NETA World Journal | Summer 2012

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24 LUBRICATION OF ELECTICAL DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT

By Bella H. Chudnovsky

Lubricants are widely used in electrical connectors, switches, and circuit breakers to improve performance and reliability and extend service life of electrical equipment. Electrical distribution apparatus is a complicated electromechanical device made of conductive and insulating materials with sliding and rotating parts and mating surfaces. The role of the lubricants for electrical and mechanical parts is similar, but there are some specifics in choosing a proper lubricant for electrical contacts and mechanical parts. FEATURES

7 PRESIDENT’S DESK

Mose Ramieh, Power & Generation Testing, Inc. NETA President

8 JOHN WHITE ONE OF THE GOOD ONES

Jill Howell and Kristen Wicks, NETA

16 POWERTEST 2012 EVERY THING'S BIGGER IN TEXAS 34 NETA'S FIRST ANNUAL AFFILIATE RECOGNITION AWARD, 2012

Jill Howell and Kristen Wicks, NETA 41 CIRCUIT BREAKERS INVOLVED IN FLOODS

Jim White and Jim Miller, Shermco Industries

67 IMPROPER LUBRICANT SELECTION: A SLIPPERY SLOPE

Mike Orosz, Schneider Electric

50TECH QUIZ

Lubricants Used in Circuit Breakers and Switches

Jim White, Shermco Industries

57THE NFPA 70E AND NETA

Wearing PPE Important or Not?

Jim White and Ron Widup, Shermco Industries

60 NICHE MARKET TESTING

Implementing Lightning Protection Systems

Lynn Hamrick and Owen Wyatt, Shermco Industries

98 TESTING ROTATING MACHINERY

Direct Current (DC) High Voltage Test

Vicki Warren and Ian Culbert, Iris Power LP.

106 SAFETY CORNER

Lubrication: The Dos and Don'ts of Electrical

Equipment Lubrication

Paul Chamberlain, American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

113 TECH TIPS

The Theoretical Basis of Resistivity Measurements

Jeff Jowett, Megger

SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS ACTIVITY

118 ASTM F18 REPORT

122 INSULATED CONDUCTOR COMMITTEE NEWS

Ralph Patterson, Power Products and Solutions

124 NEC CODE MAKING PANEL COMMITTEE REPORT

Jim White, Shermco Industries

127 CSA UPDATES

Kerry Heid, Magna Electric Corp.

128 ANSI/NETA STANDARDS UPDATES

INDUSTRY TOPICS

74 POWER FACTOR: EXPLANATION, DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE

John Cadick, Cadick Corporation 87

THE REMAINING LIFE OF VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

Finley Ledbetter, Group CBS and John Cadick, Cadick Corporation

3050 Old Centre Avenue, Suite 102

Portage, MI 49024

Toll free: 888.300.NETA (6382)

Phone: 269.488.NETA (6382)

Fax: 269.488.6383

neta@netaworld.org

www.netaworld.org

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Jayne Tanz, CMP

NETA Officers

PRESIDENT: Mose Ramieh, Power & Generation Testing, Inc.

FIRST VICE PRESIDENT: David Huffman, Power Systems Testing Co.

SECOND VICE PRESIDENT: Ron Widup, Shermco Industries

SECRETARY: Walt Cleary, Burlington Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

TREASURER: John White, Sigma Six Solutions

NETA Board of Directors

Ken Bassett (Potomac Testing, Inc.)

Scott Blizard (American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.)

Jim Cialdea (Three-C Electrical Co., Inc.)

Walt Cleary (Burlington Electrical Testing Co., Inc.)

Roderic Hageman (PRIT Service, Inc.)

Kerry Heid (Magna Electric Corporation)

David Huffman (Power Systems Testing)

Alan Peterson (Utility Service Corporation)

Mose Ramieh (Power & Generation Testing, Inc.)

John White (Sigma Six Solutions)

Ron Widup (Shermco Industries)

NETA World Staff

TECHNICAL EDITOR: Roderic L. Hageman

ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Diane W. Hageman

MANAGING EDITOR: Jayne Tanz, CMP

ADVERTISING MANAGER: Jill Howell

DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: Newhall Klein, Inc.

NETA Committee Chairs

CONFERENCE: Ron Widup; MEMBERSHIP: Ken Bassett; PROMOTIONS/MARKETING: Kerry Heid; SAFETY: Lynn Hamrick; TECHNICAL: Alan Peterson; TECHNICAL EXAM: Ron Widup; WORLD ADVISORY: Diane Hageman;

CONTINUING TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT: David Huffman; TRAINING: Kerry Heid; FINANCE: John White; NOMINATIONS: Alan Peterson; STRATEGY: Mose Ramieh; AFFILIATE PROGRAM: Jim Cialdea

© Copyright 2012, NETA

NOTICE AND DISCLAIMER

NETA World is published quarterly by the InterNational Electrical Testing Association. Opinions, views and conclusions expressed in articles herein are those of the authors and not necessarily those of NETA. Publication herein does not constitute or imply endorsement of any opinion, product, or service by NETA, its directors, officers, members, employees or agents (herein “NETA”).

All technical data in this publication reflects the experience of individuals using specific tools, products, equipment and components under specific conditions and circumstances which may or may not be fully reported and over which NETA has neither exercised nor reserved control. Such data has not been independently tested or otherwise verified by NETA.

NETA MAKES NO ENDORSEMENT, REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY AS TO ANY OPINION, PRODUCT OR SERVICE REFERENCED OR ADVERTISED IN THIS PUBLICATION. NETA EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMS ANY AND ALL LIABILITY TO ANY CONSUMER, PURCHASER OR ANY OTHER PERSON USING ANY PRODUCT OR SERVICE REFERENCED OR ADVERTISED HEREIN FOR ANY INJURIES OR DAMAGES OF ANY KIND WHATSOEVER, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, DIRECT OR INDIRECT DAMAGES. NETA FURTHER DISCLAIMS ANY AND ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OF IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, ANY IMPLIED WARRANTY OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.

ELECTRICAL TESTING SHALL BE PERFORMED ONLY BY TRAINED ELECTRICAL PERSONNEL AND SHALL BE SUPERVISED BY NETA CERTIFIED TECHNICIANS/ LEVEL III OR IV OR BY NICET CERTIFIED TECHNICIANS IN ELECTRICAL TESTING

III OR IV. FAILURE TO ADHERE TO ADEQUATE

PowerTest 2012 is now history and the planning for New Orleans has already begun. We need your input to ensure another great conference.

For those of you that didn’t make it to Ft. Worth, you missed a great time of learning and fellowship. Don’t miss out on next year. Start planning now to attend PowerTest 2013 in New Orleans.

As I prepared this message, I reflected upon discussions I had at PowerTest with the vendors and members about how their businesses were doing during this period of economic uncertainly. I was surprised to hear that the majority were doing quite well. The recovery according to all accounts is very anemic and slow moving. The positive information about how our businesses are doing bodes well for our industry. I can’t speak to the vendors’ success but know that what NETA is doing to promote our test standards and the NACs services has and will continue to have a positive impact for each and every member. Let us hear from you on what you would like to see NETA do to promote your services.

I have stated in previous messages that this is a great time for NETA. We continue to expand services and support to all members. Through our participation, NETA is having a positive impact in many areas of standards and rule making. If imitation is the finest form of flattery, then we are doing a great job as other organizations are creating programs that resemble ours. However, now is not the time for us to maintain the status quo. We need to expand our influence and continue the evolution of NETA!

During the next few months the Board of Directors will be conducting strategic planning sessions. These sessions will have a direct impact on the way NETA will support its members and present itself to the industry in the coming years. Now is the time for your input on the direction you want NETA to take in the future. Let us hear from you.

Mose Ramieh NETA President

Eagles Flock to Honor

JOHN WHITE, NETA’S 2012 OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENT AWARD

Recipient.

JOHN WHITE

Clockwise from Upper Left: John the Fisherman, Catching Dinner in his Back Yard; The Three Musketeers (Mose Ramieh, Rod Hageman, and John White Hawaiian-Style); John with the Next Generation; Some of the Good Ones.

ONE OF THE GOOD ONES JOHN WHITE

BY JILL HOWELL AND KRISTEN WICKS, NETA

Each year, NETA selects an individual who has made an impact on NETA and the electrical testing industry as a whole. There are many people each year who are considered for this honor. During the presentation of this award at the Member and Affiliate Lunch at PowerTest 2012, President Mose Ramieh challenged the notion that, “eagles don’t flock; you have to find them on their own.”

He looked around the room and recognized each person in it as an eagle, a leader through commitment to excellence in their field of work. As President of NETA, Mose is challenged with selecting the individual that would receive the 2012 Outstanding Achievement Award. Having a room filled with eagles to choose from can make this task a difficult task. Mose went on to explain that his concern evaporated quickly after realizing that John White of Sigma Six Solutions, longtime NETA supporter, member, and volunteer, had yet to be recognized with this award that honors those who contribute freely of their time and expertise. Read on to learn more about this eagle among eagles.

Many people involved in the electrical testing industry walked a long and winding road that led them to their eventual home in this niche career. They knew a guy that knew a guy, or heard it from a friend who heard it from a friend who, etcetera. Not so with John. When asked how he got his start, he replied, “I was good at science and math in high school so when I started

at Washington State University

I was focusing on math and science. I wasn’t sure what I was going to do with a math degree other than teach, so I talked to a friend of mine who was an upper classman and he suggested I become an electrical engineer. And so I did. The decision process was that simple.”

John’s ability to keep it simple is something that many of his colleagues admire about him. Ron Widup, Shermco Industries, says, “As the Finance Chair he does a great job of condensing the financials down to a succinct presentation that makes sense and gives perspective on where the association is financially, allowing for informed discussions and decisions by the rest of the Board. He is always able to get involved in a discussion in a way that makes everyone think in an expanded way.”

Bob White, Elemco Services, met John White at a NETA conference many years ago. Bob says, “John has always been laid back and quiet. He doesn’t say much in meetings unless he has something worth saying. If there is controversy, he always has a solid opinion or statement that helps find resolution.”

Scott Blizard, American Electrical Testing Co., Inc., agrees that John is, “professional, well-spoken, and well-respected.”

He explains, “When I met John it was in John’s ETI days, ten to fifteen years ago. He was friends with my mother and father, Norma and Charlie Blizard. I always enjoyed talking with him, since he and I were both responsible for operations at our respective companies. John was a big help with when we sold American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.”

It seems that looking at things from different angles has always been one of John’s strengths, and probably one of the reasons that he found his way into his current role at Sigma Six. John recounts his early years as an engineer, “When I got out of school the Vietnam War was going on, and engineers were in high demand. During the interviewing process in my senior year, I decided I didn’t like the typical work that electrical engineers did. It looked boring. When I interviewed at Chevron, they wanted to make me a general project engineer, which involved more disciplines than electrical engineering. That sounded more fun. I was involved with civil engineering, instrumentation engineering, mechanical engineering, project engineering and electrical engineering. I really liked the ‘big picture’. I was fortunate to be able to manage a big design project in South Carolina resulting in the construction of a fiber plant in Dayton, Tennessee. This plant made polypropylene fiber and yarn for use in artificial turf and indoor/outdoor carpeting, both big growth areas in the 1970’s. Other projects included stress analysis on supertanker hulls, underwater pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico, some Fortran IV computer programming, and of course electrical power distribution

design. Eventually, I had achieved a level of responsibility that moved me to the Chevron headquarters in San Francisco in a high-rise building. At that time I was in my late 20s and there was no way I wanted to work in a downtown high-rise for another 30 years. There was too much time left in my career for that.”

“That’s when I met the owner of Electro-Test, Inc. (ETI), John Moore. He had left the electrical design niche to start up a new company. It looked exciting and so that is how I got into the electrical testing industry. Bev and I had three young kids at that time and she and my close friends thought I was nuts for leaving a career with Chevron for a startup company, but it turned out to be a great decision and the start of a lot of fun. And isn’t that what it is all about?”

“A great guy to have in your corner.”

Kerry Heid, Magna Electric Corporation

John’s wife, Bev, and his children have always been important to him. Like many families, they have been through the highs and lows of life but always manage to stay true to their values, keeping family and friends at the top of the list. This is one of the qualities that endear him so quickly to those who meet him.

WHITE

“John has a Unique Sense of Humor. You have to Pay Attention.” – Dave Huffman, Power Systems Testing

John poses with His Chili Cook-Off Team in San Antonio, Texas at PowerTest 2009.

The White Family

Kerry Heid, Magna Electric Corporation, remembers meeting John. “I sat down next to him at the bar. He introduced himself, and it was just him and me and we got to talking. We learned that we were both newbies to the NETA Board of Directors, and I already had a lot of respect for him having heard great things and knowing that he was one of the top guys at Electro-Test. John was Vice President of NETA while I was President and he was a great guy to have in my corner during some of the challenges NETA was facing at that time. He is a very logical thinker who always gets to the reason behind a decision. His boots have been on the ground for the past 20 or 30 years, and I think that is why he has such good points to offer. ” Kerry also appreciates John’s lighthearted approach to life, saying, “We enjoyed a lot of red wine in the Cayman Islands, and John shared some with the front of his shirt. So, he went for a moonlight swim.”

“You either help to invent change, or become the result of change.”

– John White

When asked for three words describing John, Dave Huffman, Power Systems Testing Company, said, “leader, positive, and humor.” Dave remembers John as being relaxed and easy-going when they first met at a NETA conference. “He’s got a unique sense of humor; you have to pay attention. It echoes through every meeting, and makes them more enjoyable.” Ron Widup agrees, saying, “I can’t go in to too much detail, you know, because of the code… but three words for John would be wine, whisky, and song, but mostly wine. He likes really nice wine, and knows more about it than most people I know.”

Mose and John have become great friends through the years. Mose says, “John and Bev were there for me through the loss of my wife, Linda. They were there to celebrate with me when Janice and I were married. I feel like we are part of the Three Musketeers between us, the Hagemans, and the Whites. As I said when I presented the award, I can’t think of anyone who I would have been happier to recognize. I was truly amazed that he had not received this acknowledgement already.”

Jean-Pierre Wolff, Wolff Vineyards and past Electro-Test colleague, met John at the age of sixteen when they were both employed by ETI in the company’s formative years. They shared in creating a successful business for ETI, Jean-Pierre, saying, “John has a good business mind. We became good friends and still are today.” Lyle Detterman, voices the same opinion of John, stating, “He has proved to be an outstanding leader with good business manner. He can get everyone working in the same direction with cohesion.”

John’s career path is a lengthy and loyal one. From 19681975 he worked at Chevron USA as a Supervising Engineer, Project Manager, and Design Engineer. From there he moved to Electro-Test, Inc., where he stayed from 1975-2005 and served as the Regional Manager, VP of Operations, and President, and now John is the General Manager for Sigma Six Solutions. The highlight reel from these workplaces include learning the wisdom of big-picture thinking at Chevron, helping to grow ETI from a West coast-only operation to a coast-to-coast business with twenty-five offices nationwide, at NETA helping to improve the testing niche and the quality of electrical testing. John says, “I believe you either help to invent change, or become the result of change.” It is clear that John prefers the former.

John doesn’t stop at professional milestones, but goes on to include the relationships that he formed as a result of years spent at ETI and with NETA, but above all else, he credits his family for putting up with all the “self-centered career stuff ”, saying, “it may not be directly related to career, but without family support it is much harder to be successful.” When asked what he is most thankful for, he says without hesitation, “family.”

“Whatever you are, be a good one.”

Part of John’s NETA family, Rod and Diane Hageman, PRIT Service, Inc., share some of their thoughts about John. They describe him as, “an engineer, a business man, a manager, a sports fan (particularly Washington State), a humorist, a gracious host, a family man, and fortunately for those so privileged, a good friend.” Having worked with John for many years as part of the NETA Board of Directors, Rod says, “NETA has had the benefit of John’s attention to detail, knowledge of the financial world, and keen sense of responsibility over the years as John has helped in various roles including President and Chair of the Finance Committee. One sometimes forgets he has a degree in electrical engineering and is as good an engineer as he is a manager.” Rod and Diane have grown close with John and Bev, and happily share, “As a friend, you will find none better. John and Bev are wonderful hosts. Playing croquet or bocce ball (Bev is particularly fun to play bocce ball with) in their yard, rowing out in the sound to set crab traps, and later eating fresh crab from the catch, talking about life, politics, and NETA, and just chillin’ are just a few of the fond memories from trips to Camano Island.”

Abraham Lincoln

With this resume under his belt, John has an up close and personal insight into the change and growth that has taken place in the electrical testing industry over the past 30 years. John says, “I see a lot of positive

Pool Sharks Rod and Diane Hageman Pose with John White at the NETA Booth.

When asked what he is most thankful for, John says without hesitation, “family.”

growth in NETA. It’s interesting to look back over the decades. There was a timewhen companies were consolidating through acquisition; bringing firms together and making testing companies larger. Then from those larger companies, people would leave and spin off lots of smaller companies and that is what we are seeing now. The number of our members is growing and that is great. There is always change and it’s great to help create it. Certainly however, one of the biggest changes in NETA has been the outstanding growth in its reputation in the electrical industry; and for good reasons.”

“Our industry trails the computer industry in automation. So, it is somewhat easy to watch the change that computers have brought to the world and to visualize how that will flow into the electrical testing world. It’s exciting. It introduces new methods and instrumentation to engineers. More and more the testing will be driven by computer technology, which will make it more accurate, more efficient, and simpler. On the other hand, NETA Technicians will be increasingly challenged to gain the fundamental knowledge and understanding that the older technicians learned through the manual processes of testing. This “on-the-job” method of learning will need to be replaced somehow.”

To round out the interview, John was asked his favorite color. His response went a little something like this, “When I was younger I used to always say blue. But now I think it depends on the circumstances. I never had a blue car, or a blue house. My cars are black or silver. In some circumstances I like red. Maybe it’s the engineer in me that thinks color is dependent on the circumstance or application. Thinking of color, a lot of people like to categorize things as if they are black or white. That is, apparently, comforting. Really, most things are shades of grey or maybe other colors. It’s this dislike for the grays that creates debate, making life interesting. I like to listen and understand. It’s an education. When we are in discussion and you throw out questions, it gets people into thinking and sharing; so you get to learn from them. And without some uncomfortable quarrel, you don’t maximize wisdom. When I grow up, I’d like to have wisdom.”

Abraham Lincoln said, “Whatever you are, be a good one.” Simply stated and the best kind of quote; it can apply to anyone, anywhere, doing anything; and it suits John White right down to the ground. John has been many things to many people in his life and it seems that no matter whom you ask, everyone agrees. He is a good one.

John Sharing some of His Wisdom with the Next Generations.

2012

EVERYTHING’S BIGGER IN TEXAS

As they say, everything is bigger in Texas, and PowerTest 2012 this past February 27 through March 1 was no exception. Located at the Omni Fort Worth, Forth Worth, Texas, PowerTest 2012 marked the most well-attended NETA-hosted event to date with attendees, presenters, and exhibitors making a great showing all around. Even though each year’s conference officially kicks off on Monday morning with the Keynote Address, Sunday is a full day for attendees as well.

NETA hosts the largest meeting of its NETA Accredited Companies on the Sunday preceding the conference. This is a great time for Accredited Representatives and employees alike to get a good look at what has taken place over the last twelve months with membership growth, marketing efforts, industry outreach, NETA standards activities, NETA committee projects, and industry standards representation. One of the most exciting announcements at this year’s meeting was that NETA Affiliates are going to be welcomed to the 2013 meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana!

If it’s a day ending in Y then there must be a social event at PowerTest, and Sunday this year was call for the Best Little Pub Crawl in Texas, sponsored by Potomac Testing, a NETA Accredited Company. Crawlers were outfitted with an official pub crawl t-shirt before hitting the town. Food and beverages were plentiful, and everyone crawled safely home in time to make it to the Opening Session and Keynote Address on Monday morning.

Clockwise from Upper Left: Top Two–Another Great Turnout at the 2012 NETA Accredited Company Meeting; NETA President Mose Ramieh Welcomes Attendees with a Look Back at 40 Years of NETA; A Full House for the Opening Session and Keynote Address; Keynote Speaker Tim Autrey Energizes the Audience Before the Technical Presentations on Monday Morning.

Clockwise from Upper Left: The Glittering Glass and Steel of the Dallas Cowboys Stadium House, One of the Most Famous Stadiums in the Country along with the NETA 40th Birthday Celebration; NETA Accredited Companies and Affiliates Smile up at the Camera; Mose Asks Everyone Who is a Long-Standing Member of NETA to Join Him up Front for the Toast; Megger Pulled out all the Stops at Their Luxe Suite at the Birthday Party; A Photographic Look Back at NETA Through the Years.

Conference Chair, Ron Widup, welcomed everyone to his home state during the Opening Session on Monday. Mose Ramieh, NETA President, asked everyone to join in the celebration of NETA’s 40th Birthday with a presentation on the growth of the association over the past forty years. Tim Autrey, Practicing Perfection Institute, gave the Keynote Address. His engaging and charismatic style of speaking always makes an impact, and his morning session didn’t disappoint. He spoke to attendees about creating a culture of safety through leadership at every level, providing illustrative examples and reference points to take back to the workplace.

Packed with 45-minute technical presentations covering five different tracks and one interactive symposium, Monday is one of the busiest days at PowerTest. Safety, reliability, equipment, codes and inspections, and rotating equipment each had a full roster of subject matter experts presenting throughout the day. The Transformer Symposium held on Monday afternoon drew a large audience eager to interact with representatives from Doble Engineering, Hartford Steam Boiler, S.D. Meyers, and Shermco Industries. NETA Accredited Companies and NETA Affiliates gathered for the first annual Member and Affiliate Lunchwhere two outstanding individuals were honored. Everyone gathered for a group shot after lunch.

Clockwise from Upper Left: Janice Ramieh, Roz Demaria, and Pam Heid – Three Lovely NETA Ladies; I’m with the Band; Mose and Janice Ramieh Cutting a Rug; Here’s to a Delicious Forty Years and Many Happy Returns; All Smiles with the Shermco Gang; Rod and Diane Hageman Dance to Their Song, “Wonderful Tonight”.

There is no rest for the weary, with attendees being shuttled to an extravagant Welcome Reception and 40th Birthday Party at the Dallas Cowboys Stadium. A timeline of NETA’s past, complete with photographs, welcomed everyone as they entered. Sponsors Circuit Breaker Sales Co., Inc, Megger, and Shermco made sure everyone enjoyed themselves, and with PRIT Service, Inc. sponsoring the band, there was music and dancing to go along with the fabulous location. Mose Ramieh presided over the official birthday toast, welcoming everyone to salute those individuals that were long-time members and supporters of

NETA. A gorgeous, custom-designed birthday cake made it official, with decadent chocolate gnash separating layers of moist white cake. The only things sweeter than the cake were the two lovely Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders who graciously signed autographs and posed for pictures with guests (thanks, Shermco)!

Clockwise from Upper Left: Ron Widup and Mag Sibley, Shermco, Pose with a New Friend; Roz and Tony Demaria, Tony Demaria Electric, Janice Ramieh and Jim White, Shermco, Up Close and Personal; Snake Charmers, Charming; Snake Charmer, Don't Try this at Home.

Tuesday morning began with interactive panel sessions, which are always popular with attendees since no two sessions are ever the same. Safety, relays, motors and generators, and circuit breakers gave attendees ample opportunity to engage in discussion with panel experts and peers on their topics of choice. The 2012 Trade Show was held in the Fort Worth Convention Center directly across the street from the Omni Fort Worth, allowing for the largest displays ever presented at PowerTest. Many companies drove in mobile units for training or housing equipment too large for most hotel exhibit halls, and everyone enjoyed the open space with plenty of room to circulate among

over 100 vendors. NETA is always pleased to hear the positive feedback about this four-hour event and how both attendees and exhibitors enjoy the fact that this event has no competing programs. Tuesday evening brought some memorable hospitality suites, courtesy of Protec Equipment Resources, GE, Megger, National Switchgear, Shermco. Shermco won the prize for the most hair-raising suite with Rattlesnake Republic stars Jackie Bibby and Robert Ackerman.

Attendees get up Close and Personal with Equipment while Participating in the Hands-on Seminars.

Wednesday and Thursday allowed attendees the opportunity to register for additional seminars that offer four-hour, in-depth looks at specific subject matter. This year marked the first-ever hands-on, off-site seminars hosted by Astro Controls/Circuit Breaker Sales, AVO Training Institute, and Shermco. Registered attendees were treated to breakfast before being bused to each location for a full day of learning.

Thank you to all of our PowerTest attendees and sponsors for making PowerTest 2012 a true celebration of the best of NETA’s forty years. We hope to see you all again in New Orleans, Louisiana, on February 18-21, 2013 at the Sheraton New Orleans Hotel for PowerTest 2013.

It’s gonna’ be one humdinger of a time, so bring your friends along!

CHOOSE BETWEEN KEEPING MAINTENANCE COSTS DOWN AND KEEPING UP WITH PRODUCTION DEMAND…OR DO BOTH. THAT’S

THE CRITICAL DIFFERENCE.

NETA certified experts at Electrical Reliability Services will keep you in perfect balance. To ensure the reliability of your electrical power, you have to balance the need to reduce maintenance costs with the need to perform regular maintenance. Only the team from Electrical Reliability Services delivers cost-effective services and system expertise to keep you up and running 24/7.

LUBRICATION OF ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT

BY BELLA H. CHUDNOVSKY

Lubricants are widely used in electrical connectors, switches, and circuit breakers to improve performance and reliability and extend service life of electrical equipment. Electrical distribution apparatus is a complicated electromechanical device made of conductive and insulating materials with sliding and rotating parts and mating surfaces. The role of the lubricants for electrical and mechanical parts is similar, but there are some specifics in choosing a proper lubricant for electrical contacts and mechanical parts.

LUBRICATION OF ELECTRICAL CONTACTS

An electrical contact through which current passes is a combination of two surfaces held together by force. Many factors can lead to degradation of contact surfaces. Sliding and rolling contacts constantly move against each other and the surfaces degrade due to friction and wear debris. Static or wiping contacts experience vibration while the current is passing through, and vibration destroys the plating. This degradation process is called fretting corrosion. Formation of nonconductive deposits on the contact surfaces caused by various types of corrosion (atmospheric and galvanic) leads to the rise of contact resistance.

The most important purpose of the lubrication of electrical contacts is protection from environmental, galvanic and fretting corrosion, and reduction in wear of and friction between contact surfaces. A properly chosen lubricant may slow down these processes without interfering with the electrical resistance of the contact. The general principle of electrical contact lubrication is to use a product that protects an electrical connection from degradation and rise of electrical resistance. The function of a lubricant depends on application. In separable contact, it reduces friction during installation, minimizes mechanical wear during service, and slows down the destructive effect of fretting corrosion. In a permanent electrical contact, lubricant blocks access of corrosive gases and particulate material to the interfaces of the conductors.

Every lubricant is basically a nonconductive material, and for this reason the benefits of using lubricant for electrical contacts for corrosion inhibition were not well understood for many years. Many users were concerned that applying a nonconductive substance between contact surfaces would interfere with electrical conduction. Indeed, very few lubricants that provide exceptional long-term corrosion protection without producing any adverse effect on connector surfaces have been identified. Among them, synthetic soap greases and other commercial greases have been tested and proven useful for bolted contact application. Field testing showed that lubricated surfaces may collect and retain dust. Still, liquid lubricants appear to perform better than wax lubricants in sliding electrical contacts in dusty environments.

The choice of the product for electrical contacts should be based on lubricant properties and conditions of application such as contact design, load, heat dissipation, and environment. When these factors are considered together, it provides the best result from lubrication.

The most important purpose of the lubrication of electrical contacts is protection from environmental, galvanic and fretting corrosion, and reduction in wear of and friction between contact surfaces.

Lubricating the Circuit Breakers.

Manufacturer Manual Reference.

CORROSION PROTECTION

An important factor for choosing the right lubrication product is the environment where a particular electrical apparatus is to function. Various environmental factors and their combinations are aggressive towards traditional metals used in electrical contacts (copper, aluminum, and various alloys) and their coatings (silver, tin, and nickel, for example). Corrosive gases and vapors in the environment, which are chemically aggressive towards contact materials and plating, produce a nonconductive deposit on the contacts. Other environmental factors (temperature extremes and humidity) accelerate corrosion. An additional contaminating and corrosive factor is dust.

Another phenomenon that leads to contact degradation is galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals. Whenever dissimilar metals are in the presence of an electrolyte, a difference in electric potential develops. When these metals are in contact, an electrolytic action causes an attack of the anodic metal, leaving the cathodic metal unharmed. The extent of the attack depends on the relative position of two metals in contact in the electrolytic potential series. Galvanic corrosion is common with aluminumto-copper connections, since copper and aluminum are quite far apart in the series, copper being cathodic and aluminum anodic. Hence, when aluminum and copper are in contact in an electrolyte, the aluminum may be expected to be severely attacked.

The choice of lubricant for corrosion protection should be based on thorough qualification of the product for survival in long-term use. Corrosive environments may also be detrimental for lubrication materials. If the lubricant cannot withstand the service conditions and degrades, it could induce an additional cause of contact deterioration.

Some products, such as petrolatum-type compounds containing zinc dust, effectively protect contacts made of dissimilar metals from galvanic corrosion. However, some lubricants may induce galvanic corrosion. For example, graphite, which has a very noble potential, may lead to severe galvanic corrosion of copper alloys in a saline environment. Therefore, the products for galvanic corrosion protection of dissimilar metal connections should be chosen very carefully.

However, application and operating conditions of electrical connections as well as environmental conditions (such as humidity, temperature, corrosive gases, and dust) are very complicated. This is one reason why it is almost impossible to choose just one kind of lubricant to fulfill all the requirements and to match all conditions. There is no such thing as a universal lubricant for electrical contacts.

GENERAL LUBRICATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Lubrication Products

Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) usually specify various oils and greases which have been thoroughly tested for a specific application. Usually each manufacturer lists all greases that should be applied at specific points during routine maintenance, and the greases are usually different for the various parts of mechanism and current carrying parts. These greases are applied during assembly of the original equipment, and it is always recommended to use the same or similar lubrication product for relubrication which guarantees that it will perform properly in service. Lubrication should be performed according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

The choice of lubricant for corrosion protection should be based on thorough qualification of the product for survival in long-term use.

However, in some cases the lubrication product is obsolete, or the electrical manufacturer is no longer in business. Then an alternative lubrication practice should be implemented. In such cases, the substitute lubricant should be chosen based strictly on application and physical properties of the recommended greases. A change of lubrication product may require testing, which must be performed under the supervision of engineering. The engineering staff must specify what type and brand of grease or oil should be applied during equipment maintenance or overhaul.

Any failure of equipment which might be caused by insufficient lubrication must be analyzed and used to improve lubrication techniques and lubricant choice. Any lubricant specified or chosen for lubrication must be available locally and nationwide. A sufficient supply of greases with MSDS and technical data sheets of all lubrication products should be kept in properly organized storage.

Precautions in Lubrication of Electrical Contacts

Metal-filled lubricants should not be used for electrical contacts unless tested and proven to be effective long term. Many such products can accelerate corrosion, create conductive paths and eventually cause failure. The general rule is to avoid graphite, molybdenum disulfide (MoS , moly), or PTFE (Teflon®) lubricants for electrical contacts because they could cause a resistance rise after multiple operations. For most switches and breakers that operate infrequently, simply keeping the contacts clean and dry with no lubricant might be a viable option. Main and arcing contacts should never be lubricated.

Troubleshooting Lubrication

The procedure for lubrication troubleshooting of electrical equipment such as circuit breakers is usually recommended by the manufacturer. If it is unavailable or ineffective, one can consider using diagnostic instruments which can measure trip time, force, resistance, and vibration. Certain profiles will indicate lubrication problems. If this type of diagnostic is not available, but slow operation is encountered, inadequate lubrication may be the cause.

When analyzing a lubrication problem, it is important to identify a symptom that is specific for the lubrication fault. Among those symptoms are excessive leakage of the lubricant, overheating, wear, and scoring. Other problems, such as use of an incorrect lubrication product or application of too little of the lubricant, may also cause lubrication failure. Presence of water in the system could dramatically change a lubricant’s properties. To take corrective actions, it is important to examine what kind of product was used in previous maintenance and what the properties of the used product are.

Manufacturer Label.

Manufacturer Maintenance Specifications.

FEATURE

PERIODIC LUBRICATION MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRICAL POWER EQUIPMENT

Electrical apparatus should be relubricated accordingly to the OEM recommendations. Manufacturers’ user manuals usually list the directions which are recommended to follow during periodic lubrication of electrical power equipment, which includes terms and points of lubrication. However, there are several rules that are the same no matter which type of equipment is maintained.

Cleaning

Before periodic lubrication, all traces of the old lubricant must be removed from surfaces by the use of commercial cleaners such as kerosene or mineral spirits. To loosen the old lubricant, the disassembled parts should be soaked in solvent. To remove contamination from the part, the solvent can be agitated or flushed through the part. If a part cannot be removed, adding oil could be helpful. It is important to use the same type of oil that was used as a base in the grease to be removed. To speed the process of cleaning, soft-bristled brushes may be used. After removal from the solvent, parts should be carefully dried and relubricated as soon as possible. Proper cleaning removes all the residue of old grease, which is very important in order to avoid mixing incompatible greases during relubrication.

Field Lubrication

For lubrication in the field when disassembling is not supposed to or cannot be done, low or medium viscosity oil is recommended. In some cases, lubrication characteristics of petroleum oils may be improved by adding a stable dispersion of molybdenum disulfide in a premium mineral oil. These materials, applied only to mechanism parts, may extend lubricant and gear life, reduce metal-tometal contact, and lower friction.

Penetrating Oil

Penetrating oil should not be used as a lubricant in electrical equipment. Penetrating oil is not designed for lubrication; it always contains one or more solvents. Because of the solvents’ presence, penetrating oil will attack, dissolve, and wash out factory-installed lubricants and hasten failure. Penetrating oil works only briefly; it is contaminated easily; and many change into a viscous mess. In comparison with grease, penetrating oil has much lower viscosity; therefore, it flows easily. It will leak out under gravity or centrifugal action, leaving lubricated parts dry. Penetrating oils have a very low boiling temperature and high vapor pressure at ambient temperature. Most penetrating oils or aerosols are flammable and should not be applied in areas where sparks or arcing may occur. Penetrating oils are recommended only for rust removal and ease of part disconnection.

Cleaning the Circuit Breakers.

Cleaning the Circuit Breakers.

Application of Lubricants

A common misconception among maintenance personnel is that it is better to overlubricate than to underlubricate bearings and matching parts. Both methods are undesirable. Underlubrication may leave bare metal-to-metal contact, and overlubrication may cause heat buildup and friction rise as the moving elements continuously try to push extra grease out of the way. To assure that moving parts are not overlubricated or underlubricated, with either grease or oil, the manufacturer’s instructions should be followed. In electrical application, an overgreasing may lead to contamination of nonconductive parts with the grease or oil which will adversely affect dielectric properties of insulating materials. Lubricants should not be applied to the materials with which they are incompatible, such as silicone lubricants to silicone rubber, fluorosilicone lubricants to fluorosilicone rubber, and petroleum lubricants to rubber. The materials will be irreversibly damaged by contact with the lubricants, and the lubricants will deteriorate.

INCOMPATIBILITY OF LUBRICANTS

Greases are considered incompatible when the physical or performance characteristics of the mixed greases fall below original specifications. Grease incompatibility is defined as lessening in performance capability and changes of physical properties when two greases are mixed, such as lower heat resistance; change in consistency, usually softening; or decrease in shear stability.

ASTM D6185 Standard, Practice for Evaluating Compatibility of Binary Mixtures of Lubricating Greases, defines the procedure for evaluating the basic compatibility of greases. This procedure includes measuring the dropping point, the mechanical stability, and the change in consistency of the mixture upon heating. The mixture of two greases must be considered incompatible if the test proves that the mixture is significantly softer, less shear stable, or less heat resistant than the original grease. Incompatibility is not predictable, and there is no practical rule one can apply to all mixtures of different greases to determine compatibility properties.

Lubricating oil or grease is a mixture of mineral or synthetic oil with different additives. Grease also contains a chemical substance called thickener, an important component of grease whose properties define grease consistency. When mixed greases are made with incompatible thickeners, substantial softening usually occurs. This is especially dangerous because softened grease can run out, particularly in vertical applications. However, lithium and clay greases harden in some mixtures. Certain thickener combinations are generally recognized as incompatible. For example, soap greases are incompatible with the clay and polyurea greases. Table 1 presents a grease incompatibility chart based on thickener type.

Cleaning the Components.

Application of Lubricant.

Choosing the Right Lubrication Compound.

Greases are considered incompatible when the physical or performance characteristics of the mixed greases fall below original specifications.

Table 1: Grease Incompatibility Chart (Relative compatibility rating: C=Compatible; I=Incompatible; B = Borderline)

Since each of the greases in the mixture is a combination of different thickeners, base oils, and additives, incompatibility is not always caused by the thickener alone as often thought. Sometimes one grease thickener is incompatible with the oil or the additives present in the second grease. Compatibility problems may occur when different types of oils from one or more suppliers are being mixed. Mixtures of various synthetic lubricants should also be avoided, as the various types of synthetics are not always compatible. It is not recommended to mix mineral oils with synthetic oils such as polyglycols.

Very often the cause of incompatibility is a chemical reaction between different types of additives, as grease may have up to a dozen different chemicals added to the base oil to maintain the properties of grease and improve its lubricating abilities. Additives can be diluted when greases with different additives are mixed.

When applying the lubricants to electrical apparatus, mixing different lubricants should be avoided; otherwise, it may lead to lubricant degradation due to incompatibility. If a new brand of grease must be introduced, the component part should be disassembled and thoroughly cleaned to remove all of the old grease. If this is not practical, the new grease should be injected until all traces of the prior product are flushed out. The major rule to prevent grease degradation due to incompatibility problems is do not mix greases under any circumstances.

When applying the lubricants to electrical apparatus, mixing different lubricants should be avoided; otherwise, it may lead to lubricant degradation due to incompatibility.

WORKING TEMPERATURE LIMITS OF LUBRICANTS

Grease applied to electrical equipment is exposed to many environmental factors that cause contamination and oxidation of the grease. When the grease oxidizes, it usually darkens due to the presence of oxidation products. These products can have a destructive effect on the thickener, causing softening, oil bleeding, and leakage. Because grease does not conduct heat easily, serious oxidation can begin at the points with high temperature and spread slowly through the grease. At elevated temperature, lubricants may degrade by oxidation or polymerization, forming insulating films. The temperature limits for use of greases are determined by drop point, oxidation, and stiffening at low temperatures, which are usually given in the lubricant’s technical data sheet.

Maximum Working Temperature is a maximum temperature at which a lubricant can safely be used. The higher the temperature to which the grease is exposed, the higher the rate of oxidation. For most greases, heating changes consistency very slowly until a certain critical temperature is reached. At this temperature, the gel structure breaks down, and the whole grease becomes liquid. This critical temperature is called the drop point, which should never be exceeded. When grease is heated above its drop point and then allowed to cool it usually does not fully regain its original consistency, and its subsequent performance may become unsatisfactory.

Minimum Working Temperature is the point at which the grease becomes too hard for the bearing, or other greased component, to operate. Again, the base oil of the grease determines the minimum temperature. Obviously, the base oil of the grease for low-temperature service must be made from oils having a low viscosity at that temperature. For example, if the operational temperature of the unit in operation is lower than the lower limit of the lubricant’s working temperature range, then the lubricant may stiffen at cold temperatures, which could happen in circuit breakers in outside installations in cold climates. Lubricants with petroleum (mineral) oil should not be used in areas with extremely cold temperatures. They get thick and hard and do not function properly below 0°F (-20°C). Synthetic lubricants must be given preference in locations where extreme temperature could be a factor of operation.

Thermal limitations, both high and low, represent the major factors of selecting a correct lubrication product. At low temperatures, many lubricants appear to solidify, developing high shear strength films and leading to high contact resistance. Some lubricants are susceptible to cracking due to longterm exposure to high temperature. All factors including environment, application conditions and working temperature range of the grease should be considered when choosing the correct grease for a specific application.

Bella H. Chudnovsky earned her MS and PhD degrees in Applied Physics and Material Science at Rostov State University (RSU) in Russia. For the first 25 years she worked as a successful scientist for the Institute of Physics at RSU and at the University of Cincinnati. The last 12 years of her career she worked as an R&D engineer for Schneider Electric-Square D Company where her principal areas of activities were aimed at resolving multiple aging problems of power distribution equipment. Dr. Chudnovsky conducted research in various application fields and developed new maintenance, refurbishment and monitoring techniques for electrical apparatus. She has published 40 papers in these fields in national and international technical journals and conferences proceedings.

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FEATURE

’S FIRST ANNUAL AFFILIATE RECOGNITION AWARD, 2012

BY JILL HOWELL AND KRISTEN WICKS, NETA

DENNIS NEITZEL

NETA has had many firsts over the past 40 years as an association. 2012 marks the inaugural year of a new honor built to recognize one of NETA’s valued individuals who are part of the NETA Affiliate Program. This program is open to all individuals who are involved in or support the electrical testing industry, serve the industry through the development and use of consensus standards in the electrical power industry, and are focused on providing the highest level of safety and reliability. These individuals include people from all aspects of electrical testing and include consulting engineers, architects, and individuals who work for manufacturers, utilities, hospitals, and universities, to name a few. Many of these individuals volunteer in addition to their regular jobs and have become fixtures in the world of standards creation, training, education, and industry publications. These people that give so freely of their time without looking for recognition are deserving of the thanks of their colleagues, and NETA is pleased to shine the spotlight on the first recipient of this award, Dennis Neitzel.

Dennis Neitzel, CPE, Director Emeritus of AVO Training Institute Inc., is a long-time contributor to and friend of NETA. Dennis has been a strong influence on AVO’s direction since joining their team in 1989. In addition to his work at AVO, Dennis is a NFPA 70E® Principal Committee Member and Special Expert (since 1992), the IEEE 902 (3007) Working Group Chairman, IEEE P45.5 Working Group Chairman, IEEE 1584 Working Group Member, IEEE P1713 Working Group Member, IEEE P1814 Working Group Member, Coauthor of the Electrical Safety Handbook, and a member of the Defense Safety Oversight Council, Electrical Safety Work Group (DoD Electrical Safety Special Interest Initiative). His expertise is requested for speaking events and research committees around the world. We draw on his knowledge of emerging regulations and involvement in electrical research to stay on the forefront of change. He has worked in the electrical industry since 1967, specializing in electrical safety and power systems analysis for commercial, utility, and manufacturing facilities. Dennis received his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in electrical engineering from Columbia Pacific University and is a Certified Plant Engineer (CPE), Certified Technical Instructor (Westinghouse), and Certified Electrical Inspector-General (IAEI).

With this professional experience, Dennis has definite beliefs about the electrical industry, where it has been, what has changed, and where it is going: “The biggest changes in the last five to ten years have been with electrical safety and maintenance awareness. There has been a large impact of electrical safety through arc-flash studies. The quality of protective equipment has increased; advancing technology has significantly reduced the weight and thickness of arc-rated flash suits, and the energy absorption dies for face shields have improved and become less dark, greatly enhancing visibility.” When asked where he foresees future changes, Dennis says, “It will be dealing more with arc-flash issues at lower voltages, configuration of electrical systems, available shortcircuit current, protective device clearing times, and dc arc-flash.”

Navigating the vast oceans of knowledge requires good direction. Dennis follows an internal compass, guided by feedback from presentations he gives, classes he teaches, and from listening to other presenters speak. Some of the individuals regarded by Dennis to be major contributors to the advancement of safety and reliability are, “Ray Jones, former Chair of NFPA 70E, and Bruce McClung, for his work in electrical safety and electrical power systems engineering; Lanny Floyd, for his work on raising awareness of electrical safety in the industry; and Ron Widup and John White, Shermco Industries, for their work in tying maintenance and safety together. The list continues….”

Ron Widup, fellow member of 70E, remembers meeting Dennis, “I think it was as the 70E meeting in 1998. He was a member of the committee and I was new as of July that same year. My first impression was that he was a really smart guy; he really knew his stuff with safety related topics and the rules and regulations associated with them. He writes well and does a great job at presenting, with a good perspective on maintenance as it relates to safety.” Ron continued, “Recently, he and I worked together on the IEEE Yellow Book reorganization. He was the Chair and I was the Vice Chair on the IEEE 3007.3 Recommended Practices for Electrical Safety in Industry and Commercial Power Systems. He is always involved in the industry, which makes him a valuable asset to NETA. He is always at the top of the list for speakers at PowerTest because of his knowledge of testing and maintenance, the quality of his presentations, and his reliability as a presenter.”

When asked to describe Dennis in three words, John Cadick, Cadick Corporation, replied, “Tenacious, hard-working, intelligent, knowledgeable, friendly… oh, you just wanted three?” John doesn’t recall how he and Dennis met, saying, “I honestly don’t remember when we met. I am pretty sure that our meeting was related to the Multi-Amp Institute back in the old days. I feel like I have known Dennis forever, having provided consulting services to the AVO International Training Institute for several years while Dennis was the director there. We have worked together on a number of projects including the development of training courses, IEEE 1584, and the IEEE std 45 safety working group. He was always great to work with, whatever the project. I don’t know how any one person can keep so many balls in the air at the same time.”

Dennis continues to work on 70E, with his current work on the 2015 edition being the sixth edition to which he has contributed. He is a coauthor of the recently released fourth edition of the Electrical Safety Handbook, published by McGraw-Hill. He is responsible for working with Jayne Tanz, Executive Director of NETA, to get the ANSI/NETA Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and Systems incorporated into AVO’s training courses.

While it may have been no surprise to those who know Dennis that he was chosen for this award, when he received notice that he was the first annual recipient of the Affiliate Recognition Award, Dennis had this reaction: “I was surprised, pleasantly surprised. It is a great honor from NETA. I work with people in different organizations and I am just trying to help; it is always great to know that you are making a difference.”

NETA thanks Dennis for setting the bar high for future recipients of this award and welcomes those involved with NETA’s Affiliate program to contact the NETA office with their suggestions for future recipients. This honor will be bestowed each year at PowerTest during the Member and Affiliate luncheon. To learn more about becoming an affiliate, please visit www.netaworld.org.

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A Member of the Group

CIRCUIT BREAKERS INVOLVED IN FLOODS

BY JIM WHITE AND JIM MILLER, Shermco Industries

Over the past several years a number of severe weather incidents have caused flooding at the facilities of Shermco’s customers. These events cause widespread damage to electrical equipment and facilities and cost companies millions of dollars in repair and replacement of damaged equipment. Floods, hurricanes, and malfunctioning pumps at wastewater treatment facilities can cause flood damage to electrical equipment. This article looks at the damage caused during flood situations to low- and medium-voltage air and medium-voltage vacuum circuit breakers.

THINK ABOUT THIS

My oldest son works at Shermco’s circuit breaker shop and was at a petrochemical plant that had been flooded due to a river overrunning its banks. As he stated it, “We found 90 Port-A-Potties overturned.” That translates into hazardous waste and handling anything becomes a health issue. One never knows what has floated in from the river or what has been released as a result of the flood, so hazmat issues must be a primary consideration.

Near the coast, where hurricanes can dump massive amounts of salt water into switchgear and circuit breakers, the corrosive effects of the salt water can add further damage, much of which cannot be seen.

LUBRICATION

Circuit breaker lubrication has been and will continue to be the leading cause of circuit breaker misoperation. Lack of lubrication is the number one problem we run into with circuit breakers at Shermco. According to Jim Miller, Shermco’s Circuit Breaker Shop manager, “Typically, 60% of the circuit breakers that come through our shop have lubrication issues when we perform maintenance on them. The result is circuit breakers that won’t open, circuit breakers that won’t close, or circuit breakers that open after a delay.” After a flood situation, it is a sure bet that any lubrication circuit breakers may have once had has been totally removed or contaminated. Bearings used in the circuit breaker’s operating mechanism will also have water and contaminants inside them, rendering them useless.

Tony Demaria wrote an excellent article on circuit breaker lubrication titled Circuit Breaker Lubrication in the Field that was published in the Summer 2007 NETA World. Tony’s article looks at other aspects concerning circuit breaker lubrication and has a table showing where to secure certain lubricants. That table is shown as Figure 1.

Figure 1: Common Circuit Breaker Lubricants, Courtesy Tony Demaria and NETA World

Figure 2: Flood-Damaged Operating Mechanism

A circuit breaker’s operating mechanism is full of rollers, latches, latch surfaces, and gears, all of which need to be lubricated. Figure 2 shows a Westinghouse/Cutler-Hammer DS circuit breaker that was exposed to flooding from salt water. Notice the deposits throughout the operating mechanism. No part of this circuit breaker can be left untouched.

were dried in k

n a several hours

kiln several hours to

Figu which are wered ar weredriedin an Disassembly cleani arts allowed them to be returned to service. , ed. The arc chutes in thes kiln for several hours to br

However, an external cleaning followed by spraying a lubricant around on the mechanism is not going to provide adequate lubrication. After a flood the entire circuit breaker has to be disassembled because everything will require cleaning and relubricating. Additional care must be used when inspecting parts, as the longer they have been underwater, the more damage will have occurred. Corrosion on metal parts is almost certain, especially if in a water treatment (or wastewater) facility or if exposed to salt water. Petrochemical facilities can also have various corrosive chemicals that can find their way into and onto a circuit breaker. Arc chutes have to be disassembled, cleaned, and probably baked, as will all the insulating components. It’s likely that older air-magnetic circuit breakers will have components that will have absorbed moisture or other contaminants. Figures 3a, 3b, and 3c show GE Magne-Blast arc chutes that had been on a flooded circuit breaker. Figure 3a shows the top of two of the arc chutes and the general corrosion taking place. Figure 3b is the outside of the magnetic pole piece showing deposits on the surface, while underneath there is also mold and corrosion occurring. Figure 3c shows the blowout coil and arc runner, both of which are severely corroded. The arc chutes in these photos were dried in a kiln for several hours to bring their moisture down to an acceptable level. Disassembly and cleaning of the other parts allowed them to be returned to service.

Figure 3a: General Corrosion on Arc Chutes

Figure 3b: Mold and Deposits on the Arc Chute Surface

Figure 3c: Corrosion Damage to Blowout Coil and Arc Runner

Runne

nner ner

For some components, made from fiberglass or Bakelite®, if the insulation quality has been compromised, it will probably have to be replaced. If a circuit breaker has electronic components, replace them. Figure 4 is a molded-case circuit breaker showing water damage to its case, while Figure 4b shows mud and muck inside the circuit breaker. Figure 4c is the contact assembly from another flood-damaged circuit breaker. These circuit breakers were cleaned, restored, tested, and returned to service.

Trying to salvage water-damaged electrical/electronic components is penny wise and pound foolish. The chances of them living a normal life is about the same as me being sixfoot tall tomorrow – won’t happen.

BACK TO LUBRICANTS

All circuit breaker manufacturers have a specific lubricant they recommend for either the operating mechanism or for components that are in the current path. In general, there are two types of lubricants used: nonconductive for use in mechanical mechanisms and conductive for use in the current path. Some of the choices the manufacturers make for their lubricants may seem odd, such as ITE/BBC using No-Ox-Id Special Grade A as the lubricant in the conductive path of their K-line circuit breakers. Most people would not consider No-Ox-Id to be a lubricant as it is normally used for covering battery terminals. When applied to current-carrying circuit breaker components, it will not run and will cling to the parts to which it is applied. As Tony pointed out in his article, the thickness of the lubricant can also affect the speed of the circuit breaker, as the recommended thicker lubricants may tend to slow it down some. This may not appear to be a good thing, but if some circuit breakers operate too quickly, they may not be able to latch properly each and every time they are closed. This could cause unnecessary issues in facility operation and excessive troubleshooting.

Shermco’s circuit breaker shop has letters from both GE and ABB/ITE stating that Mobil 28 is acceptable to use as a substitute for greases in both the conductive and nonconductive areas of their circuit breakers. Other manufacturers recommend the use of their specific lubricants. This is probably as much due to warranty and liability reasons as anything. The manufacturers have performed exhaustive testing on their specific circuit breakers and know that they work under all conditions for which the circuit breakers are warranted when the recommended lubricants are used. If they recommend another lubricant, it may open them up to some unforeseen liability.

Figure 4a: Water-Damaged Molded-Case Circuit Breaker Case

Figure 4b: Goop Inside the Same Circuit Breaker

Figure 4c: Contact Assembly Showing Severe Corrosion

Mobil 28, shown in Figure 5, is a red synthetic lubricant that has some excellent qualities, such as life expectancy in adverse conditions and resistance to breakdown. If there is a flaw with Mobil 28, it is that is tends to thin out when heated and will run, unless the high-temperature version is used. Jim Miller, our circuit breaker shop manager, states that they only use the high-temp version of Mobil 28. The proper method of application is to put just enough Mobil 28 onto a part to see it on the surface, assemble the components and then wipe off the excess. The last step is especially important, as any excess will draw dirt into the lubricated parts.

GREAT CAESAR’S GHOST

In the past, manufacturers would often state to lubricate only when necessary. Some manufacturers recommended a time period or number of operations between lubrications. If a circuit breaker does not operate as it was designed, and if that misoperation is due to lack of lubrication, then that is a real safety issue. Jim Miller shared a section on lubrication that is starting to appear in some manufacturer’s instruction books. The specification below was taken from a Cutler-Hammer maintenance manual.

6-10 LUBRICATION

All parts that require lubrication have been lubricated during the assembly with molybdenum disulphide grease (Cutler-Hammer Material No. 53701QB). Over a period of time, this lubricant may be pushed out of the way or degrade. Proper lubrication at regular intervals is essential for maintaining the reliable performance of the mechanism. Once a year or every 500 operations whichever comes first, the circuit breaker should be lubricated.

Proper lubrication of bearings and moving parts requires the circuit breaker to be disassembled, the old lubrication removed, and new lubrication reapplied. There is no shortcut.

SO, WHERE DOES THIS STUFF GO?

Lubrication should be limited to those areas that actually need it for components that slide, rotate or rub. Some of the old-school technicians I used to work with always put it on the contact surfaces. They didn’t have a reason; it was just the way they had always done it In reality, current passing through the contacts creates heat. Heat dries the lubricant out, so over time the resistance between the contact faces will increase more than if the lubricant were not used there. That is not what we really want. There are some specific instances where lubricating the contact faces may be of benefit, such as when the circuit breaker is in an atmosphere that can corrode the silver, such as exposure to chloride, fluoride, or hydrogen sulfide. Otherwise, it would be good not to use it on the contact face. Bolted surfaces are another area that should not be lubricated for the same reason that contact faces should not. The heat of the current will cause an additional increase in resistance as the lubricant dries out.

Parts that should be lubricated include the primary and secondary disconnects; sliding, rubbing, or rotating components within the operating mechanism; and the moving contact pivot faces. There are often components within the contact structure that also rub or pivot and they should be lubricated as well. Without lubrication the circuit breaker rotating components will gall, bind and seize, causing the circuit breaker to operate slowly or misoperate. The primary and secondary moving disconnects are not necessarily exactly aligned with their corresponding stationary parts. If they are not lubricated, they may not adjust position to slide together, but actually jam causing them to break or not connect with enough surface area. This could cause an arc flash as the metal fingers scatter within the switchgear, such as happened with the circuit breaker in Figure 6.

Figure 5: Mobil 28 Synthetic Lubricant

Figure 6: Damage to Circuit Breaker from Cluster Lubrication Failure

There are several factors to consider when the subject of frequency of lubrication comes up. Below are a few of the more important ones:

Load carried by the circuit breaker. The more load current that the circuit breaker carries the higher its operating temperature will be. This in turn causes the resistance of the contact pivot to increase at a faster rate, as the lubricant inside it will dry out quicker. The added resistance tends to create more heat, which causes the lubricant to dry out even faster. More heat equals more resistance, which causes more heat. It is a vicious cycle that only ends when the old lubricant is cleaned off the parts and new lubricant applied. For circuit breakers that are operated at or near their full load capacity, this usually takes about one to three years. Circuit breakers that are more lightly loaded will have their lubricants deteriorate at a slower rate.

A microhm meter (pole resistance) test can be used to help evaluate the condition of the lubricant. The test should be performed annually in order to detect the problem in its early stages. When low-voltage power circuit breaker pole resistance exceeds 300 microhms the breaker should be scheduled for a thorough relubrication. Medium-voltage circuit breakers have more contact surface, so the pole resistance value for requiring service is 200 microhms. Although many manufacturers require lubrication based on time and/or operations, the pole resistance test is almost like having x-ray vision. As the lubricant inside the contact assemblies deteriorates, the pole resistance increases. The above values are rule-ofthumb and would indicate a circuit breaker that requires relubrication. The pole resistance test is quick, easy, and repeatable. (See Figure 7.)

Environment. Circuit breaker loading is number one, but right behind it is environment. Circuit breakers operated in outdoor buildings that are not climate-controlled are going to deteriorate more quickly than those operated in a climate-controlled environment. Moisture intrusion, heat, and dirt create issues with any manufacturer’s circuit breaker. Corrosive or caustic atmospheres may cause circuit breakers to seize or misoperate.

Frequency of operation/use. Some customers use their circuit breakers as across-the-line starters. This type of usage wears a circuit breaker out! The circuit breaker may operate dozens of times each day, or even each hour. Circuit breakers tasked with this type of duty will require rebuilding as often as every six months.

Scheduled maintenance. Or lack of it, depending on your philosophy. Operation to failure is not a real maintenance philosophy, although some facility managers seem to think it is. Annual maintenance identifies circuit breakers having problems that could affect production. Pulling the circuit breaker out and cycling it, performing a quick inspection by removing the arc chutes, and performing a microhm meter test would provide the information needed. This may not be practical in all situations, but should be a goal for critical-load circuit breakers at least.

SUMMARY

The reliability of a circuit breaker that is exposed to salt water or any contaminates from a flood is very poor. Following is a list of issues common to such exposure:

develop quickly.

properties due to contaminants from oil, grease, chemicals, and moisture.

contaminated, causing rust, binding, and seizing.

causing loss of conductivity and increasing the resistance of the current path.

causing rust, corrosion to seals, and deterioration of other components.

controldevices are damaged, which usually requires replacement of those components.

Figure 7: Performing a Pole Resistance Test

Often, it is not the cost of a component that determines its value; it is the cost if it fails. This is the case with circuit breakers. A lighting panel circuit breaker failure would have little consequence in most cases. If a circuit breaker failure causes the shutdown of a process or an entire facility, the costs associated with that failure skyrocket. Circuit breakers involved in floods should not be reenergized until they have been inspected and tested to ensure they are safe to use. There are so many variables that it would be impossible to say that one circuit breaker could be used and another should not be unless they were inspected and tested. However, that process will probably point to a rebuilding of the circuit breaker and replacement of components such as protective relays and other electrical/electronic pieces. Cleaning and relubrication are almost always needed for flooded circuit breakers, but are also needed for circuit breakers that are in service. Do not neglect your circuit protective devices. They are protecting people as well as property.

A new chapter is being added to NFPA 70B, Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance – 2013 Edition. It will be Chapter 32, Electrical Disaster Recovery and is based on a paper presented to the 2009 NETA PowerTest Conference titled, Flood Repair of Electrical Equipment by Pat Beisert. It is an excellent resource for those wanting more information on preparing for and handling these types of situations.

James H. Miller and Jim White are both employees of Shermco Industries in Dallas, Texas a NETA Accredited Company.

James R. (Jim) White is the Training Director of Shermco Industries, Inc., in Dallas, Texas. He is the principal member on the NFPA technical committee “Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance” (NFPA 70B). Jim represents NETA as an alternate member of the NFPA Technical Committee “Electrical Safety in the Workplace” (NFPA 70E) and represents NETA on the ASTM F18 Committee “Electrical Protective Equipment For Workers”. Jim is an IEEE Senior Member and in 2011 received the IEEE/PCIC Electrical Safety Excellence award. Jim is a past Chairman (2008) of the IEEE Electrical Safety Workshop (ESW).

James H. Miller is currently a Senior Circuit Breaker Technician at Shermco Industries. He has over 12 years of experience in low- and medium-voltage circuit breaker maintenance and testing. His background includes circuit breaker application in the nuclear and nonnuclear power plants; military, marine, municipal, state and federal governments; and commercial industries. At Framatome Technologies (formerly B and W Nuclear Technologies), he served as maintenance instructor for lowvoltage circuit breaker workshops for the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC).

Figure 8: A Breaker after Reconditioning

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LUBRICANTS USED IN CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND SWITCHES

BY JIM WHITE, Shermco Industries

James R. (Jim) White is the Training Director of Shermco Industries, Inc., in Dallas, Texas. He is the principal member on the NFPA technical committee “Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance” (NFPA 70B). Jim represents NETA as an alternate member of the NFPA Technical Committee “Electrical Safety in the Workplace” (NFPA 70E) and represents NETA on the ASTM F18 Committee “Electrical Protective Equipment For Workers”. Jim is an IEEE Senior Member and in 2011 received the IEEE/ PCIC Electrical Safety Excellence award. Jim is a past Chairman (2008) of the IEEE Electrical Safety Workshop (ESW).

Electrical equipment consists mostly of mechanical components. In low- and medium-voltage switches, circuit breakers and disconnects these components have parts that slide, rotate and wear against each other. Lubricants reduce the effects of this wear and prevent binding and seizing.

1. Circuit breaker contacts should be lubricated:

a. every six months.

b. only in corrosive atmospheres.

c. to prevent burning.

d. only in hospitals.

2. Conventional grease is typically composed of:

a. emulsifiers and oil.

b. long-chain hydrocarbons.

c. natural esters and emulsifiers.

d. finely ground bronze and oil.

3. List three important areas to lubricate on circuit breakers and switches.

a. _______________________________

b. _______________________________

c. _______________________________

4. Which single lubricant is acceptable for use in both the conductive and mechanical areas of circuit breakers and switches?

a. D50H38® (zinc chromate-based)

b. No-Ox-Id A-Special®

c. Mobil 28®

d. Molykote®

5. List the three types of lubricants (not the specific lubricant) and where they are used in a circuit breaker:

a. _______________________________

b._______________________________

c. _______________________________

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WEARING PPE: IMPORTANT OR NOT?

BY JIM WHITE AND RON WIDUP, Shermco Industries

Do you hate wearing your PPE? Doesn’t everyone? Who wants to wear clothing and equipment that is hot, bulky, interferes with the job, slows you down, makes you itch, fogs up your protective eyewear, and causes you to sweat to the point that you become uncomfortable?

Does any of this sound familiar? And did you know the NFPA 70E standard has many pages on what to wear and how to wear it? In the 70E standard, there are two tables on shock hazards, one for ac voltages and one for dc voltages, and seven tables specifically on arc-flash clothing and PPE. Four of these tables appear in Annex H. (Note to all: make sure you check these out!) These tables, and the supporting text in the standard and annexes, represent a tremendous amount of time, research, and effort on the part of companies and individuals who contribute to NFPA 70E, all with the intent of preventing people from being injured or killed. This column will highlight two incidents involving arc flash events. One person was protected by PPE, and the other was not.

THE FIRST INCIDENT

The first incident involved a gentleman named Donnie Johnson. Donnie has a website at www.donniesaccident.com and has given us permission to use his story to help others avoid what happened to him. The following is a brief summary of the incident, and we would encourage readers to view his video and read the complete article on his website.

Donnie Johnson is the assistant manager of the service department for an electrical contractor. He has been an electrician for 28 years. On Thursday, August 12, 2004, Donnie was involved in an arc flash incident and suffered third degree burns down to the muscle on both arms and

hands, and second degree burns to his face, head, and neck. In Donnie’s words, “I have sat through safety meetings before, thinking the whole time that the only reason for the meeting was to meet some company insurance requirement or the company just trying to cover itself in case an accident happened. Once this happened to me, I realized whether or not this was the case, the things they were saying could have protected me. Honestly, if I had been wearing the personal protection equipment that was provided for me, that I was trained to use and still in the PPE bag between the front seats of my van; my trip to the hospital would have probably been just for a check-up and a few, minor burns. Although my injuries were electrical in nature, whether you are a plumber, a carpenter or a mason there are safety procedures that could protect you from injury or save your life.”

Donnie mistakenly used a motor rotation meter, which should only be used on deenergized circuits to check phase rotation on a live, 480volt circuit. The resulting meter failure blew carbon into the energized bus, creating a phaseto-phase arc flash that severely injured him. Again quoting Donnie, “I remember hearing some sizzling noise and seeing few glowing orange spots or slag, other than that it was pitch black. I could see daylight from around the exterior door of the room and I just started heading that way. I scrambled on my finger tips and toes and it felt as if something had a hold on my belt loop, like I couldn’t move fast enough.

PPE

There had been two maintenance men from this facility in the electric room with me but they were on the other side of the equipment. I called out their names, but didn’t hear a response. I found out later from them that they had gotten out just as the explosions started and that it had been a little longer than I had recalled from the actual explosion until I found my way out of the building. I remember standing up outside and realizing that I was hurt, but I still didn’t fathom how bad. I thought to myself that this kind of thing ‘doesn’t happen to me.’” Donnie was obviously in shock from the heat and arc blast created by the arc flash. He was fortunate in one regard, he did not inhale the vaporized copper, which could have seared his esophagus and lungs, and then solidified, closing his airway and rendering portions of his lungs non-functional.

Donnie remembers little from the time he was admitted until about a month and a half later, but his wife kept a journal while he was in the hospital: “Over the next couple of days I became very swollen and was looking bad. My dad came to see me for the first time, and usually an unemotional man he was visibly upset. On the fifth day the surgeons grafted skin from my right leg to my right arm. All went well and I was due to have the breathing tube removed within a day or two. My mother and step-father came to Tampa to help my wife. The next day, my

blood pressure dropped extremely low and my heart rate increased significantly. The doctors tested for infection. Test results would not be back for two days. My brother came to town as I was not looking good. While waiting for the test results and my health was deteriorating, all my wife could do was worry. The test results showed I had an E. coli infection in my lungs. This would be the first of many infections. Your skin is your main protection from infection, and with the burns on my arms, the grafting on my legs and the breathing tube, it was open season on me for every infection that came along. These infections slowed the healing process of my injuries to almost a stand still. I developed pneumonia and blood infections. A decision was made to graft my left arm as well because the burns were not healing as expected. My health continued to falter. The infections, wounds and the medicines also prevented me from receiving tube feeding, so my only source of nourishment was an IV drip.” Donnie returned to work in early 2006. That was 18 months of his life he will never get back, 18months of pain, frustration, and rehabilitation. Donnie is also lucky in the respect that his wife stood beside him through all this. Often, the stresses created by the aftereffects of a major accident can destroy what has often become an already weakened and strained relationship. Having a strong family and spousal relationship is an important aspect of recovery.

Figures 1 & 2: Damaged Equipment

THE NFPA 70E AND NETA

THE SECOND INCIDENT

The second incident occurred in December of 2009. A contractor was finishing the installation of new medium-voltage switchgear. The contractor installed all the panels, but neglected to remove the temporary protective grounds installed as part of his procedure. The contractor then informed the owner that the switchgear was ready for energization. When the owner’s electrician closed the circuit breaker, the resulting arc flash blew the doors open, exposing the electrician to the heat and pressure wave of the arc. Figures 1 and 2 show the damaged equipment. Note the damage to the side of the switchgear enclosure.

The end result of this story is far different, though. There was no lengthy, painful hospital stay, no rehabilitation, no skin grafts or infections. This worker had donned his 40 cal/cm arc-rated flash suit prior to operating this new switchgear. As a result of following both safe work practices as outlined in NFPA 70E and his company’s safe work practices and procedures this electrician had no injuries …even though the intense heat pretty much destroyed his PPE!

(See Figures 3 and 4.)

SUMMARY

Is there anyone who actually enjoys wearing arcrated protective clothing and PPE? Probably not. But we do not only because it is a necessity and a requirement of our jobs, not only because it is the rules and what the company tells us to do, but we also do it for ourselves and our families.

In spite of its shortcomings, PPE does work. Despite any controversy about what actual exposures may or may not be for any specific circumstance and even if the PPE is under-rated for the incident energy, the injuries received will be much less severe than if no PPE had been worn. An arc-flash event can change your life in an instant, and not for the better. Most of us will find our careers changed or even ended, our lives significantly less than they would have been. Like Donnie, we may be wiser for the experience, but would any of us volunteer for that? If not for yourself, think of the negative effects that such an event can have on your family, your spouse, and your children who did not ask to be spectators to the slow, painful rebuilding of your life, an event that can be avoided with safe work practices and that PPE you hate to wear.

Ron Widup and Jim White are NETA’S representatives to NFPA Technical Committee 70E (Electrical Safety Requirements for Employee Workplaces). Both gentlemen are employees of Shermco Industries in Dallas, Texas a NETA Accredited Company. Ron Widup is President of Shermco and has been with the company since 1983. He is a Principal member of the Technical Committee on “Electrical Safety in the Workplace” (NFPA 70E) and a Principal member of the National Electrical Code (NFPA 70) Code Panel 11. He is also a member of the technical committee “Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance” (NFPA 70B), and a member of the NETA Board of Directors and Standards Review Council. Jim White is nationally recognized for technical skills and safety training in the electrical power systems industry. He is the Training Director for Shermco Industries, and has spent the last twenty years directly involved in technical skills and safety training for electrical power system technicians. Jim is a Principal member of NFPA 70B representing Shermco Industries, NETA’s alternate member of NFPA 70E, and a member of ASTM F18 Committee “Electrical Protective Equipment for Workers”.

Figures 3 & 4: Destoyed PPE

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Quick-Trip for arc flash reduction is built in, nothing additional is required

LIGHTNING

BY LYNN HAMRICK AND OWEN WYATT, Shermco Industries

I was recently asked to give a presentation on lightning protection requirements for a client. In performing research, I was surprised to find that, although there is much information on recommendations associated with lightning protection, there really are no requirements associated with lightning protection. As evidence of this, the military handbook MILHDBK-419A, Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding for Electronic Equipment and Facilities states the following:

“The degree to which lightning protection is required, is a subjective decision requiring an examination of the relative criticalness of the structure location and its contents to the overall mission of the facility.”

So, the decision associated with whether lightning protection is implemented or not is a subjective one. The purpose of this article is to provide basic information associated with implementing lightning protection for a facility.

As background for this discussion, the following information is provided from the UL website: “Each year thousands of properties are damaged or destroyed by lightning. Lightning accounts for more than one billion dollars annually in structural damage to buildings in the United States. What is not reported is the

loss of business, downtime and liability that occurs when businesses or commercial tenants are forced to shut down to repair lightning damage.”

To further assist in the decision on whether lightning protection should be provided for a facility, consideration should be given to the following three factors:

1. Probability of a lightning strike

2. Type of building construction

3. Criticality of and process within building

The probability of lightning strike is a function of the keraunic level of the area (i.e., the thunderstorm activity), the effective height of the building, and the attractive, area for a lightning strike. From the Internet, Figure 1 was provided. The isokeraunic level of an area is representative of the amount of lightning strikes there are in that area. The effective height and attractive area for a lightning strike were provided in the military handbook (MIL-HDBK-419A) and are provided in Figures 2 and 3. Basically, the higher the value for any of these parameters, the higher the probability of having an issue with lightning strikes.

For the type of building construction, steel frame buildings with metal coverings and steel towers typically suffer minimum damage due to lightning. Therefore, minimal protection should be required. Other structures would be more susceptible to damage from a lightning strike.

With regard to the criticality of a process within a building, communication and process controlequipment are highly susceptible to damage from lightning as are classified explosion areas and processes. This is why industrial facilities with requirements for production reliability are typically proponents of implementing lightning protection systems.

US

3: Attractive Area of Structure

Figure 1: Isokeraunic Level Map of

Figure 2: Effective Height of Structure

Figure

STRUCTURE

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DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION STANDARDS

Once the decision is made to implement a lightning protection system, the following guidance standards should be used in establishing the system’s design and installation requirements:

Lightning Protection Components

Installation Requirements for Lightning Protection Systems

Installation Code

Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems

Safety Code for the Protection of Life and Property Against Lightning

For buildings and other structures, a combination of air terminals, down conductors, and adequate ground bonding is required. For air terminals, the maximum interval spacing on the roof should be 20 feet at roof edge or ridges and 50 feet in mid roof areas. The air terminal height should be between 10 inches to 36 inches above the tallest roof structure (Figure 4). When the roof profile is changed with the addition of HVAC equipment or other roof projections, consideration should be given to additional air terminals. Multiple down conductors should also be considered. Where the building perimeter is less than 250 feet, at least two down conductors should be provided to connect the air terminals to the grounding system for the structure. Where the building perimeter is greater than 250 feet, down conductors should be provided for every 100 feet of perimeter. For any lightning protection system, appropriate connection of the air terminals to the down conductors and the down conductors to the grounding system are the keys to effective lightning protection. Bonding in accordance with NEC requirements should be provided. Further, consideration of dissimilar metals (i.e., AL to CU connection) should also be considered.

Both UL (Underwriter’s Laboratory) and LPI (Lightning Protection Institute) offer certification of lightning protection systems. This certification is provided in an effort to ensure that national standards are met including those set forth by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 780) and the Underwriter’s Laboratories (UL 96A). For LPI, the certification also places requirements on the design, materials, workmanship and inspection based on the LPI175. It should be noted that to certify a lightning protection system, only certified inspectors may be used to perform the inspection.

Figure 4: Air Terminal

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RECOMMENDED MAINTENANCE AND TESTING

Regular maintenance activities should include inspecting the air terminals for anchorage and verifying that they are free of damage or excessive corrosion. Furthermore, connections from the air terminals to the down conductors and down conductors to the grounding system should be inspected to verify that they are free of damage or excessive corrosion. Electrical testing should be performed on a recommended frequency of every five years. As with other grounding systems, ground resistance testing and ground system continuity testing should be performed for each area. For ground resistance, a threepoint fall-of-potential test should be performed in accordance with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standard 81, IEEE Recommended Guide for Measuring Ground Resistance and Potential Gradients in the Earth for the ground sources. In addition, point-to-point, continuity tests should be performed from these ground sources to all of the air terminals of the structure. All measurements and testing will be performed by qualified personnel using specialty test equipment designed for this type of testing. For most structures, a preferred maximum of 10 ohms should be provided from the air terminals to ground. For industrial facilities with sensitive equipment and processes, a maximum of 5 ohms from the air terminals to ground is recommended. Point-to-point connections that are greater than 0.5 ohm should be investigated and corrected.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of a lightning protection system is not required by codes and standards. Unfortunately, lightning strikes can cause significant damage and downtime for a facility. There is a basic methodology for determining if a facility should implement lightning protection systems into their design activities. It involves a review of weather information and a facility’s critical equipment and operating philosophy. UL and LPI have provided very specific requirements for implementing an effective lightning protection system if a facility so chooses. To maintain an effective lightning protection system, recommended levels of maintenance should be implemented. The associated maintenance activities should include a combination of frequent visual inspections of the lightning protection system and periodic electrical testing of the system.

Lynn Hamrick brings over 25 years of working knowledge in design, permitting, construction, and startup of mechanical, electrical, and instrumentation and controls projects as well as experience in the operation and maintenance of facilities.

Lynn is a Professional Engineer, Certified Energy Manager and has a BS in Nuclear Engineering from the University of Tennessee.

Owen Wyatt is a Level 2 NETACertified Test Technician and is a licensed professional engineer in the State of Iowa. Owen has experience in performing design activities associated with electrical substations, protective relay systems, SCADA systems, and electrical infrastructure systems in accordance with NEC requirements. Owen has also performed numerous power system studies to include fault current, protective device coordination and arc flash analysis. Additionally, he is experienced in commissioning electrical systems in accordance with NETA specifications. These commissioning activities include relay testing, medium-voltage switchgear testing, and associated control system testing to NETA specifications.

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IMPROPER LUBRICANT SELECTION:

IN AN INDUSTRIAL SETTING, THE CHOICE OF LUBRICANTS CANNOT BE ARBITRARY.

BY MIKE OROSZ, Schneider Electric

Consumer Reports recently published an article that described the consequences of using incorrect automobile fluids: What if You Use the Wrong Stuff ? It described the possible, sometimes dangerous, consequences of using the wrong lubricating fluids. Listed below are commonly used, and misused, automotive lubricating fluids:

The wrong oil can reduce lubrication, which can increase engine heat and shorten engine life.

steering fluids (which are similar) can affect the seals or damage the system, which could lead to brake failure.

As with motor oil, the wrong additive can cause poor lubrication, overheating and may shorten the life of the transmission.

The principle behind these everyday examples also applies to the proper selection of lubrication in the industrial setting. Failure to use the correct lubricant in electrical equipment could result in costly downtime as well as compromise workers’ safety.

TYPES OF LUBRICATION FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

The role of lubricant is very important for electrical equipment to function properly. Lubricants separate the working surfaces and prevent metal-to-metal contact which reduces heat-producing friction. Overheating in electrical enclosures can shorten the life of the equipment or worse, lead to costly downtime. Lubricants also shield the equipment’s surfaces from contaminants and corrosive environments. There are several types of lubricants:

properties and characteristics. Petroleum oils (mineral oils) are made from naphthenic or paraffinic oils. Naphthenic oils contain little wax and their low pour point makes them good lubricants for most applications. Paraffinic oils, on the other hand, are very waxy, which makes them useful for hydraulic equipment and other machinery.

consist of oil or synthetic fluid (~80%), a thickening agent (~10%) and additives (~10%).

The National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) developed a scale for ranking greases by their relative hardness. The softest greases are rated at 000 (which is a flowing liquid) with higher numbers indicating harder grease. Most grease falls in the range between 1 and 4.

FEATURE

Teflon® (PTFE). They can be used alone or as additives in grease or dispersants, or as dry film bonded lubricants. Lubricating solids can last longer than unfortified oils and greases because of their ability to form burnished films on surfaces.

LUBRICATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Although often overlooked, choosing and applying the correct lubricant to circuit breakers plays a key role in the proper maintenance of electrical distribution equipment. The selection and application of lubrication should be according to the original equipment manufacturer’s specification. This may be a difficult task for plant engineers trying to maintain aging equipment with recommended lubricants that have become obsolete. In such cases, you must choose based upon the application and physical properties of available lubricants.

Trying to find suitable replacements for discontinued lubricants can be time consuming, and carrying too many lubricants in stock can be costly. Lubricant manufacturers can provide technical data sheets on their products to advise you on the best applications of each type of lubricant. Schneider Electric Services has also published a comprehensive Lubrication Guide that covers electrical distribution equipment for most major manufacturers.

Circuit Breaker Lubrication: Troubleshooting Guide

ApplicationSymptomPossibleCheckfor Cause

Bearings: RollingHigh bearing temperature

Excessive leakage Frequent bearing replacement

Bearings: PlainOverheating Excessive wear

Gears: EnclosedExcessive leakage

Overheating

Wear and scoring

Gears: OpenGear wear

Build-up on gears or in roots

product

product; grease

grease

Grease too soft for application, high temperature

Lack of lubrication Incorrect product

Lack of lubrication

Excessive lubricant contamination

service

Incorrect EP, temperature range

Product penetration, milling down of product, mixture of greases

Grease too stiff, base oil too thin

Consistency, incorrect EP, base oil viscosity

Incorrect lubricant

Sliding SurfacesNon-uniform motion (stick-slip)Lack of lubricantIncorrect lubricant

Universal JointsExcessive wearInsufficient lubricationIncorrect EP, high T qualities, slumpability

CouplingsDry coupling

Hardened grease

Excessive wear

CentralizedNo grease to point of application

High system pressure

High TNoise-high wear

Excessive leakage

Grease hardening

Low TComponent motion restricted

Difficult application

Freeze-Up

Excessive grease leakage

Centrifugal separation

Incorrect product

Depleted reservoir Grease consistency too hard

Lack of lubrication, improper grease, incompatibility of greases

Improper grease

Incorrect grease Incorrect grease

Water in system

Source: Schneider Electric Lubrication Manual (6th Edition)

Grease consistency, stability

Improper grease quality

Grease EP

Improper lubricant

Product recommendation; pressure on grease when not dispensing

Type of grease in service, thickener type, base oil viscosity, consistency of greases, mixture of greases

Oxidation stability of grease, thickener type, grease mixture

Grease torque quality, base oil viscosity

Pumpability qualities, viscosity, consistency

Lubricant ability to absorb/shed water

The OEM’s recommendation (or suitable substitute) is only one factor to consider in product selection. The lubricant’s characteristics must also be suitable for the operating conditions. Grease (not oil) is most often used in circuit breakers because the thickening agent and additive used in grease helps it stay put. This is because circuit breakers do not run continuously and parts can stay inactive for long periods of time. In addition, they can be inaccessible for frequent lubrication which requires a quality grease that can last for extended periods of time. Finally, circuit breakers are often exposed to high temperatures, shock loads or fast speed under heavy load.

TEMPERATURE LIMITATIONS

Grease has a temperature range throughout which it can effectively be used. When heated, the consistency of most grease will change very slowly until a certain critical temperature is reached. At this point the gel structure breaks down, and the whole grease becomes liquid. This critical temperature, which should not be exceeded, is called the drop point. When heated above its drop point and then cooled, grease usually does not retain its original properties which could compromise its intended function. The minimum temperature is the point where the grease stiffens or becomes too hard for the bearing (or other component) to be used. The base oil of the grease determines the minimum temperature. For low temperature service the base oil should have low viscosity.

Synthetic greases can last a lifetime, making them very cost-effective. They are chemically inert, and their high thermal stability makes them useful for aerospace, electrical, automotive and other high-tech or industrial applications. Some of these lubricants keep their viscosity in temperatures ranging as high as 550° F and are nonflammable at temperatures below 1,200° F.

CONSEQUENCES OF USING

“THE WRONG STUFF”

Improper (or Lack of) Lubrication Affects Equipment Reliability

Think back to the comments about vehicle lubrication at the beginning of this article. Failure to perform the routine, inexpensive task of changi ng the oil every 3,000-5,000 miles could lead to major, costly repairs. In an industrial setting, lubrication may seem to be a small part of a comprehensive preventive maintenance program. However, lack of proper lubrication may play a big role in equipment downtime. In his article, “What Exactly is a Lubrication Failure?” (www.machinerylubrication.com) Mark Barnes states that “as many as 60 to 80 percent of all bearing failures are lubrication-related, whether it’s poor lubricant selection, poor application, lubricant contamination or lubricant degradation. Many components are failing early because lubrication best practices have not been established.”

Improper (or Lack of) Lubrication Affects Workplace Safety

In the case of using a similar-but-different fluid for the brake system referred to in the beginning of this article, the brakes may fail and the outcome could be deadly. Lest you think this example is overstated, in an industrial setting, a common cause of accidents is workers being placed in harm’s way. Consider the following scenario.

IMPORTANT TERMS TO KNOW WHEN SELECTING THE PROPER LUBRICANT:

VISCOSITY is a measure of flowability. It is the resistance to flow caused by internal friction between the lubricant molecules. In selecting a lubricant for a particular application, definition of required viscosity level during start-up and operating conditions is critically important to ensure optimum lubricant performance.

VISCOSITY INDEX indicates how viscosity varies with temperature. This can be an important consideration in applications where operating temperatures vary widely, particularly when low temperatures are encountered.

POUR POINT is the lowest temperature at which oil flows and is most critical in low temperature applications. Wax crystals may form and cause flow failure in paraffinic oils.

FLASH POINT is the temperature at which oil gives off ignitable vapors.

FIRE POINT is the temperature at which oil will burn if ignited.

DROP POINT is the temperature when the gel structure of grease breaks down and becomes liquid. When grease is heated above its drop point and then allowed to cool, it usually does not regain its original properties.

FEATURE

SYNTHETIC LUBRICANTS cover a broad category of oils, greases, and pastes of varied properties. Synthetic lubricants are more inert, generate less waste, are capable of a wider range of temperatures and have a longer life than petroleum materials.

A piece of equipment breaks. The maintenance worker may have to enter a confined space, be exposed to dusty, cluttered or moist environments and may not have the proper tools to repair the equipment, i.e., he must improvise. Planned maintenance activities allow fewer opportunities for the maintenance worker(s) to improvise. Exxon-Mobil conducted a study on maintenance-related accidents. The findings revealed a higher incidence of accidents (five times greater) when working on equipment failures than on planned corrective jobs.

Well-maintained equipment promotes workplace safety. One of the requirements to comply with NFPA 70E: Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace® (2012 Edition) is to maintain all electrical distribution system components. NFPA also recommends adopting NFPA 70B: Electrical Equipment Maintenance (2010 Edition). This standard provides guidelines for developing and implementing a preventive maintenance program.

Because arc-flash incident energy can only be controlled by the devices in a system (circuit breakers, fuses, protective relays), the condition and maintenance of these components becomes very critical. If the device is not in well-maintained condition, the opening times can vary considerably from the original trip curve. In some cases, poorly maintained devices will not open at all and the incident energy during an arc flash event may become very high. When electrical equipment is properly maintained, the electrical system studies, including the arc-flash analysis, more accurately represent the potential performance of the power system.

CONCLUSION

(*) Direct and indirect costs of non-availability Source: Contingency Planning Research & Schneider Electric

A preventive maintenance program that includes the proper selection and application of lubrication will help extend equipment life and promote workplace safety. It is extremely important to note that any specific maintenance of individual pieces of electrical equipment does not guarantee a completely coordinated power distribution system. A comprehensive preventive maintenance and testing program should incorporate all electrical power distribution equipment, regardless of the manufacturer, to ensure that all electrical equipment and components operate as originally designed and intended.

Mike Orosz, Sr. Staff Mechanical Engineer at Schneider Electric has 40 years industry experience (36 years with Schneider Electric). His areas of expertise include: medium-voltage switchgear and circuit breaker design, medium-voltage motor starter design, field problem investigation and work, SF6 interrupter, vacuum interrupter, ANSI IEC testing, mechanism design, materials, plastic moldings, heat treating and finishing and sheet metal design. Mike is a member of IEEE, PES, ASM and IEC TAG.

POWER FACTOR:

EXPLANATION, DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE

BY JOHN CADICK, Cadick Corporation

ABSTRACT

Is power factor the cosine of the phase angle between load current and voltage, the ratio of real power to apparent power, the sine of the angle between reactive power and apparent power, a measure of power quality, an insulation quality test, or something to do with the head of foam on a beer? Surprisingly, all of these are correct.

This paper covers all of these concepts (including the head of foam on a beer) in the attempt to take some of the mystery out of one of the most fundamentally important concepts in alternating current (ac) power systems.

The paper explains the concepts surrounding power factor in nonmathematical terms. By using practical examples and analogies the terms sine, cosine, real power, true power, reactive power, imaginary power, apparent power, phase angle, leading angle, and lagging angle are explained. Even the term imaginary power is explained in a practical way.

Along the way, some basic mathematical formulas involved in power factor will be introduced and explained.

Finally, we will present some of the many real-world uses of power factor and its related concepts. The uses will include power system efficiency, cost of electric power, bus and cable ampacity, power quality, and insulation testing.

The paper will be published in two parts. This first installment covers everything from the basics of power flow1 up to a discussion of what is meant by the term phase angle. Major sections include this introduction (or abstract if you prefer), energy and power, the practical definition of power factor, and a fairly detailed, explanation of phase angle.

In a later article we will finish up with a discussion of triangles, real power, reactive power, and apparent power, and an explanation and discussion of some of the ways that power factor is used in day to day power systems.

ENERGY AND POWER

Definitions

Energy and power are very closely related. Understanding what they are and how they relate is fundamental to understanding power factor.

Energy

Energy is a measure of the ability to do work. In fact, the terms energy and work often are used interchangeably.

Energy can be stored or used. Stored energy includes examples such as the energy in a storage battery, the energy of a rock that is held up in the air, the energy stored in a spring, or the energy stored in the magnetic field of a motor or generator winding. If the energy stored in any of these examples is released, some or all of the energy will be used. For example:

If an elevated rock is dropped to the ground, its stored energy will be released in two ways:

rock and the air through which it falls to heat up. Heat is a form of energy, so in this case the stored energy is being dissipated as heat energy.

will be released by heat created by the impact and moving the dirt and other particles that the rock hits.

In the case of the storage battery, the stored energy in the battery is released as the electrons flow when a circuit is connected. The battery’s stored energy may be expended in one or more ways including the following:

through them.

incandescent light bulbs.

mechanical loads to which they are connected.

Energy may be measured in pound-feet, dyne-centimeters, ergs, calories, or other such units. Electrical energy is measured in joules or watthours. In arc-flash studies heat energy is usually measured in calories and sometimes joules. Since this article is about electricity, we’ll use watthours (Wh) or kilowatthours (kWh) for energy.

Power

Power is the rate at which energy is being expended. In fact, in many simple situations, you can simply divide the amount of energy by the time it took to expend that energy to get the power or multiply the power by the time and get the energy. The unit of power in electrical energy is the energy multiplied by the time. The units of power will depend on how the energy is being used. This is discussed later.

Consider a 100 watt incandescent light bulb. There are 744 hours in a 31 day month. This means that if the bulb is left on constantly, it will use 100 X 744 = 74,400 watthours or 74.4 kilowatthours. Assuming that you are paying seven cents per kWh you will pay $5.21 for the electricity being used.

Another example is an electric motor that is driving a 500 horsepower (HP) load. One HP is approximately equal to 746 watts. So 500 HP is equivalent to 500 X 746 = 373,000 W or 373 kW. If the motor runs constantly during a 31 day month, it will use 744 X 373 = 277, 512 kWh. At seven cents per kWh, the cost to run the motor is $19, 425 – a little bit pricier than a 100 watt light bulb.

ELECTRICAL APPLICATIONS

There are three types of power defined in electrical systems. Each one of them can be measured using electrical instruments.

Real power

Real power, also called true power, is defined as the rate at which energy is being expended. It includes heat, light, motion of loads, and all of the other energy usage that may occur. When you pay your electric bill you are paying for energy that you have used. The power is the rate at which you are using it. Real power is measured in watts (W), kilowatts (kW), or horsepower (HP).

Reactive power

Reactive power, also called imaginary power,3 is the rate at which energy is being stored in the power system. The energy can be stored either in the electric field created in a capacitor or in the magnetic field in a coil or winding. In an ac system, stored energy moves from one place to another. For example as the magnetic field in a windingreaches its peak, the current starts to reverse and the stored energy is released by the magnetic field back into the system, (more on this later). Reactive power is measured in volt-amperes reactive (var) or kilovolt-amperes reactive (kvar).

Apparent power

Apparent power is equal to real power plus reactive power. Unfortunately, the addition required is more than adding the two numbers together. More on this is discussed later in this article. Apparent power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) or kilovolt-amperes (kVA).

POWER FACTOR (PF) –A PRACTICAL DEFINITION

The Carpenter

We can use a simple, everyday example to understand power factor: driving a nail.4 Joe the carpenter has driven hundreds of thousands of nails in his thirty year career. However, he never suspected that his nail driving could be used to explain the concept of power factor.

Raising the Hammer

Let us assume that Joe is using a two-pound hammer, and when he raises the hammer to strike the nail, the hammer moves a distance of two feet. To raise a two pound hammer a distance of two feet, Joe must expend four foot-pounds (ft-lbs) of energy (two pounds x two feet = four ft-lbs). When the hammer is held in the air, the four ft-lbs is stored and called potential energy.

POWER FACTOR

Table 1: Where does the Energy Go?

If Joe relaxes and lets the hammer drop back down onto the nail, the four ft-lbs of energy is released in the form of heat. The heat comes from two sources: air friction and the heat generated by the contact of the hammer with the head of the nail. As long as Joe relaxes and allows gravity do all of the work to move the hammer downward, most of the four ft-lbs is dissipated without moving the nail. This means that the four ft-lbs of energy is used to raise the hammer and then it is dissipated with no change in the position of the nail.

Driving the Nail

But Joe wants to move the nail. He wants to drive it all the way into the wood so that it holds the boards together. To make the nail move, Joe has to add more energy to the hammer. He does this by using his muscles to make the hammer move faster.

Assume that Joe adds 40 ft-lbs of energy to the hammer by exerting his muscles. As the hammer moves towards the nail, most of the 40 ft-lbs will be transferred to the nail as motion. Table 1 summarizes what has happened.

The Whole Process

Note that the energy that Joe exerts to move the hammer up, is given a minus sign since the hammer is moving up. When Joe moves the hammer down, gravity helps him by pulling on the hammer. To move the hammer the same distance, gravity must assist Joe by four ft-lbs. Since the hammer is moving down, the four ft-lbs is given a plus sign.

If we add the energies together, we see that the up and down motions of the hammer cancel each other (four ft-lbs – four ft-lbs). This means that the four ft-lbs that Joe used to raise the hammer did not get used to actually drive the nail. Remember that if the hammer is allowed to drop freely, most of the four ft-lbs will be lost to air friction and heating of the head of the nail. So, in a sense, the four ft-lbs is used to overcome gravity and then is returned to gravity as the hammer moves down.

However, and this is very important, the four ft-lbs is needed to drive the nail. It just doesn’t get used to physically move the nail. Rather, it moves the hammer.

Each time Joe strikes the nail, he uses a total of 44 ft-lbs. (Remember that gravity takes the 4 ft-lbs back.) If we define power factor as the power used to drive the nail (real power) divided by the total power being supplied (apparent power) we get the following:

Mechanical power factor (mpf) = 40 ft-lbs/44 ft-lbs = 0.91. Expressed as a percentage this is a 91 percent power factor.

From a power and energy standpoint, driving a nail is actually pretty involved.

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND THE MAGNETIC HAMMER

Electrical power factor can be explained in much the same way.

Real Power

The real power being generated by the electric utility is equal to all of the useful power such as light or motion. It can be easily measured at the utility generating plant and at the locations of each of the customers of the utility. However, the real power also includes the heating (which is not useful unless the load is a heater) caused by current flow in all of the wires in the system. The tool that is used to measure real power is called a watt meter or a kilowatt meter.

Real power is generated by the utility and either used by the customer or dissipated as heat. It does not return to the utility ever again. In the example of Joe the carpenter, the 40 ft-lbs is the real power that Joe is generating to drive the nail.

Reactive Power

As current flows through a winding (coil) it creates a magnetic field.5 Because the current flow in a power system is alternating, the magnetic field will also be alternating.

Figure 1 is a diagram of a magnetic field surrounding a coil, such as the winding of a motor. The arrowed lines in the picture represent the magnetic field lines. If the current in the winding is zero, there will be no magnetic field. When the current in the winding is at maximum, the magnetic field will be at its strongest.

Figure 1: The Magnetic Field Around a Winding

Figure 2 shows how the magnetic field rises and falls as the alternating current in the winding increases and decreases. During the first quarter of a cycle, the magnetic field strength increases from zero to maximum. Since the utility is supplying the power (energy) to the magnetic field, the current supplying the magnetic energy is coming all the way from the utility generator. (This is like Joe raising the hammer.)

During the second quarter of the cycle the magnetic field collapses back to zero. As it does this, the winding acts like a generator. The stored magnetic energy is converted back to electrical energy which is sent all the way back to the utility. This power corresponds to the four ft-lbs used to raise the hammer and then returned to gravity as Joe allows gravity to pull the hammer back down.

The third and fourth quarters behave in exactly the same way, except that the magnetic field has an opposite polarity; that is, the north and south poles are reversed. There are three important points to remember about this.

1. The winding borrows the energy during the first and third quarters and returns it during the second and fourth quarters.

2. Since each quarter of a cycle takes exactly the same amount of time, the power required to create the magnetic field (the first and third quarters) is exactly the same as the power that is sent back to the utility (the second and fourth quarters). There are, however, losses in the form of heat as the current flows back and forth.

Figure 2: Magnetic Field Strength in a Coil

3. The magnetic field is the hammer that makes the motor turn. Without it the motor would not turn and no real power would be used to drive the load.

Apparent Power

The apparent power is the sum of the real and the reactive power. Consider Figure 3. It has three traces as follows:

1. Trace 1 shows the current flow that is providing the real power. Every kilowatt that is delivered by the current shown in Trace 1 is used and is not returned to the utility.

2. Trace 2 shows the current flow that is providing the reactive power. As discussed earlier, the power flows to the load on the first and third quarter cycles and returns to the utility on the second and fourth quarter cycles.

3. Trace 3 is the total current in the circuit. It is the sum of the Trace 1 and the Trace 2 currents. Trace 3 is the amount of current that you would read if you put an ammeter on the circuit conductor.

As the Trace 3 current flows between the utility and the customer, it creates heat in the all of the wires through which it flows. Both the Trace 1 current and the Trace 2 current contribute to this heat loss. Therefore, even though reactive power is returned to the utility on each quarter cycle, it is losing real power by heating the conductors through which it flows. 6 This is similar to the heat of friction that the hammer experiences as it moves through the air.

6

POWER FACTOR

Figure 3: Current Flows for Real, Reactive, and Apparent Power

You notice that each time I have mentioned the sum, I have put it in italics. This is because the two currents cannot be added in the same way that we add 1 + 2 = 3. I will explain this in more detail in the Phase Angle section of the article.

Power Factor (Electrical)

What is the electrical power factor? As in the carpenter example, the power factor is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power. If the real power as measured by a wattmeter is 70.7 watts and the apparent power as measured by a voltampere meter is 100 voltamperes. The power factor is the 70.7 divided by 100 or 0.707. Expressed as a percentage this would be 70.7 percent.

PHASE ANGLE

In order to understand the term phase angle, we will start by considering how an alternating current generator works.

Generating Alternating Current

Single phase

Figure 4 is a line drawing of a single-phase, ac generator. The magnetic poles create the field for the generator. The rotor is the armature of the generator because it is connected to the load (galvonometer).

As the rotor turns counterclockwise, it cuts through the magnetic field created by the stator magnet. Anytime a conductor passes through a magnetic field, a voltage is created on the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage is proportional to how fast the rotor is cutting through the magnetic lines. [This relationship is known as Faraday’s law and was discovered in the 1830s by Michael Faraday (1791-1867).]

Figure 5: Rotation Positions as the Rotor Turns

Figure 4: Single Phase ac Generator

Figure 6: Output Voltage as the Rotor (Figure 6) Turns

In the position shown in Figure 4, the horizontal portions of the armature winding are moving parallel to the magnetic field. This means that they are not cutting any of the magnetic lines of force, and therefore the output voltage and current are zero.

Now look at Figures 5 and 6. Figure 5 shows the positions of the rotor as it rotates counterclockwise. Figure 6 shows the output voltage for positions A through D. In position E, the rotor has returned to its starting point. The following explains the output voltage at each position.

loop is moving parallel to the magnetic field without cutting any magnetic lines.

magnetic field; consequently, it is cutting through the maximum number of lines per second; therefore, the voltage output is maximum.

resulting in zero output.

field so the output is again maximum. However, in position B, the black side of the loop is moving down. In position D, it is moving up. Therefore, the polarity is reversed.

Between the illustrated positions, the current is either increasing in magnitude (A to B and C to D) or decreasing in magnitude (B to C and D to E). The resultant voltage output is shown on Figure 6.

Two Phase

We can next add a second rotor to our generator. Start by putting a second loop right next to the existing loop, then rotate the new loop clockwise for 120 degrees. Connect the lower right leg of the second loop to its own separate black slip ring. The other side connects to the existing white slip ring. For clarity, we will call the first loop A-phase and the second loop B-phase. A real two-phase generator would never be built in this way, but it will serve for this example.

As the B-phase loop rotates along with the A-phase loop, its output will be identical to the A-phase output with one important difference. Since the B-phase loop is passing through the magnetic lines of force after A-phase, its peaks and valleys will occur after A-phase.

Figure 7 shows the waveform between the outputs of the two loops. If you look closely, you will see that the B-phase loop crosses zero exactly 120 degrees after the A-phase loop, and the B-phase loop hits its peaks exactly 120 degrees after the A-phase loop.

Figure 7: Output Waveform of Two Loop Generator

POWER FACTOR

Since A-phase is being used as the reference, we say that B-phase voltage is lagging A-phase voltage. Specifically, because the two loops are 120 degrees apart, B-phase is 120 degrees behind (lagging) A-phase. This angle is referred to as the phase angle between the two voltages. 7 Notice that the electrical waveforms have the same lag angle as the physical position of the two loops on the generator.

Three Phase

Next add a third loop to the generator, but rotate it clockwise from the A-phase loop by 240 degrees. The output waveforms are shown in Figure 8. C-phase voltage lags behind A-phase by 240 degrees, and it lags behind B-phase by 120 degrees.8 So the phase angle between A and C is 240 degrees lagging.

THE PULL OF TWO ROPES

The Rope Experiment

In this experiment imagine that you are blindfolded while standing in a room. You have two ropes tied to your belt, and each rope is being pulled by someone. Consider the following three conditions:

1. The two people are pulling with a force of five pounds in the same direction. How much force would you feel on your body? In this simple case the answer is easy. You would feel the sum of the two forces for a total of ten pounds.

2. The two people are pulling with a force of five pounds, but they are pulling in opposite directions. You would feel the difference between the two forces for a total of zero pounds.

3. Two people are pulling at some angle to each other. Figure 9 shows this third condition using an angle of 90 degrees.

In Figure 9 the two people are each pulling with a force of five pounds, but one of them is pulling due east and the other one is pulling due north. What force will you feel, and at what angle will you feel it? The answer is that you will feel 7.1 pounds of force in a direction of 45 degrees northeast. The calculation involves some math that will be explained in part 2 of this article. But how does this example apply to electricity and phase angle?

THE TALE OF TWO VOLTAGES

Take another look at Figure 7, and assume that the voltage output of the generator is 120 V as measured between the white slip rings and their respective black slip rings. Each phase (A and B) will read 120 V from its black ring to the white ring. This voltage is called the phase to neutral voltage. If the white slip ring is connected to earth (ground) the voltages are called the phase to ground voltages.

If you wanted to measure the voltage difference between the two phases, you would use one probe of the voltmeter on the A-phase black slip ring and the other probe on the B-phase black slip ring. What value would you see on the meter?

Using the rope example, you might expect to read the sum (240 V), or because you are actually measuring the difference between the two wires you might expect zero volts. As you probably know, neither answer is correct because, in fact, you would read 208 V.

Figure 8: Voltage Waveforms of a Three Loop Generator

Figure 9: Two Ropes Pulled at Different Angles

Just as the ropes created a different combination when pulled at different angles, the phase angle between the two voltages makes a difference when you measure the voltage between the two. If the voltages were in phase with each other, you would read zero. If they were 180 degrees out of phase, you would read 240. Because they are at 120 degrees, the answer is 208 V.

This explains why I used italics earlier when I talked about the sum. Anytime two voltages have a phase angle difference, you have to take that phase angle into consideration when performing any calculations. This holds true for all alternating values including current.

PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

What does phase angle have to do with real power, reactive power, and apparent power. The answer is that it has everything to do with them. The phase angle between the current in a power system and the voltage in the power system is a measure that shows how much real power and how much reactive power are being delivered.

The Resistor

When a voltage is applied to a resistor, the current that occurs is in phase with the applied voltage. That means that the voltage peaks and the current peaks will occur at exactly the same time. The relationship between the current and the voltage is given to us by Ohm’s law:

where:

I is the current through the resistor in amperes (A) E is the voltage applied to the resistor in volts (V), and R is the resistance of the resistor in ohms (Ω)

All of the current that flows through a resistor will cause heat that is dissipated in real power (watts). This same condition holds true for any load that has the current and voltage in phase with each other. This means that the horsepower delivered by a motor to move its load is real power; consequently, the current that supplies this power will be in phase with the applied voltage.

The same thing holds true for any real power load such as the power used to create light and heat in a light bulb and the power dissipated by an electric heater.

Making Deductions About Inductors

An inductor is a coil of wire such as shown in Figure 1. Motor windings and transformer windings are inductors. How does one define the power in a motor or transformer winding. These types of windings have a relatively small resistance; however, they have a very high reactance. Reactance (represented by the symbol X), is very similar to resistance in many ways. For example the relationship between the voltage and current in a winding is given by the formula:

When the voltage applied to an inductor changes, it tries to change the current in the inductor. However, as the current changes, it creates a magnetic field around the coil. The magnetic field grows as the current increases and lessens as the current decreases. As the field changes, it cuts through the turns in the winding.

Just like a generator, the magnetic field cutting through the wire creates a voltage. In this case, the voltage opposes the voltage that is trying to increase the current. This opposition does two things:

1. It opposes the current flow. The amount of opposition is called the reactance (X) of the winding.

2. The increasing (or decreasing) magnetic field retards or delays the change in the current flow. In fact it retards it by exactly one quarter of a cycle or 90 degrees.

The result is that the current through an inductor lags the inductor voltage by 90 degrees. It takes energy to build the magnetic field. Since there is no significant resistance in the winding, the energy is not dissipated. Rather the energy is stored in the magnetic field as described earlier.

The Phase Angle Capacity of a Capacitor.

The voltage and the current in a capacitor behave in a similar manner except that the current in the capacitor leads the voltage by 90 degrees. This paper focuses on inductors because virtually all ac power systems are inductive.

POWER FACTOR

Putting it all Together or the Phase Angle and Power Factor of a Real Power System9

In an actual power system the total load is a mixture of real power loads, inductive loads, and capacitive loads. Except in rare situations, the loads are mostly real power loads, and, to a lesser extent, inductive loads. Take another look at Figure 3. Assume that the current shown by Trace 1 is 100 amperes. Since it is the reference, that would be at an angle of 0 degrees.

If the current magnitude of Trace 2 is 50 amperes, what will the magnitude of Trace 3 be? We know that since the phase angles are different we cannot simply add Trace 1 to Trace 2. So the correct answer is not 120 amperes. It is almost 112 amperes and is lagging Trace 1 by 26.6 degrees.

What about the real power, the reactive power, and the apparent power? If we assume a system voltage of 120 V, we can simply multiply the current and voltage together.

Therefore, Real power is equal to 120 X 100 = 12,000 watts (12 kW), and the reactive power is equal to 120 X 50 = 6000 var (6 kvar).

However the watts and the kvar are also not in phase with each other. There is a 90 degree phase angle between them; consequently, the apparent power is not 18,000 VA. Because of the phase angle difference, the apparent power is actually 13,416 VA. This means that the power factor is equal to 0.895 or 89.5 percent (12,000 divided by 13,416).

CONCLUSION

Well, we’ve come a long way. The only thing we haven’t discussed yet is what does a beer and its head have to do with it. Well, when some people explain power factor they refer to real power as the beer itself and reactive power as the foam on the top. This is actually a pretty good analogy since, like real power, the body of the beer is what we really want. Also, like reactive power, the head does not contribute a great deal to our enjoyment. However, like reactive power, the head of beer is there as a part of getting the beer poured.

Power factor is a very important concept in electric power, and understanding it is fundamental to understanding the way that ac power systems work. In its simplest form, power factor is simply the ratio between the energy we generate that does real work (heat, light, motor loads, and the like) and the apparent power as determined by multiplying the total current times the total voltage.

NEXT TIME

This article has covered the basics of power factor in as plain a language as possible.

The conclusion of this article will be published in the next issue of NETA World. It will start by providing additional information regarding how the various types of power are calculated in a power system.

After the initial discussion, the article will present examples of real-world uses of the concept of power factor. I will cover the relationship of power factor to power quality; how power factor affects efficiency and cost of electric power; how power factor affects how much current your power system conductors are required to carry, how to correct a bad power factor; and finally, how power factor concepts are used to good advantage in insulation testing on cables, transformers, and rotating equipment.

A registered professional engineer and the founder and president of Cadick Corporation, John Cadick has specialized for more than three decades in electrical engineering, training, and management. His consulting firm based in Garland, Texas, specializes in electrical engineering and training and works extensively in the areas of power system design and engineering studies, condition-based maintenance programs, and electrical safety. Prior to creating Cadick Corporation and its predecessor Cadick Professional Services, he held a number of technical and managerial positions with electric utilities, electrical testing companies, and consulting firms. In addition to his consultation work in the electrical power industry he is the author of Cables and Wiring, The Electrical Safety Handbook, and numerous professional articles and technical papers.

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IN THE FIELDVACUUM INTERRUPTERS PREDICTING THE REMAINING LIFE OF

APPLYING

THE MAGNETRON

ATMOSPHERE CONDITION ASSESSMENT (MAC) TEST IN A FIELD ENVIRONMENT

BY FINLEY LEDBETTER, Group CBS AND JOHN CADICK, Cadick Corporation

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Historically, air-magnetic and oil interrupters were the only types of interrupters used on circuit breakers rated at 2.4 kV and higher. The air

kV up to 25 kV. Above 25 kV, oil interrupters were the more commonly used primarily because of their ability to interrupt higher arc energies.

Air-Magnetic Interrupters

Air-magnetic interrupters degrade somewhat each time they are opened under load, and they degrade significantly if they are interrupted under fault. The contacts can be repaired or replaced if required; however, the maintenance of these types of circuit breakers was not always properly scheduled sometimes resulting in failures.

In addition to the required maintenance the arc chutes are very large and heavy. Some of the arc chutes on these breakers are also somewhat fragile and can be broken if not properly handled.

Oil Interrupters

Oil interrupters are also very heavy. More importantly, the interrupter itself is submerged in oil and is difficult to reach for inspection. Testing methods such as contact microhm meter tests, insulation-resistance tests, power-factor tests, and the like are quite reliable in determining the

condition of the interrupter. However, like airmagnetic interrupters, these units were not always maintained as they should be.

In addition to maintenance and size problems, stricter environmental requirements make using these types of interrupters subject to increased regulation and higher cost of maintenance.

WHAT ACCOUNTS FOR THE AMAZING POPULARITY OF THE VACUUM INTERRUPTER?

Partially as a response to many of the issues with air-magnetic and oil interrupters, widespread use of vacuum interrupter (VI) technology and SF6 technology in electric power distribution systems started over thirty years ago. In the intervening years, the VI has become the choice for the vast majority of circuit breakers applied between 1,000 volts and 36,000 volts.

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

The VI (Figures 1 and 2) is lightweight, sealed from the atmosphere, and has a very long predicted useful life. Since VI technology was first used in the industry, typical life expectancy predictions have been 20 or 30 years.

There are a number of features that have led to the wide acceptance of VI technology as a superior interrupting technology. These features include the following: with distances that vary with age and manufacturer. The actual travel distance varies with VI geometry and voltage level; however, typical distances range from approximately 8 mm (0.314 in) to 12 mm (0.472 in).

interrupting method.

rare failures, the resulting damage is sometimes much less than that of airmagnetic interrupters. However, VIs still can fail spectacularly causing great damage.

WHY DO VACUUM INTERRUPTERS WORK?

The VI’s high interrupting capacity is based on the physical principle discovered by Louis Karl Heinrich Friedrich Paschen (1865-1947). Paschen did original experimental research and discovered that the dielectric strength of a gas is a function of the gas pressure (p), the distance between the two electrodes (d), and the type of gas. This relationship is given in Equation 1. Note that a and b are constants that are derived for dry air.

Equation 1: Paschen’s Equation

Figure 3 is taken from a paper presented by Falkingham and Reeves.i This shows that the dielectric strength of air starts to increase dramatically as the air pressure drops below approximately 10 Pa (10-1 millibar)1. It continues to rise swiftly until pressure reaches approximately 10-1 Pa (10-3 millibar), and then remains fairly steady at slightly less than 400 kV/cm (approximately 1000 kV/in).

Figure 2: Internal View of a Typical Vacuum Interrupter

Figure 1: External View of a Typical Vacuum Interrupter

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

Figure 3: Paschen’s Curve for Dry Air

Contact Mechanism

This means that the typical contact gaps (8 mm to12 mm) will have dielectric strengths between 320 kV and 1200 kV or higher for vacuum levels between 10-1 Pa and 10-6 Pa. The interrupting capacity in a VI will vary depending on contact design, contact separation and vacuum level. The contact design and separation are design features for any given VI. However, we have shown that the interrupting ability will be very high and very sensitive to the pressure (vacuum) level inside the VI.

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS: THE PROMISE

VI

Useful Life Projections

As might be expected, the primary basis for the wide acceptance of vacuum interrupters is financial. Consider that VIs offer vastly longer life and greatly reduced maintenance costs when compared to air-magnetic and oil interrupters. Their life span and number of operations specifications are up to 10 times those of the older technologies, and the useful life of the VI may be up to 50 percent greater than SF6 interrupters. At least part of the reason that VIs are so long-lived is because of their simple, yet rugged construction.

VI Construction

The contact structure comprises two parts: the moving contact assembly and the fixed contact assembly. The fixed contact is stationary, held firmly in place, while the moving contact is free to move. When the circuit breaker operates, the moving-contact stem moves the contact and compresses (open) or decompresses (closed) the bellows. The bellows system provides a much more secure seal than a bushing gasket.

Metal-Vapor Shield

The metal-vapor shield has three critically important purposes. The following information is paraphrased from The Vacuum Interrupter: Theory, Design, and Application by Paul G. Slade.ii

1. It captures the metal vapor created by the metallic arcing that occurs when the contacts open. The metal vapor is highly ionized and, in addition to the thermal expansion, is drawn to the vapor shield by electrostatic force. When the vapor contacts the shield, it quickly solidifies and adheres to the shield. This helps to maintain the vacuum level inside the VI.

2.The metallic vapor shield also serves to keep the electrostatic field uniformly distributed both inside and outside the VI.

3. It protects the ceramic body from the high levels of radiation during arcing and interruption, and prevents any high level arcs from directly contacting the ceramic body.

Ceramic Body

The following discussion provides a very brief overview of the construction of the VI. Understanding this information will help the reader to better understand the later discussion about the maintenance problems associated with the VI and provide the basis to analyze the value of the new field test which will be presented. The following descriptions refer to Figure 2.

Porcelain-ceramic has become the predominant material for the body of the VI. The characteristics that have made it the material of choice include high strength, good dielectric strength, the ability to withstand very high temperatures, impermeability to helium and extremely low permeability to hydrogen, and the ability to formvery tight seals with brazed metal connections such as the bellows, metal-vapor shield, and the fixed contact stem.

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

While all of these are very important characteristics, tight seals and low permeability are arguably the most important with respect to the long life of a VI. As discussed before in this paper, the vacuum level is the key to the proper operation of a VI.

VI FACTORY TESTS

The following tests are among those that are most commonly applied by manufacturers when a VI is manufactured and/or when it ships to a customer. The coverage is not exhaustive; however, each test and its importance will be explained in enough detail to allow understanding of the remaining parts of the paper.

These tests may be performed on an entire batch of new VIs, or – more commonly – on a statistically significant sampling taken from the new batch. The three that are discussed are ones that are related directly to the service life of the VI.

Contact Resistance Test

A microhm meter is applied to the closed contacts of the VI and the resistance is measured and recorded. The result is compared to the design and/or the average values for the other VIs in the same run.

High Potential Testing

An ac high voltage is applied across the open contacts of the VI. The voltage is increased to the test value and any leakage current is measured. One uses ac because it reduces the creation and magnitude of x-rays that can occur when a high voltage is applied across a vacuum contact.

(See Safety Sidebar.)

The Leak-Rate Test (MAC test)

This test is based on the Penning Discharge Principle which is named after Frans Michael Penning (1894-1953). Penning showed that when a high voltage is applied to open contacts in a gas and the contact structure is surrounded with a

Figure 4: Vacuum Level Test using the Penning Discharge Principle

magnetic field, the amount of current flow between the plates is a function of the gas pressure, the applied voltage, and the magnetic field strength.

Figure 4 shows a diagram of the test set up used for the leak rate test. A magnetic field is set up by placing the VI into a field coil. The field is created by a direct current and remains constant during the test. A constant dc voltage, usually 10 kV, is applied to the open contacts, and the current flow through the VI is measured.

Since the magnetic field and the applied voltage magnitudes are both known, the only variable remaining is the pressure of the gas. If the relationship between the gas pressure and the current flow is known, the internal pressure can be calculated based on the amount of current flow.

The factory leak-rate test procedure is as follows:

1. The internal pressure is determined as described in the preceding paragraphs.2

2. The VI is placed in storage for a period of time, usually a minimum of several weeks.

3. The VI’s internal pressure is tested again. This test is sensitive enough that even in that short time a very tiny change will be observed.

4. Using the difference between the two test pressures, a leak rate versus time curve is developed.

Referring to Figure 3, we see that if the pressure falls below 10-2 Pa, the dielectric strength, and thus the interrupting capability, will deteriorate rapidly. The calculated number of years required for the pressure to reach 10-2 Pa will indicate the expected service life of the VI.

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

Although vacuum interrupters are very longlived, they have a useful service life just like any piece of equipment. The projected life of a VI, as determined by the factory leak-rate test, assumes a constant leakage rate throughout the life of the VI; an assumption that may not be valid for any given interrupter. Also consider that if not properly maintained all equipment will fail eventually. VIs are no exception to this truth.

Failure Modes

There are several possible types of VI failure.

is deposited on the inside of the ceramic shell as it greatly reduces the insulation quality of the shell. Since the shell must be able to withstand the recovery voltage caused by an arc interruption, insulation failure of the shell can cause a catastrophic mechanical failure of the VI.

3. Loss of vacuum due to mechanical failure of the bellows, pinch tube or a manufacturing defect is another type of failure. This failure is often related to the number of operations multiplied by the number one killer on any VI: torsion exerted on the bellows. Even one degree of torsion on the bellows can reduce the number of operations by a factor of 10. This torsion can be caused by improper installation either at the factory or reinstallation during an overhaul. Wear on the breaker mechanism during operations can also introduce torsion.

1. The most common failure occurs when a VI reaches its wear limits. The VI has a set of soft copper alloy contacts that are mechanically shocked each time the breaker is opened and closed. When no current flows, the damage to the contacts is caused primarily by mechanical shock. Each time it is opened under load, overload, or fault current, some of the contact material is lost to metal vapor and redeposited other places in the VI canister, hopefully, but not always, on the metal-vapor shield.

2. Another common failure is internal arc flashover caused by metal vapor and sputtering material being deposited on the inside of the canister. This is especially bad if the material

4. The last failure is the loss of vacuum due to leak rate. The leak rate was checked at the factory and is determined generally to exceed 20 or even 30 years; however, the leak rate can be greatly increased by improper installation, failure of components, or damage during maintenance procedures. Recent field experience has shown an increasing number of low pressure and dead in the box new VIs in manufactured VCBs.

Of course, life extension and failure prevention can both be dramatically improved by proper maintenance.

PREDICTING THE REMAINING LIFE OF VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD: A SAFETY SIDEBAR

The high-potential test has an inherent safety issue that must be considered. When the voltage applied to the vacuum contacts exceeds a certain value, x-radiation may be produced. Although the x-rays are usually small, they still exist and precautions must be taken to protect workers in the area.

Replacing the highpotential test with the MAC test eliminates this safety concern. The test voltage applied across the vacuum interrupter in the MAC test is well below the level required for the production of x-rays.

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

THE PROBLEM

Of the three factory tests discussed in this paper, only two have been used in the field: the contact resistance test and the high-potential test. Neither of these is able to provide a value for the vacuum pressure inside the VI. Even the high-potential test is a go/no-go result. Even using a dc highpotential test set will not give predictable results that can be used. The dc high-potential test results may show a gradual increase over time, but it is not sufficient to determine when, or if, the gas pressure has dropped to critical levels, at least not until the interrupter fails.

As previously noted, the pressure inside a VI will increase with time. There will always be some leakage in even the most well made VI. That leakage may be slow enough that the VI will meet or even exceed the manufacturer’s predicted service life. On the other hand, unexpected increases in the leakage rate can greatly shorten its life. As described in the previous paragraph, none of the classic field tests can effectively evaluate the condition of the vacuum inside the VI.

Many VIs have been in service for twenty, thirty, or more years. A huge percentage of them are well past the manufacturers’ predicted life. Figure 6 shows a failed pole assembly. This failure occurred fairly recently. Industry studies are showing that an increasing numbers of such failures are occurring.

It cannot be stated with 100 percent certainty that the proximate or root cause of the failure shown in Figure 5 was insufficient vacuum. However, it can be stated to a high degree of certainty that had the vacuum pressure been in the acceptable range of 10-2 Pa to 10-6 Pa, the bottle would not have failed.

Based on old technology, a new field test is being used successfully to measure the vacuum pressure.

A PREDICTIVE FIELD TEST FOR VI PRESSURE

Roadblocks and Solutions

The test equipment that is used to test vacuum in a VI is called a magnetron. Both technical and logistical problems have prevented the use of the magnetron in the field. The five major problems are as follows:

Figure 5: Failed Vacuum Interrupter

Figure 6: Portable Magnetron Suitable for Field Work

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

have been too bulky to be used in the field.

about keeping their calibration when moved.

field could not be used in the field.

the relationship between ionization current and (vacuum) pressure.

evaluating such a test were not available. However, this has changed with the introduction of new technology that has been researched and developed extensively over the last five years.

Magnetrons Suitable for Field and Shop Use

With industry improvements in components and manufacturing capability, magnetrons such as that shown in Figure 6, are now coming onto the market for field use. It is small and portable and will retain calibration with only the normal procedures as specified in industry standards for field testing.

Application of the Magnetic Field to the VI When tested in the factory or shop, the VI is inserted into a magnetic coil which is energized by the magnetron. Figure 7 shows a stand with an integrally mounted coil used for such testing. Although these types of coils can be used in the field, they are quite heavy and bulky, especially in the sizes required for some of the larger VIs. In addition to their weight, such a coil requires that the VI be removed from the breaker mechanism to be tested.

Figure 8 shows a flexible coil especially researched and designed for use in field testing. In this figure, the technician had access to the VI itself and was able to apply the coil directly to it.

Figure 7: Stand Mounted Coil for Application of Uniform Magnetic Field

Figure 8: A Newly Designed Flexible Magnetic Field Coil for Field Testing

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

Figure 9: Flexible Magnetic Field Coil Applied to an Entire Pole

Figure 9 shows how the flexible coil can be used on the entire pole when the VI is not readily accessible. Placement of the flexible magnetic field coil cannot be arbitrary. Current studies and field test are underway to allow easy and accurate application of the coil.

Although many of the vacuum breakers in the field allow for application of the coil to either individual VIs or individual poles, some do not have sufficient space or configuration. Research on how to apply the coil to all three poles simultaneously is nearing completion.

Figure 10: Test Setup for Developing Vacuum Versus Current Data

The data collected may be saved to create graphs, tables, or even equations that express the relationship. The best way; however, is to let the magnetron do the job. After the information is collected, it can be stored on the magnetron and each data set is correlated to its particular VI. When a field test is performed, the operator tells the magnetron which VI is being tested. The magnetic field and the test voltage is applied, and the magnetron prints out the pressure that correlates to the resulting current flow.

Evaluating the Data

Creating Pressure Versus Current Data

The relationship between the current flow through the vacuum and the gas pressure must be known before the magnetron can be used to calculate the pressure. There have not been many such graphs available to field personnel.

Figure 10 shows a test setup that can be used to develop the relationship between gas pressure and current flow. A VI is opened and a vacuum pump (red equipment on the left) is connected to it so that the pressure can be gradually decreased. The magnetron (not shown in this photo) is also connected to the VI. It applies the voltage and the magnetic field and records the resulting current for each different pressure point.

Using the magnetron in the field allows the VI vacuum pressure to be tested every time field testing is performed. The tested pressure value along with other relevant data is entered into a modern condition based maintenance diagnostic and predictive algorithm. (CBMA) The algorithm evaluates the results and develops a highly accurate evaluation of the current data to previous data and calculates expected future values for life prediction purposes.

This approach has been used very successfully to accurately analyze oil test results, insulation resistance results, and a host of other such tests. The initial results on predicting the expected vacuum pressures and expected service life are very promising.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

fail in greater numbers. In many, if not most cases, the VIs in the field have long exceeded their manufacturer-predicted life.

loss of the VCB, switchgear, or worse.

life has generally been ignored by users. This has placed a large portion of the US industrial and utility distribution switchgear at risk of failure. Only through diligent testing and some luck can users expect no events to occur in the future. No one suggests that ignoring this possible failure is acceptable. Every VI will fail. We just do not know when.

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

breakers have passed through service shops and the hands of credible testing companies only to be placed back in service. The only guarantee is that this device will function today. Many of these breakers were returned, and the users believed they were assuring reliability until the next test or overhaul cycle, except this was not true. The VI actual pressure was unknown.

the next scheduled maintenance cycle. This is a problem we have been working to solve for over 10 years.

Figure 11 illustrates the problem. Until now determining the remaining life of a vacuum interrupter was like working on a puzzle for weeks only to determine the key piece was missing.

Figure 11: The VI Maintenance Puzzle

VACUUM INTERRUPTERS IN THE FIELD

The following list summarizes what we have been doing and what data we have been gathering when maintenance is performed.

Clearly we have been missing a key part of the puzzle.

Although not yet in general use, the field test described in this paper has been tried and proven. Setting up for and performing the test is no more difficult than many of the other field tests with which we have become familiar such as insulation testing, power factor, and partial discharge. The results are extremely accurate in determining both the vacuum level and in developing predictive data for the future. Some have even compared it favorably to the procedures that are routinely used for insulating liquid testing.

Finley Ledbetter has worked in the field of power engineering for 20 years, including serving as an applications engineer and instructor for the Multi-Amp Institute. He was the founder of Shermco Engineering Services Division, a NETA Full Member company. Mr. Ledbetter is also the founder of Group CBS, Inc., which owns twelve circuit breaker service shops in the United States and Puerto Rico. He is a member of IEEE, an Affiliate of NETA, and a charter member and past president of Professional Electrical Apparatus Recycler’s League (PEARL).

Additional research is ongoing, and we suspect that you will see a general deployment of this test over the coming years.

Remember all VIs will fail; it is only a matter of time. No assembled VI is impermeable; therefore, all have substantial leak rates. Will they fail when called upon to protect a critical load during a short circuit, or will they fail while in service and cause unexpected shutdown? When the test described in this article is employed, the possibility of such failures is greatly reduced.

A registered professional engineer and the founder and president of Cadick Corporation, John Cadick has specialized for more than three decades in electrical engineering, training, and management. His consulting firm based in Garland, Texas, specializes in electrical engineering and training and works extensively in the areas of power system design and engineering studies, condition-based maintenance programs, and electrical safety. Prior to creating Cadick Corporation and its predecessor Cadick Professional Services, he held a number of technical and managerial positions with electric utilities, electrical testing companies, and consulting firms. In addition to his consultation work in the electrical power industry he is the author of Cables and Wiring, The Electrical Safety Handbook, and numerous professional articles and technical papers.

i Leslie Falkingham and Richard Reeves, Vacuum Life Assessment of a Sample of Long Service Vacuum Interrupters, 20th International Conference on Electricity Distribution, Prague June 8-11, 2009, Paper#0705

ii Paul G. Slade, The Vacuum Interrupter: Theory, Design, and Application, CRC Press 2008, Page 232

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TESTING ROTATING MACHINERY

BY VICKI WARREN AND IAN CULBERT, Iris Power LP.

HIGH VOLTAGE TEST

After a winding has passed the insulation-resistance (IR) and polarization-index (PI) tests and been deemed suitable for high potential testing, you may want to perform a high direct-voltage test (see IEEE Std. 95-2002i). A high dc voltage withstand test may provide some assurance that the ground wall may safely be stressed to normal operating voltage. A sufficiently high test voltage is selected to ensure the winding will remain serviceable for about three to five years. The hope is that if there is a crack or weak spot in the insulation it will pop during the test where there is substantial energy stored in the winding capacitance but little follow current from the test supply and therefore minimal damage. It will also fail during a scheduled outage when repairs are easier to perform.

The dc high potential test is not a diagnostic test since the outcome is simply pass or fail. Some plants do a dc high potential test whenever maintenance has been done on the winding to ensure the winding has not been damaged. The consequences of a high potential failure should always be considered, and appropriate spare parts and time be available before proceeding with such testing. A variation of the test for new sealed winding stators is to apply the high potential voltage with the stator immersed in water or subjected to a water spray (see IEEE Std. 429ii and NEMA MG-1, 20.18ii).

The information on winding condition available from a high direct voltage test can be considerably enhanced by observing the variation of current (or insulation resistance) as the test voltage is increased, usually to the specified dc high potential level [Ruxiii]. These are referred to as dc step (leakage) or dc ramp tests. If a weakness exists in the ground wall insulation and if ambient conditions are right, breakdown is often preceded by a sudden, nonlinear increase of current (or drop in insulation resistance) with further voltage increase. This enables an experienced operator to interrupt the test at the first sign of such warning, and if the voltage withstand already achieved is considered sufficient, to return the machine to service until such time as repairs may conveniently be scheduled. A suspect phase winding may be identified, but the precise location of a weakness in the phase must still be found. The record of voltage versus current taken during the test can be used in future comparisons on the same winding, provided that the same test conditions exist.

THEORY

TESTING ROTATING MACHINERY

The principle behind the dc high potential test is that weakened insulation will puncture if it is subjected to a high enough voltage. The test voltage is selected such that good insulation will survive the test, whereas damaged insulation will break down during the test. In principle, insulation which fails a high potential test could be expected to fail in a relatively short period of time if placed in service. The electric stress distribution within the insulation during a dc test is different from that in normal ac operation, since the dc electric field is determined by resistances rather than capacitances. See also IEEE Std. 429 and NEMA MG-1 for an immersion test, which also checks the dielectric integrity of the end windings and connections.

TEST SETUP

Techniques have been developed to permit the dc high potential test to be performed with good accuracy [IEEE Std. 95-2002, ANSI/NETA ATS-2009iv , ANSI/NETA MTS-2007v ].

STATOR WINDINGS

Connections

If practical it is recommended to isolate the phases and test each phase individually. This allows for phase comparisons. To test the stator winding, the phase leads as well as the neutral lead (if accessible) must be isolated. The test instrument is connected between one of the phase leads (or the neutral lead) and the machine frame. In water-cooled windings, the water must normally be drained and any hoses thoroughly dried by pulling a vacuum. (This is not possible if a vacuum pump is not available, and if so another option is to remove the hoses to perform the tests). The test leads should be clean and dry. The stator frame should be grounded and accessory devices such as current and potential transformers should be shorted or disconnected. Any temperature sensors should also be grounded.

Test Voltage

There are two general procedures for high potential testing: a proof test used for a new winding or after major repairs and a maintenance test used for routine testing. Note that test voltages used in factory and commissioning tests are substantially higher than the maintenance test voltage level [IEEE Std. 95-2002].

The proof test is a go-no go test that involves application of a dc test voltage that is 1.7 times the ac proof value of twice VL-L + 1 kV. This test is generally used for a new winding or after major maintenance has been done on a winding and there is a potential for severe damage.

Subsequent tests for purposes of periodic maintenance or following major winding repairs are scaled down in proportion to the corresponding ac maintenance test levels. The maintenance test is conducted at approximately 75 percent of the proof test voltage and may be used as more of a predictable testing tool. Often, a maintenance test is done by applying the voltage in a step, or ramp method. The hope is by monitoring the current you can predict an impending failure before breakdown occurs. Though not always possible, this deflection point is sometimes observed by a sudden change in the current that results in the presence of a knee on the current vs. voltage plot. A knee is an observed phenomenon and often difficult to define mathematically. The knee is sometimes described as a doubling between voltage intervals. There is obviously a problem if the current magnitude increases significantly.

TESTING ROTATING MACHINERY

Voltage Application

The voltage can be applied in the following methods:

- steady increase in voltage at constant steps.

Current is directly related to changes in voltage given by the equation: i = C dV⁄ dt

Where i is current

C is capacitance

dV⁄ dt is the change in voltage over time

Commercially available dc ramp test instruments hold the dV⁄ dt constant by increasing the voltage at a predetermined rate over time. Since the capacitance of the test specimen is also constant, the expected results with a ramp test are almost linear until failure as shown in Figure 1. Test instruments are designed to detect sudden changes in current and stop before the insulation system has failed. If failure occurs within the slot section, the sudden change in current may not precede the failure.

Graded-time interval step test – as described in IEEE Std. 95-2002. Based on the leakage current measurements at a specified voltage, it is possible to calculate how much to increment the voltage and the duration of each step in order to remove the effects of absorption current on the slope of the V/I curve. At the end of each step, the current is plotted and the results are similar to that of the ramp test shown in Figure 1.

Fixed-interval step test – similar to the graded-time step test. There is a fixed-interval step test where the voltage is incrementally increased at one minute intervals. Per IEEE Std. 952002, each voltage increment should be less than three percent of the target test voltage. At the end of each step, the current is plotted and evaluated based on the slope or deviations from linearity [Figure 2].

Figure 1: DC Ramp Test with Failure

ROTOR WINDINGS

TESTING ROTATING MACHINERY

The winding must be isolated and a high voltage connected between the winding and the rotor body. In water-cooled rotor windings, the water must normally be drained and the system thoroughly dried to avoid electrical tracking. Note that test voltages used in factory and commissioning tests are substantially higher than the maintenance test voltage level [IEEE Std. 95-2002]. The recommended ac high potential test levels for new generator field windings given in NEMA MG-1 and IEEE C50.13 are indicated in Table 1 below and are multiplied by 1.7 to obtain the equivalent dc voltage level. There are no standards for the maintenance test voltage of generator or motor rotor windings, but a minimum test voltage should be 1000 Vdc. In large generators, 5000 Vdc should not puncture sound rotor ground wall insulation. Rotating diodes and other devices should be shorted or disconnected. This test is not normally performed on salient pole rotor windings, and for turbine generator field windings it is generally only used after their refurbishment.

Insulation breakdown is indicated by a sudden increase in DC current, together with tripping of the DC supply.

≤ 500 Vdc

> 500 Vdc

Figure 2: Fixed-Interval Step Voltage vi

10 x rated excitation voltage, but in no case < 1500 V 4000 V plus 2 x rated excitation voltage

Table 1: Recommended AC High Potential Test Levels for New General Field Windings.

TESTING ROTATING MACHINERY

INTERPRETATION

A high potential test is little more than a proof test indicating that no serious cracks have yet appeared in the ground wall insulation and that the test voltage level can be withstood at the time of test. Test levels are, in general, based on long experience of confirmation (with minimal risk of damage) that the insulation system has a good probability of withstanding normal operating stresses at least until the next scheduled maintenance test.

The dc high potential test has the additional feature, when combined with the high voltage step technique described above, of providing more than simple go/no-go information on the insulation condition. In particular, warning of imminent high potential failure can sometimes be given. When the applied dc voltage is plotted against the leakage current, a sudden departure of the plotted line from linearity (i.e., a sudden out-of-proportion increase in current) indicates that the winding may be close to puncturing and the test should be aborted immediately [Figure 1 and Figure 2].

Ms. Vicki Warren, Senior Product Engineer, Iris Power LP. Ms. Warren is an Electrical Engineer with extensive experience in testing and maintenance of motor and generator windings. Prior to joining Iris in 1996, she worked for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for 13 years. While with the Corps she was responsible for the testing and maintenance of hydrogenerator windings, switchgear, transformers, protection and control devices, development of SCADA software, and the installation of local area networks. At Iris, Ms. Warren has been involved in using partial discharge testing to evaluate the condition of insulation systems used in medium to high voltage rotating machines, switchgear and transformers. Additionally, Ms. Warren has worked extensively in the development and design of new products used for condition monitoring of insulation systems, both periodical and continual. Ms. Warren also actively participated in the development of multiple IEEE standards and guides, and was Chair of the IEEE 43-2000 Working Group.

Ian Culbert has been a Rotating Machines Specialist at Iris Power L.P since April 2002. Before joining Iris Power he was a motor and small generator specialist with Ontario Hydro/Ontario Power Generation from 1977 to 2002 and prior to then a motor designer with Parsons Peebles, Scotland, and Reliance Electric, Canada. Ian is a Registered Professional Engineer in the Province of Ontario, Canada and a Senior Member of IEEE. He has coauthored two books on electrical machine insulation design, evaluation, aging, testing and repair and been principal author of a number of Electric Power Research Institute reports on motor repair. Ian has also coauthored a number of papers on motor electrical component on-line and off-line motor diagnostics testing.

iIEEE Std. 95-2002, IEEE Recommended Practice for Insulation Testing of AC Electric Machinery (2300 V and Above) with High Direct Voltage

iiIEEE Std. 429-1994 - IEEE Recommended Practice for Thermal Evaluation of Sealed Insulation Systems for AC Electric Machinery Employing Form-Wound Preinsulated Stator Coils for Machines Rated 6900 V and Below

iiiRux, Lori, and S. Grzybowski, “Evaluation of Delaminated High-Voltage Rotating Machine Stator Winding Groundwall Insulation,” Conference Record of the 2000 IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, N.Y., 2000, pages 520-523

ivANSI/NETA Standard for Acceptance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Distribution Equipment and Systems 2009 edition

vANSI/NETA Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Distribution Equipment and Systems 2007 edition

viGeimen, Joe, “DC Step-Voltage And Surge Testing Of Motors,” [cited 6 Oct 2011 http://www.mt-online.com/component/ content/article/78-march2007/267-dc-step-voltage-and-surge-testing-of-motors.html?directory=90]

vii NEMA MG-1, 2009, Rev 1, Motors and Generators

viii IEEE C50.13-2005, Standard for Cylindrical-Rotor 50 and 60 Hz, Synchronous Generators Rated 10MVA and Above

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Cable Testing Standards met: IEEE 400.2-2004, IEEE 400-2001, NS 161-2004 VDE DIN 0276-620/621, CENELEC HD 620/621, IEC 60060-3

LUBRICATION: THE DOS AND DON’TS OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT LUBRICATION

BY PAUL CHAMBERLAIN, American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

In order to create a safe work environment, it is imperative to ensure switching devices are adequately lubricated so they operate smoothly and efficiently as designed. There are several factors to take into consideration when choosing a lubricant for electrical equipment. Let’s take a look at some of those factors.

First, a determination must be made to identify the type of lubricant to be used. The manufacturer’s service manuals and bulletins must be reviewed to ensure the correct lubricant is applied to the correct locations on the equipment being serviced. If the lubricant is being used on electrical parts that are typically energized, then the lubricant needs to be rated for such use.

Another concern is whether the lubricant is applied manually using a brush or sprayed on. Most commercial lubricants can be purchased in bulk form or in an aerosol can. The design and configuration of the equipment being serviced will determine which application method is required.

Once you determine the correct lubricant for the application, you must then determine how much of the product should be purchased and stored? The quantity of service to be performed determines the amount of materials needed. Most petrocarbon derived chemicals have a shelf life, after which time their effectiveness in lubrication decreases. If the servicing is done in small quantities or infrequently, then it makes little sense to have a large quantity of the lubricant sitting on the shelf for an extended period of time. Alternatively, if the service performed frequently or on a large number of devices, it does not make sense to store hundreds of small aerosol spray cans, which may require special storage and disposal considerations. In the latter situation, it may be better to purchase the material in bulk, such as a 55 gallon container, and use other means of application such as small pump sprayers. Certain chemicals may be considered hazardous or flammable materials requiring special storage containment and notification to the local emergency planning commission.

LUBRICATION:

If either the material or the propellant is flammable as noted above, it cannot be used in an area where heat or a potential arc could ignite it. Review the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the lubricant and determine its flash point. Avoid materials that contain the words flammable or keep away from heat or flames on its label or that contain a propane propellant. These materials typically have a very low Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) indicating that it will readily ignite in the presence of heat or spark.

Health considerations are also a factor when considering an appropriate lubricant. What personal protective equipment (PPE) does the employee need to wear in order to apply the lubricant? The technician or electrician may need to wear nitrile gloves and safety glasses or goggles in order to handle the chemical safely. The equipment to be serviced is often enclosed within a cabinet with limited ventilation. This means fumes and vapors can accumulate and potentially overwhelm the employee. In cases where the lubricant has this potential, additional ventilation or respiratory protection may be required. One should determine whether or not the fumes generated from the chemical are denser than air because fumes that are denser than air can collect in low lying areas, causing a flammable or health hazardous atmosphere. To find additional information on this, refer to the MSDS for the specific lubricant being used.

The environmental impact of storing and disposal of the chemical should also be considered. Any environmental impacts that the chemical will have if there is an accidental release should also be included on the MSDS. If it is determined that the chemical could pose an environmental hazard upon release, training should be conducted with employees on spill response procedures for the specific chemical.

Disposal of wastes from lubricants can also pose an environmental risk. Both state and federal agencies such as DEP, EPA, and DEM may require notification when one disposes of certain quantities of chemical wastes. There are also time limitations on the storage of regulated waste chemicals based on certain quantities. Waste generators, shippers, and disposers are required to obtain certifications and track the shipment of the chemical from cradle to grave.

Before using any lubricant, review its health effects, flammability, and reactivity. Sometimes this can be done simply by referencing the label, but other times more information may need to be obtained from the MSDS. Figure 1 is an illustration of a common white lithium aerosol spray lubricant that provides the HMIS and NFPA label data.

By reviewing the label in Figure 1, one can see that this lubricant under NFPA and HMIS have very similar ratings. However, it is necessary to know what those ratings mean. To do this, reference the ratings straight from the NFPA and HMIS. Figure 2 is a good descriptive picture of those ratings for a chemical.

By referencing the MSDS for the white lithium grease, and cross referencing it to the description of the NFPA Label in Figure 2, one can see that the grease has a flash point of <100 degrees Fahrenheit and is considered Hazardous on the health scale. So this material should not be exposed to an open flame or spark. Additionally, it is a material that has a high enough health rating to warrant concern.

Figure 1: Example of Hazardous Information from an Aerosol Spray Lubricant Label.

SAFETY CORNER

However, by taking proper precautions while using the grease, like wearing protective gloves (i.e., nitrile), not concentrating and breathing the fumes, and ensuring that it is not exposed directly to open flame, one can use the material safely in most cases. The reality is that this spray has a propane propellant, and so if this material were in a nonaerosol form, the flammability of the material would be significantly lower. If it is necessary to use this material in an area where the possibility of flames or sparks exist, then a nonaerosol version is recommended.

In summary, there are many factors to consider when determining what type of lubricant to use. Most of this information can easily be obtained from the Material Safety Data Sheets. The MSDS for any chemical used by your company needs to be available to all employees when they are on duty and kept updated per OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200 – The Hazard Communication Standard. Before using a lubricant, one should review the MSDS to determine whether the product will satisfy the criteria for the intended use, what safety precautions may be needed, and what PPE may

Paul Chamberlain has been the Safety Manager for American Electrical Testing Company Inc. since 2009. He has been in the safety field for the past 12 years, working for various companies and in various industries. He received a Bachelors of Science Degree from Massachusetts Maritime Academy.

Figure 2: Rating Information for NFPA Labels.

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BY JEFF JOWETT, Megger

THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT

Because of the vastness and variation of soil in terms of area, composition, and immediate condition, the electrical testing of it is largely a realm of its own. Frustration and inconsistency of results has led to it being called terms like “black art” and “voodoo”, even in otherwise practically-based literature. Nonetheless, there is a solid basis of research and theory that has led to the present knowledge and practices. For reassurance against too subjective an approach to ground testing and measurement, review of how the subject developed to its current state is of value. (a ) ( )

Effective grounding of an electrical system and the testing of that efficacy begin with the concept of soil resistivity, the measure of the ability of the soil to conduct current. The “groundwork”, as it were, was done by Dr. Frank Wenner for the U.S. Geological Survey and described in the Scientific Paper of the Bureau of Standards No. 258 of Oct. 11, 1915. It remains in use today as the wellknown “Wenner method” of measuring soil resistivity. The general formula is given as:

The unit n has a value depending on the ratio = a, n = ; b = 2a, n ; b = a, n . It can be seen that if b is large compared to a, aR, and if b is small relative to a, = 2 R. Here we can see the derivation of the familiar 1 to 20 ratio commonly employed in spacing horizontal probe distance against probe depth when using the “Wenner method”.

Note that in the experimental research phase, the electrodes were not driven into the ground but rather inserted into bore holes, with the diameter of the holes not more than 10 percent of the distance between them. Electrical contact was made only at the bottom of the bore hole. Resistance therefore depends only upon the distance between the electrodes and the resistivity. This degree of precision was critical to the research phase and the development of sound theory. But transposition to the application phase allows for the more practical use of driving of probes without introducing significant error. Similarly, deviations that accommodate practical conditions, such as the probes departing from a straight line or uniform depth, still permit calculation. The familiar 2 R calculation, however, has an enormous advantage in saving time and limiting error, so the basis for its popularity is apparent.

To see how the above equation derives from the test procedure, first picture an infinite conductor of uniform resistivity (Fig. 1). If a unit current entered at a specific point 1, it would flow away radially from the entry point and at distance the current density will be (uniformly distributed over a sphere of radius and hence of area ). Potential gradient is current density multiplied by the resistivity (here, the specific expression of the general V = IR, Ohm’s law).

Central to making resistance and resistivity measurements is the sensing of voltage drop across the resistance of a designated volume of soil. This difference in potential ( – ) between two points at a distance of and from is obtained by integration of the potential gradient from to :

Here, is the potential at a distance from point .

Figure 1: Diagram used in Showing the Relation Between Resistivity, Resistance and Distances Between Terminals in an Infinite Conductor.

Generalizing, if X is the potential difference between any two points 2 and at distances a and 2a from , with current flowing radially from , then the general equation reduces to:

Now, at the other end of the circuit, if Y is the difference in potential between points 2 and as current flows radially toward point :

Imagine unit current entering at point and leaving at point . Current density at any point is the vector sum of current density due to unit current flowing from point and current density due to unit current flowing toward point . Similarly for the potential difference between any two points. The potential difference between points and from unit current entering at and leaving at would be:

Note that this circuitry describes the Kelvin bridge configuration of a standard four-terminal earth resistivity tester, with two potential terminals inside two current terminals. With the test probes appropriately spaced, points and represent the current terminals and points 2 and the potential, and therefore the potential difference also defines the resistance:

Figure 2: Model Representing Voltage Gradients Across a Semi-Infinite Conductor.

In practice, though, it is not possible to assume an infinite conductor, unless the spacing between the electrodes is small compared to their depth (which is never the case in field situations). Consider how the ground-testing literature makes frequent reference to the concepts of “infinite earth” and “remote earth”. The one represents resistance of the entire planet (not possible to measure), while the other is an accommodation to reasonable distances. A model representing voltage gradients across a semi-infinite conductor is diagrammed in Fig. 2. If is now the potential difference between points 2 and caused by unit current entering at point , then from the general equation:

Ideally, the numbered positions represent points, but electrodes and terminals of relatively high resistance introduce no appreciable error as long as the electrodes are small compared to the distances separating them. If it is possible to choose a plane (line ) through the conductor so that the lines joining and 5 and and 6 are perpendicular to and bisected by it, the symmetrical arrangement will mean that no current passes through this plane. Accordingly, if the section of conductor on one side were removed, it would not affect conditions on the other. This makes the equation apply to a semi-infinite conductor having four terminals so long as the current terminals are considered as having images and the distances from the potential terminal to the images are taken into account along with the distance from potential to current terminals. The potential terminals are not required to be in the same plane as the current terminals and images.

Since the potential drop between 2 and divided by the current entering at and leaving at is the resistance ( ):

Similarly, the potential differences between 2 and caused by the unit current leaving at point , and that entering at point 5 and leaving at point 6, are given by:

If the electrodes are then specified a uniform distance apart (a), at a uniform depth (b), and in a straight line, then a, 2a, a, 2a, ( b ), ( b a ), ( b a ), and ( b a ).

Substituting:

If equal amounts of current enter at 1 and leave at as well as enter at 5 and leave at 6, the potential difference between and 3 is I( + + + ) or:

Thankfully, in field applications, this degree of mathematical detail doesn’t have to be exercised. The design of the testers and their measurement circuit does that. But it can be seen that there exists a precise mathematical basis for what can sometimes appear to be mere generalization in the field. In the next column, the nature of current distribution will be further examined.

Source of information: “Earth Resistances” by G. F. Tagg, George Newnes Ltd, London

Jeffery R. Jowett is a Senior Applications Engineer for Megger in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, serving the manufacturing lines of Biddle, Megger, and multi-Amp for electrical test and measurement instrumentation. He holds a BS in Biology and Chemistry from Ursinus College. He was employed for 22 years with James G. Biddle Co. which became Biddle Instruments and is now Megger.

Curtis Latzo, President and Owner, Arc Flash Study Pro

ANSWER 1

1. Circuit breaker contacts should be lubricated:

No. 99

ANSWERS

b. Circuit breaker contacts usually should not be lubricated. The heat from the current flow through the contacts breaks the lubricant down and causes contact resistance to increase. Each time the contacts are opened or closed, arcing takes place on the contact surfaces, breaking the lubricant down even more quickly. Bolted pressure switches, however, often recommend lubricating their main contacts. There are some greases that add different ingredients to obtain better characteristics, such as graphite, zinc chromate or silver. They still use an emulsifier, which dries out over time.

ANSWER 2

2. Conventional grease is typically composed of:

a. Conventional greases, that is, greases made from petroleum compounds, are made from emulsifiers and oil. Emulsifiers keep the oil in suspension and allow it to cling to surfaces. The oil does the actual lubrication. As the grease ages and/ or is heated, the oil evaporates, leaving only the emulsifiers, which get g ummy.

ANSWER 3

3. List three important areas to lubricate on circuit breakers and switches.

a. Contact pivot

b. Linkages

c. Operating mechanism

ANSWER

4

4. Which single lubricant is acceptable for use in both the conductive and mechanical areas of circuit breakers and switches?

c. Each manufacturer recommends a specific lubricant for the mechanical components such as the operating mechanism and one for the conductive areas such as the contact pivot. These lubricants cannot be mixed. For example, on GE circuit breakers D50H38 was recommended for use only in the conductive areas, while D50H15 was used in the mechanical areas. Mobile 28, a red, synthetic lubricant, is acceptable to most manufacturers for use in both the conductive and mechanical areas. Before substituting lubricants, always contact the manufacturer for your specific application. This may sound like a dodge on my part, but Mobil 28 may not be the best lubricant at some temperatures or environmental or load conditions for every circuit breaker or switch. Also, when using a synthetic lubricant, such as Mobil 28, take special care not to overlubricate. It should be applied in a very thin coating; just enough to see on the surface. Overlubrication will cause it to liquefy and run, which in turn attracts dirt, unlike the thicker greases, which have more “cling”.

ANSWER 5

5. List the three types of lubricants (not the specific lubricant) and where they are used in a circuit breaker:

a. Conductive. For use in the contact pivot, primary and secondary disconnects and other conductive areas. These can consist of zinc chromate, silver, graphite or other compounds.

b. Nonconductive. For use on latches, bearings and bearing surfaces. Usually petroleum-based, but can be lithium-based.

c. Oil. For use on linkages. Typically a 20-30 weight oil is recommended.

NFPA Disclaimer: Although Jim White is a member of the NFPA Technical Committee for both NFPA 70E “Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace” and NFPA 70B “Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance,” the views and opinions expressed in this message are purely the author’s and shall not be considered an official position of the NFPA or any of its technical committees and shall not be considered to be, nor be relied upon as, a formal interpretation or promotion of the NFPA. Readers are encouraged to refer to the entire text of all referenced documents.

ASTM F18 REPORT

ELECTRICAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

4/16/2012 TO 4/17/2012

This report combines two meeting reports, one held in Naples, FL in October, 2011 and the second in Phoenix, AZ April 15 through 18, 2012. There were a number of important items that were covered during these meetings which will be of interest to all NETA-member companies

During the October meeting, Hugh Hoagland and Dr. Tom Neal discussed arc plasma jets hitting arc-rated clothing and PPE. Because of the porous nature of fabric, the arc plasma jet penetrates more and reduces the arc rating. Arc-rated face shields and windows are not affected by the arc plasma in the same manner and do not have a reduced arc rating. Tests performed have shown that at less than 20 cal/ cm2 there is less concern about this reduction, which is estimated to be between 25 percent and 50 percent. Arcs in enclosures tend to focus the arc plasma which could lead to more exposure for those working on metal-enclosed equipment. Dr. David Sweeting is said to support a dual method of testing arc-rated clothing and possibly a dual rating system. One of the issues concerning the information above is that copper calorimeters tend to contribute to the incident energy when arc plasma hits them, as they vaporize. The question was asked if the results being seen are reliable as the currently-used instrumentation is not adequate to measure arc plasma. A motion was made to develop a test method for testing within the arc plasma. Reflective trim was also discussed. There are no current specifications for reflective trim on arc-rated clothing. It is used on firefighter’s gear, but it seems to perform well on rainwear-type PPE. It fails the vertical flame test required by F1506. The recommendation was to perform single-shot arc testing to determine ignition point and approval of reflective trim for arc-rated clothing and PPE.

The F18.15.10 committee voted to leave F696, Standard Specification for Leather Protectors for Rubber Insulating Gloves and Mittens, as is. The task group voted to disband until its services were needed.

Also in the October meeting The F855 task group discussed protective grounding sets. Marcia Eblen said PG&E had performed testing on ground sets and found the crimps on most ferrules to be inadequate for the rated short-circuit current. There is concern regarding ground sets currently in service. One issue is mixing various manufacturer’s clamps, ferrules and cables together and not testing the result. Another issue is the use of various crimping tools, some of which do not exert enough pressure to properly seat the crimp. The recommendation was that the manufacturer’s rating should only be used if all components are from that manufacturer. One proposal was to compare the ampacity of 10 foot, 25 foot, and 50 foot grounds.

F855 is moving forward to close some existing loopholes in the manufacture of ground sets and to set minimum requirements for pull strength, ampacity at the minimum and maximum clamp extensions, and using a standard method for determining I2t, probably at 15 cycles.

The clear jacket on ground sets does not have fire retardant chemicals in it, because they cloud the plastic. Several attendees commented that they had seen or heard of fires being caused by the jackets bursting into flames. Jackets that are colored do have the flame retardant chemical.

The F18.35.41 task group met and discussed meter puller shields. There are two types, one mounted on a hot stick (small and round and fits on the end of the hot stick) and the other is larger and square and fits on the meter puller. Marcia Eblen discussed PG&E’s tests on meter shields. A six-cycle arc at 480 volts was difficult to sustain consistently during their tests. She recommended the possibility of increasing the voltage for consistency. She noted that the lower short-circuit currents in their tests produced higher incident energy than higher currents, as the higher currents tended to blow out the arc more quickly. One recommendation was to perform the tests at 10kA/480V as a worstcase scenario. Some preliminary tests will be performed to develop the criteria for the standard. A separate test for mechanical strength was proposed, probably using a higher shortcircuit current.

In the April sessions, the first major item is concerning patching of rubber insulating products, such as blankets, sleeves and gloves. This is covered by ASTM F18.25.08 (ASTM F479, “Standard Specification for In-Service Care of Insulating Blankets”). Concerns were voiced that in the current standard there are no restrictions on how many patches can be made to a single item. Theoretically, a blanket could have patches placed end-to-end on the entire surface. No one thought that could happen, but it was agreed that some practical limit needs to be recommended. A second concern was that patching could hide other damage

to the product. Third was a concern over the patching methods being used in the field, which could have poor adhesion between patch and blanket. These issues were brought up by a manufacturer and they recommended that patching be prohibited.

The Alabama Power Company representatives voiced that they had been patching blankets for years and had seen no issues in the field. Gulf Power also said they had been patching blankets for 30 years and had no failures in the field. They also stated that they had no adhesion issues between the patch and blankets. All present agreed that patching should be limited to blankets and should not extend to gloves or sleeves, as blankets are used to isolate, whereas gloves and sleeves are used to insulate. It was also agreed that samples of patched blankets from these companies would be submitted for third-party testing and that written procedures covering what is acceptable patching methods and materials and what is not be developed and incorporated into the standard.

The second major item concerns arc flash testing of rubber insulating gloves and leather protectors. Due to a high number of abstentions on the last ballot, this failed and goes back to committee. This was very disappointing, as having an arc rating on gloves would be helpful in determining whether a set of gloves would provide adequate protection for the hands, as required by OSHA regulations and NFPA 70E. Attendees were allowed to state their reasons for supporting or opposing this standard. As NETA representative to ASTM F18 I expressed that the standard was needed for compliance. The representatives from two utilities voiced their opposition, stating it was not needed.

One utility representative presented a PowerPoint presentation showing how rubber insulating gloves and leather protectors had prevented injury to the hands of several workers. The main objection I had to his presentation was he very obviously overstated the incident energy the workers were exposed to in order to prove that an arc rating was not needed. Another utility representative stated that an arc rating would make the leathers thicker. This defied any sense of reason or logic. I implored the utility representatives to not just think of their personal wants on the issue, but to consider the tens of thousands of industrial electrical workers who would benefit from such a standard. During the meeting it was brought forward that two of the three glove manufacturers were already testing their products to the draft standard and have been since 2003. They also stated that anyone who wanted the gloves stamped with the arc rating only had to request it and they would. This was the first I (or a lot of others) had heard about this and I would suggest that NETA-member companies take advantage of this service.

The representative from PG&E shared the results of their extensive testing on ground clamps and ground sets. One such series of tests is on YouTube® and is titled, “Bierer Belmont”, with tests run on 2” solid bus using various manufacturer’s clamps. Lots of failures at the 15 cycle level. The problem is primarily when using clamps on solid bus. The failures are at the screw portion where it initially bends away from the bus, and then shatters the clamp. Small clamps also seem to have a higher failure rate. Example given was that a 6” clamp would pass the test, but a 2” clamp would not.

The third important item was brought up during the F18.45.21 meeting (ASTM F855, “Standard Specifications for Temporary Protective Grounds to Be Used on De-energized Electric Power Lines and Equipment”). There was considerable discussion about ratings of personal protective grounds and test methods. It seems that although the thermal characteristics of ground clamps are accurately portrayed in Table 1, the mechanical stresses may not be. A Grade 5 clamp tested at 30 cycles may not hold up to the mechanical forces when tested at 15 cycles.

Another point brought out is that clamps on solid bus cannot be clamped too tightly, as the clamp can shatter due to mechanical stress. If tightened properly it will shift slightly on bus and hold. Clamps on cables do not seem to have the same issue.

The most common failure with clamps is the conductor pulling out of the clamp due to improper pressure. The pressure issue runs both to the high side and low side. If the pressure on the ferrule-to-cable interface is too low, the cable will pull out of ferrule. If the pressure is too high, it will cause the ferrule to shatter. The correct pressure is minimum 2100 lbs and maximum 3000 lbs.

When PG&E ran tests on 40 foot ground assemblies they found that the cable failed by blowing into several sections. It was described as looking like it was cut with a torch. The cable inside the jacket was shredded, much like a bird’s nest. They were unsure why this occurred and are doing further testing. There may be a recommendation for a 20’ limit, but more testing needs to be performed. PG&E also stated that ball/stud ground sets were the only sets that passed all their tests.

I would recommend that NETA-member companies check with their supplier and determine whether the ground sets were tested at 15 cycles or 30 cycles. If they were tested at 30 cycles, what is referred to as the “30-30” test, then the assemblies should not be used at the 15 cycle rating. This may not be an issue with our companies, but they need to be aware of the potential problems of misapplication. All the manufacturers were unaware of the problem, as they typically don’t test at the 15 cycle point. There will be more discussion on this at the October meeting.

During the F18.15 meeting, (Worker Personal Protective Equipment) the test method for sleeves was discussed. It appears that some thirdparty testing companies use a test method that does not test the shoulder area. There was a recommendation that when sleeves are tested in this way that either the sleeves or the box be marked to indicate the sleeve was not fully tested.

The NFPA 70E task group recommended that section 250.2 be modified. 250.1 currently states, “250.1 Maintenance Requirements for Personal Safety and Protective Equipment. Personal safety and protective equipment such as the following shall be maintained in a safe working condition:

(1) Grounding equipment

Arc rated face shields have been shown to have a higher arc rating when exposed to arc plasma than expected. Some tests have shown they may be good up to 20 cal/cm2, but further testing is needed to confirm this. Arc-rated fabric seems to have a lower than expected arc rating when exposed to arc plasma, as it can penetrate the fabric some. Again, further testing is needed. A new test set up may be proposed for arc-rated clothing and PPE that approximates the arc effect from horizontal bus, such as is used in plug-in type equipment.

When testing fabrics with arc-ratings above 100 no burn indication is possible, due to damage done to the instrumentation. Proposed using a maximum limit, such as 100+ and possibly using an express method, where only three data points are collected, instead of the currently required number. Tests would have to show that there was no burn after the three shots.

This sets up a conflict, as Section 250.2 states, “(B) Testing. The insulation of protective equipment and protective tools, such as items specified in 250.1(1) through (14), shall be verified by the appropriate test and visual inspection….” The jacket on personal protective grounds is intended to protect the conductor, not to provide insulation. The recommendation is to propose an exception for the insulation testing of ground sets.

F18.35.37 (In-Service testing of Live-Line Tools). Method of end-to-end testing using dc voltages being developed. This would be a guide, not a standard and would instruct companies what to do and how to do it properly. One suggested value was 0.5 to 1 micro-amp/kV, but the final value will have to be determined by further testing. With dc tests any temperature rise above ambient would indicate a problem, also. All agreed that portable tool testers worked well.

There were other committee sessions, but these were the primary ones that had information of importance to NETA-member companies.

SPECIFICATIONS & STANDARDS ACTIVITY

By Ralph Patterson Power Products & Solutions

INSULATED CONDUCTOR COMMITTEE NEWS

During October 23 – 26, 2011, the working groups including engineers and scientists met in Denver, Colorado, for the Fall 2011 IEEE/ICC meeting.

This is an ongoing opportunity for NETA to be recognized and offer a field testing perspective in the working groups as documents are developed. The working groups consist of cable manufactures, utilities, test equipment manufactures, and end users.

SUBCOMMITTEE F ON FIELD TESTING AND DIAGNOSTICS

John Densley and Nigel Hampton are the chair and vice chair, respectively. As new material becomes available, additional changes and methodologies are incorporated in the IEEE specifications.

Spring 2011 Breakout Working Groups /Discussion Groups Meetings

Group No.

Group Name

F01W Guide for Field Testing and Evaluation of Shielded Cables IEEE 400 (Omnibus)

F03W

F04D

Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (400.2-2004)

Guide for Partial Discharge Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems in a Field Environment (400.3 2006)

F05W Damped AC Voltage Testing (IEEE 400.4)

F10D Diagnostic Testing for Cable Joints and Terminations

Activity

F11D Constant Voltage AC Field Testing of Cable Systems

Working Group discussed IEEE P400 draft with the comments from the Balloting Group members; voted to submit Draft 15 for ballot recirculation.

Chairs

Wen/Côté

Draft 11 Approved Densley/Hayden

Discussed WG composition and general agenda for next four years; continued technical discussion on sensitivity assessment. Levine/Walton

Discussed draft and appointed writing group. Gulski/Patterson

Presentations on PD test and update to existing PD database for Working Group Orton/Boggs

Discussed general agenda for next four meetings and existing standards, presentations on AC withstand testing. Fenger

FIELD TESTING AND DIAGNOSTICS PRESENTATIONS

Condition Assessment of 15 kV XLPE Industrial Cables Based on the Condition Health Index

The test results of condition-assessment testing of a substantial number of service aged 15 kV XLPE cables were presented. The results of four independent test methods as well as the O&M history of the cables were considered in order to determine their condition health index, which is correlated to a list of recommended corrective actions. A number of cables were processed according to the recommendations and retested. A comparison of the results before and after was provided. The total test sequence comprised a neutral corrosion test, a sheath test, a PD test within the power frequency range, and a VLF tan delta test at 0.1 Hz.

SPECIFICATIONS & STANDARDS

Sensitivity Assessment for Field PD Measurements for High-Voltage and Extra-High-Voltage Cable Accessories via Laboratory Tests

For the past decade high-voltage and extrahigh-voltage cable systems have been subject to after-laying commissioning withstand and partial discharge commissioning tests. As jointed cable systems constitute a large, distributed capacitance, the apparent charge of a partial discharge pulse is extremely small, and the high-frequency propagating transient is neither related to the apparent charge, nor conserved in propagation. To achieve sufficient sensitivity, a distributed PD measurement, sensitive to the high frequency (>1 MHz) propagating transient, must be performed. The relationship between the actual PD current, and therefore charge, and that of the detected PD current is not trivial and depends highly on the exact location of the discharge. Therefore, two primary problems exist with respect to developing an acceptance level (sensitivity threshold) for field PD measurements: partial discharge magnitudes are not diagnostic; and injection of known pulses with highfrequency content into high voltage and extra-high-voltage accessories is not a trivial matter. A sensitivity assessment methodology for high-frequency field PD measurements which relies on characterization of the transfer function of individual high-voltage and extrahigh-voltage cable accessories via laboratory tests (following successful type testing) were presented and how the results can be applied to PD field tests on similar accessories.

Water Ingress and Condition

different positions inside oil-filled, highvoltage cable terminations has been developed and tested. Laboratory measurements of partial discharges during water ingress into model and full-scale cable terminations with a light transparent housing were performed. The water droplet movements were visually studied and compared to the measured PD signals during the ingress. Results from the on-site measurements are presented and compared with a conventional method.

Advances in Time Domain

System Diagnostics

One of the obvious challenges posed by underground cable networks is that many important cable features are hidden from view. Cable parameters such as cable length, splice number and location, and cable neutral condition can be difficult to ascertain years after installation. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) can often be used to determine many of these parameters; however, the technology is not without its limitations. Those limitations include the need to de-energize and isolate cable sections, the quality of the conductor/ neutral line paring, and pulse attenuation issues that limit the practical lengths over which TDR can be applied. Though highly theoretical, research is beginning to pay off in terms of practical techniques which enhance the practice of TDR.

His professional background includes working as a design engineer of transformers and as a specifying engineer of insulated conductors. He has more than 25 years in power engineering particularly in insulation diagnosis and evaluation of electrical distribution equipment. He serves on the NETA Standards Review Council and Board or Directors, is the NETA liaison for the IEEE Insulated Conductor Committees working groups and received NETA’s 2001 Outstanding Achievement Award.

Assessment of Oil-Filled High Voltage XLPE Terminations

Typically, failures are experienced in terminations with oil-filled porcelain or composite housings. From the laboratory examinations of units failed in service, it is observed that the most common failure is water ingress. An on-site/off-line prototype method for measuring water content at

The Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC) is a professional organization within the Power Engineering Society (PES) of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

The 2011 Fall Meeting in Denver opened with temperatures in the 80’s, and closed with snow falling on the ground. Despite the change in weather, a very successful meeting was held.

Ralph Patterson is President of Power Products and Solutions, located in Charlotte, North Carolina. NC.

2014 NFPA 70

NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE

CODE PANEL 10

DESCRIPTION OF PANEL

MEETING DATE

MEETING PURPOSE

Jim White

NEC CODE MAKING PANEL COMMITTEE REPORT

Shermco Industries

CMP-10 deals primarily with Article 240, Overcurrent Protection.

January, 12th and 13th, 2012

Report on Proposals, 2014 Code ATTENDEES:

NAME REPRESENTING

Scott Blizard, Principal NETA

NUMBER OF PROPOSALS 61

Accept 6

Reject 42

Accept in Principle 12

DEFINITIONS:

Reject – The proposal is rejected by the panel.

Accept in Part 0

Accept in Principle in Part 1

Accept – The panel accepts the proposal exactly as written. Only editorial changes may be made.

Accept in Principle – Accept the proposal with a change in wording.

Accept in Part – If part of a proposal is accepted without change and the remainder is rejected. The panel action must indicate what part was accepted and what part was rejected and the panel statement must indicate its reasons for rejecting that portion.

Accept in Principle in Part – This is a combination of “Accept in Principle” and “Accept in Part” as shown above

CMP-10 is a very well organized and knowledgeable panel, with representation from many organizations including IAIE, IEC, IEEE, IBEW, EEI, ACC, NETA, UL, NEMA, and NECA. This diverse group brings various points of view to the code-making process.

For this cycle, Donny Cook is stepping down as chair; Julian Burns has been appointed the chair of CMP10. Julian is a member of the Independent Electrical Contractors Inc., and was Chair of Code Panel 8 during the last code making cycle.

Due to significant effort by members of the panel in preparing suggested panel statements and Julian’s work in organizing the proposals in a logical order to be addressed by the panel, the panel was able to work through the 61 proposals in just two days.

A few proposals would be of particular interest to NETA members. Some of these were rejected unanimously by the panel and, therefore, will have no impact on NETA at this stage of the code-making process.

Proposals 10-16, 10-24, 10-50, 10-51 and 10-60 dealt with moving the voltage rating of 600 volts to 1000 volts in sections 240.1, 240.13, 240.61, 240.83 and 240 part IX is the work of the High Voltage Task Group’ appointed by the Technical Correlating Committee. The task group consisted of the following members: Alan Peterson, Paul Barnhart, Lanny Floyd, Alan Manche, Donny Cook, Vince Saporita, Roger McDaniel, Stan Folz, Eddie Guidry, Tom Adams, Jim Rogers and Jim Dollard. The Task Group identified the demand for increasing voltage levels used in wind generation and photovoltaic systems as an area for consideration to enhance existing NEC requirements to address these new common voltage levels. The task group recognized that general requirements in Chapters 1 through 4 need to be modified before identifying and generating proposals to articles such as 690 specific for PV systems. These systems have moved above 600 volts and are reaching 1000 volts due to standard configurations and increases in efficiency and performance. The committee reviewed Chapters 1 through 8 and identified areas where the task group agreed that the increase in voltage was of minimal or no impact to the system installation. Additionally, there were requirements that would have had a serious impact and the task group chose not to submit a proposal for changing the voltage.

Proposal 10-32 article 240.21(B)(1)(b)Taps not over 3 m (10 ft) long modification to the language were accepted in principle and an exception was added by the panel to address the installation of surge protective device(s).

There were two presentations from manufacturers concerning Article 240.87 new to the 2011 code which require zone-selective interlocking, differential relaying, or an energy-reducing maintenance switch on circuit breakers without an instantaneous trip. The manufacturers’ proposed revisions were rejected and proposal 10-53(a) was accepted in principle. The panel recognized the language had to be modified and an informational note no. 2 was added to bring the article in line with NFPA 70E:

“Informational Note No. 2: An energy-reducing active arc flash mitigation system helps in reducing arcing duration in the electrical distribution system. No change in circuit breaker or the settings of other devices is required during maintenance when a worker is working within an arc-flash boundary as defined in NFPA 70E-2012.”

James R. (Jim) White is the Training Director of Shermco Industries, Inc., in Dallas, Texas. He is the principal member on the NFPA technical committee “Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance” (NFPA 70B). Jim represents NETA as an alternate member of the NFPA Technical Committee “Electrical Safety in the Workplace” (NFPA 70E) and represents NETA on the ASTM F18 Committee “Electrical Protective Equipment For Workers”. Jim is an IEEE Senior Member and in 2011 received the IEEE/PCIC Electrical Safety Excellence award. Jim is a past Chairman (2008) of the IEEE Electrical Safety Workshop (ESW).

CSA UPDATES

BY KERRY HEID, Magna Electric Corporation

CSA Z463

During March 6-7, 2012, the 4th technical committee meeting for the CSA Z463 Maintenance of Electrical Systems was held. This is a new CSA document, and substantial progress has been made since the first meeting in March of 2011.

A drafting schedule was created for all the working groups to finalize their sections. The document will be turned over to the drafting committee in May and the content will be established in CSA format. During the time frame of late May and early June, the technical committee will internally review the standard and will be ready to vote on various aspects. If this aggressive time line is met, there will be an opportunity for public review during the summer of 2012.

Maintenance strategies and their basic definitions, advantages, disadvantages, and applicability will be a key part of the standard. These strategies are reactive maintenance (breakdown or run to failure maintenance), preventive maintenance (time-based maintenance), predictive maintenance (condition-based maintenance), reliabilitycentered maintenance and risk-based maintenance approach.

The next meeting of the Z463 technical committee will be June 13-14, 2012, in Quebec City and October 23-24, 2012, in Calgary.

CSA Z462

The CSA Z462 technical committee will meet May 9-10, 2012, in Toronto to begin the work on the next revision of the document. The meeting is set to take place prior to the NFPA 70E meetings so that the Z462 technical committee can make recommendations for changes.

been brisk.

SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS ACTIVITY

ANSI/NETA STANDARDS UPDATES

ANSI/NETA ATS-2013

The ANSI/NETA Standard for Acceptance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and Systems is scheduled to be published as a revised document in 2013. These specifications cover the suggested field tests and inspections that are available to assess the suitability for initial energization of electrical power equipment and systems. The purpose of these specifications is to assure that tested electrical equipment and systems are operational, are within applicable standards and manufacturer’s tolerances, and are installed in accordance with design specifications. Work on this document began in the spring of 2011. Once completed, this standard will carry the designation of ANSI/NETA ATS-2013. To view the schedule for public comments and balloting of this document, please visit www.netaworld.org.

If you have any questions about the ANSI/ NETA Standards, including how to specify testing to the ANSI/NETA Standards, please contact the NETA office at neta@netaworld.org or call 888-300-6382.

ANSI/NETA MTS-2011

On May 16, 2011, NETA received notification that the ANSI/NETA Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and Systems was approved as a revised American National Standard. This document contains specifications which cover the suggested field tests and inspections that are available to assess the suitability for continued service and reliability of electrical power distribution equipment and systems. The purpose of these specifications is to assure that tested electrical equipment and systems are operational and within applicable standards and manufacturer’s tolerances and that the equipment and systems are suitable for continued service. It is available in hard copy, PDF, and CD Rom formats. Order your copy today at www.netaworld.org. This document will be published as a

revised ANSI standard in 2015. Ballot pool applications are currently being accepted. For more information about how to participate, please contact neta@netaworld.org or visit www.netaworld.org.

ANSI/NETA ETT-2010

The ANSI/NETA Standard for Certification of Electrical Testing Technicians was approved as an American National Standard on January 8, 2010. The document was originally approved as an ANSI standard in 2000. This standard establishes minimum requirements for qualifications, certification, training, and experience for the electrical testing technician. It also provides criteria for documenting qualifications and certification and details the minimum qualifications for an independent and impartial certifying body to certify electrical testing technicians.

PARTICIPATION

Comments and suggestions on any of the standards are always welcome and should be directed to the NETA office at neta@netaworld.org or 888-300-6382. To learn more about the NETA standards review and revision process, purchase these standards, or to get involved, please visit www.netaworld.org or call 888-300-6382.

From Apollo 7 to Today’s Smart Grid

Preventative Maintenance

Acceptance Testing

High Potential Testing

Utility Service Corporation has been providing electrical and technical services for government and industry since 1962.

Solving complex problems, testing under difficult and unusual circumstances and servicing the commissioning and maintenance needs of today’s electrical power systems both new and aged.

Commissioning Services

System Studies Arc Flash Analysis

Engineering & Consulting

Construction Supervision

System Trouble Shooting

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A&F Electrical Testing, Inc.

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Kevin Chilton

A&F Electrical Testing, Inc.

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New York, NY 10004 (631) 584-5625 Fax: (631) 584-5720 afelectricaltesting@afelectricaltesting.com www.afelectricaltesting.com

Florence Chilton

ABM Electrical Power Solutions

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William (Pete) McKenzie

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Advanced Testing Systems 15 Trowbridge Dr. Bethel, CT 06801 (203) 743-2001 Fax: (203) 743-2325

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Pat MacCarthy

American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

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Scott A. Blizard

American Electrical Testing Co., Inc. 34 Clover Dr. South Windsor, CT 06074 (860) 648-1013 Fax: (781) 821-0771 jpoulin@aetco.us www.99aetco.com

Gerald Poulin

American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

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American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

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American Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

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Rick Ramsey

American Electrical Testing Co., Inc. Green Hills Commerce Center 5925 Tilghman St., Ste. 200 Allentown, PA 18104 (215) 219-6800 jmunley@aetco.us www.99aetco.us

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Bob Hoffman

Apparatus Testing and Engineering 11300 Sanders Dr., Ste. 29 Rancho Cordova, CA 95742 (916) 853-6280 Fax: (916) 853-6258 jlawler@apparatustesting.com www.apparatustesting.com

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Harold (Jerry) Carr

Applied Engineering Concepts 1105 N. Allen Ave. Pasadena, CA 91104 (626) 398-3052 Fax: (626) 398-3053 michel.c@aec-us.com www.aec-us.com

Michel Castonguay

Burlington Electrical Testing Co., Inc.

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Walter P. Cleary

C.E. Testing, Inc.

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Mark Chapman

CE Power Solutions, LLC 4500 W. Mitchell Ave. Cincinnati, OH 45232 (513) 563-6150 Fax: (513) 563-6120 info@cepowersol.com

Rhonda Harris

CE Power Solutions of Wisconsin, LLC 3255 W. Highview Dr. Appleton, WI 54914 (920) 968-0281 Fax: (920) 968-0282 jimvh@cepowersol.com

James Van Handel

Dude Testing 554 Anderson Dr., Ste. A Romeoville, IL 60446 (815) 293-3388 Fax: (815) 293-3386 scott.dude@dudetesting.com www.dudetesting.com

Scott Dude

DYMAX Holdings, Inc.

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Gene Philipp

High Voltage Service, Inc. 4751 Mustang Circle St. Paul, MN 55112 (763) 717-3103 Fax: (763) 784-5397 www.hvserviceinc.com

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DYMAX Service Inc.

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Eastern High Voltage 11A South Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691-1606 (609) 890-8300 Fax: (609) 588-8090 joewilson@easternhighvoltage.com www.easternhighvoltage.com

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ELECT, P.C.

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Electric Power Systems, Inc. 21 Millpark Ct. Maryland Heights, MO 63043-3536 (314) 890-9999 Fax: (314) 890-9998

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Electric Power Systems, Inc.

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Electric Power Systems, Inc.

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Electric Power Systems, Inc. 915 Holt Ave., Unit 9 Manchester, NH 03109 (603) 657-7371 Fax: 603-657-7370 www.eps-international.com

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Electric Power Systems, Inc.

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Larry Christodoulou

Electric Power Systems, Inc. 1090 Montour West Industrial Blvd. Coraopolis, PA 15108 (412) 276-4559 www.eps-international.com

Ed Nahm

Electric Power Systems, Inc. 6141 Connecticut Ave. Kansas City, MO 64120 (816) 241-9990 Fax: (816) 241-9992 www.eps-international.com

Joe Dillon

EPS Technology

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Electrical & Electronic Controls 6149 Hunter Rd. Ooltewah, TN 37363 (423) 344-7666 (23) Fax: (423) 344-4494 eecontrols@comcast.net

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Electrical Maintenance & Testing Inc. 7301 N. Georgetown Rd., Ste. 212 Indianapolis, IN 46268 (317) 471-8600 Fax: (317) 471-8605 www.emtesting.com

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Electrical Reliability Services

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Electrical Reliability Services

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Electrical Reliability Services

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Electrical Reliability Services

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Steve C. Dodd Sr.

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES

Electrical Testing Solutions

2909 Green Hill Ct. Oshkosh, WI 54904 (920) 420-2986 Fax: (920) 235-7131

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Elemco Services, Inc.

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Robert D. Grubb Jr.

Hampton Tedder Technical Services 4571 State St. Montclair, CA 91763 (909) 628-1256 x214 Fax: (909) 628-6375 matt.tedder@hamptontedder.com www.hamptontedder.com

Matt Tedder

Hampton Tedder Technical Services 4920 Alto Ave. Las Vegas, NV 89115 (702) 452-9200 Fax: (702) 453-5412 www.hamptontedder.com

Roger Cates

Hampton Tedder Technical Services 3747 West Roanoke Ave. Phoenix, AZ 85009 (480) 967-7765 Fax: (480) 967-7762 www.hamptontedder.com

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Vincent Biondino

High Energy Electrical Testing, Inc. 2119 Orien Rd. Toms River, NJ 08755-1366 (732) 286-4088 Fax: (732) 286-4086 hinrg@comcast.net www.highenergyelectric.com

James P. Ratshin

High Voltage Maintenance Corp. 24 Walpole Park South Dr. Walpole, MA 02081 (508) 668-9205 www.hvmcorp.com

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High Voltage Maintenance Corp.

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High Voltage Maintenance Corp.

355 Vista Park Dr. Pittsburgh, PA 15205-1206 (412) 747-0550 Fax: (412) 747-0554 www.hvmcorp.com

High Voltage Maintenance Corp.

150 North Plains Industrial Rd. Wallingford, CT 06492 (203) 949-2650 Fax: (203) 949-2646 www.hvmcorp.com

High Voltage Maintenance Corp. 9305 Gerwig Ln., Ste. B Columbia, MD 21046 (410) 309-5970 Fax: (410) 309-0220 www.hvmcorp.com

High Voltage Maintenance Corp. 24371 Catherine Industrial Dr. Ste. 207 Novi, MI 48375 (248) 305-5596 Fax: (248) 305-5579 www.hvmcorp.com

High Voltage Maintenance Corp. 5100 Energy Dr. Dayton, OH 45414 (937) 278-0811 Fax: (937) 278-7791 www.hvmcorp.com

HMT, Inc. 6268 Route 31 Cicero, NY 13039 (315) 699-5563 Fax: (315) 699-5911 jpertgen@hmt-electric.com www.hmt-electric.com

John Pertgen

Industrial Electric Testing, Inc. 11321 West Distribution Ave. Jacksonville, FL 32256 (904) 260-8378 Fax: (904) 260-0737 gbenzenberg@bellsouth.net www.industrialelectrictesting.com Gary Benzenberg

Industrial Electric Testing, Inc. 201 NW 1st Ave. Hallandale, FL 33009-4029 (954) 456-7020 www.industrialelectrictesting.com

Industrial Electronics Group P.O. Box 1870 850369 Highway 17 South Yulee, FL 32041 (904) 225-9529 Fax: (904) 225-0834 butch@industrialgroups.com www.industrialgroups.com

Butch E. Teal

Industrial Tests, Inc. 4021 Alvis Ct., Ste. 1 Rocklin, CA 95677 (916) 296-1200 Fax: (916) 632-0300 greg@indtests.com www.industrialtests.com

Greg Poole

Infra-Red Building and Power Service 152 Centre St. Holbrook, MA 02343-1011 (781) 767-0888 Fax: (781) 767-3462 tom.mcdonald@infraredbps.net www.infraredbps.com

Thomas McDonald Sr.

M&L Power Systems, Inc. 109 White Oak Ln., Ste. 82 Old Bridge, NJ 08857 (732) 679-1800 Fax: (732) 679-9326 dan@mlpower.com www.mlpower.com

Darshan Arora

Magna Electric Corporation 1033 Kearns Crescent, Box 995 Regina, SK S4P 3B2 Canada (306) 949-8131 Fax: (306) 522-9181 kheid@magnaelectric.com www.magnaelectric.com

Kerry Heid

Magna Electric Corporation 3430 25th St. NE Calgary, AB T1Y 6C1 Canada (403) 769-9300 Fax: (403)769-9369 ppetrie@magnaelectric.com www.magnaelectric.com

Pat Petrie

Magna Electric Corporation 851-58th St. East Saskatoon, SK S7K 6X5 Canada (306) 955-8131 x 5 Fax: (306) 955-9181 www.magnaelectric.com

Luis Wilson

Magna Electric Corporation 1375 Church Ave. Winnipeg, MB R2X 2Y7 Canada (204) 925-4022 Fax: (204) 925-4021 cbrandt@magnaelectric.com www.magnaelectric.com

Curtis Brandt

Magna IV Engineering 4103 - 97th St., N.W. Edmonton, AB T6E 6E9 Canada (780) 462-3111 Fax: (780) 462-9799 jwentzell@magnaiv.com www.magnaiv.com

Jereme Wentzell

Magna IV Engineering Unit 10, 10672- 46 St. S.E. Calgary, AB T2C 1G1 Canada (403) 723-0575 Fax: (403) 723-0580 info.calgary@magnaiv.com

Jereme Wentzell

Magna IV Engineering 8219D Fraser Ave. Fort McMurray, AB T9H 0A2 Canada (780) 791-3122 Fax: (780) 791-3159 info.fmcmurray@magnaiv.com Jereme Wentzell

Magna IV Engineering 96 Inverness Dr. East, Unit R Englewood, CO 80112 (303) 799-1273 Fax: (303) 790-4816 info.denver@magnaiv.com

Jereme Wentzell

Magna IV Engineering

Oficina 1407 Torre Norte 481 Nueva Tajamar Las Condes, Region Metropolitana 7550099 Chile +(56) 9-9-517-4642 info.chile@magnaiv.com

Jereme Wentzell

Magna IV Engineering 1040 Winnipeg St. Regina , SK S4R 8P8 Canada (306) 504-6501 Fax: (306) 729-4897 info.regina@magnaiv.com

Jereme Wentzell

National Field Services 649 Franklin St. Lewisville, TX 75057 (972) 420-0157 www.natlfield.com

Eric Beckman

Nationwide Electrical Testing, Inc. 6050 Southard Trace Cumming, GA 30040 (770) 667-1875 Fax: (770) 667-6578 Shashi@N-E-T-Inc.com www.n-e-t-inc.com

Shashikant B. Bagle

North Central Electric, Inc. 69 Midway Ave. Hulmeville, PA 19047-5827 (215) 945-7632 Fax: (215) 945-6362 ncetest@aol.com

Robert Messina

Northern Electrical Testing, Inc. 1991 Woodslee Dr. Troy, MI 48083-2236 (248) 689-8980 Fax: (248) 689-3418 ldetterman@northerntesting.com www.northerntesting.com

Lyle Detterman

Orbis Engineering Field Services Ltd. #300, 9404 - 41st Ave. Edmonton, AB T6E 6G8 Canada (780) 988-1455 Fax: (780) 988-0191 lorne@orbisengineering.net www.orbisengineering.net Lorne Gara

Pacific Power Testing, Inc. 14280 Doolittle Dr. San Leandro, CA 94577 (510) 351-8811 Fax: (510) 351-6655 steve@pacificpowertesting.com www.pacificpowertesting.com

Steve Emmert

Pacific Powertech, Inc. #110, 2071 Kingsway Ave. Port Coquitlam, BC V3C 1T2 Canada (604) 944-6697 Fax: (604) 944-1271 chite@pacificpowertech.ca www.magnaiv.ca

Cameron Hite

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES

Phasor Engineering

Sabaneta Industrial Park #216 Mercedita, PR 715 Puerto Rico (787) 844-9366 Fax: (787) 841-6385 rcastro@phasorinc.com

Rafael Castro

Potomac Testing, Inc. 1610 Professional Blvd., Ste. A Crofton, MD 21114 (301) 352-1930 Fax: (301) 352-1936 kbassett@potomactesting.com www.potomactesting.com

Ken Bassett

Potomac Testing, Inc. 11179 Hopson Rd., Ste. 5 Ashland, VA 23005 (804) 798-7334 Fax: (804) 798-7456 www.potomactesting.com

Power & Generation Testing, Inc. 480 Cave Rd. Nashville, TN 37210 (615) 882-9455 Fax: (615) 882-9591 mose@pgti.net www.pgti.net

Mose Ramieh

Power Engineering Services, Inc. 9179 Shadow Creek Lane Converse, TX 78109 (210) 590-4936 Fax: (210) 590-6214 engelke@pe-svcs.com www.pe-svcs.com

Miles R. Engelke POWER PLUS Engineering, Inc. 46575 Magallan Dr. Novi, MI 48377 (248) 344-0200 Fax: (248) 305-9105 smancuso@epowerplus.com www.epowerplus.com

Salvatore Mancuso

Power Products & Solutions, Inc. 12465 Grey Commercial Rd. Midland, NC 28107 (704) 573-0420 x12 Fax: (704) 573-3693 ralph.patterson@powerproducts.biz www.powerproducts.biz

Ralph Patterson

Power Products & Solutions, Inc. 13 Jenkins Ct. Mauldin, SC 29662 Fax: (800) 328-7382 ralph.patterson@powerproducts.biz www.powerproducts.biz

Raymond Pesaturo

Power Services, LLC P.O. Box 750066, 998 Dimco Way Centerville, OH 45475 (937) 439-9660 Fax: (937) 439-9611 mkbeucler@aol.com

Mark Beucler

Power Solutions Group, Ltd. 425 W. Kerr Rd. Tipp City, OH 45371 (937) 506-8444 Fax: (937) 506-8434 bwilloughby@powersolutionsgroup.com www.powersolutionsgroup.com

Barry Willoughby

Power Solutions Group, Ltd. 135 Old School House Rd. Piedmont, SC 29673 (864) 845-1084 Fax:: (864) 845-1085 fcrawford@powersolutionsgroup.com www.powersolutionsgroup.com

Frank Crawford

Power Solutions Group, Ltd. 670 Lakeview Plaza Blvd. Columbus, OH 43085 (614) 310-8018 sspohn@powersolutionsgroup.com www.powersolutionsgroup.com

Stuart Spohn

Power Systems Testing Co. 4688 W. Jennifer Ave., Ste. 108 Fresno, CA 93722 (559) 275-2171 ext 15 Fax: (559) 275-6556 dave@pstcpower.com www.powersystemstesting.com

David Huffman

Power Systems Testing Co. 600 S. Grand Ave., Ste. 113 Santa Ana, CA 92705-4152 (714) 542-6089 Fax: (714) 542-0737 www.powersystemstesting.com

Power Systems Testing Co. 2267 Claremont Ct. Hayward, CA 94545-5001 (510) 783-5096 Fax: (510) 732-9287 www.powersystemstesting.com

Power Test, Inc. 2200 Highway 49 Harrisburg, NC 28075 (704) 200-8311 Fax: (704) 455-7909 rich@powertestinc.com www.powertestinc.com

Richard Walker

POWER Testing and Energization, Inc. 14006 NW 3rd Ct., Ste. 101 Vancouver, WA 98685 (360) 576-4826 Fax: (360) 576-7182 chris.zavadlov@powerte.com www.powerte.com

Chris Zavadlov

POWER Testing and Energization, Inc. 731 E. Ball Rd., Ste. 100 Anaheim, CA 92805 (714) 507-2702 http://www.powerte.com

POWER Testing and Energization, Inc. 22035 70th Ave. South Kent, WA 98032 (253) 872-7747 www.powerte.com

Powertech Services, Inc. 4095 South Dye Rd. Swartz Creek, MI 48473-1570 (810) 720-2280 Fax: (810) 720-2283 jbrown@powertechservices.com www.powertechservices.com

Jean A. Brown

Precision Testing Group 18590 Wedemeyer Rd. Kiowa, CO 80117 (303) 621-2776 Fax: (303) 621-2573 glenn@precisiontestinggroup.com

Glenn Stuckey

PRIT Service, Inc. 112 Industrial Dr., P.O. Box 606 Minooka, IL 60447 (815) 467-5577 Fax: (815) 467-5883 Rod.Hageman@pritserviceinc.com www.pritserviceinc.com

Rod Hageman

Reuter & Hanney, Inc. 149 Railroad Dr. Northampton Industrial Park Ivyland, PA 18974 (215) 364-5333 Fax: (215) 364-5365 mikereuter@reuterhanney.com www.reuterhanney.com

Michael Reuter

Reuter & Hanney, Inc. 4270-I Henninger Ct. Chantilly, VA 20151 (703) 263-7163 Fax: 703-263-1478 www.reuterhanney.com

Reuter & Hanney, Inc. 1371 Brass Mill Rd., Unit E Belcamp, MD 21017 (410) 297-9566 Fax: (410) 297-9984 www.reuterhanney.com

Michael Jester

REV Engineering, LTD 3236 - 50 Ave. SE Calgary, AB T2B 3A3 Canada (403) 287-0156 Fax: (403) 287-0198 rdavidson@reveng.ca www.reveng.ca

Roland Nicholas Davidson, IV

Scott Testing Inc. 1698 5th St. Ewing, NJ 08638 (609) 882-2400 Fax: (609) 882-5660

rsorbello@scotttesting.com www.scotttesting.com

Russ Sorbello

NETA ACCREDITED COMPANIES

Shermco Industries

2425 E. Pioneer Dr. Irving, TX 75061 (972) 793-5523 Fax: (972) 793-5542 rwidup@shermco.com www.shermco.com

Ron Widup

Shermco Industries

1705 Hur Industrial Blvd. Cedar Park, TX 78613 (512) 259-3060 Fax: (512) 258-5571 kewing@shermco.com www.shermco.com

Kevin Ewing

Shermco Industries 33002 FM 2004 Angleton, TX 77515 (979) 848-1406 Fax: (979) 848-0012 mfrederick@shermco.com www.shermco.com Malcom Frederick

Shermco Industries 1357 N. 108th E. Ave. Tulsa, OK 74116 (918) 234-2300 jharrison@shermco.com www.shermco.com

Jim Harrison

Shermco Industries

777 10th St. Marion, IA 52302 (319) 377-3377 Fax: (319) 377-3399 Lhamrick@shermco.com www.shermco.com

Lynn Hamrick

Shermco Industries 2100 Dixon St., Ste. C Des Moines, IA 50316 Fax: (515) 263-8482 DesMoines@shermco.com www.shermco.com

Lynn Hamrick

Shermco Industries Boulevard Saint-Michel 47 1040 Brussels Brussels, Belgium

+32 (0)2 400 00 54 Fax: +32 (0)2 400 00 32 cperry@shermco.com www.shermco.com

Chris Perry

Sigma Six Solutions, Inc. 2200 West Valley Hwy., Ste. 100 Auburn, WA 98001 (253) 333-9730 Fax: (253) 859-5382 jwhite@sigmasixinc.com www.sigmasixinc.com

John White

Southern New England Electrical Testing, LLC 3 Buel St., Unit 2 Wallingford, CT 06492 (203) 269-8778 Fax: (203) 269-8775 dave.asplund@sneet.org www.sneet.org

David Asplund, Sr.

Southwest Energy Systems, LLC 2231 East Jones Ave., Ste. A Phoenix, AZ 85040 (602) 438-7500 Fax: (602) 438-7501

bob.sheppard@southwestenergysystems.com www.southwestenergysystems.com

Robert Sheppard

Taurus Power & Controls, Inc. 9999 SW Avery St. Tualatin, OR 97062-9517 (503) 692-9004 Fax: (503) 692-9273 robtaurus@tauruspower.com www.tauruspower.com

Rob Bulfinch

Taurus Power & Controls, Inc. 6617 S. 193rd Place, Ste. P104 Kent, WA 98032 (425) 656-4170 Fax: (425) 656-4172 jiml@tauruspower.com www.taruspower.com

Jim Lightner

Three-C Electrical Co., Inc.

190 Pleasant St. Ashland, MA 01721 (508) 881-3911 Fax: (508) 881-4814 jim@three-c.com www.three-c.com

Jim Cialdea

Three-C Electrical Co., Inc.

79 Leighton Rd., Ste. 9 Augusta, ME 04330 (800) 649-6314 Fax: (207) 782-0162 jim@three-c.com www.three-c.com

Jim Cialdea

Tidal Power Services, LLC 4202 Chance Lane Rosharon, TX 77583 (281) 710-9150 Fax: (713) 583-1216 monty.janak@tidalpowerservices.com www.tidalpowerservices.com

Monty C. Janak

Tidal Power Services, LLC 18786 Lake Harbor Lane Prairieville, LA 70769 (225) 223-5677 Fax: (225) 208-1013 www.tidalpowerservices.com

Darryn Kimbrough

Tony Demaria Electric, Inc. 131 West F St. Wilmington, CA 90744 (310) 816-3130 x 111 Fax: (310) 549-9747 tde@tdeinc.com www.tdeinc.com

Anthony Demaria

Trace Electrical Services & Testing, LLC 293 Whitehead Rd. Hamilton, NJ 08619 (609) 588-8666 Fax: (609) 588-8667 jvasta@tracetesting.com www.tracetesting.com

Joseph Vasta

Utilities Instrumentation Service, Inc. PO Box 981123 Ypsilanti, MI 48198-1123 (734) 482-1450 (14) Fax: (734) 482-0035 GEWalls@UISCorp.com www.uiscorp.com

Gary E. Walls

Utility Service Corporation 4614 Commercial Dr. NW Huntsville, AL 35816-2201 (256) 837-8400 Fax: (256) 837-8403 apeterson@utilserv.com www.utilserv.com

Alan D. Peterson

Western Electrical Services 14311 29th St. East Sumner , WA 98390 (253) 891-1995 Fax: (253) 891-1511

dhook@westernelectricalservices.com www.westernelectricalservices.com

Daniel Hook

Western Electrical Services

3676 W. California Ave. Bldg. C, Ste. 106 Salt Lake City, UT 84104 (253) 891-1995

dhook@westernelectricalservices.com www.westernelectricalservices.com

Daniel Hook

Western Electrical Services 5680 South 32nd St. Phoenix, AZ 85040 (253) 891-1995

dhook@westernelectricalservices.com www.westernelectricalservices.com

Daniel Hook

The ANSI/NETA Standards for Acceptance and Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and Systems!

ANSI/NETA MTS-2011 - New Edition

This standard should always be referenced when writing maintenance specifications or performing routine testing on electrical power systems.

ANSI/NETA ATS-2009

This standard should always be referenced in design specifications or when performing acceptance testing on power system installations.

ANSI/NETA ETT-2010

This standard ensures that your acceptance and maintenance tests are being preformed by qualified technicians who are certified in accordance with ANSI/NETA ETT requirements.

Available in Bound, CD ROM, or PDF

AEMC Instruments

This issue’s advertisers are identified below. Please thank these advertises by telling them you saw their advertisement in YOUR magazine –NETA World.

INDEPENDENT NETA

Elemco Testing Co., Inc.

Industrial Electrical Testing, Inc.

Infra-Red Building and Power Service

M&L Power Systems, Inc.

Nationwide Electrical Testing, Inc

North Central Electric, Inc.

Orbis Engineering Field Services, Ltd.

Potomac Testing, Inc.

Power & Generation Testing, Inc.

Power Products & Solutions, Inc.

Power Services

Power Systems Testing Co.

POWER Testing and Energization, Inc.

PRIT Service, Inc.

Scott Testing, Inc.

Shermco Industries, Inc.

Sigma Six Solutions, Inc.

Taurus Power & Controls, Inc.

Three-C Electrical Co. Inc.

39

53

.111

72

.126

39

49

71

37

71

49

65

Avox

CBS ArcSafe

CBS ArcSafe

Doble

Electric Service Co.

ElectroRent

EnerGtest

Group CBS, Inc.

High Voltage, Inc..

HV Diagnostics, Inc.

Intellirent

Megger

Megger Distribution

Inside Front Cover

ACCURACY:

FEATURES:

ACCURACY (RESOLUTION 5 DIGITS):

*Also available: TR-Mark III-250

± 0.1% Rdg 4 Digit Resolution

± 0.5% Rdg 4 Digit Resolution

ACCURACY:

Range 0.8 … 4000 ± 0.08% with 40 Volts (PT Mode)

Range 0.8 … 100 ± 0.08% with 1V…5V (Auto) (CT Mode)

FEATURES:

My Dad Tests Reclosers and Sectionalizers ...

... and he is really excited about OMICRON´s test equipment.

No wonder Dad is so excited: Over the last 20 years, OMICRON has helped him to do a great job – and, with these new products his life gets even easier:

For quick manual testing in the field, Dad uses the flexible front panel control unit CMControl for operating his CMC test set. By controlling the multifunctional

CMC with the Test Universe PC software he can also perform highly automated tests. For this kind of application, Dad applies test object specific test templates which he simply downloads from the OMICRON website.

Since OMICRON provides a comprehensive range of standard test cable pack-

ages, Dad can easily test various controls from different manufacturers. Due to the high flexibility of his CMC he even uses it for testing protective relays as well.

Learn more about OMICRON´s exciting products for recloser and sectionalizer testing: