Global Mining Review - October 2023

OCTOBER 2023 VOLUME 6 ISSUE 9

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CONTENTS 20

The Push Towards Electrification

Michèle Brülhart, The Copper Mark, addresses how to support effective environmental, social, and governance policy that drives positive impact in the global copper value chain.

24

The Key To A Clean Future

Lubricating The Path To Energy Efficiency

28

Revolutionising Iron Ore Processing

31

Drones In The Underground Mining Industry: The Next Big Thing?

03

Guest Comment

05

Industry News

08

Creating A Sustainable Copper Value Chain

12

Mickael Ponsardin and Grégoire Roux, TotalEnergies Lubrifiants, explore the role of lubricants in the pursuit of energy efficiency.

Dr Barry Flannery, Xerotech, Republic of Ireland, outlines how lithium-ion batteries are poised to reshape the mining industry.

Nth Cycle, USA, describes how innovative refining technology can produce a clean, domestic supply of high-purity critical metals.

Sam Scarcello, Derrick® Corp., USA, reviews the company’s contributions to iron ore processing and its role in helping major players address complex challenges.

Eloise McMinn Mitchell, Flyability, Switzerland, discusses how drones are used in the underground mining industry, and why this technology is growing in popularity.

34

Haul The Emissions Away

38

Measuring Process Parameters To Improve Performance

Rhae Adams, First Mode, USA, evaluates the importance of decarbonising haulage operations in order for mining to reach net zero targets.

Henry Kurth, Scantech, Australia, presents the benefits of representative, real-time conveyed flow measurement in improving material quality and process performance.

17

Breaking Down The Barriers To Electrification

42

Integrated Coal Mining Production

46

Automatic Sampling: Efficient, Easier, Essential

Mark Ryan, Normet, Finland, explains why using battery electric vehicles in the mining industry might not be as complicated as it seems.

Jiyuan Chen, Hong Liu, and Dr. Li Li, Wolong Electric Group Co. Ltd, assess the benefits of an integrated motor and drive machine in coal mine production.

Nate Leonard, Sentry Equipment, USA, considers the benefits of automatic sampling in the mining industry.

ON THE COVER Setting the Gold Standard: Eddyfi Technologies redefines mining equipment inspection. Eddyfi Technologies leads the charge with cutting-edge solutions that ensure unparalleled safety, efficiency, and reliability in mining operations. Its commitment to going ‘Beyond Current’ keeps the company at the forefront of industry innovation. Photo credit: Malenfant Technical Services (MTS).

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Guest Comment DJANGO DAVIDSON PARTNER AND PORTFOLIO MANAGER, HOSKING PARTNERS

W

MANAGING EDITOR James Little james.little@globalminingreview.com SENIOR EDITOR Callum O’Reilly callum.oreilly@globalminingreview.com EDITOR Will Owen will.owen@globalminingreview.com EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Jane Bentham jane.bentham@globalminingreview.com SALES DIRECTOR Rod Hardy rod.hardy@globalminingreview.com SALES MANAGER Ryan Freeman ryan.freeman@globalminingreview.com PRODUCTION MANAGER Kyla Waller kyla.waller@globalminingreview.com ADMINISTRATION MANAGER Laura White laura.white@globalminingreview.com DIGITAL ADMINISTRATOR Leah Jones leah.jones@globalminingreview.com DIGITAL CONTENT ASSISTANT Kristian Ilasko kristian.ilasko@globalminingreview.com DIGITAL EVENTS COORDINATOR Merili Jurivete merili.jurivete@globalminingreview.com EVENTS MANAGER Louise Cameron louise.cameron@globalminingreview.com GLOBAL MINING REVIEW (ISSN No: 2515-2777) is published by Palladian Publications Ltd. Annual subscription (nine issues) £50 UK including postage, £60 overseas (airmail). Claims for non-receipt must be made within four months of publication of the issue or they will not honoured without charge.

hat is capital cycle analysis and how can it help us understand the mining industry today? Viewing the mining industry through the lens of the capital cycle gives investors, management executives, and policymakers a simple rubric with which to explain the actions of various stakeholders. In capitalist economies, high returns on capital attract new investment. The prospects of above-average returns – for example, the optimistic outlook for the wind generation sector in the early 2010s – are followed by capital inflows. This process raises valuations and attracts ever more capital. After all, if one can build a wind-turbine for 100 but have it valued by the stock market at 200, the incentives for promoters are clear. The reverse also applies. Sustained periods of low returns on capital work to repel investment, ultimately leading to reduced capacity. If the equity market consistently values an industry or company below what it would cost to ‘replace’ its assets, the rational management response is to reallocate capital out of the business.

How does this apply to the mining sector? The over-build and value-destructive M&A that characterised the expansionary super-cycle has now given way to a new era, one in which management incentives are focused on returns rather than expansion. The past decade has seen mining industry capital expenditure budgets slashed from around US$165 billion in 2012 to just US$100 billion in 2021 – despite the inflationary pressures. Most of the major mining houses have embraced share buyback schemes, which, given the persistently low valuation of the sector, is rational. A major implication, as we enter this phase of the capital cycle, is that commodity supply will necessarily contract. For supply to grow, returns on industry capital need to reach a level that justifies new investment. And the industry is a long way off earning supernormal profits.

Whilst all commodities are at different stages in their respective cycles, the copper industry is perhaps the most vivid illustration. To sustain current copper production, heavy investment in existing (often low and declining grade) mines is required. It is also necessary to find new sources of supply, yet only a handful of new copper mines have been discovered in the past decade, in arguably more challenging geographies. According to Bloomberg Intelligence, the average lead time from first discovery to first metal has increased by four years from previous cycles, to almost 14 years in 2021. We are spending less money on existing assets, finding fewer new resources, and, when we do find them, they are taking longer to reach production.

This situation in copper is exacerbated by ESG trends which, perversely, make it harder to expand capacity. Who wants a new copper mine on their doorstep? One analysis suggests that, to hit net zero by 2050, 1.4 billion t of copper will need to be mined – more than twice the total amount extracted since the start of human history.

Hosking Partners will pass no comment on whether these demand-based forecasts will come to fruition. However, with many copper companies generating returns at or below their cost of capital, the prospect of a wave of new capital unlocking a wave of new supply is remote. The cycle has a long way to run. As do investor returns.

Palladian Publications Ltd, 15 South Street, Farnham, Surrey, GU9 7QU, UK t: +44 (0)1252 718999 // w: www.globalminingreview.com

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World NEWS GERMANY Zinnwald Lithium and Metso advance joint testwork programme

Z

innwald Lithium and Metso have continued to develop the beneficiation plant concept for the integrated Zinnwald Lithium Project located near Dresden, Germany. This unique project, which is situated in the heart of the European chemical and automotive industries, is designed to supply battery-grade lithium hydroxide (LiOH) to the battery sector.

Anton du Plessis, CEO of Zinnwald Lithium, commented: “Achieving resilience and sustainability for the electric vehicle battery supply chain is essential, including in Europe where over 30 new gigafactories are planned by 2030. Our vision is to build a world-leading integrated lithium hydroxide operation to support this supply chain, adhering to the highest environmental standards. We are therefore delighted with the progress being made with Metso as we look to design the best possible particle sorting, otherwise known as the beneficiation process, for the plant.”

Metso was engaged to assist Zinnwald Lithium with its Definitive Feasibility Study in early 2022. The two companies have since been working on developing a successful

beneficiation process flowsheet based on a complete mineralogical study, batch, and locked cycle tests. The design basis of the tests considers the mixture of two distinctive lithium ore types, Alibite Granite and Quartz Mica Greisen, potentially expanding the resource base considerably.

“After the completion of the beneficiation pilot, we will start refinement of the calcination and hydrometallurgical flowsheet.

We have partnered with Metso to develop and deliver this project as a ‘one-stop shop’ to reduce the need for engagement with multiple suppliers and to maximise in-house expertise in the design of the plant from run-of-mine to the battery-grade final product,” Mr du Plessis added.

“Metso is delighted to support Zinnwald Lithium with the development of this ambitious project. The development and supply of state-of-the-art, sustainable processes and equipment for the critical minerals required for the electric vehicle supply chain is an essential part of our minerals processing expertise,” said Mikko Rantaharju, Vice President, Hydrometallurgy at Metso.

GLOBAL Anglo American and Mitsubishi Materials to collaborate on responsible copper

value chain

A

nglo American has announced the signing of a memorandum of understanding with Mitsubishi Materials, to collaborate on the creation of a copper product offering that responds to growing demand for metals with demonstrably strong provenance credentials.

The collaboration will focus on driving traceability across copper’s fragmented value chain, with the aim of identifying and measuring sustainability indicators that industry stakeholders and end customers deem most relevant and valuable. By using technology-driven traceability solutions, the two companies will work together to provide such stakeholders with secure access to relevant product provenance information.

Anglo American and Mitsubishi Materials will also explore decarbonisation opportunities to reduce the overall carbon footprint of the metal provided to customers.

Paul Ward, Executive Head of Base Metals Marketing at Anglo American, said: “We are forging long-term collaborations with customers across key geographies, building on well-established commercial relationships to extend the impact

of our commitment and to create ethical value chains for our products beyond our own mining operations.

“Consumers around the world are increasingly asking that their purchases come with greater assurance of sustainable production. Our work with Mitsubishi Materials aims to accelerate efforts to increase provenance visibility for materials used in some of the key technologies for modern life and to improve living standards for a growing global population through sustainable socio-economic development.”

Nobuhiro Takayanagi, Managing Executive Officer Responsible for Sustainable Development at Mitsubishi Materials Corp., added, “Our company has set out ‘Our Commitment’ of ‘For people, society, and the Earth, circulating resources for a sustainable future’. We will build a connected system of metal resources based on our strengths and realise growth throughout the value chain by expanding the scope, regions, and scale of our operations. Through our cooperation with Anglo American, we will promote efforts to ensure transparency of product information.” global mining review // October 2023 5

WORLD NEWS Diary Dates Flotation ’23 06 – 09 November 2023 Cape Town, South Africa https://mei.eventsair.com/flotation-23 Resourcing Tomorrow 28 – 30 November 2023 London, UK www.resourcingtomorrow.com Investing in African Mining Indaba 05 – 08 February 2024 Cape Town, South Africa www.miningindaba.com SME MINEXCHANGE 25 – 28 February 2024 Phoenix, USA www.smeannualconference.com PDAC 03 – 06 March 2024 Toronto, Canada www.pdac.ca/convention CIM Convention & Expo 12 – 15 May 2024 Vancouver, Canada www.cim.org/events Euro Mine Expo 28 – 30 May 2024 Skellefteå, Sweden www.euromineexpo.com Exponor Chile 2024 03 – 06 June 2024 Antofagasta, Chile www.exponor.cl MINExpo INTERNATIONAL® 24 – 26 September 2024 Las Vegas, USA www.minexpo.com

To stay informed about upcoming industry events, visit Global Mining Review’s events page: www.globalminingreview.com/events

6 October 2023 // global mining review

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO BJD Crushers

supplies crushing equipment to African copper mine

B

JD Crushers Ltd, a Barnsley-based manufacturer of crushing and size reduction equipment, has recently supplied a major order of its crushing machinery to a new copper mine and smelting plant in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The order includes the manufacture of two BJD 24 x 30 Hammermills with 90 kW drives, both running at 40 tph. The machines will be used for processing copper concentrate from rotary dryers.

Used worldwide in the reduction of friable and fibrous materials, BJD's Hammermill crushers can be supplied with adjustable breaker plates, produce high reduction ratios, and feature capacities of up to 500 tpy, depending on duty. The whole project at the plant is due for completion in 2024/2025.

The entire contract, which was awarded following BJD’s successful completion of a similar project for Poland's largest copper mine, took eight months from the initial order to shipment. The total contract was delivered on schedule and within budget.

USA Thor Energy commences uranium drilling

T

hor Energy has announced the commencement of drilling at the company’s Wedding Bell and Radium Mountain Projects, located in the historic uranium-vanadium mining district within the Uravan Mineral Belt, southwest Colorado, US. Project highlights include: nn The 4000 m drilling programme will target mineralisation along strike of the Rim Rock and Groundhog mines, focus on testing airborne uranium anomalies, and continue assessing the underexplored Section 23 area. nn Downhole gamma surveys are to be conducted throughout the programme, providing market updates with uranium results, as they become available. nn Uranium spot price has hit a 12-year high of US$73/lb, with the year-to-date price rising by 51.88%.

Nicole Galloway Warland, Managing Director of Thor Energy, commented: “RC drilling has now commenced at our Wedding Bell and Radium Mountain uranium projects, starting at Section 23 prospect, followed by Groundhog and Rim Rock prospects. We will be downhole gamma logging regularly throughout the programme, so we look forward to updating the markets as these uranium results become available. Thor is encouraged by the growth opportunities in the uranium sector, with the uranium spot price at a 12-year high, supported by strong supply and demand fundamentals. This aligns with our strategic focus on energy metals and our commitment to advancing our US uranium projects.”

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8 October 2023 // global mining review

Michèle Brülhart, The Copper Mark, addresses how to support effective environmental, social, and governance policy that drives positive impact in the global copper value chain.

L

ast year, Goldman Sachs called copper “the new oil”. While this admits copper’s centrality to the low-carbon transition, it also highlights the increasingly fractious role that copper is playing in the global economy. Demand for “the metal of electrification” is projected to double from 25 million t today, to around 50 million t by 2035.1 S&P analysis suggests that supply may not keep pace, with ‘rocky road’ scenarios predicting a 9.9 million t shortfall by 2035.1 Worst scenario fears are that, like the 20th century ‘scramble for oil’, copper scarcity may destabilise international security.

Already, there are signs of growing protectionism from the US’s Inflation Reduction Act, the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act, and China’s 2021 – 25 five-year plan and subsequent Central Economic Work Conference. All three legislative agendas prioritise domestic production and material security. This poses a key challenge for proponents of responsible copper.

Increasing demand, competition, and protectionism present the risk for nations to compromise environmental, social, and governance (ESG) principles in favour of market dominance.

This increasing competition is especially problematic in the context of copper’s global value chain. Despite their domestic ambitions, major producers of copper products still import most of their ore. In 2021, China imported US$52.4 billion worth of copper ore2 and, according to S&P analysis, the US, in the best-case scenario, will still import 57% of its refined copper by 2035.3 The copper value chain spans the entire globe. With major economic blocs struggling for dominance, competing regulatory regimes are unlikely to collaborate. This may mount a burden on supply chain operators as they struggle to comply with these competing regimes to access markets. This heavy burden of compliance runs the risk of diverting resources and focus away from responsible production.

global mining review // October 2023 9

This risk is compounded by the growing environmental footprint that results from increased copper demand.

According to the International Finance Corporation (IFC)’s January 2023 Net Zero Roadmap for Copper, if global copper mining were to increase to the extent necessary to support renewable technologies by 2050 without the adoption of mitigation measures or practices, greenhouse gas emissions from copper production alone would double.4 This does not mean that responsible copper goals are out of reach, but it does mean that complacency is not an option.

The copper industry cannot rely on comprehensive, global regulation for responsible practices, at least in the short term. Instead, it must adopt a global standard based on collaboration, data sharing, and a full value chain approach. To succeed, this standard cannot come from government or industries alone – it must include all the stakeholders that are impacted by the copper value chain.

Collaboration and technology sharing

The copper industry must capitalise on already existing technological improvements – from more efficient processing to advanced data and artificial intelligence powered techniques – that have the potential to significantly improve energy efficiency and reduce local environmental harms.

The challenge is turning vanguard methods into standard practice. Here, collaboration and data sharing are essential. The copper industry, through improved data and technology sharing, as well as structures built to support collaboration, should create space for organisations to share best ESG practice and sustainable technology. As geo-political developments risk siloing regulatory regimes, the copper industry should reach across national and organisational borders to make best practice the standard.

Robust data

Improving the quality and scope of data is also essential to fully prevent and mitigate the impacts copper operators leave on the regions they work in and around. This is made harder by the complexity of these impacts. Each change to a local environment has ripple effects, further influencing the environment and its people.

Improved data analysis methods attempt to take this spread of factors into account. Recent academic research, analysing the ground-level impacts of mining operations, has revealed the benefits of holistic impact measurement.

A study from Vienna University of Economics and Business examined how to practically use ecosystem service valuation to measure and mitigate the negative impacts of copper mining.5 Ecosystem valuation is a process which assigns a value (either monetary, biophysical, or other) to an ecosystem and the services it provides its inhabitants.

The Vienna study found that by monitoring the changing trends in a matrix of key ecosystem measurements and cross referencing them against several key metals and mining databases, researchers were able to effectively quantify the extent of ecosystem degradation and the consequent economic impact caused by copper mining.

10 October 2023 // global mining review

While different regions will need unique sets of measurements, this form of comprehensive data harvesting is a blueprint for future action to measure and mitigate ecological and economic harms.

Involving end-users

Those at the end of the supply chain, like those at the start, must impact standard setting. Mining does not account for all the copper value chain’s harms. In fact, Scope 3 emissions – emissions that come from the areas further along the value chain – account for 31% of copper emissions.6 An effective evaluation of the copper industry’s environmental, social, and ecological impacts accounting for each stage of the value chain, as well as the links connecting them, is the solution. One such approach is a ‘chain of custody’ standard. This approach traces the copper as it passes from business to business, ensuring that a responsible actor is not inheriting or sharing copper that has been produced using pollutive or irresponsible practices. Robust data and collaboration are essential for this process, so that each actor handling the copper is held sufficiently accountable. This accountability also extends to the buyers of the copper.

Multiple stakeholders on the consumer side of the copper value chain are taking the lead on demanding responsible raw material. As the market calls for higher standards, end-users of copper are implementing stronger due diligence and sustainability reporting methods. By integrating end users, a full value chain approach to measuring responsible practice can be developed.

Regulating the future of copper

The S&P’s 2022 future of copper report argued that policy and regulation need to be predictable.1 In the current political, environmental, and economic context, that cannot be guaranteed. Instead, actors along the copper value chain can take up the reins. By including all impacted stakeholders and working together to share best practice, develop an open base of comprehensive data, and trace copper’s progress through the entire value chain, the copper value chain can create a unified standard that accurately measures and mitigates the negative impacts of copper.

References 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

‘The Future of Copper: Will the looming supply gap short circuit the energy transition?’, S&P, (2 July 2022), www.spglobal.com/ marketintelligence/en/mi/info/0722/futureofcopper.html ‘Copper Ore in China’, The Observatory of Economic Complexity, (5 July 2021), https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/copperore/reporter/chn CACCIUTTOLO, C., and ATENCIO, E., Past, Present, and Future of Copper Mine Tailings Governance in Chile (1905–2022): A Review in One of the Leading Mining Countries in the World, (11 October 2022).

‘Net Zero roadmap for copper and nickel value chains’, International Finance Corporation, (30 January 2023), https://commdev.org/publications/ifc-net-zero-roadmap/ TOST, M., MURGUIA, D., HITCH, M., et al., ‘Ecosystem services costs of metal mining and pressures on biomes’, Extractive Industries and Society, (13 November 2019).

‘Copper: The Pathway to Net Zero’, International Copper Alliance, (6 March 2023), https://copperalliance.org/resource/copperpathway-to-net-zero

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Mickael Ponsardin and Grégoire Roux, TotalEnergies Lubrifiants, explore the role of lubricants in the pursuit of energy efficiency.

12 October 2023 // global mining review

M

ining activities play a vital role in meeting the world's demand for essential minerals, metals, and energy resources. However, this critical industry is also known for its significant energy consumption, which poses challenges in terms of sustainability and environmental impact. The extraction, processing, and transportation of minerals require substantial amounts of energy, often derived from non-renewable sources. As the world seeks to transition towards a more sustainable future, addressing energy efficiency in mining activities emerges as a powerful tool to achieve maximum output or desired results, while minimising energy consumption.

Although gearboxes are well optimised today, one of its components is still too often considered as a necessary evil rather than an asset that could unlock higher energy efficiency: the lubricant.

Energy efficiency and viscosity index

For many years, energy efficiency in lubricants has been closely linked to the concept of viscosity index (VI). The VI is a measure of the change in lubricant viscosity with temperature variations. It quantifies the ability of a lubricant to maintain its viscosity and provide consistent lubrication performance across a wide range of operating temperatures.

The VI plays a crucial role in minimising energy losses due to friction within machinery and equipment. When lubricants are subjected to temperature changes, their viscosity can vary significantly. Higher temperatures tend to thin out lubricants,

reducing their viscosity and potentially leading to inadequate lubrication, increased friction, and higher energy consumption.

Conversely, lower temperatures can cause lubricants to thicken, increasing resistance and energy losses.

A lubricant with a high VI exhibits minimal changes in viscosity across temperature fluctuations. It maintains its lubricating properties and provides a stable and consistent protective film between moving parts, irrespective of the operating temperature. This characteristic is particularly important in mining activities where machinery operates in diverse and extreme conditions.

Therefore, high VI lubricants can provide a lower viscosity. At low temperature, they minimise friction losses compared to conventional lubricants, resulting in lower energy consumption.

Low-viscosity lubricants are particularly beneficial for high-speed applications, where minimising drag and energy losses are critical.

Nevertheless, it is important to note that the VI is not the sole indicator of lubricant performance. Other first-order factors are the film strength and the coefficient of friction of the chemistry itself, independent of the viscosity.

Energy efficiency is closely linked to synthetic lubricants

Synthetic lubricants are engineered lubricants that offer superior performance characteristics compared to conventional mineral-based oils. They are synthesised from

global mining review // October 2023 13

chemically-modified base oils and often exhibit a high VI, providing excellent stability across a wide temperature range and an extremely low pour point.

The most used synthetic base stocks had been the polyalphaolefin (PAO) that extend draining interval, thanks to their high lifetime compared to standard mineral base oils. In 2013, the apparition of metallocene polyalphaolefin (mPAO) improved the VI and the cold properties.

Polyalkylene glycol (PAG) are synthetic lubricants with very high VI and are classically presented as energy efficient lubricants. Nevertheless, they are quite aggressive towards some materials (such as paintings and internal coatings), not miscible with mineral oils, and very sensitive to water. Because of these drawbacks, the uses of PAG remain limited.

Nevertheless, this Group V base oil is commonly used in high sliding applications, such as in worm gears.

Table 1. Oil features ISO VG 320

Typical viscosity index

Mineral based

98

PAO

155

mPAO

188

PAG

238

Figure 1. MTM result.

Figure 2. Gearbox diversity.

14 October 2023 // global mining review

The first step: On the mini traction machine

Since 2018, TotalEnergies Lubrifiants has invested in energy efficient lubricants for gear oils. The first step was the mini traction machine (MTM). This is a tribological testing instrument used to measure and compare the coefficient of friction (COF) of lubricants. It operates based on the principle of reciprocating sliding motion and measures the frictional forces between two surfaces dipped into the lubricant.

A new mix of base oils has been identified inside synthetic hydrocarbons with a significative lower coefficient of friction than PAO or mPAO. The comparison in Figure 1 has been made at iso-viscosity to avoid any side effect of the different viscosity index. The graph clearly demonstrates a difference of friction linked to the chemistry itself. Less friction indicates less wear, but also less energy lost.

The second step

FZG Gear Efficiency (FVA 345) is a modified FZG back-to-back gear test rig, in which the test pinion and the test gear are mounted on two parallel shafts that are connected to the slave gear stage. Compared to the standard FZG test rig, two gears identical to the test gears are mounted, so that two equal stages close the power circle. The electric motor only needs to compensate for the frictional losses in the power circle. Therefore, the test measures the energy losses.

This test facilitates the comparison of different lubricants. In the company’s case, it compared the new base oils mix with the mPAO that shares similar viscosity and density.

FZG Gear Efficiency is a two-in-one test. The first test consists of varying the lubricant temperature from 40°C to 120°C, the circumferential speed from 0.5 m/sec. to 20 m/sec., and the load applied up to a Hertzian stress of 1720 N/mm2. The power loss during the test reaches 8.37 MJ in the case of the new chemistry vs 8.75 MJ for the mPAO, a 4% energy saving.

This test only serves to illustrate a trend between lubricants, and such saving levels must not be expected in an industrial gearbox.

The second test consists of measuring the lubricant temperature after 300 mins. of a circumferential speed of

8.3 m/sec. without cooling or heating the gearboxes. The lubricant temperature is significantly lower with the new chemistry.

The third step: On an industrial scale

Once the new chemistry had proven its tendency to decrease energy consumption at laboratory scale, gearboxes with different sizes and internal design were tested. The objective is to be representative of the gearboxes’ variety that might be lubricated on the field. (See Figure 2 for three studies carried out with one university [RWTH Aachen, Germany], one industrial company, and one leading MW gearbox manufacturer).

Study 2: 2 MW back-to-back gearboxes comparing different chemistries at the same viscosity

Sensors had been used to monitor bearing temperature, oil sump temperature, vibration, power losses, and/or energy losses. It had been observed that the new formula brings between 0.65 – 1% more efficiency than a conventional PAO base oil and between 0.25 – 0.5% compared a metallocene PAO base oil at different load stages.

At low stages, the result confidence is acceptable with these gearboxes. This is where the most differences are visible. With the new formula, the company observed up to 1.1% more efficiency and could see the main tendencies between synthetic products with this industrial test rig.

Figure 5 shows clearly that the test rig efficiency drops for low load stages, but it is still higher with the new oil formulation.

These transition phases represent an interesting window for efficiency improvements.

Is a 1% energy efficiency relevant?

Figure 3. Energy Losses (kWh) vs oils.

Figure 4. Back-to-back test rig.

Figure 5. Test rig efficiency.

16 October 2023 // global mining review

Switching the PAO gear oils to the new chemistry for a 5 MW gearbox in a mill with a usage of 90% yearly could save 365 MWh/y.

This represents approximately 387 t of carbon dioxide which might be saved.

By choosing energy efficient lubricants, mining companies can quickly and easily reduce energy consumption without significant difficulties. With proper selection, compatibility, and support from lubricant suppliers, the transition to energy efficient lubricants can be a simple and advantageous process.

The pursuit of energy efficiency in mining activities not only aligns with global sustainability goals, but also presents significant economic benefits. Energy efficient mining practices can reduce operating costs, improve profitability, and enhance the industry's long-term viability. Additionally, they can bolster the reputation of mining companies by showcasing their commitment to environmental stewardship and social responsibility.

Mark Ryan, Normet, Finland, explains why using battery electric vehicles in the mining industry might not be as complicated as it seems.

T

he mining industry has finally started to develop net zero strategies, even if the targets are in the seemingly distant future. Currently, most miners are targeting 2050 to achieve net zero emissions, while 2030 seems to be a common interim target year for reductions of an average of 30% of operational emissions for some of the bigger firms. Some have made progress towards these targets, in many cases utilising power purchase agreements to source a higher share of electricity from renewable sources, such as solar and natural gas.

But for all the efforts made over the past few years to cut carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions within operations, GlobalData analysis earlier this year found that total Scope 1 and 2 emissions from 30 major mines fell by less than 2% in 2021.

The market intelligence firm said the reason for this was primarily due to increased activity after the disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, when emissions dropped by 5%. The key question is whether this moderate decline represents a long-term trend for the mining industry, which, according to the consulting firm McKinsey, accounts for between 4 – 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

Diesel use in mobile fleets is a big contributor of Scope 1 and 2 emissions. It has been widely estimated that switching to

an electric fleet can cut emissions by between 30 – 50%. Yet, uptake has so far been low. Electric mining machinery today consists of less than 5% of total global stock in underground and surface mining. GlobalData, which tracks the number and type of mining vehicles in operation worldwide, had identified 184 electric loaders and 58 electric trucks in June. Canada accounts for most of these because of laws that demand all-electric vehicles and machines be used as part of the mining licensing contract. Of course, this is a drop in the ocean – and can be understood by looking at history. Mining is a complex and capital-intensive industry, particularly notorious for delaying investment in new technology.

Appetite for BEVs is picking up pace

Despite the fact that the technology has been proven and its benefits demonstrated, the industry has not fully welcomed it yet. Concerns that are expressed by potential clients are often about safety, even though there has not been one major safety incident related to mining electric vehicles (EVs) over the past 10 – 15 yrs, while a fire relating to a diesel-powered machine breaks out every week. A skills gap in workforce to use and maintain the new equipment also frequently emerges as a barrier to adoption and there is often a misconception about the

global mining review // October 2023 17

amount of energy needed in adopting EVs – a lot less than many companies think.

The good news is there is an increasingly greater appetite to invest in no-carbon-emitting vehicles and equipment, powered by batteries. This is mostly being driven by a desire to cut CO2 emissions before a carbon trading scheme is introduced.

Another common reason is wanting to improve worker conditions down in the mine. Diesel-powered equipment is noisy, uncomfortable, and produces diesel particle matter (DPM). The World Health Organisation (WHO) labelled DPM as a carcinogen in 2012. Companies are looking to eliminate DPM, but also the heat generated by diesel engines. In the future,

Figure 1. Index of mentions of specific terms in mining and metals company filings from 2019 – 2022 (2019 = 100) (Source: GlobalData).

Figure 2. One of the most popular Normet SmartDrive® models is Utimec MF 500 Transmixer SD. The transmixer is typically driven down into a mine fully loaded, and recuperates a significant amount of energy that can be utilised when driving back up empty.

18 October 2023 // global mining review

competition for talent could ultimately rest on whether workforces can be offered a more comfortable and safe environment than competitors.

In addition, some companies can be DPM constrained. For most mines, their ventilation infrastructure is set so they only have a certain amount of air in the mine, which means, by law, they can only have a certain amount of equipment underground that is diesel driven.

Getting started is easier than one thinks

As excavation goes deeper, more energy is required to push the air down into the mine and, sooner or later, it reaches a limit. By removing diesel machines, companies can continue to invest in their operations without worrying about large ventilation infrastructure constraints. For this reason alone, it is a no-brainer that new mines should be created fully electric. Planning from the beginning reduces the infrastructure needed for ventilation, lowers its future maintenance costs, and means operators do not have to worry about future compliance or cost competitiveness when carbon credit trading is eventually introduced.

Coming back to those mining companies at the beginning of their decarbonising journey, it is easier than it seems to get started. Switching out diesel utility vehicles – such as lifters, concrete sprayers , transmixers, and explosives chargers – to an electric fleet is a quick win. These machines do not normally require any more energy than a standard drill rig and to accommodate them, there really should not be too much additional infrastructure to worry about – unlike loading and hauling, which is a lot more energy intensive. Standard mine power supply should do the trick for most battery electric utility vehicle applications, which is what Normet SmartDrive® fleet uses. For a moderate upfront investment, the return can be huge, with SmartDrive equipment’s on-board data showing up to 25% faster performance, up to 50% energy recuperation in downhill driving, and up to 30% lower maintenance costs, especially if the mine is in a remote location.

Still, making any big change can be challenging, with demanding stakeholders to answer to and a number of considerations. Difficult questions should be asked of original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). These should include: nn Can they train personnel, including operators, maintenance engineers, and other experts? nn Do they have safety experts to help with risk assessments? nn Can they provide different service models? nn What infrastructure is needed and how can companies ensure it is optimal for an operation?

When it comes to implementing new technology to any customer, OEMs are the experts of that equipment, so a lot of the work Normet does with their customers is around risk assessments and teaching the customer to understand how to assess risk. Normet also helps customers plan where battery charging stations should be located, and works with the customer to help them design safe, sustainable solutions.

There is no real excuse for delaying investment in greener technology and supporting economic transformation in the process, so be a forerunner in green transition and start the electrification journey today.

Dr Barry Flannery, Xerotech, Republic of Ireland, outlines how lithium-ion batteries are poised to reshape the mining industry.

Figure 1. Elcavator – Powered by a Xerotech Hibernium Battery Pack.

20 October 2023 // global mining review

T

he global urgency to electrify industrial vehicle fleets is growing. Power consumption in mining operations alone contributes some 0.4 gt of carbon dioxide equivalent annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This increases pressure to decarbonise operations, which is why many mining companies are turning to lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, as they come with a plethora of advantages that go beyond reaching zero emission targets.

Apart from reduced emissions, there are improved working conditions, reduced costs, and increased vehicle performance, amongst other benefits. Before exploring these, however, it is best to understand some Li-ion battery fundamentals and how they are reshaping the mining industry.

The three Li-ion battery chemistries recommended for mining applications

There are several Li-ion battery chemistries, though the six major ones powering various devices and vehicles are: n Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2 [LCO]). n Lithium nickel manganese cobalt (LiNixMnyCozO2 [NMC]). n Lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (LiNiCoAlO2 [NCA]). n Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4 [LFP]). n Lithium titanate (Li2TiO3 [LTO]). n Lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4 [LMO]).

Those best suited for mining applications will be discussed first, before looking at why other chemistries are not quite suited for this industry.

Lithium iron phosphate

One of the most popular chemistries for long charge cycle life and inherent safety, LFP is capable of enduring up to 10 000 charge cycles before being retired from vehicular use. It is also quite resistant to thermal propagation events and operates well in extreme temperatures. Since it does not require rare earth metals such as nickel and cobalt, it is also cheaper to produce.

When it comes to performance, LFP batteries maintain 100% capacity as they discharge during use, a feature that not all battery chemistries are capable of. Furthermore, even if the battery is completely depleted, some manufacturers state the battery will not suffer any damage, although it is not always recommended to do so.

The main drawback to LFP is its low specific energy. In e-mobility, specific energy is what provides the vehicle with high speed; however, in a mining context, this is rarely a requisite.

This battery chemistry is ideal for large vehicles such as load, haul, and dump (LHD) trucks, loaders, excavators, bolting rigs, and drillers, since it is robust, durable, and cost-effective.

Lithium nickel manganese cobalt

One of the best all-rounders in the battery market, the NMC chemistry is widely used in the electric vehicle (EV) market. It is safe, performs well in low and high temperatures, can endure over 2000 charge cycles, and has high specific energy, unlike LFP. The battery’s chemical composition can be configured to use less nickel and cobalt to lower production prices compared to other nickel-cobalt chemistries. There are different options,

global mining review // October 2023 21

such as NMC811, which means the cathode is eight parts nickel and one part each manganese and cobalt. This reduces cobalt dependency and drives down the production cost. Similarly, there is the NMC622, which reduces nickel content but increases cobalt use. Both metals have faced supply issues in the past, and it can sometimes be costly to source them sustainably. Despite some savings, it could still be more expensive than non-nickel and cobalt-based chemistries.

However, it is an ideal chemistry for industries that operate in tight areas, such as the mining industry. NMC batteries can be 30% smaller than their LFP counterparts and still produce the same energy output, providing an excellent price-to-energy ratio. This means smaller batteries can be made for small vehicles (like mini excavators) without compromising design, while vehicles, such as 20 t trucks, can house these batteries with no weight increase concerns.

Lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide

This chemistry needs relatively high amounts of cobalt to stabilise it, meaning production is rather expensive. However, it is also capable of operating in tough climates and, together with its high specific power and energy, the NCA chemistry is certainly useful in mining operations. It delivers high current for extended periods, making it ideal for vehicles and machines that run repetitive routes or procedures, such as LHD trucks and grinders.

Unfortunately, even if it can endure around 2000 charge cycles, its cost-to-lifetime ratio is inferior to both LFP and NMC.

Other Li-ion chemistries

LCO and LMO’s characteristics are not suitable for the mining industry, mainly because they are capable of withstanding fewer than 1000 charge cycles. LMO does not work very well in extreme temperatures, which is why it is rarely used in isolation when it comes to electric mobility. Instead, it is calibrated for high-load or long-range use in partnership with a battery of a different chemistry to ensure safety and performance.

LCO is a chemistry that easily overheats when placed under stress. Normally found in devices like mobile phones and laptops, it is likely these batteries will soon fall out of favour entirely, since they have a low cycle life.

Conversely, LTO is extremely safe, allows for the fastest charging rates available today, can clock up almost 15 000 charge cycles, and performs well in adverse conditions, operating at 80% capacity in -30°C. There is no carbon in this chemistry, which means it has a very low self-heating rate, making it safe against thermal runaway events.

Figure 2. Xerotech Hibernium Battery Pack ready for shipping.

22 October 2023 // global mining review

Though LTO has ideal characteristics for several mining applications, high production cost puts companies off from using it, along with low specific energy. Additionally, there are not many companies producing LTO batteries, meaning research and development are not as widespread as other chemistries – it is therefore unlikely to develop much further than it is today.

What Li-ion power brings to the mining industry

Developments in the Li-ion battery market are increasing at such a rate that battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and off-highway electric vehicles (OHEVs) are becoming more efficient and productive than their internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts.

In EVs, battery power goes directly to the motors, so tank-to-wheel efficiency is up to 75% better in BEVs than ICEs. This boosts manoeuvrability, drivability, torque, and power distribution for independent wheel control, ideal when driving across challenging terrain.

Most OHEVs employ brake-by-wire technology, removing the need for brake fluid which reduces costs and malfunction risks, meaning energy is recovered under braking. Therefore, the battery can charge when the vehicle descends a ramp and discharges when driving back up, as is often the case for LHD trucks.

No exhaust emissions reduces the need for complex ventilation systems, and results in lower heat dissipation and less energy lost when powering the vehicle. BEVs also operate in near silence, making for a better overall working environment, and since there are far fewer moving parts in BEVs, there is less risk of something going wrong. So, over the vehicle’s lifespan, less time and money are spent on servicing and repairs.

An example of this is Xerotech’s Hibernium® battery platform powering Advanced Control’s Elcavator project, which, while still in the testing phase, already shows promising results. Using a 634 V, 190 kWh battery with NMC cell chemistry, this electric excavator uses a motor for each axis, and operates 40% more efficiently than a diesel-powered engine.

Currently, a full charge lasts five hours, with one 30-minute charge to provide enough power until the end of the shift.

Furthermore, energy created when lowering the boom can be used to charge the battery or power other motors during labour-intensive tasks. The battery was designed to fit beside the pump and everything else on the vehicle, ensuring minimal vehicle alterations and no extra driver training.

Safety and functionality go hand in hand

There have been conflicting reports of battery fires related to EVs in the media over the past years. Therefore, it is understandable that mining companies would be wary of using BEVs for their operations since they tend to operate in tunnels and similar confined spaces. With this in mind, Jarle Gausen (Gausen Machinery Advisory) was commissioned by the Norwegian Association for Rock Blasting Technology (NFF) to explore whether BEVs are indeed more dangerous for mining projects than ICEs. In his preliminary report, he points out that it is mostly non-academic opinions and perceptions that tend to skew decision making. His research also shows that such fires tend to

originate in the charging system or via external forces, and rarely in the battery itself, while statistics from 2021 indicate that fires in ICE cars occur four to five times more often (taking car fleet size into account).

As for risk factors, Gausen explains that BEVs are no riskier to operate than ICE vehicles, although if a mining company does make use of EVs, it is important that they update their extinguishing equipment accordingly. His conclusion states that the technical solutions for battery-powered vehicles are just as reliable as their ICE counterparts, although charging infrastructure will be of particular importance.

Xerotech’s battery systems lower the risk of fire in a more holistic way than in thermal engines. It starts with the overall system design and how the energy is compartmentalised – the company uses small individual cells as opposed to one big cell.

In other words, there is not just one fuel tank but thousands, and they are all separated by fire insulation. Then, the temperature of all the batteries is constantly monitored, along with the voltage levels.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Li-ion batteries are already almost on-par with the mature diesel engine market, with further developments in safety, efficiency, and performance yet to come. Adding technology, such as remote and autonomous driving, will drive Li-ion batteries far beyond what diesel engines can ever offer.

That is why it is critical from an emissions perspective, as well as an operational one, that the mining industry continues with its push towards electrification.

Figure 3. Xerotech Hibernium Battery Pack after assembly.

24 October 2023 // global mining review

Nth Cycle, USA, describes how innovative refining technology can produce a clean, domestic supply of high-purity critical metals.

A

s we work to build a carbon-free, electrified economy to protect our planet, we are at a crossroads. The very technologies that will save us – electric vehicles, wind turbines, and processing power – are built on a foundation of critical metals extracted from the Earth at great monetary and environmental cost. How can the mining industry shift to a net zero existence without doing more harm than good?

Nth Cycle sees this challenge as an opportunity to draw the resources needed for the energy transition from more efficient mines with improved and more profitable revenue streams. This will make refining processes more sustainable while improving profits at the same time. The tools required to mine cobalt, nickel, and manganese – critical for our clean energy future – exist today.

However, the refining processes that transform these feedstocks into production-grade critical minerals for new manufacturing must be as clean as the future we imagine.

In 2012, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) released the Renewable Electricity Futures Study (RE Futures), which predicted renewable energy resources could technologically and economically supply 80% of US electricity in 2050, while balancing supply and demand every hour of every day in every region.1 The analysis included shifting to predominantly end-use electricity demand in the building, transportation, and industrial sectors.

11 years later, there is a commonly-used word for this energy evolution: ‘electrification’.

Following its initial study, the NREL specifically investigated the prospects for, and challenges to, electrification in a six-part, multi-year study.2 NREL concluded that popular and policy-driven demand for electrification is fuelling the sustained deployment of renewable energy, and that the US has abundant cost-effective resources to meet electrification-driven renewable growth. However, the cost impact of electrification on the entire energy sector depends on advancements in reducing capital cost, scaling output, and increasing efficiency of electric vs fossil fuel technologies.

global mining review // October 2023 25

Batteries are foundational

First and foremost, among these ‘electric end-use technologies’ are batteries. After all, batteries are literally the foundation of electric vehicles (EVs). The transition from internal combustion-powered vehicles to EVs is vital since the transportation sector is now the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants including SOx, NOx, and particulates, far outstripping the power sector. There is not only a need for passenger EVs: transit buses, heavy-haul truck fleets, aircraft, and trains; even support equipment, such as forklifts and airport TUGs, is being manufactured or prototyped as EVs. Of course, many other devices including smartphones, laptops, computer peripherals, tablets, smartwatches, and game controllers also depend on Li-ion batteries.

Critical minerals have a perilous supply chain

US-based companies only manufacture about 10% of all batteries produced, and, more importantly, a principal Li-ion battery chemistry relies on the use of five critical minerals: nickel, cobalt, manganese, graphite, and lithium. Domestically, society is at the far end of a brittle and unreliable critical mineral supply chain, and is exceedingly dependent on materials originating in countries fraught with geopolitical challenges, such as: contentious trade agreements and tariffs, periodic shipping interruptions, and commercial uncertainty. For example, 30% of global lithium reserves sit in Chile,3 a country struggling with low economic growth, income inequality, and a constitutional crossroads. Similarly, 70% of cobalt is mined in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),4 a nation rich in natural resources yet politically corrupt and unstable, with mining often conducted by children working alongside adults under extremely hazardous conditions. At any moment, precipitous developments in an unstable country could shut down mining indefinitely, resulting in the US being cut-off from these critical minerals and negatively affecting its national energy security. Concurrently, most of the critical mineral supply chain requires an immense amount of energy and has a large environmental impact.

There are considerable numbers here; for example, Reuters estimated late last year that EV leader, Tesla Inc., will need about 139 000 t of nickel in 2030.5 Fulfilling that projected requirement using Nth Cycle’s current technology would avoid releasing 1.82 million t of CO2 into the atmosphere, the equivalent to driving 405 205 gasoline-powered cars for a year.

Moreover, the US faces a significantly insufficient capacity to reuse and recycle spent batteries, a process referred to as “the domestic circular economy”.

Exacerbating the problem are uncertain waste recovery regulations, unmonitored decentralised collection, a lack of reprocessing infrastructure, and an absence of uniform purity standards. The combination of these uncertainties results in minimal domestic Li-ion critical mineral recovery, and significantly less than technologically possible. Consequently, US Li-ion battery collection

26 October 2023 // global mining review

facilities send the vast majority of ‘recycled’ batteries overseas to be reprocessed and remanufactured into next generation batteries that will be sold back to consumers.

Thus, the US is essentially giving away critical minerals needed for domestic electrification, along with potential profit to be made from a domestic battery manufacturing supply chain.

Electro-extraction

Nth Cycle – a company founded in 2017 by Chad Vectis, Megan O’Connor, and Desirée Plata – has developed and patented the rapid, effective, and efficient electro-extraction process, enabled by nanotechnology, for (re)processing critical mineral feedstocks into high-quality products, typically over 95% in purity. The process can reliably recover over 95% of the targeted critical metals, ensuring that every bit of usable material is recovered. Among electro-extraction’s innovations is its small footprint and modular format that enables the ability to co-locate at customer sites where Nth Cycle can source feedstock and return the upgraded material to OEMs, or at battery recycling facilities to environmentally and economically recover critical minerals from mechanically-processed waste streams. Nth Cycle’s solution can also be deployed at existing mining or refining sites to enhance critical metal recoveries from low-grade ores or waste-streams.

Electro-extraction hybridises traditional unit-processing techniques – including electrochemistry, precipitation, and filtration – into a single, compact, and modular unit, providing a sustainable solution for recyclers, miners, and OEMs. The technology utilises a unique, porous electrode material that increases the effective electrode surface area; allows for flow-through electrochemistry that significantly increases production rates; and can selectively dissolve and/or precipitate metals based on electrochemical flow regime tuning of aqueous conditions. As compared to traditional centralised pyrometallurgic and hydrometallurgic methods, Nth Cycle’s electro-extraction solution is markedly different; modular for decentralised applications, relatively low-cost at a small scale, and deployable in a matter of months, not years.

The electro-extraction process is enabled by nanomaterial-based electrochemical filters with sub-micron pore diameters that have numerous advantages over traditional electrodes, yielding a remarkable increase in critical metal electro-extraction rates. Nanomaterial-based electrified filters have many advantages over traditional porous electrodes such as carbon or metal mesh, felts, and cloths. For example, Nth Cycle’s electro-extraction electrodes have smaller pore diameters, greater surface areas, and can be made into thinner electrodes allowing for a large electrode surface area to be packed into a small volume. Nth Cycle’s proprietary electro-extraction technology is the base of ‘the Oyster’ device and process, and similar to an oyster, Nth Cycle’s technology can take in low value waste battery materials or ores and output high value nickel and cobalt mixed hydroxide precipitates.

Environmental, cost, and operational advantages

Nth Cycle’s patented process will markedly contribute to the US domestic critical mineral supply chain in the near future, supporting the aims of both the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA, 2022) and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA, 2021).

The electro-extraction process is also a big step forward environmentally; models predict it will emit 30 – 40% less CO2 equivalents than traditional metallurgic recycling processes, and it has potential to emit 70 – 90% less CO2 equivalents than traditional metallurgic virgin ore concentrate refining processes.

A single onsite electro-extraction unit will be able to produce 400 – 600 t of high-purity metal, such as cobalt or nickel annually on a footprint of only 2000 ft2. Thus, Nth Cycle’s electro-extraction technology can be a rapid add-on to existing mechanical recycling facilities, providing low capital and operating costs, and a cleaner alternative to traditional centralised metallurgic facilities.

Last month, Nth Cycle announced it would be opening a 21 000 ft2 facility outside of Cincinnati, Ohio,6 which would help dramatically scale operations and be the first company in the US to offer a domestic source of mixed hydroxide precipitate (MHP).7 In doing so, it will also be the first to help EV makers meet the qualifications of the IRA.

Conclusion

The demand for critical minerals to power the energy transition is growing exponentially. Yet it is clear that mining deeper and broader, and building landfills higher and wider, work against humanity’s fight to save the planet. Nth Cycle sees the path forward. It believes that all of the critical minerals needed for the energy transition are already in circulation today.

There was just no clean, profitable way of retrieving them, until now.

References 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

‘Renewable Electricity Futures Study’, NREL, (2012), https:// www.nrel.gov/analysis/re-futures.html ‘Electrification Futures Study’, NREL, (2018 – 2021), https:// www.nrel.gov/analysis/electrification-futures.html ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023’, US Geological Survey, (January 2023), https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/ mcs2023.pdf BAUMANN-PAULY, D., ‘Why Cobalt Mining in the DRC Needs Urgent Attention’, CFR, (29 October 2020), https://www.cfr.org/ blog/why-cobalt-mining-drc-needs-urgent-attention PRIYAMVADA C., ‘EV battery production faces supply chain, geopolitical headwinds – report’, Reuters, (31 October 2022), https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/ ev-battery-production-faces-supply-chain-geopoliticalheadwinds-report-2022-10-31/ ‘Nth Cycle Opens First Domestic Nickel and Cobalt Production Facility Ahead of Inflation Reduction Act Requirements’, Nth Cycle, (27 June 2023) https://nthcycle.com/nth-cycleopens-first-domestic-nickel-and-cobalt-production-facilityahead-of-inflation-reduction-act-requirements/ ‘Nth Cycle Introduces Premium Domestic MHP Product’, Nth Cycle, (31 January 2023), https://nthcycle.com/nth-cycleintroduces-premium-domestic-mhp-product/

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Sam Scarcello, Derrick® Corp., USA, reviews the company’s contributions to iron ore processing and its role in helping major players address complex challenges.

I

n the sprawling landscape of the mining industry – where efficiency, sustainability, and technological innovation intertwine – Derrick Corp. has emerged as a key player, helping to revolutionise the way iron ore is processed. With a legacy dating back to the 1950s, Derrick’s screens have been a stalwart companion in iron ore processing, readily adapting to industry demands and driving advancements.

A partnership with purpose: Addressing challenges in iron ore processing

In the heart of India’s iron ore landscape, ArcelorMittal Nippon Steel (AM/NS India) undertook the ambitious mission of optimising operations and elevating resource efficiency. The challenge was formidable: enhancing the capacity of their beneficiation plant from 8 million to 12 million tpy. This endeavour, however, was hindered by the inefficiencies of the existing hydrocyclone-based classification system, which led to the production of excessive ultrafines and coarse particles.

These undesirable outcomes compromised pellet quality, grinding capacity, and the integrity of a 253 km-long continuous iron ore slurry pipeline that spanned the region.

28 October 2023 // global mining review

Recognising the gravity of the challenge, AM/NS India sought a classification solution that would mitigate ultrafine generation in the grinding circuit, safeguard the slurry pipeline, and elevate concentrate slurry quality. In this critical juncture, Derrick Corp. offered a solution that would not only meet AM/NS India’s stringent requirements, but also usher in a new era of iron ore processing.

Transforming possibilities

Derrick’s SuperStack® technology, featuring a pioneering front-to-back screen panel tensioning system, stood as the answer to AM/NS India’s pressing needs. Notably, this solution promised an environmentally conscious approach, aligning seamlessly with AM/NS India’s commitment to sustainable practices. Through a comprehensive series of laboratory tests and third-party validation, Derrick demonstrated the capabilities of its technology. The company’s experience in closed grinding circuits and pipeline protection applications added further value to the proposition.

The installation of 10 SuperStack machines was executed with precision and speed, marking a pivotal turning point for AM/NS India’s operations: mill capacity surged by up to 15%, pellet quality witnessed a tangible improvement, and the uninterrupted slurry pipeline – among Asia’s longest – gained fortified protection.

The reduction in slimes and optimised resource efficiency added layers of success to AM/NS India’s operational endeavours.

A resounding success

Derrick’s SuperStack technology was not merely a solution; it was a catalyst for change, propelling AM/NS India toward substantial cost savings, heightened productivity, and a more sustainable iron ore processing paradigm. The robust technological framework not only elevated the grinding circuit’s efficiency, but also forged a direct link between increased throughput and reduced power and steel consumption per tonne. This synergy of enhanced performance and resource-consciousness painted a picture of an industry embracing both economic viability and ecological responsibility.

Key installation benefits

n Achieved an impressive 90% overall screening efficiency, significantly reducing +150-micron particles in the pipeline feed. n Increased pellet plant capacity, improved pellet quality, and a 15% reduction in blaine number. n Slimes reduction by 30%, resulting in improved filtration capacity and overall productivity.

global mining review // October 2023 29

n Optimised resource utilisation, ensuring maximum efficiency operations. n Enhanced pipeline protection and minimised environmental impact, aligning with sustainability goals.

US cents per tonne, as well as rapid returns on investments for capital costs (CAPEX), underscore the economic feasibility of this transformative approach.

Fine screening: The unseen transformer

Kropz, an emerging phosphate rock producer, faced challenges with existing machinery that led to the shutdown of a phosphate plant. The fluidised bed separators in use were unable to deliver efficient and consistent classification, resulting in customer dissatisfaction. Seeking a solution to optimise their grinding circuit’s performance and improve phosphate particle recovery and classification, Kropz turned to Derrick.

Derrick’s impact on iron ore processing extends beyond the boundaries of this case study. Another sector in which Derrick screens have also been involved since the 1950s is fine screening. From rectifying impurities in direct shipping ore sinter products to meticulously controlling the particle size in the pellet feed, Derrick screens operate with great versatility.

In particular, Derrick screens have facilitated the displacement of hydrocyclones in grinding circuits. The more precise classification by fine screens alters the grind/grade dynamics. This means achieving equivalent grade at a coarser grind size or achieving a higher grade at the same grind size, all while increasing mill throughput and lowering power and steel consumption per tonne. This not only streamlines operations, but also offers the potential to process lower-grade iron ores more economically – ultimately yielding higher-grade and more valuable products. Operating costs (OPEX) as low as one to two

Saving millions on infrastructure

Implementing innovation

Derrick’s history of innovation in fine screening technology, coupled with a longstanding relationship with Kropz, made it the natural choice. After comprehensive lab testing, Derrick identified the SuperStack as a solution to Kropz’s needs. The technology’s capacity and performance not only addressed classification and quality assurance concerns, but also offered a reduced footprint and lower power consumption, translating to substantial cost savings.

Maximised resource efficiency

Derrick’s solution not only simplified Kropz’s flowsheet, but also contributed to their carbon emission reduction goals. By opting for four high-efficiency, high-capacity SuperStacks, instead of more than double the units from a competitor, Kropz saved millions in infrastructure and commissioning costs. Thanks to the reduced operating expenditures and favourable payback schedule, Kropz was able to recommission a previously derelict plant using cutting-edge technology capable of withstanding even the harshest environments.

Key installation benefits

Figure 1. 10 eight-deck SuperStacks in operation at AM/NS India’s beneficiation plant in Dabuna, India.

nn Millions saved on infrastructure (low CAPEX) and power consumption (low OPEX) by opting for four SuperStacks, instead of 10 competitor units. nn Increased classification of phosphates, improving the quality of the final product. nn Simplified flowsheet, streamlining operations, and reducing complexity. nn Met carbon emission goals, aligning with sustainable mining practices.

A future forged in innovation and sustainability

Figure 2. Four Derrick SuperStacks reduced Kropz infrastructure costs while producing higher quality fertilizer at their phosphate plant in Elandsfontein, South Africa.

30 October 2023 // global mining review

As the mining industry hurtles forward, Derrick Corp. will continue to build upon on its past contributions to iron ore processing – aiding efficiency, sustainability, and technological evolution. The synergy of AM/NS India’s vision for sustainability, Kropz’s need for improved grade and recovery, and Derrick’s SuperStack technology underscore the potential for progress when innovation converges with industry demands. With a history rooted in innovation and a future forged in sustainability, the company is committed to the industry, helping to pave the way for a smarter, more efficient, and more responsible approach to iron ore processing. Contributions such as these are setting the stage for a brighter, greener, and more resource-efficient future for mining.

Figure 1. The Elios 3’s protective cage means it can be flown with confidence in confined spaces.

Eloise McMinn Mitchell, Flyability, Switzerland, discusses how drones are used in the underground mining industry, and why this technology is growing in popularity.

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ining has prehistoric roots, beginning with early humans looking for flint before moving on to sourcing materials such as iron or gold. Mining today is a constantly evolving industry that still has the same aim that sent prehistoric people searching: to find more. There is a delicate balance to strike between

maintaining existing workflows with integrating new technology and techniques.

Drones have been making their way into this industry as a modern tool to help modern mines solve modern problems. Over the past 10 years, there has been a steady adoption of drones for outdoor photogrammetry mapping

global mining review // October 2023 31

and surveying. However, specialised drones are now also being used for underground mines.

Why use drones in underground mining?

nn They improve safety: Using a drone can save a person entering a risky area. If there is a hang-up in an ore pass, the drone can fly up and access it without someone having to be in the range of danger. nn Drones have better access: Whether that means getting a birds eye view or inspecting the inside of a machine, drones can reach places that people cannot. With underground mines, a drone can be used to safely see around corners and past the line of sight. nn Drones improve efficiency, bringing a strong return on investment (ROI): With a drone inspection, data collection or a video capture can be done in minutes, which reduces downtimes and empowers faster decision-making, while providing more data than was previously available. The accuracy of drone-collected data can match traditional methods but provide better access, allowing for more efficient progress tracking and management.

Limitations and solutions

However, no technology is perfect. For this reason, drones face some limitations. The drone’s operating range can be reduced in underground mines compared to opencast ones, and there is no global navigation satellite system (GNSS) when working deep in the earth. In addition, there can be hazardous environments where a drone crashing into the side of a cave or being hit by rocks could take it

Figure 2. A drone pilot at work in a mine, navigating with the remote controller and visual feed on a tablet.

Figure 3. An ore pass hang-up identified by an Elios 3 drone that was previously inaccessible.

32 October 2023 // global mining review

out of the air. Even more obvious – there will be cases in underground mining where the drones are operating in complete darkness and out of the pilot’s sight. So, how can drones be used?

Specialist drones are overcoming some of these limitations. Cage drones, such as the Elios 3, are collision-tolerant and able to navigate complex, confined-space environments. By combining LiDAR and visual payloads to gather data, this drone can still operate beyond the line of sight and even in dusty environments, using a live LiDAR scan to navigate instead of the visual camera. The LiDAR also doubles as an indoor GNSS for situational awareness and stabilisation. The applications of this model are varied, presenting a range of cases where a drone can be used in a mine.

Case studies of drones at work in mines Working 10 000 ft below sea level in Timmins, Ontario

Glencore Kidd Operations working at Timmins in Canada are excavating in the world’s deepest base-metal mine.

Repeat surveys of the location are used to inspect the current condition of the mine and plan maintenance work.

These surveys need to provide data on projects that include safety evaluations, stope condition reports, survey cross-cuts, and even ore pass hang-up identification and resolution. The conditions, however, are challenging.

There is no GPS signal and there can be heavy dust in some locations, which results in limited light. Some of the locations are accessible on foot, but access is difficult in others, meaning they must rely on multi-solution workflows to gather data – and even then, the full picture can be hard to achieve. The team wanted to find better ways to gather data for these surveys to improve operations and enhance efficiency.

This is where they chose to bring in drones to easily execute data scans in vertical spaces, so that the need for costly and time-consuming drilling, to identify hang-ups or other issues, is minimised.

Glencore Kidd Operations became an early adopter of the Elios 2 and the team soon found that the drone was able to inspect a wide range of sites more efficiently than they previously could with other equipment. With the release of the Elios 3 in 2022, the team upgraded to the newest edition, which is equipped with a LiDAR scanner.

The Elios 3 can inspect and map large areas with minimal personnel, and without the need for taking multi-million-dollar production loaders out of operation in other areas of the mine to carry LiDAR sensors.

Glencore Kidd Operations is using these drones on a daily basis in multiple projects, including flying the drones into raised bores to scan the surfaces – even when out of the line of sight. When the dust clouds cause visibility problems, the team switches to the LiDAR view on the remote controller, making it easy to navigate even in complex scenarios. This ability to simultaneously gather side-by-side visual and LiDAR data helps offer more outputs to analyse data. This provides comprehensive

information for decision-makers and mine strategists on the surface as if they were underground. As drone pilots complete more and more scans, they use their results to compare inspections. By using a drone, the team can get more systematic access to their site and gather more data, improving safety, efficiency, and site management.

Solving problems: Identifying the cause of an ore pass hang-up

A team working at a major mining operation in Colorado was facing a problem: an ore pass was blocked in some way. The suspected hang-up was large enough to stop any material coming down the chute, but it was out of sight and reach, making it difficult to identify the blockage.

Initially, the team used traditional methods to try and solve the problem. They tried to use a CMS scanner to get a point cloud of the slot raise, but the low-density results only provided vague details, including that the hang-up was 27.5 m up (90 ft). The plan was to try and use explosive charges to shift the hang-up. This process required two steps: the first was to drill exploratory holes that were 12 – 21 m long (40 – 70 ft) from the higher production level and snake a sewer camera into them, followed by the CMS scanner, to try and get more accurate locational and compositional information on the plug.

Then, the team tried to use small charges to blast the blockage apart. These explosions had to be carefully controlled, as a large explosion could damage the ore pass’s integrity.

Despite multiple attempts, the blockage could not be removed or better identified. Two months passed, and the team turned to new techniques further afield to try and find the solution. This is where they brought in the Elios 3 drone. They aimed to gather visual data and understand the nature of the blockage in detail.

Within 10 minutes, the geolocation data from the live map on the Elios 3’s remote controller showed the cave engineer exactly what had happened: a very large, individual rock was blocking the pass. It was almost entirely intact, and the previous small charges had not been able to dislodge it at all. With this visual and geospatial data, the team could better plan how to deal with the ore pass hang-up appropriately. The preferred strategy with a massive intact rock was to drill directly into the centre of mass and load the inside of it with explosives to break it into smaller pieces and clear the raise.

By utilising drones, the team gained better access to this ore pass than ever before, while also maintaining the safety of the engineers. As a result, this mining team could reduce downtimes (going from two months of delay to a 10 min. inspection), as well as improve their overall operational efficiency.

Monitoring mine site infrastructure and assets with drones

The applications of drones in mining do not include just the mines themselves, but also the surrounding infrastructure. Elements such as machinery, buildings, and culverts can all be critical to smooth operations and require maintenance.

Figure 4. Analysing the results from a flight inside a culvert with the Elios 3.

At an opencast mine in Queensland, Australia, the drone solution specialists, Azure Integrity, were asked to come and assess a culvert. The culvert is part of the flood mitigation structure at the mine with an energy breaker at one end and difficult access at the other. The energy breaker was too narrow for a person to enter while carrying equipment or breathing apparatus. Combined with the stagnant water in the culvert and in the stilling basin, it was too dangerous for a person to inspect. In addition, due to uneven patches of water, neither a crawler nor a floating inspection toolkit would work. This is why Azure Integrity was called to the site.

Once there, the team determined that the Elios 3 drone could be used to inspect the 80 m culvert (262 ft).

Once the Elios 3 entered and started moving through the culvert, the pilot carefully recorded visual elements of the culvert for inspection. However, halfway through, they ran into an unexpected obstacle: a family of bats had made the culvert their home. To avoid disrupting the bats, the pilot guided the drone out of the culvert and back into the air. The team paused and tactically decided to wait until nightfall when the bats had left the area. With the combined capabilities of the Elios 3, its high-power lighting system, and the skilled pilot, the project was completed with little downtime.

The pilots in this case were able to adapt to the unique conditions of this asset. As drones can often be deployed within minutes and transported easily, this makes them very flexible tools with a range of applications.

The future of drones in underground mining

The case studies laid out here show a variety of applications for drones in underground mining. There are clear use cases in terms of improving safety, data coverage, and access.

As a result, this technology is helping mines streamline their operations by saving time and money, while also enhancing safety and decision-making. Although these examples are quite varied, the full extent of how drones can be used in mining, both above and below ground, is an evergrowing list of applications – one that will hopefully continue as mines worldwide focus on improving safety and keeping people out of harm's way.

global mining review // October 2023 33

34 October 2023 // global mining review

Rhae Adams, First Mode, USA, evaluates the importance of decarbonising haulage operations in order for mining to reach net zero targets.

Figure 1. DT74 at work (Source: Anglo American).

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ining is responsible for approximately 3% of worldwide carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and haulage at opencast mines accounts for a significant fraction of that. A typical ultra-class diesel-electric haul truck burns approximately 1 million l/yr of fuel, producing 2700 t of CO2. As mining continues to expand to meet the need for minerals critical to the clean-energy transition, decarbonising haulage steadily becomes more urgent.

The concept

First Mode is an industrial decarbonisation company with an initial focus on reducing CO2 emissions from opencast mining. A proof-of-concept haul truck, designed and built by First Mode in collaboration with Anglo American, recently completed its mission at Anglo’s platinum mine at Mogalakwena, South Africa.

The vehicle is a retrofitted Komatsu 930E-4, and the largest zero-emissions truck in the world. The concept proved is that a hybrid hydrogen fuel cell and lithium-ion battery powerplant can replace the diesel engine in a diesel-electric haul truck, and power the truck in the unforgiving environment of an opencast mine.

Why use hydrogen fuel cells to power a haul truck?

There are two main reasons: 1. Decarbonisation: Hydrogen fuel cells make electricity without making carbon dioxide. Water and heat are their only byproducts.

2. Refuelling: Fuel cells can keep making electricity as long as they have hydrogen. Refilling the hydrogen tanks only takes a few minutes, allowing the fuel to achieve operational parity with diesel.

Why use batteries as well as fuel cells?

For this, there are three main reasons: 1. Responsiveness: The power output of a fuel cell does not respond quickly to an increase or decrease in fuel supply. The power plant needs to be able to vary its power output quickly – for example, when the truck goes from traversing a flat surface to ascending a hill.

2. Energy storage: Fuel cells can make power, but they cannot store energy.

Using only fuel cells would mean passing up the opportunity to recover the energy the truck produces when descending a hill (regenerative braking).

3. Heat: In addition to producing electricity, fuel cells produce a lot of heat. If there were enough fuel cells to meet the truck’s peak power requirements, the cooling system required would be impractically large.

How does it help to add batteries?

Batteries can store up the electricity produced by the fuel cells, then deliver a lot of it quickly when needed (surge power). In the case of the proof-of-concept truck, the fuel cells produce at most 800 kW, but the batteries charged by the fuel cells can produce as much as 2000 kW, about the same as the 2700 hp produced by the diesel engine that the power plant replaces.

global mining review // October 2023 35

Building the truck

First Mode faced three principal technical challenges in designing, building, and installing the power plant.

1. Volume management: Fuel cells and batteries take up more space than the diesel engine they replace, and hydrogen fuel takes up much more space – at best, about four times as much – than an energy-equivalent amount of diesel. So, when designing the power plant module, the company took advantage of all available

space in the engine cavity (Figure 2), as well as on the sides and the deck of the truck.

2. Thermal management: Even though nothing is burning, both the fuel cells and batteries still get hot.

This required the creation of multiple cooling loops, with intricate routing (Figure 3) to fit into the limited space available.

3. Parallelisation: There is little industry experience with parallel operation of large fuel cells. The advantages of redundancy come at a cost in the complexity of properly synchronising the operation of multiple units. This is true both upstream (for the fuel supply, air supply, and cooling systems) and downstream (for the problem of merging several small and not entirely stable power supplies into one large and stable power supply). Lots of software is required, and there are many choices to make about the extent to which ancillary systems, such as air pumps and boost converters, should also be parallelised – should there be one per fuel cell, one big one for all the fuel cells, or something in between?

Operations and lessons learned Figure 2. Installing the DT74 power plant (Source: Anglo American).

The proof-of-concept truck, known as Dump Truck 74 (DT74) (Figure 1) made multiple pit runs side-by-side with the stock 930Es that make up the balance of the Mogalakwena fleet. A shovel loaded up the truck 100 t at a time, and the truck hauled the full 300 t load up a 10% grade at the prevailing speed of 12 km/h and dumped it at the crusher. The truck also performed numerous smaller operational and static tests. Heat and dust were major concerns going into the trial, and the system proved robust in the face of both. There were no safety incidents of any kind during the trial.

First Mode learned a lot from designing, building, and operating DT74, and from investigating customer needs, as well as the wider technology landscape along the way.

Retrofits are the way to go Figure 3. The DT74 power plant under construction (Source: Stuart Isett).

Companies make enormous investments in their existing diesel-electric fleets and the trucks last a very long time, yet they regularly need to be brought in for power plant overhauls anyway. Replacements of diesel engines with zero-emission power plants can be worked into existing overhaul routines. Retrofitting existing trucks with new power plants is faster and cheaper than assembling an entirely new fleet.

Volume constraints are prohibitive if gaseous hydrogen is used

Even compressed to the current practical limit of 700 atmospheres, there is no way to fit enough gaseous hydrogen on a haul truck to provide sufficient range. Liquid hydrogen is much better, and will give future versions a range comparable to that of diesel-fuelled trucks.

Supplying clean hydrogen is difficult and expensive Figure 4. Ways to make clean hydrogen, with commonly-used colour codes.

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While there are several ways to make clean hydrogen (Figure 4), there is great uncertainty as to which among

these methods will prevail and what the resulting price of liquid hydrogen will be a few years from now. Estimates range from approximately US$10/kg if there are no major breakthroughs, to around US$1/kg, which is the target set by the US Department of Energy.

Different mixes for different mines

The appropriate mix of batteries and fuel cells for any given fleet depends heavily on the conditions at the mine where it will be used. For example: nn Pit depth. The deeper the pit, the longer the truck must be able to sustain full power. nn Site altitude. Some haul trucks must operate at prevailing temperatures up to 40°C, others in thin air and frost. nn Grade and condition of haul roads. nn Prevailing speed of haul truck traffic.

In addition, at many sites there are significant obstacles to providing new infrastructure for battery charging and clean hydrogen production. Chief among these obstacles are site remoteness and carbon-intensive electricity grids.

Next steps

Due to the wide variety of conditions found at opencast mining operations, First Mode is pursuing a diversified product offering to enable reduced-emissions and zero-emissions fleets for a wide array of customer locations. In addition to a fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEV),

there will be a diesel-battery hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), as well as an all-battery electric vehicle (BEV) with a multi-megawatt fast charging system. All three solutions will offer regenerative braking.

To support further product development, the company has expanded the Seattle research and development facility where the DT74 power plant was built, and is now finishing construction of a nearby smart manufacturing facility where dozens of power plants will be built each year. The power plant modules will then be shipped to First Mode’s new proving grounds at an active mine site outside Centralia, Washington, US, for haul-truck integration and testing.

The proving grounds are located at a former coal mine which is currently undergoing reclamation. With over 10 000 acres of varied topography, they offer the opportunity to test retrofitted haul trucks under conditions closely resembling those at a variety of customer sites. The site will provide haul roads of varying grades and conditions, as well as workshops for maintenance, repair, and product refinement.

With these facilities, First Mode is building capacity to create a variety of solutions and demonstrate them under the conditions in which they are intended to be used.

While the company’s initial focus is on the Komatsu 930E-4, retrofit kits will soon be available for additional ultra-class diesel-electric haul trucks. The company is currently targeting initial production deployments for mid-2025.

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Henry Kurth, Scantech, Australia, presents the benefits of representative, real-time conveyed flow measurement in improving material quality and process performance.

38 October 2023 // global mining review

T

o improve quality or performance, there must be some means to measure the parameters requiring improvement, so that effectiveness can be evaluated and adjustments made to enhance outcomes. In the resources sector, and particularly in large processing operations, throughput rates can be many thousands of tonnes per hour. Very small improvements in process performance can have a major effect on overall economics and profitability – for example, a 1% improvement in recovery of a base metal can add tens of millions of dollars per annum to the bottom line. Demand is increasing for precise, timely, and representative measurement systems to ensure benefits can be quantified and further improvements implemented.

Approach

Some considerations in selecting a measurement solution include: n Which parameters need to be quantified? n At which point(s) in the process should measurements be taken? n Which precisions need to be achieved for measurements to be useful? n How frequently do the measurements need to be determined? n What constitutes timely measurement to enable improvements? n How long does it take for a change in control to take effect when responding to a measurement, and what is the cost of delaying a corrective action? n Does sampling or online analysis provide the most suitable data? n Which technologies should be considered? n How will implementation and maintenance affect production? n How is success determined? n What payback period is appropriate to justify the chosen solution?

The example used here relates to that of a base metal mining and processing operation that mines ore and produces a base metal concentrate. The aim is to assess potential measurement solutions for mined material to optimise process performance and maximise metal recovered and economic returns. Another objective is to minimise any detrimental environmental, social, and governance (ESG) effects and save unnecessary expenditure.

Parameters that affect process performance may include ore quality, deleterious components, mineralogy of the ore and waste components, and other compositional characteristics. Some parameters unable to be measured may be determined using proxies for a parameter of interest that affects process performance. High compositional variability and large particle size usually limit the practicalities of sampling conveyed

global mining review // October 2023 39

flows to determine quality in a timely manner to benefit process control. Online systems have therefore become the preference on such material flows.

Representative measurement

For the measurement technique to be representative, it should be able to comply with the theory of sampling, and thus

Figure 1. GEOSCAN section showing main components and example of data output.

provide an equal chance of any component to be included in the measurement. This precludes technologies that measure only the surface of material flows or bias measurement to a limited portion of the material because coarse process feed streams usually contain high compositional variability. The measurement location should allow for enough reaction time to respond to the quality in some way; diverting short increments based on composition and decision parameters based on process impact, blending with other quality materials, or feeding information backwards or forwards. Feed forward control can include flow rate control, reagent control, and other operational process variables that affect recoveries or product quality. Measurement prior to particle size reduction provides opportunities to influence the average quality proceeding to the next processing stage. Measurement of conveyed flows after primary crushing has become a common solution. Any material that is undesirable to process may be rejected, for example, parcels of waste material that generate no economic benefit in processing could be diverted before further crushing, grinding, or exposure to reagents. This also reduces energy consumption (a large contributor to greenhouse gas [GHG] emissions), water and reagent consumption, crushing and grinding consumables and equipment wear, and fine tailings generation. Other material diverted could be high in deleterious content or lower quality material that could be processed when higher quality feed is unavailable.

High specification PGNAA Figure 2. GEOSCAN elemental analyser installed on an underground copper-gold ore conveyor.

Figure 3. GEOSCAN elemental analyser with a TBM moisture analyser used in iron ore.

Figure 4. TBM moisture measurement in conveyed ore compared to laboratory data.

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Major benefits are achieved in measuring coarse conveyed flows with GEOSCAN high specification prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) over short increments of 30 sec. to 2 min. for most elements, or over 5 – 10 min. for trace elements, such as gold and silver. PGNAA applied to conveyed flows allows the full flow to be measured continuously and composition averaged for each increment in real time.

Laboratory analysis data from representative samples of the flow is compared to measurement data from analysers over an appropriate number of data points, in order to fine-tune analyser calibrations and also assess measurement precisions by element.

High specification GEOSCAN (PGNAA) is also referred to as thermal neutron capture and the technology utilises a californium-252 radioactive source located below the belt within the instrument to generate neutrons which are absorbed by conveyed material as it passes through the tunnel of the analyser. Neutrons are captured by atomic nuclei in the material flowing on the belt, and gamma rays are instantaneously produced with unique energy distributions for each element. The gamma ray spectrum is captured by an array of high-performance detectors located in the top of the analyser, where proprietary signal processing algorithms resolve the signal into a set of individual elemental results.

The completely penetrative and continuous nature of the process allows a representative measurement to be produced for elements amenable to this technique which is independent of mineralogy, particle size, segregation or layering in the flow, moisture content, and belt speed.

Digitalising conveyed flow composition provides many opportunities to improve quality by utilising or reducing

variability, depending on benefits required to improve downstream processes.

Moisture

Additionally, moisture measurement can be made using a through-belt moisture (TBM) analysis system. The TBM utilises penetrative and continuous microwave transmission measurement to directly measure the free moisture content of the conveyed material, and is typically installed alongside the GEOSCAN, therefore providing both elemental and moisture results. Installation is typically completed during planned plant shutdowns to avoid any interference with production, and samples can be taken during normal operations for periodic calibration verification. Non-contact design also ensures minimal mechanical maintenance requirements and operating cost due to the absence of any wear components.

Benefits

Results from the GEOSCAN and TBM are output to the plant control system typically every two minutes in the majority of installations. This analysis period allows for reliable and repeatable results and is fast enough to enable responses in downstream process control (feed-forward control) or upstream material management (feedback control), as required. Analysis can be performed in as little as 30 sec., while maintaining the repeatability statistics (precision) expected over longer integration periods, using a higher specification system suitable for bulk sorting applications. Benefits of the high precision, timely, representative measurement data

include significant upgrades to ore quality of up to 20% of the grade and significant GHG emission savings of up to 40 000 t CO2e/yr in a 1200 tph copper ore processing operation.

Further benefits include increases in metal recoveries of a few percentage points and reduction in fine tailings generation by 5 – 20% by tonnage. Higher metal content in process feed (i.e. higher ore grades) have resulted in increased concentrate production for the same process throughput capacity.

Paybacks for some of these benefits have been in a few days or weeks.

Opportunity

The cost of not utilising proven timely, precise, and representative measurement technologies is that processing will continue to consume more resources than necessary as more material that does not generate positive returns is processed. Plant capacity will be unnecessarily inefficiently utilised and higher than necessary generation of fine tailings and GHG emissions will occur. Processing will continue to be less efficient and metal recoveries lower than competing operations that utilise the technology. In an increasingly technology-implementing industry, the inability or reluctance to continuously improve operational performance will force some companies to fail. Opportunities to implement proven measurement systems that have long been de-risked can significantly improve project economics, but only if adopted, implemented, and optimised. Digitalisation of conveyed flows is a pre-requisite for improved plant feed quality management.

Control and improvement relies on effective measurement.

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Jiyuan Chen, Hong Liu, and Dr. Li Li, Wolong Electric Group Co. Ltd, assess the benefits of an integrated motor and drive machine in coal mine production.

I

n coal mines, most armoured face conveyors (AFCs), stage loaders, or hoists use either a direct start, a rare version of inverter, or a soft start drive. The drawbacks of a direct start are a high starting current, a high starting torque, a voltage drop, etc., all of which negatively impact electric motor performance.

These disadvantages bring uncertainties for mining operations up to and including production breakdowns. Guaranteed reliability of motor performance is critical for profitable coal mine production. In recent years, with the progress and

42 October 2023 // global mining review

development of inverter technology, the technology of the integrated motor and drive (IMD) machine and other new innovations are becoming more mature.1 The coal mining industry has also begun to invest in IMD machines, permanent magnet motors, and other major equipment including emulsion pumps, belt tailpieces, and AFCs.2,3 The explosion-proof and intrinsically safe IMD machine for mining is an innovative solution combining a motor with a drive and control technology for high risk, narrow longwall, or other

working faces in coal mines. It integrates permanent magnetic motors and frequency inverters into a single compact system structure. With intelligent inverter topology, digital drive, diagnostic technology, higher control accuracy, fast response speed, smooth changes of torque, and motor magnetic chain, this IMD machine offers an improvement in power density.

Moreover, by reducing harmonic content of the output, it improves the efficiency of the frequency inverter, extends the service life of the motor, and reduces interference with external equipment for increased system stability in coal mines.

The principle and construction of an integrated motor inverter machine

An IMD system mainly consists of an electric circuit system, control system, HMI system, driving system, and a three-phase asynchronous motor or three-phase permanent magnet synchronous motor, three-stage main control box, and other core components. The schematic diagram of the system is illustrated in Figure 1.

The motor portion of an IMD system has two optional configurations based on different load conditions in coal mines.

The first configuration is a conventional three-phase 1500 RPM asynchronous motor. Other rotational speeds can be customised according to a user’s specification. The second option is a three-phase permanent magnet synchronous motor.

For increased energy efficiency and power factor quality, the motor’s rotor consists of punched laminations inlaid with magnets. In recent years, international organisations and governments have been committing to net zero carbon emission initiatives, as well as working on decarbonisation policy and regulations. As a result, end-users globally are interested in more energy efficient technology, such as the IMD, to help evolve systems to meet future requirements.

In a practical setup, an AFC or belt conveyor load is mostly handled by several IMDs within one configured system. It is necessary to deploy a centralised main logic box for control and status monitoring for multiple IMD units. To accomplish this, IMDs and the main control box are equipped with a CAN communication control interface which also allows them to form a bus communication network for coordination. The control system sets a time for accelerating or decelerating IMD operation according to the production load. This level of control best meets requirements, allows for minimal mechanical impact, and prolongs the service life of underground system equipment. The centralised main control box (Figure 2) can display the operating status, output current, torque, and speed of all IMD units in real time. It controls the output speed and torque of the IMDs to achieve the purpose of power and load balance.

The advantages of integrated motor and drive technology

The IMD system is a relatively new technology that integrates a frequency inverter, explosion-proof three phase motor, and a control system into a single unit. It is well suited for a load drive system application on an underground coal mine working face.

It can be used mainly in underground coal mine AFCs, stage loaders, belt conveyors, emulsion pumps, and other applicable load equipment. The main advantages to users include: 1. The frequency inverter and motor are included in a self-contained compact explosion-proof housing,

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

which simplifies the equipment arrangement on working faces and eliminates the need to install in a mine adit or a track haulage.

The system provides automatic load distribution from multiple IMDs to reach an ideal torque balance.

A diagnostic management system includes real-time monitoring and recording equipment operation status.

Maintenance costs for IMDs tend to be much lower than traditional solutions equipped with a hydraulic coupling or gearbox.

Motor cables are embedded within IMD machines, eliminating the need for filters and reactors which commonly require long distance transmission. The cabling arrangement avoids harmonic breakdown and the risk of wear caused by dragging.

IMDs can be driven from more than 3000 m across working surfaces, making the system very flexible for different environments.

Case studies The application of IMD machines in an AFC system

In this case, the AFC conveyor system is chiefly composed of an AFC, reducer, an IMD machine, and a programmable control box on comprehensive mining working faces. A case study of the application configuration is given in a comprehensive working face #105 in the Hecao Gou coal mine in Yan’an, China. The length of the longwall working face is 328 m with a one-time full-height coal mining process.

The designed mining height is 5.5 – 6 m and the total length is 5880 m. An AFC driving system consists of two 1300 kW/3.3 kV IMDs and one 700 kW/3.3 kV IMD. The system arrangement is shown in Figure 3. As can be seen from the figure, the AFC is driven by the two 1300 kW IMDs, and the stage loader is driven by the 700 kW IMD. All the IMDs are connected to a reducer with claw-type elastic couplings. A secure programmable control box can realise the automatic tensioning control of the machine tail, monitor the cooling water flow, pressure, and temperature of the motor. It also monitors the reducer oil temperature, oil level, and high and low speed shaft temperature, as well as the cooling water flow, pressure, and temperature. The collective signals are uploaded to a master control box through a secure easy-plug communication cable for control room display. The control box has a protective function to signal an over-limit alarm for operator(s) to take swift corrective or preventive action.

At present, the system uses a two-speed motor for AFC drives in most coal mining working faces. Some disadvantages include poor power balance, a high mechanical impact on equipment, high energy consumption, and struggles with heavy load starting, etc.

The application of an explosion-proof IMD in the AFC system can handle heavy load starts, reduce the impact on the AFC, dynamically control power balance, improve system reliability, and enable models such as chain break protection and overload warning by big data analysis. The adoption of IMD technology can greatly improve the efficiency and stability in the operation of AFC systems in an underground coal mine.

global mining review // October 2023 43

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of integrated motor and drive system.

Reducing occurrence of broken chain incidents during operation

Figure 2. Illustration of centralised main control box.

When the AFC is driven by a traditional separate industrial motor and inverter system, the motor can only passively increase the output torque when the chain jams. If the front-stage combination switch cannot cut off the power supply in time, it is very easy to break the chain and/or damage the motor, halting production. When the AFC is driven by an IMD, it has the ability to maximise torque limitation and protect the chain. Even if a chain fails, an IMD can shut down the machine in milliseconds upon detection to prevent further damage. At the same time, the integrated machine control box can also be supportive based on local real-time IMD data and utilising programme algorithm logic. When the control system detects an abnormal condition from the AFC system, the IMD can shut down immediately to prevent failure. This redundant protection can dramatically minimise the probability of system damage and extended maintenance shut downs.

Power balance/adjustment function for multiple collaborative machines

The head and tail motors of an AFC have rigid chain connections.

The speed and output torque cannot be controlled if driven by a traditional motor inverter system. When the load of the AFC fluctuates, the motor at the head and tail of a conveyor cannot achieve a power balance adjustment, resulting in load imbalance between multiple machines. The built-in master-slave control mode of multiple IMDs can handle the multi-machine and multi-point dynamic power balance/adjustment of an AFC application.

Figure 3. Diagram of an AFC system in Hecao Gou coal mine.

Reducing mechanical wear and electrical shock of AFCs IMDs have excellent soft start performance. They reduce the impact on the chain and the scraper, prolonging the service life of AFCs and resulting in lower maintenance costs. The starting current of an IMD is less than 1.5 times the rated current. The impact on the power grid is trivial when starting, which is favourable to improving the efficiency of the power supply.

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The application of IMD machines in a belt conveyor system Case background

The #9807 comprehensive working face in Shendong Jinjie coal mine, in Yulin, China, is an inclined longwall mine. The designed working face track chute can be mined towards the length of 1953 m, and the average thickness of the coal seam is 4.2 m. The belt conveyor of #9807 comprehensive mining face in Jinjie Mine

is 1950 m long with an average inclination angle of 18°.

According to the conditions of the working face, one DSJ140/200/3x710 belt conveyor system had been designed to meet these requirements. The system drive includes three IMD (TYJVFT-400L1-6) units at 1000 kW/1140 V (Figure 4).

Initial challenge

In the Jinjie Coal Mine working face, the length of the conveyor belt is longer and with a steep inclination angle. The vertical difference in elevation between the head and tail belt is approximately 150 m. At the beginning of production stage, the IMDs appeared to be out of power. The inverters triggered frequent over-voltage protection alarms because of skidding load, due to the downturn of the conveyor when fully loaded.

This seriously affected the routine production plan.

Root cause analysis

After field investigation and analysis, the root cause was identified. When the conveyor belt skidded, the motor changed into a generator because of the presence of permanent magnets in the rotor. The kinetic energy of the belt conveyor was converted to electrical energy. The electrical flow through the cable connected to the motor fed back to the inverter, which led to the DC bus voltage in the inverter triggering the over-voltage alarm and interlock. The fault occurred after reset.

Troubleshooting

nn For this working condition, a controllable AC contactor was added in between the inverter and the motor in the IMD. The contactor was disconnected when the machine stopped running. As the belt conveyor skidded, the power generated by the motor could not be fed back to the inverter because of the isolation of the AC contactor. It also eliminated the potential damage to the frequency conversion components. nn To prevent the conveyor belt from skidding when starting, the pressure value of the brake gate’s feedback signal was adjusted. The brake gate gave a feedback signal to the controller when there was still braking force. When starting,

the brake gate would continue to be opened to the maximum during starting, until the conveyor was up to operating speed. nn When the belt conveyor was not completely idle, the controller reacted to hold the brake in advance and to achieve a perfect transition between the belt conveyor decelerating to a standstill whilst braking. This prevented the belt conveyor from skidding while stopping.

After these corrective actions were taken, the permanent magnet IMD system has been running normally without any further electromechanical problems. With the operation stabilised, the production efficiency in the working face has improved.

Conclusions

An integrated motor inverter machine is a fully combined frequency inverter, motor, and electrical control, capitalising the advantage of a frequency conversion drive to various load conditions in underground coal mines. These features are essential to build a digitalised mining control system for the future. Engineered from a rich knowledge of industry experience, IMD technology features stable signal transmission, is easy to operate, and significantly saves on operational and maintenance costs. At present, integrated motor and drive machines have gradually become a primary drive for AFCs, belt conveyors, emulsion pumps, and other load bearing equipment in underground coal mines, helping the industry advance towards more intelligent and energy efficient mining operations.

References 1.

2.

3.

ABEBE, R., VAKIL, G., LO CALZO, G., et al., ‘Integrated Motor Drives: State of the Art and Future Trends’, IET Electric Power Applications, (2016), Vol.10, No.8, pp. 757 – 771.

PRASAD, H., MAITY, T., and BABU, V. R., ‘Recent Developments in Mine Hoists Drives', Journal of Mining Science’, (2015), Vol.51, No.6, pp. 1157 – 1164.

WANG, L., LI, H., HUANG, J., et al., ‘Research on and Design of an Electric Drive Automatic Control System for Mine Belt Conveyors’, Processes 2023, Vol.11, No.6, 1762.

Figure 4. Diagram of the belt conveyor system in Jinjie coal mine.

global mining review // October 2023 45

Nate Leonard, Sentry Equipment, USA, considers the benefits of automatic sampling in the mining industry.

W

ithout being able to determine the makeup of materials at a smaller scale, the mining process would be inexplicably inefficient. Attempting to measure the quality and characteristics of a large collection would be near-impossible, which in many cases would render it almost useless. The solution for this issue is representative sampling.

Representative sampling refers to a process in which a large amount of small samples are taken throughout processing in order to accurately depict the makeup of everything that is being mined. Companies who use representative sampling methods can observe the qualities and makeup of each small sample, which, when averaged with all other samples taken, will become fully representative

46 October 2023 // global mining review

of the whole solution. Moreover, representative sampling helps mining companies complete tasks essential to their success, such as measuring whether their excavation process is effective or determining valuations. If everything is done correctly, representative sampling can also help mining companies improve the consistency, repeatability, and safety of their processes.

While the process of gathering representative samples may not initially seem difficult, it can be quite challenging, as different materials and states of matter have different characteristics that make them vary in sample size, sample frequency, and gathering technique. It can also be difficult to manually obtain a sample free of unintentional operator contamination. Mining companies that are attempting to

collect representative samples must always pay heed to Gy’s sampling theory, which states that every particle in the process stream must have an equal probability of being selected in each sample. These factors can make representative sampling difficult as it can require precision and expertise to avoid gathering inaccurate samples.

An efficient solution for a challenging process

Luckily, there is an efficient answer to avoid these concerns: automatic sampling systems. While these systems still require the knowledge to make the proper adjustments to variables such as cycle rate, dwell time, and total volume, far less expertise is required than previous sampling solutions. This is because these systems no longer require the manual division of materials into satisfactory samples that are truly representative. It is still important to understand how the process of automatic sampling works to set the variables so that the samples collected are valuable, but it is far less challenging and time-consuming to collect large sums of accurate samples than it was when samples had to be manually extracted.

For example, in cases where samples are being collected from a pipeline, a pneumatically actuated automatic point plunger-style sampler is the natural solution. When fixed to the pipe in an area where the flow of materials and slurry are frequent and voluminous, the plunger sits just outside the flow. Then, when actuated, it descends into the pipe as the slurry continues to run through. The plunger captures the ideal amount of the desired solution and, once it has accomplished this, retracts to its initial position. It is essential during this process that the plunger fully intercepts the flow of the slurry; if it does not, the sample will likely not be fully representative as content segregation occurs frequently in slurries. It then dispenses the entirety of the captured solution into a sampling container for further inspection, thus providing a full and accurate sample and avoiding the disruption or contamination of future samples.

Previous sampling methods, such as taps in the side of slurry pipes or pressure pipe samplers, often did not capture accurate representative samples despite being commonly used across the industry. As R.J. Holmes discusses in the Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, these methods did not fully intercept the flow of the slurry and thus could not account for the separation and segregation that formed in the slurry as it travelled through the pipes. They also typically failed to account for the fact that any small portion of the slurry that may have escaped the pipe at the point of interception needs to be accounted for when accurately collecting a truly representative sample.1 Armed with the ability to adapt the automatic sampling process quickly and easily to the needs of any given solution without fear that the sample will be inaccurate or the threat of sample contamination, this method is revolutionary and essential for precisely sampling the contents of mined materials.

A more reliable method

While automatic sampling does make the sampling process quicker and easier, it is not only used for its convenience. When sampling manufactured materials, only a small number of samples are usually required to obtain a somewhat accurate representation of the entire deposit. This is not the case in mining; since materials are found within substrates, many small samples must be taken to obtain a sample fully representative of each substrate’s makeup. As automatic sampling can be programmed to take as many samples at whatever interval is necessary, it is also an extremely efficient method for guaranteeing the accuracy of the representation of materials. When many small samples are averaged, the result is both more representative and more compliant to acceptable sampling standards, making it superior to other sampling methods.

When looked at through the lens of Gy’s sampling theory, it is easy to comprehend how an automatic and systematic way to sample is far more secure when it comes to collecting samples that are genuinely representative. If every particle in the process stream is to truly have an equal chance of being selected as part of a sample as every other particle in that same stream, manual sampling leaves far too great an opportunity for error or contamination. Calculating this error becomes a crucial step in the sampling process, because if too many particles in the stream are left ineligible for selection, the findings can be detrimentally inaccurate, which in turn can lead companies to a false sense of the content and quality of the materials they are mining.

Automatic sampling, if done correctly, can help eliminate all of the controllable errors in the sampling process, thereby enabling mining companies to feel far less apprehension as to whether their samples are satisfactorily representative of the entire makeup of the solution they are mining. By removing these variables, miners can spend more time accurately addressing and accounting for the errors that are solely based on the physical and chemical properties of each analyte, which can be acknowledged and accounted for prior to the inception of the process itself.

A marginal improvement in sampling

While understanding the hypothetical benefits of an automatic sampling system is itself advantageous, one cannot truly accept the superiority of the process without first seeing the results of one such sampling system when used in the field. Luckily, multiple case studies exist that can perfectly exemplify the exact reasons why many miners give automatic sampling systems preferential treatment in comparison to other manual methods of sampling.

Case study

One such case study from Sentry Equipment Corp., a Wisconsin-based company specialising in building automatic sampling systems, demonstrates how one of its clients used automatic sampling in two instances of its copper mining process. First, as solutions with varying

global mining review // October 2023 47

Once the solutions flow fully through the pipes into the collection tanks, the overall concentration is adjusted and chemicals are added before they are finally extracted. Once again using the ISOLOK SAA automatic point sampler at the same intervals, the client was also able to garner accurate samples when testing the chemical makeup of the contents in its collection tanks before the extraction process was completed.

After the samples were collected, the sampled selections were reintegrated with the rest of the contents in the collection tank.

Conclusion Figure 1. A Sentry Equipment ISOLOK SAA automatic point sampler.

amounts of copper flowed through the multiple pipes to the collection pond, samples were taken to accurately measure the concentration of copper in each solution. Previously, it had been difficult to obtain an accurate representative sample through this process, as each pipe had its own concentration of copper and needed its contents to be sampled individually by hand. By using Sentry’s ISOLOK SAA automatic point sampler to continuously obtain samples every five minutes in order to create a 1 l sample over a 24 hour period, the client stated that they saw an increase in both the performance of the sampling process and the proximity between the theoretical and actual data gathered.

The process of sampling is crucial and necessary for the success of any mining operation, but it can be painstakingly difficult to do the job manually, and with different specifications necessary for each unique process, state of matter, and solution, there are many steps throughout the entire process that are subject to human error. As the best way to definitively eliminate many of the insurmountable errors for any manual sampling processes, and to allow all particles in the process stream equal eligibility to be selected for sampling, automatic sampling is a trustworthy method to guarantee that an accurate and representative sample is obtained no matter what the concentration or makeup of the analyte.

References 1.

HOLMES, R. J., ‘Sampling mineral commodities – the good, the bad, and the ugly’, The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, (2010), Vol.110, pp.269 – 276.

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