer, cleaner place. Bechtel’s services span from initial planning and investment, through start-up and operations.

Black & Veatch

Stand F33

Join Black & Veatch at Gastech to explore how the company delivers end-to-end expertise across every stage of the gas value chain. With over a century of experience, it provides innovative and comprehensive solutions that strengthen energy security while supporting the development of diversified energy products and bankable, low-carbon infrastructure.

Burckhardt Compression

Stand M10

Burckhardt Compression creates leading compression solutions for a sustainable energy future and the long-term success of its customers. Burckhardt Compression is the only global manufacturer that covers a full range of reciprocating compressor technologies, services, and digital monitoring solutions. Its customised and modularised compressor systems are used in the chemical/petrochemical, gas transport and storage, hydrogen mobility, and energy and industrial gas sectors, as well as for applications in refinery and gas gathering and processing. Since 1844, its passionate, customer-oriented, and solution-driven workforce has set the benchmark in the gas compression industry.

Cannon Artes

Stand J96

Cannon Artes, a leading global engineering and construction company, provides tailored water and wastewater treatment plants for the energy sector. Expert engineering, vast know-how, and Italian craftsmanship help customers reduce their water footprint, treating more than 500 million m3/y through many water treatment plants installed worldwide. A rich portfolio of proprietary technologies and decades of experience allows the company to address complex challenges within the sector, providing customisable solutions with specific attention paid to sustainability and water recovery. Focus areas include effluent water treatment and reuse, desalination and condensate polishing, and produced and injection water treatment.

CB&I

Stand

E92

CB&I is a world leading designer and builder of storage facilities, tanks, and terminals. With more than 60 000 structures completed throughout its 135+ year history, CB&I has the global expertise and strategically located operations to provide its customers world-class storage solutions for even the most complex energy infrastructure projects. CB&I is owned by a consortium of financial investors led by Mason Capital Management.

Chart

Stand H112

Chart is proud to work alongside others creating its shared goal of advancing LNG and hydrogen as key contributors to a lower carbon, sustainable energy future. At the cornerstone of the business is a broad portfolio of complementary products and it is the integration of these products to deliver highly engineered solutions, used from the beginning to the end in the LNG value chain, that makes Chart unique.

From liquefaction, distribution, and storage through to end use energy and fuelling solutions, Chart is a preferred partner with a proven track record of delivering key projects with reduced cost, schedule, and risk.

EffecTech

EffecTech is a global leader in gas measurement, providing accredited products, support services, and consultancy. From its UKAS accredited calibration and testing laboratories in the UK, EffecTech supplies high-quality products and services to customers globally,

Chart. Concept to reality: From the earliest feasibility study to comprehensive aftermarket programmes, Chart is there throughout the complete project lifecycle.

Cannon Artes. An integrated waste water treatment and water reuse plant supplied by Cannon Artes in a petrochemical plant in South East Asia.

Burckhardt Compression. Burckhardt Compression’s production in South Korea.

BUILT ON EXPERTISE AND INNOVATION. ENGINEERED TO OUTPERFORM.

We design and manufacture specialized deepwell and submerged marine pumps for vital applications within fuel, cargo, and offshore operations.

Our pump technology handles LNG, LPG, ammonia, methanol, and CO₂ - enabling safe and efficient transport across the energy value chain. Alongside our pump solutions, we provide advanced tank gauging systems and carbon capture solutions - all engineered to support the transition to cleaner energy.

With nearly 100 years of engineering excellence and global service, Svanehøj is your trusted partner - onshore, offshore, and at sea.

Visit us at booth O43 at Gastech to explore our reliable solutions.

ensuring traceability and accuracy for natural gas, and transition fuels, including LNG, biomethane, and hydrogen-enriched fuel gases.

Endress+Hauser

Stand P42

Endress+Hauser is a global leader in measurement instrumentation, services, and solutions for industrial process engineering. The company provides process solutions for flow, level, pressure, analytics, temperature, recording, and digital communication, optimising processes in terms of economic efficiency, safety, and environmental impact.

Endress+Hauser Optical Analysis is the global leader in spectroscopic instrumentation for chemical composition and concentration analysis. The company’s offerings harness the powerful analytical information of Raman spectroscopy, tuneable diode laser spectroscopy (TDLAS), and quenched fluorescence (QF) to help its customers understand, measure, and control their laboratory and process chemistries.

ExxonMobil

Stand

I50

ExxonMobil, one of the largest publicly traded international energy and petrochemical companies, creates solutions that improve quality of life and meet society’s evolving needs.

The corporation’s primary businesses – Upstream, Product Solutions, and Low Carbon Solutions – provide products that enable modern life, including energy, chemicals, lubricants, and lower-emissions technologies. ExxonMobil holds an industry-leading portfolio of resources, and is one of the largest integrated fuels, lubricants, and chemical companies in the world.

With over 40 years of global leadership experience in LNG, ExxonMobil is active across the natural gas value chain. The company’s global presence and integrated approach across its businesses positions ExxonMobil to create innovative solutions to help meet the world’s growing natural gas and power demands.

Gas and Heat. Connecto is a modular 40-ft container designed to connect up to 10 ISO containers, enabling the fastest LNG distribution from FSU/FSRU units.

Gas and Heat S.p.A

Stand K72, Hall 18

Gas and Heat S.p.A. is a leading company in the design, construction, supply, and installation of systems for vessels dedicated to the maritime transport of liquefied gases.

Gas and Heat, an Italian company with a global vision and over 70 years of history, has delivered more than 150 cryogenic storage tanks to date.

The company provides comprehensive solutions from feasibility studies to ship design, including shipyard selection, construction supervision, and commissioning.

Gas and Heat is also actively engaged in the design, development, and deployment of systems that utilise alternative fuels – such as ammonia and hydrogen – to support the decarbonisation of the maritime sector.

GE Vernova

Stand E24

GE Vernova is a purpose-built global energy company that includes power, wind, and electrification segments and is supported by its accelerator businesses. Building on over 130 years of experience tackling the world’s challenges, GE Vernova is uniquely positioned to help lead the energy transition by continuing to electrify the world while simultaneously working to decarbonise it. The company helps customers power economies and deliver electricity that is vital to health, safety, security, and improved quality of life. Supported by the company’s purpose, The Energy to Change the World, GE Vernova technology helps deliver a more affordable, reliable, sustainable, and secure energy future.

Hutchinson

Stand A122, France Pavilion

With presence in 25 countries, spread over 100 sites and with over 170 years of expertise, Hutchinson is a leader in the design and manufacture of high-performance sealing, insulation, and vibration control solutions for energy, automotive, aerospace, defence, and railway.

Meet the teams at the French Pavilion, Booth A122, to discover the company’s cryogenic and fire insulation solutions for LNG facilities. Zaltex panels offer dual passive protection against fire (PFP) and cryogenic spillage protection (CSP), while Triplex ensures sealing of the secondary barrier inside LNG tanks.

INOXCVA

Stand M92

INOXCVA delivers end-to-end LNG solutions that accelerate clean mobility and industrial decarbonisation. The company’s portfolio spans small scale liquefaction, storage tanks, ISO containers, road/rail cryogenic tankers, bunkering systems, and modular mini-terminals for receiving, regasification, and distribution. It engineers vehicle fuel tanks for trucks, buses, mining equipment, and locomotives, enabling diesel displacement with lower emissions and superior total cost of ownership. Backed by decades of cryogenic excellence, global manufacturing, and strict safety standards, the company provides comprehensive EPC execution, digital monitoring, and lifecycle service – from design and commissioning to operations support. INOXCVA’s scalable, reliable LNG infrastructure empowers customers to transition to cleaner energy with confidence.

INOXCVA. INOXCVA’s LNG trailer.

Korean Register

Stand H11

At Gastech 2025, Korean Register (KR) will unveil two new flagship digital platforms designed to help shipowners and operators meet tightening IMO and regional emissions regulations. These innovations will use operational, AIS, and environmental data to simulate greenhouse gas reduction strategies, identify fuel-use patterns, and improve vessel efficiency, supporting a smoother path to carbon neutrality.

KR will also showcase its strengthened partnerships with leading Korean shipbuilders, HD Hyundai Group, Hanwha Ocean, and Samsung Heavy Industries. At least eight AiPs and MoUs are expected to be signed on site, underscoring KR’s commitment to innovation and advancing the commercialisation of environmentally-friendly vessels and alternative fuel systems.

MIB ITALIANA SPA

Stand J91

Trusted by the world’s leading energy players, MIB ITALIANA SPA delivers cutting-edge Emergency Release Systems and complete transfer solutions for the gas industry. With over 50 years of experience and innovation, MIB ensures safe, efficient transfer of LNG, LPG, and other cryogenic or high-pressure gases – even in the most demanding environments. MIB’s success is built on close partnerships with global oil and gas companies, ship and terminal owners and operators, and is fuelled by a relentless commitment to surpass even the most demanding industry standards.

MIB ITALIANA SPA. MIB Emergency Jetty Release System –ensuring safe, high-pressure natural gas transfer from FSRU to jetty. Courtesy of Snam.

MySep Pte Ltd & Kranji Solutions Ltd

Stand G114

Kranji Solutions Pte Ltd is a Singapore-based consulting firm specialising in separation technologies for the energy industry. Kranji delivers separation system performance analysis, root cause failure analysis, retrofit solutions, and design consulting. Its business foundations include vendor-independent expert CFD analyses, MySep process evaluations, laboratory-based research and development, and almost two decades of specialist expertise.

EMPOWER ASSET PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND DIGITAL TWINS

CLUE is the AI based solution that supports you in the management of your assets by providing:

✓ Equipment health status awareness

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✓ Root Cause Analysis

✓ Prediction of the Remaining Useful Life

The company’s core troubleshooting and de-bottlenecking successes includes many projects with leading operators and licensors in LNG and gas processing. Kranji is the original creator of industry-standard MySep separation software, now developed and commercially licensed worldwide, by sister company MySep Pte Ltd.

OLT Offshore LNG Toscana

Stand J110

OLT Offshore LNG Toscana is the company that owns and manages the floating regasification terminal FSRU Toscana, located off the coast of Tuscany, Italy. With a maximum authorised regasification capacity of 5 billion standard m3/y, it plays a pivotal role in contributing to the security and diversification of the country’s energy supply.

The terminal is also authorised to provide small scale LNG service, which enables the loading of LNG into small carriers for the distribution to ports and off-grid industries, promoting the decarbonisation of maritime and land transport. With this

new service, FSRU Toscana is confirmed as a strategic hub for the development of maritime bunkering and the LNG supply chain. Moreover, the terminal can now receive LNG from small LNG carriers to be regasified and injected into the grid.

OLT’s strategic position and advanced infrastructure support the transition to a more flexible and sustainable energy system in the Mediterranean region.

OPW Clean Energy Solutions

Stand O31

OPW Clean Energy Solutions is a trusted partner in cryogenic innovation. Backed by industry-leading brands: RegO Products, Acme Cryogenics, Demaco, CPC-Cryolab, and SPS, the company delivers end-to-end solutions for LNG, hydrogen, helium, and industrial gas applications. From storage to flow control, its technologies are engineered for mission-critical performance across mobility, aerospace, energy, and healthcare. As the authority in cryogenics, the company combines decades of proven expertise with innovation to support the global energy transition.

SCHOTT AG

Stand O40

As a global technology group, SCHOTT supports safety-critical energy applications worldwide. In the LNG industry, SCHOTT Eternaloc® terminal headers are key components for cryogenic submerged pumps and expanders – and have been the industry’s first choice for decades. Based on glass-to-metal sealing, they enable hermetic, maintenance-free performance and withstand extreme pressure and temperature.

Proven in thousands of pumps and expanders transporting LNG, ammonia, hydrogen, LPG, and other cryogenic or pressurised fuels, SCHOTT solutions help to prevent leakage and electrical failure.

Certified according to ATEX, IECEx, and ISO 21014. Discover proven sealing technology at Gastech 2025.

Sempra Infrastructure

Sempra Infrastructure, headquartered in Houston, the US, is focused on delivering energy for a better world by developing, building, operating, and investing in modern energy infrastructure, such as LNG, energy networks, and low-carbon solutions that are expected to play a crucial role in the energy systems of the future. Through the combined strength of its assets in North America, Sempra Infrastructure is connecting customers to safe and reliable energy and advancing energy security.

Stirling Cryogenics

Stand J6

Stirling Cryogenics designs and manufactures Cryogenerators for LNG, liquid hydrogen, ammonia, ethylene, and boil-off gas (BOG) management, among others. These units have been specifically modified for BOG management through gas reliquefaction or liquid sub-cooling for fuel stations and maritime applications. If needed, the required cooling capacity can be achieved by installing multiple Cryogenerators in parallel. The modular design provides operational flexibility and the needed redundancy for a project.

For maritime applications, the units are equipped with vibration dampeners and painted with a corrosion-preventive

Stirling Cryogenics. BOG management solution of 18.5 kW provided by Stirling Cryogenics.

Svanehøj. The Svanehøj DW Fuel Pump was introduced to the market in 2015 and is fully compatible with all types of fuel gas, including LNG, LPG, ethane, methanol, and ammonia.

OLT Offshore LNG Toscana. The commissioning of the small scale LNG service at the FSRU Toscana terminal.

paint, meeting regulations from Lloyds, DNV, and ABS. More than 25 vessels are already using, or will use, Stirling Cryogenerators as a BOG management solution (new, retrofits, or upgrading).

Svanehøj

Stand O43

Svanehøj designs and manufactures specialised pumps for critical applications in fuel systems, cargo handling, and offshore operations, as well as high-end tank control systems for onshore and offshore LNG and LPG storage. Additionally, the company is a leading provider of inspections, servicing, and calibration of cargo equipment on tankers.

Svanehøj’s mission is to power a better future by leading the transition to renewable energy in shipping and other hard-to-abate sectors. As a liquefied gas specialist, it has delivered more than 15 000 cargo pumps and 1000 fuel pumps worldwide. Svanehøj’s deepwell pump technology is compatible with all forms of liquefied gas, including LNG, LPG, CO2, ammonia, and methanol.

Wärtsilä

Hall 18, Booth I11

At Gastech 2025, Wärtsilä will present its latest technologies, solutions, and services designed to drive decarbonisation within the maritime sector.

Hermetic. Reliable. Maintenance-free.

Attendees will have the opportunity to learn about advanced LNG systems supporting the fuel transition, methods for methane slip reduction, as well as explore broader decarbonisation pathways.

Wärtsilä representatives will be on hand to offer expert guidance on ensuring compliance with evolving environmental regulations, all while maintaining operational reliability.

During the event, Kent Åstrand, Strategy Manager, will join a panel about onboard carbon capture solutions, and Diego Pauluzzi, General Manager, Decarbonisation, will speak about hybrid-electric propulsion for LNG bunker vessels.

Refreshments will be available on 9 and 10 September at 15:30 at the booth.

ZALUX

Stand P31

ZALUX is a European leader in high-protection luminaires for industrial, demanding environments, and hazardous areas. With over 45 years of experience and production based in Spain, the company delivers sustainable lighting solutions for the harshest conditions. Its explosion-proof LED luminaires for Ex zones 1 and 2 are ideal for oil, gas, chemical, petrochemical, energy, and heavy industry applications. Certified by EPCs and end users worldwide, ZALUX contributes to major international projects. Its products meet ATEX and IECEX standards and feature advanced LED technology and intelligent controls.

Eternaloc® terminal headers are safety-critical components of cryogenic submerged pumps and expanders - and have been the industry’s first choice for decades. Discover why.

Ricky

Seto,

ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation, highlights the importance of advanced corrosion under insulation mitigation and the role it plays in optimising LNG tank maintenance.

LNG facilities rely heavily on insulation systems to maintain the extreme cold required to safely store and transport cryogenic materials. This insulation, commonly applied around piping, tanks, and other equipment, ensures the LNG stays at or below -258˚F (-161˚C) to prevent it from reverting to its gaseous state.

Even a well-designed insulation system is not immune to the rigors of time, which makes routine inspections a critical component of any tank maintenance programme. Numerous insulation inspection methods exist, including non-destructive testing (NDT) methods that allow an inspector to peek in the insulation system

with minimal disruption. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic testing, X-ray testing, and moisture monitoring, to name a few. Inspection ports can also offer a way to see underneath an insulation system. Although, the placement and maintenance of these ports should not be overlooked as they can potentially become points of leakage.

The ‘invisible’ threat of water ingress

Routine insulation inspection is so critical because beneath the surface of even the most well-engineered insulation systems, an ongoing challenge persists: water ingress and the resulting threat of corrosion under insulation (CUI).

Water finds its way into insulation systems from various sources – rain, saltwater mist, condensation, washdowns, and even process leaks. Over time, cracks in cladding and gaps in insulation make it easier for water to migrate down to underlying metal surfaces. Once there, the contaminants brought in by the water can initiate localised corrosion. Known as CUI, this phenomenon is especially damaging due to its ability to stay hidden until failure occurs.

CUI poses serious risks for LNG operations. In addition to compromising thermal insulation performance, it can result in costly unplanned maintenance, ice accumulation, process leaks, and environmental and safety hazards. Industry data suggests that CUI contributes to up to 10% of total plant maintenance costs and as much as 60% of pipeline maintenance expenses. 1 While much of an LNG facility operates at cryogenic temperatures where corrosion risks are lower, certain areas – such as piping for process gases and vapours – can reach higher temperatures, which exacerbate corrosion rates and heighten the need for effective CUI mitigation. The risk for CUI actually goes up during higher temperatures to up to 350˚F (177˚C).

Above these temperatures, water usually steams out of an insulation system, keeping the metallic surfaces underneath relatively dry and thus decreasing the risk of CUI.2

A sound tank and pipe maintenance programme must prioritise insulation materials that not only insulate effectively but also manage moisture and corrosion risks efficiently.

Keeping CUI at bay with water-repellent insulation

Recognising the scale of the CUI challenge, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation has developed stone wool-based insulation solutions engineered specifically to repel water even at high temperatures and help facilities minimise the risks and costs associated with CUI. Stone wool insulation is typically used in high-temperature applications where CUI risk is high.

ROCKWOOL’s ProRox TM MA 960 with water repellency technology (WR-Tech TM ) is one such solution. Designed for large diameter pipework, tanks, heat exchangers, and turbines common in high-temperature applications within an LNG facility, this mat (wrap) insulation combines robust thermal and acoustic performance with a breakthrough in water repellency. The WR-Tech binder coats every fibre of the stone wool insulation with an inorganic, high temperature-resistant hydrophobic agent. This helps minimise water absorption in the insulation and speed up the drying process, protecting both the insulation’s integrity and the metal substrate beneath.

Testing to stringent industry standards

The effectiveness of WR-Tech has been demonstrated through rigorous industry-standard testing. Samples of ProRox MA 960 with WR-Tech were tested to the EN ISO 29767 (formerly EN 1609) standard, the European standard for determining short-term water absorption by partial immersion. Samples were partially immersed in water for 24-hour periods and tested under the following conditions:

z Immediately after heating to 482˚F (250˚C) for 24 hours.

z After ageing for six months at ambient temperatures.

z After cyclic heating at 122˚F (50˚C) and 482˚F for 21 days.

All samples maintained the same low level of water absorption: less than 0.2 kg of water per m2 of sample. This was five times lower than the water absorption of other insulation materials tested to the same standard.

Further, in full immersion tests for two hours per ASTM C1763, the ProRox MA 960 with WR-Tech demonstrated rapid drying behaviour:

z Immediately post-immersion, only 1.2% water was absorbed by volume.

z After 2 hours, samples demonstrated only 0.5% water by volume.

Figure 1. ProRoxTM MA 960 with WR-TechTM can be installed around large columns, tanks, and other equipment to minimise corrosion risks for high temperature applications.

z After 48 hours, the samples showed essentially 0% by volume of water absorbed.

This rapid dry-out capability is crucial in active plant environments where insulation must perform even after it is exposed to water.

Another key feature of WR-Tech is its low, water-soluble chloride content – below 10 ppm – which minimises the insulation’s influence on accelerating corrosion on steel surfaces. This complies with critical industry standards like ASTM C795 and EN 13468.

Additional performance benefits for LNG operations

Solutions such as ProRox MA 960 with WR-Tech bring several operational advantages to LNG plants and maintenance and operations teams.

Easy installation with less downtime

With fewer application layers than conventional insulation options, solutions such as ProRox MA 960 are faster and easier to install. The mat (wrap) insulation applies easily to vessels, columns, and complete pipeline systems – including around bends – without the need for sealants, off-site cutting, or specialised personal protective equipment.

Freeing up space in tight places

In the case of ProRox MA 960, it installs at a fraction of the thickness of conventional insulation materials, making it easier to apply around tight pipe bends or in areas with limited clearance space.

Delivering effective acoustics suppression in a thinner profile

In addition to excellent thermal insulation performance, solutions like ProRox MA 960 deliver effective acoustics insulation for inherently noisy plant operations. With stone wool as its base material, ProRox MA 960 meets ISO 15665 standards for recommended insertion loss levels for Classes A, B, C, and D, and sometimes at less than half the thickness of other insulation materials.

Minimising a plant’s carbon footprint

Stone wool insulation, such as ProRox MA 960, minimises heat losses in hot pipes and tanks to save on the plant’s energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. On average, ROCKWOOL’s stone wool insulation saves more than 100 times the energy consumed and CO 2 emitted in its production of a 65-year lifetime. 3

Field-proven success

The advantages of WR-Tech are already evident in real-world operations. At an LNG liquefaction facility in southwest Louisiana, US, ProRox MA 960 was chosen for its thermal, acoustic, and corrosion protection. This facility, which has a capacity of producing up to 6.75 million tpy of LNG, is located near ecologically sensitive wetlands and coastal areas. As a result, the facility prioritises operational safety and environmental stewardship. WR-Tech-supported insulation has proven durability and water resistance that has helped

the facility meet its insulation performance and sustainability goals.

Ongoing innovations for pipework protection

ROCKWOOL’s efforts to mitigate CUI continue with the introduction of ProRox PS 965, a mandrel wound pipe insulation with corrosion-resistant technology (CR-Tech TM), an advanced corrosion inhibitor embedded directly into the inner layer of the insulation – right where moisture first contacts the pipe surface.

CR-Tech is activated by water ingress. When moisture reaches the pipe wall, the embedded inhibitor forms a passivating film that impedes corrosion development. Used in combination with WR-Tech’s water repellence, CR-Tech represents a dual-defense system for high-risk areas.

Laboratory testing has confirmed the long-term performance of CR-Tech solutions:

z Simulated 15-year rainfall exposure per a modified ASTM G189 method.

z Cyclic wet-dry testing at elevated temperatures (284˚F/140˚C dry and 140˚F/60˚C wet).

z Exposure to high-chloride environments.

In all scenarios, insulation containing CR-Tech consistently outperformed other insulation materials –offering five times better corrosion protection while maintaining insulation and acoustic performance.

Looking forward to future LNG plant maintenance improvements

As the global LNG industry continues to expand, the need for durable, high-performance insulation systems will only grow. Whether retrofitting ageing infrastructure or constructing new facilities, LNG operators must prioritise long-term reliability, safety, and environmental responsibility.

Solutions like ProRox MA 960 with WR-Tech and ProRox PS 965 with CR-Tech offer a compelling path forward – delivering proven performance in water repellency, corrosion resistance, and insulation efficiency. By reducing the hidden costs and risks associated with CUI, these advanced materials enable more predictable maintenance schedules, better asset protection, and improved safety for workers and communities alike.

References

1. ‘International Measures of Prevention, Application, and Economics of Corrosion Technologies Study’, Nace International Impact, (1 March 2016), pp. D – 11, http://impact.nace.org/documents/Nace-InternationalReport.pdf

2. ‘Control of Corrosion under Thermal Insulation and Fireproofing Materials – A Systems Approach’, NACE International, (5 July 2017), https://webstore.ansi. org/preview-pages/NACE/preview_NACE+SP0198-2017. pdf?srsltid=AfmBOoqm2f1IzB_35R4-2Tzb9JTQDAKIznkr0b6z rG20rLtP73uxL__m

3. ‘Sustainability at ROCKWOOL: Annual Report 2024’, ROCKWOOL, (6 February 2025), https://rti.rockwool.com/ about-us/sustainability/

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In a Q&A with LNG Industry, Mario Silvestro, Product Manager, Seal for Life, and Mark Krajewski, Senior Director of Technical Services, Aspen Aerogels, explore the benefits of using aerogel insulation and polyisobutene systems for LNG new builds and retrofits.

As the LNG industry intensifies efforts to safeguard asset integrity and minimise corrosion-related risks, there is a growing shift towards proactive protection strategies aimed at reducing maintenance demands and operational downtime. Traditional insulation and sealing systems often fall short, leading to inconsistent performance and ambiguity in failure attribution. These challenges highlight the importance of engineered vapour barriers and cryogenic insulation technologies, which are critical for delivering consistent, long-term reliability in extreme service environments. In this article, Mario Silvestro (MS), Product Manager, Seal for Life, and Mark Krajewski (MK), Senior Director of Technical Services, Aspen Aerogels, provide answers to key questions

from LNG Industry (LI) about insulation solutions in the LNG industry.

LI: What are some of the major areas of concern for LNG facility asset owners?

MS : Asset owners of LNG facilities face many critical challenges that can impact the performance, safety, and profitability of their operations. One of those issues is managing heat gain into, and preventing surface condensation on, cryogenic pipelines and equipment. This task falls to the insulation system selected to thermally protect the cryogenic process assets. These insulation systems are highly engineered and complex systems

that not only provide the required thermal resistance, but also create a tight water vapour seal around every insulated asset.

These insulation systems are so critical because heat ingress causes LNG to evaporate, resulting in operational inefficiencies and higher costs. Excess surface condensation can lead to bio-fouling, slippery surfaces, and long-term degradation of supporting structures. The predominant cause of reduced insulation performance is a breach in the insulation system’s vapour barrier, which allows moisture to infiltrate the insulation system. The moisture freezes, significantly increasing thermal conductivity and compromising the insulation’s effectiveness. This degradation, often observed in traditional insulation and vapour sealing systems, carries broader operational and financial implications, such as reduced throughput and increased operating expenses. To mitigate these risks, asset owners now have the ability to implement advanced materials, insulation based on aerogel technology, and next-generation vapour barrier systems utilising polyisobutylene (PIB) chemistry.

LI: What is the latest technology making advances in the sector?

MS : PIB-based vapour barriers are redefining performance standards in LNG insulation systems, offering superior reliability and ease of application compared to traditional materials such as butyl rubber

and asphalt-based adhesives. PIB remains permanently flexible and viscous, even at low temperatures below -60˚C (-76˚C), enabling continuous cold-flow and self-healing at overlaps, seams, terminations, and points of contact. This ensures a seamless, monolithic seal that resists moisture ingress and mitigates the risk of corrosion under insulation (CUI) for hot lines and a water vapour tight seal to protect cryogenic insulation on cold lines. In contrast, asphalt-based vapour barriers tend to harden or become brittle over time, especially under thermal cycling, leading to cracking, delamination, and compromised sealing integrity. Additionally, the flexibility and ease of application of PIB-based vapour barriers reduces installation complexity and improves safety. These characteristics ensure a highly effective, low-maintenance solution for preserving asset integrity in LNG environments.

LI: What is the importance of maintaining correct processing temperatures and how does system insulation contribute to this?

MK : In LNG liquefaction facilities, thermal efficiency is paramount. A key factor in maintaining that efficiency lies in minimising heat ingress into cryogenic piping and equipment. Every BTU of heat that breaches the insulation envelope leads directly to the formation of boil-off gas (BOG), a costly reversal of the facility’s primary function: gas liquefaction.

The industry design benchmark for limiting heat gain into cryogenic systems is 25 W/m 2. While this target can be achieved with traditional rigid insulation by increasing thickness, the more critical consideration is the long-term performance of the insulation system. Traditional rigid insulation systems present real-world challenges that compromise long-term thermal performance. These systems require precise installation, often under difficult field conditions. To accommodate the thermal contraction of metallic piping, contraction joints must be painstakingly installed, a practical reminder of the material’s fundamental flaw as a cryogenic insulation. The success of traditional systems is heavily dependent on skilled craft labour to overcome the inherent weaknesses of the materials themselves.

LI: What benefits does aerogel insulation bring?

MK : Aerogel-based insulation offers a transformative alternative to traditional insulation solutions. With lower thermal conductivity, physical toughness, and durability, aerogel outperforms incumbent systems over the lifespan of the facility. Aerogel blankets conform easily to complex geometries and require no contraction joints. This reduces labour complexity, speeds up installation, and minimises the chance of installation defects. The inherent flexibility and resilience of aerogel materials allow them to maintain thermal performance despite structural movements and mechanical stress. At the design stage, utilising aerogel-based insulation literally allows the facility designer to shrink the footprint of pipe racks and other supporting structures saving size, steel, and concrete all while reducing the carbon footprint of the project.

Figure 2. Comparison showing the simplicity in application using Aerogel blanket insulation vs rigid insulation systems which have more potential fault seams and joint areas.

Figure 1. Jetty lines insulated with Cryogel Z are shown on the left. Lines insulated with traditional rigid insulation on the right.

Beyond performance, aerogel-based insulation offers substantial logistical and operational advantages to an LNG project, benefitting the EPC firms tasked with building these incredibly complex assets. Rolls of aerogel insulation are highly compact, a factor which significantly reduces shipping, storage, and portage costs. One roll fits all sizes and configurations, reducing inventory and stock keeping units (SKUs) while simplifying job site logistics. Aerogel insulation generates a fraction of the jobsite waste associated with the porting, cutting, and fitting of rigid insulation materials.

LI: How does the use of aerogel insulations and PIB-based vapour barriers benefit applicators and asset owners?

MS and MK : The integration of aerogel insulation and PIB-based vapour barriers delivers significant benefits to EPC’s, contractors, and owners of LNG facilities, addressing key challenges in cryogenic environments. The system combination is flexible to apply around different configurations of infrastructure without the need for engineered or fitted solutions. A single system can service both pipelines and equipment, allowing contractors to reduce their product inventory to just a few SKUs. Additionally, these insulation solutions reduce application costs due to their ease of application. System ease reduces delays and downtime, keeping on schedule with time to commission for both capital and integrity projects. The reduction in waste, consumables, and energy align with the industry’s goal of reducing overall environmental impact.

For asset owners:

z Superior thermal performance: Aerogel insulation offers the best thermal performance of any insulation material; its durability and toughness ensure consistent process temperatures and reduced BOG –critical for LNG efficiency and safety for the life of the asset. PIB-based products resist deterioration in large thermal gradients to maintain optimal performance and longevity.

z Fault-tolerant vapour sealing: PIB vapour barriers provide a continuous water vapour seal that is

fault tolerant, durable, and will not lose flexibility or its ability to self-seal over time. This contributes to the performance longevity of the insulation system and also helps reduce the risk of CUI.

z Lower lifecycle costs: The durability and performance stability of both aerogel insulation and PIB-based vapour barriers reduces the frequency of inspections, repairs, and replacements, translating to a lower total cost of ownership and improved asset uptime.

z Safety: In addition to its class-leading thermal performance, aerogel-based insulation can provide passive fire protection against both pool and jet fire exposure, as well as excellent acoustical protection.

For EPCs:

z Simplified design: Aerogel-based insulation allows for the pre-insulation of assets at the point of construction, shortening schedules and reducing the cost of the project.

z Minimised footprint: The lower profile of aerogel-based insulation allows for a reduction in the size and weight of pipe racks and supporting structures. This is especially important for floating LNG assets.

For contractors:

z Ease of installation: PIB-based vapour barriers are cold-applied and primer-less, eliminating the need for bonding agents or complex surface preparation. This simplifies application, reduces labour time, and enhances safety – especially in confined or elevated workspaces. Aerogel-based insulation is easier to install, requires only one SKU, and reduces on-site storage and logistics.

z Fewer application errors: The self-healing and cold-flow properties of PIB reduce the risk of installation defects, while aerogel’s fault tolerance and ease of installation results in faster installation with reduced risk of call backs.

z Safety and risk reduction: PIB vapour barriers are VOC free, do not require complex tools for application, and are primer-less, eliminating the need for harsh bonding agents. Aerogels’ thin and light form factor reduces chances for injury and provides more space for the construction team to operate.

Hotspot 1 – Can these CUI-protecting systems be used on new construction projects?

In the large scale LNG developments currently underway along the US Gulf Coast, including facilities designed to exceed 45 million tpy of export capacity and employing modular construction strategies, the adoption of aerogel insulation and PIB-based vapour barrier systems is proving instrumental in optimising both fabrication and field execution. These projects, which include a recently commissioned facility that began LNG production in late 2024 and a second site now undergoing full scale site

mobilisation with first exports targeted for 2027, rely heavily on off-site modularisation to accelerate schedules and reduce labour intensity in high-risk environments. Aerogel insulation, such as Aspen Aerogel’s Cryogel-Z, has ultra-low thermal conductivity, physical toughness, and a flexible form factor which make it ideal for pre-insulated modules, while PIB-based vapour barriers, such as Stopaq Insulwrap FR, offer cold-applied, self-healing sealing performance that simplifies tie-in work during module integration.

Together, these systems enhance constructability, provide fault-tolerant vapour sealing, and ensure thermal integrity across both factory-assembled units and field-installed connections – delivering long-term value to asset owners through improved reliability and reduced maintenance demands.

Hotspot 2 – Can these aerogel and PIB-based vapour barriers be used for rehabilitation?

As part of a multi-phase rehabilitation effort at a major LNG export facility in a high heat, moisture, and chloride-contaminated environment, aerogel and PIB-based vapour barriers were implemented for rehabilitation. This facility is comprised of multiple liquefaction trains with a combined capacity of approximately 15 million tpy. The integration of aerogel insulation and PIB-based vapour barrier systems is playing a pivotal role in modernising the facility’s ageing infrastructure, including the refurbishment of three liquefaction trains, originally commissioned between 1999 and 2005, and undergoing upgrades to improve thermal efficiency, reduce corrosion risk, and extend operational life.

In these on-site applications, aerogel insulation provides exceptional thermal performance in tight spaces and around complex geometries, while PIB-based vapour barriers offer cold-applied, instant-bond, and self-sealing protection that eliminates the need for hot work or extensive surface prep. These materials are particularly advantageous in brownfield environments where access is limited and operational continuity is critical.

Conclusion

The designers, constructors, and operators of LNG facilities face a wide array of complex challenges in their mission to deliver enough LNG to meet the rapidly growing global demand for this low-carbon, next-generation transition fuel. Today, stakeholders have access to advanced materials that make this process more efficient, reliable, and fault-tolerant. Aerogel-based insulation offers exceptional thermal performance with significantly reduced thickness and increased mechanical durability. This not only enhances insulation efficiency but also reduces weight and space requirements. Complementing this, PIB-based vapour barriers provide cold-applied, instant-bond, and self-sealing protection. Together, these solutions enable faster, safer installation and deliver robust, long-term thermal and vapour sealing performance. They empower asset owners to meet modern performance standards while minimising downtime and total lifecycle costs.

Figure 3. Stopaq Insulwrap FR applied as a primary vapour barrier over a few simple layers of Aspen Aerogel Cryogel-Z in modular format for a new construction LNG facility.

Figure 4. Stopaq Insulwrap FR applied over a modular valve fitting, showcasing the self-sealing properties without the need for additional craft-intensive bonders or tapes.

15FACTS

EUROPE & THE MEDITERRANEAN ...ON

Milan was the capital of the Western Roman Empire from 286 AD – 402 AD

Milan is home to the Duomo di Milano and the Santa Maria delle Grazie convent, which houses Leonardo da Vinci’s mural ‘The Last Supper’

European gas demand is projected to reach around 454 billion m3 by 2030

Italy has five operational LNG regasification facilities: Panigaglia, Adriatic LNG, Livorno FSRU, Piombino FSRU, and Ravenna FSRU

The Navigli canals were designed by Leonardo da Vinci

The 2025 edition of Gastech will feature a brand-new AI::Energy exhibition

LNG demand is forecast to grow by 56% (230 million tpy) through 2035

Panettone originated in Milan, a sweet bread enjoyed during the festive season

Milan La Scala Opera is the largest of its type in Europe

Over 125 countries will be represented at Gastech 2025

Europe is expected to increase LNG imports by 25 – 36 million t in 2025, compared to 2024

Over the whole of 2025, the IEA expects European LNG imports to increase by 25%

Milan has the sixth largest tram network in the world

The most famous dish of the Lombard capital is the Risotto alla Milanese, which consists of a mixture of cooked rice with meat broth, butter, onion, Grana Padano cheese and saffron

The US supplied 45% of EU LNG imports in 2024

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