Keio Academy of New York Research Review Vol.1

The Mission of Keio Academy of New York

“Keio Academy of New York promotes trans-Pacific, trans-cultural and trans-disciplinary learning. The mission of Keio Academy of New York is to develop, foster and utilize “tri-cultural’ education by combining the best of Japanese, American and Keio cultures, to produce graduates who have a strong sense of “moral-independence” and “self-reliance” which has been a Keio tradition since Keio Gijuku’s establishment by Fukuzawa Yukichi in 1858.”

Research Review: Keio Interdisciplinary Journal Encouraging Learning & Teaching

Library of Congress ISSN: 2381-4638

Published by Keio Academy of New York, October 2022 3 College Road Purchase, New York

Supervisor of Research Editor-in-Chief Christopher de Lozier

Editorial Committee

Chad Combs - English Editor

Cecilia Davis - English Editor

Junko Hayami - Japanese Editor

John Karl Rahenkamp - Science Editor

Masahiko Seto - Japanese Editor

Foreword to the Inauguration Issue of Keio Academy of New York’s Research Review

Dr. Takayuki Tatsumi Headmaster Keio Academy of New York

Back in the mid-nineteenth century, Yukichi Fukuzawa, the founding father of Keio-Gijuku and modern Japan, visited the United States of America twice, in 1860 and 1867; there, he and John Manjiro purchased a copy of Webster’s English Dictionary, presumably A Pronouncing and Defining Dictionary of the English Language, edited by Noah Webster’s son-in-law S. G. Goodrich and published in 1859 from Lippincott in Philadelphia. There is no doubt that this dictionary helped Fukuzawa translate a number of diplomatic documents and write the original books on western civilization and modern Japan for which he is justly admired. Thus, Fukuzawa became the first translator of Thomas Jefferson’s “The Declaration of Independence.” Being the genius of translation, Fukuzawa translated quite a few western keywords into Japanese: for instance, he translated “speech” as “enzetsu”(演説), “debate” as “touron” (討論), “locomotive” as “kisha” (汽⾞) and “copyright” as “hanken” (版権). What is more, he invited to Keio Gijuku a number of Unitarian ministers and scholars from Harvard University, including Rev. Arthur May Knapp and especially Professor Thomas Sergeant Perry, the first teacher of Euro-American literature at Keio University. Professor Perry was the great-nephew of Commodore Perry, who unlocked what Herman Melville called the “double-bolted land” and initiated our Far East archipelago into its first cultural exchanges and economic transactions with Anglo-American countries.

Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that the Keio spirit as represented by Fukuzawa Yukichi has, since its beginning, championed the concept of Transpacific Studies. The transnational context in the 21st century makes the transpacific imperative more realistic. While Randolph Bourne’s “Trans-national America” (1916) championed a new form of nationalism receptive to ethnic diversity, which did not question the status of America at the center of the convergence of cultural influences, our contemporary Transnationalists, more than a century after Bourne, began transgressing all forms of nationalism by de-centering the United States and recreating transnationalism cultivated in different countries outside America.

Accordingly, at Keio Academy of New York we should not only imbibe western ideas but also digest them and create our own “voice” in the “Tri-cultural” milieu consisting of American, Japanese and Keio cultures. Given that back in the 1980s Professor Tadao Ishikawa, the fifteenth president of Keio University, originally conceived Keio Academy of New York to be not only a bilingual and bicultural high school but also the center for international transdisciplinary research, we account it high time to empower the new idea of “Tri-culture” by developing transpacific, transcultural and transdisciplinary studies in a variety of ways.

However, in order to embody our Tri-cultural vision it is necessary to start an academic journal that serves as incubator for original research in the transnational context. Therefore, I and my colleagues kept discussing the possibility of a new research review and prepared a blueprint for it. Very luckily and thanks to the editor-in-chief Mr. Christopher de Lozier, we could receive deeply ambitious and highly original articles for the first issue. Hope you will also enjoy reading them. Here you go!

From the Editor

On behalf of Keio Academy of New York and the journal editorial commitee, I am happy to announce the publication of the inaugural issue of Research Review: the Interdisciplinary Journal Encouraging Learning and Teaching at Keio Academy of New York. The publication of this first edition is a milestone in the history of Keio Academy. After enduring over 2 years of disruption brought on by the Coronavirus Pandemic, this publication marks not just a renewal of our mission to provide a Tricultural and bilingual education in Japanese and English, but a celebration of Keio Academy’s resilience in the face of challenge and a commitment to our future. Keio Academy is a unique teaching and learning environment. So it stands to reason that our teachers’ and students’ expertise and interests would be manifold. Research Review is the creative and productive outlet for sharing these talents and interests. Through academic research and informed reflection this publication and its contributing authors stand as a model of lifelong learning and a commitment to the encouragement of learning and teaching.

In this Issue…

In this inaugural issue of Research Review teachers and students at Keio Academy of New York demonstrate a wide array of interests and expertise. From his book club, Professor Tatsumi brings four budding critical thinkers to the fore, with novel critical literary analysis, interpretation, and modern association and application of Nathanial Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter. The Departments of English and Social Studies, represented by Chris de Lozier and Ed Consolati bring insight to more effective learning and teaching through research in pedagogical applications. In the true spirit of Transpacific and bilingual studies, Fumiko Kikuchi bring an analysis of extra regionem teaching and learning of Japanese History, and Yuki Fujita and Masahiko Seto report on thier respective classroom learning and teaching experiences. The Science and Technology Department’s Michael Kovens then employs pure scientific method and experimentation in his Sanitation Test at Keio Academy of New York. Research Review’s Chief Editor then wraps up this first issue by unpacking the fascinating topic of language use in Japan.

Table of Contents

Headmaster’s Book Club Season #1

Reading Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter (1850) -An Introduction-

Page 1 Takayuki Tatsumi

From the Headmaster’s book Club

The Significance of the Mother & Daughter Relationship In The Scarlet Letter Page 4 Hana Tanaka

The True Nature of Roger Chillingworth Page 7 Ayaka Kobayashi

The Spectrum of Discrimination in The Scarlet Letter Page 10 Mayuka Kitada

The Scarlet Letter and Women's Role in Counseling Page 13 Momoko Takahara

Contrastive Analysis and Pedagogical Applications for Japanese University English Language Learners Page 16 Christopher de Lozier

Learning

Page

Page

Back in the 1980s, when I was a Ph.D. candidate at Cornell University, what intrigued me most is graduate students’ book club. We selected, perused and examined the latest work published by our mentors such as Jonathan Culler, Michael Colacurcio and Mark Seltzer, sometimes inviting the author in person to our meeting. This is the reason why I enjoyed reading quite a few “Book Club novels” such as Karen Joy Fowler’s The Jane Austen Book Club (2004), Azar Nafisi’s Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books (2003) and Mathew Pearl’s The Dante Club (2003).

Of course, it is true that in Japan the orthodox way of reading literature was influenced by the sinological tradition of exegetic studies of Chinese texts （訓詁学）such as Confucian classic writings developed from the third century through the twelfth century, encouraging the professors to master Chinese as the dominant language, annotate the texts and recover the author’s intentions. In consequence, since the Occupation Period (1945-52) most Japanese Americanists have put more emphasis on faithful translation of American Literature than on weaving out their own original interpretations.

However, what with the rise of post-structuralist theory (1970s-80s) and what with the impact of cultural studies (1990s), the very way of “reading” has been revolutionized. Now in the 21st century we don’t hesitate to exhibit our creative misreading of the canonical texts by making use of when and where we are rereading them. For instance, Fowler recreated Austen’s characters by foregrounding the post-counter-cultural milieu of California; Nafisi and her colleagues reinterpreted Anglo-American masterpieces by getting aware of the political context in the wake of Iran-Iraq War; Pearl could not have reconstructed the intellectual atmosphere of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his Harvard friends in Victorian America without the renovation of postmodern historical mystery as represented by Umberto Eco’s The Name of the Rose (1980) and Foucault’s Pendulum (1988).

Very lately, accommodating students’ request, I’ve established the Headmaster’s Book Club, for whose first text I chose Nathaniel Hawthorne’s historical romance The Scarlet Letter (1850), one of the American literary canons. I primarily intended to teach students that a little historical knowledge of 17th century New England goes a long way, helping the readers to understand the wondrous life of the heroine Hester Prynne. Rereading the novel in Purchase lately, however, I could not help but notice the way Hester’s antinomian archetype Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643) mentioned in Chapter One of the romance still remains influential especially in the nomenclature of Anne Hutchinson River Parkway, a north-south parkway in southern New York linking the

Headmaster’s Book Club Season #1: Reading Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter (1850) -An Introduction-

Takayuki Tatsumi Headmaster, Keio Academy of New York

massive Bruckner interchange in the Throggs Neck section of the Bronx with the New YorkConnecticut State line at Rye Brook. Insofar as you are living in Westchester County, it is impossible to go shopping without driving the Anne Hutchinson River Parkway. What a coincidence!

Historically speaking, Anne Marbury Hutchinson became notorious for her antinomian meetings that put more emphasis upon the individual’s inner relationship with God (the Covenant of Grace) than the Boston clergy’s institutional religious practices (the Covenant of Works). Being the target of the antinomian controversy, Hutchinson was exiled from Massachusetts to Rhode Island in 1638. After her husband’s death in 1642, Hutchinson and her family found more liberal neighbors in the Dutch settlements further south, and settled on a riverbank near Pelham Bay,

slaughtered by a band of indigenous Weckquaesgecks in1643, the Dutch and their descendants continued clearing her good name and re-appreciating her tenet as the origin of today’s liberal ideology, ending up with the Hutchinson River Parkway (1924-41). For more detail, see the Norton Critical Edition of The Scarlet Letter

Thus, today’s perspective will enable us to re-imagine Anne Hutchinson as a pious and conscientious organizer of the Bible Book Club. Being a revolutionary of reading, she was attacked and excommunicated. Nonetheless, it is undeniable that if we enjoy the very act of reading literary canons in our own way now, we are unwittingly indebted to Anne Hutchinson’s Book Club in Colonial America.

The four essays I put together below are the fruits of the Headmaster’s Book Club Season #1 based upon the participants’ presentations (April 28, May 4,11, 23 and June 1 at Speakers’ Hall). To tell the truth, I primarily planned to let the participants simulate a literary seminar at

Professor Tatsumi with his Book Club

university level. However, our book club ended up being incredibly original interpretations of this canonical novel that university students could not have performed. Momoko Takahara recreated Hester as a skillful counsellor; Mayuka Kitada gave an insight into the multiple structures of discrimination in the text that conjure up today’s BLM and Asian Hate; Hana Tanaka reconsiders the significance of the mother-daughter relationship between Hester and Pearl; Ayaka Kobayashi redefines Chillingworth as a key person who revolutionizes our reader responses. Please enjoy their performances of creative reading!

The Significance of the Mother & Daughter Relationship in The Scarlet Letter

Hana Tanaka Keio Academy of New York

In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s notable work, The Scarlet Letter (1850), the symbol of the scarlet ‘A’ changed its significance within the seven years of Hester Prynne. Along with this, the relationship between Hester and her daughter, Pearl, has played a quite significant role. At the beginning of the book, she was the product of the sin committed by Hester; however, as the story progressed, it became evident that the mother and the daughter bonded stronger than ever before. The strength of the mother-daughter relationship applies to the people living in this contemporary world, as this concept is unchanging from the 17th century that Hawthorne depicted in this novel to today in the 21st century.

Before diving into this topic, it is important to understand Pearl’s character in The Scarlet Letter by spotlighting the Baroque associations found in this novel. “Baroque” is a term that originated from “Barocco,” a Portuguese word for being “an imperfect pearl” (Baroque Art and Architecture). Pearl, in terms of character, is resistant to the solemn nature of the Puritan Community. This is apparent, especially in Chapter XIII, “The Elf Child and the Minister.” In this chapter, Reverend Wilson inquires her “who made thee?” (p.71). In a surprise, Pearl maintained that she “had not been made at all, but had been plucked by her mother off the bush of wild roses that grew by the prison door” (p.72). This can be considered as a defiance to the Puritan culture as well as adults, including her mother, by being “imperfect” for the societal standard.

Moreover, this chapter illustrates how Hester considers Pearl as a reminder of her sin. “She is my torture, nonetheless…Pearl punishes me too. See ye not, she is the scarlet letter, only capable of being loved, and so endowed with a million-fold the power of retribution for my sin?” (p.72). This can lead to the conclusion that Pearl is her “living hieroglyphics” for atoning the crime that she has committed (p.124). Therefore, throughout the book, Pearl exists as a symbol that reminds us about Hester’s sin, and simultaneously, as an odd character whose shrewd but honest observations of society and other characters often bring the overlooked points into a light.

Over seven years, the original interpretation of the scarlet letter of “adultery” has been replaced by the meaning of “able,” representing Hester’s strength (Moskalenko, 2021). One of the reasons for this change could be the growth as a mother figure that Hester Prynne underwent from raising such a rebellious childlike Pearl.

In the beginning, we are introduced to Pearl; however, the readers get to know her character and the family situation for the first time in Chapter VI, “Pearl.” The mother named her “Pearl” because “as being of great price, - purchased with all she had, - her mother’s only treasure!”

(p.58). Indeed, the child was precious to her that brought sunshine to her life; nonetheless, despite the hopeful origin of the name, Hester experienced tremendous stress from motherhood as other parents do. It seemed she faced burnout from the excruciation of raising a child that she “sometimes burst into passionate tears” (p.60). This is one of the symptoms associated with postpartum depression. According to Maryam Ghaedrahmati, mothers are prone to postpartum depression due to social and biological factors (Ghaedrahmati, et al., 2022). It is undeniable that “reducing social support” triggered the hardships in Hester’s motherhood. As the father was not revealed until later in the story, she only had the choice of raising Pearl alone. While the societal rejection of Hester deprived her of all the supports from neighbors or church the innocent nature seen in the behaviors of Pearl tormented her harder: “for there was no foreseeing how it might affect her, -Pearl would frown, clench her little fist, and harden her small features into a stern, unsympathizing look of discontent” (p.60).

In astonishment, in the next chapter, “the Governor’s Hall,” Hawthorne depicted Pearl and Hester grappling with their position in the community as “outcasts” together. She starts to demonstrate daughter-like affection for the mother by protecting her from peril. On the way to the governor’s mansion, children in the town suddenly show contempt for Hester and Pearl saying, “there is the woman of the carpet letter; and, of a truth, moreover, there is the likeness of the scarlet letter running along by her side! Come, therefore, let us fling mud at them!” (p.66). In response, Pearl outrages and threatens them by screaming. After she dispersed the children, she “returned quietly to her mother, and looked up, smiling, into her face” (p.66). This scene portrays the compassion Pearl feels for her mother. Pearl proves the true form of love between the mother and the daughter, and the bond between them surrounding the scarlet A has been growing stronger.

In addition, chapter XIX, “the Child at the Brook-Side,” shows how the scarlet letter bonds Pearl and Hester together from Pearl’s perspective. During the discussion with Arthur Dimmesdale in the forest, Hester finally decides to renew herself by taking away the letter from her bosom as well as letting her hair down (p.122). When she asks Pearl to come to their side of the brook, Pearl refuses the order by “pointing its small forefinger at Hester’s bosom” (p.126). Only after the mother reattached the embroidered letter, did Pearl acknowledge Hester as her mother, “not thou art my mother indeed! And I am thy little Pearl” (p.127). What was more surprising was that she “kissed the scarlet letter” (p.127) to show love for her mother as well as the symbol of sin. It represents their relationship is deeply rooted in the scarlet letter, and the dependency coexists between them greatly that they have supported each other throughout the years inside the community.

In conclusion, the deep trust between the parent and the child, like Hester Prynne and the daughter, Pearl, is something that the people living in this modern world can also sympathize with regardless of the shape of the family. Personally, as a student living in a dormitory, talking with my parents on call is the moment that reassures me on stressful school days. As time flies, at the end of the chapter, Pearl enters womanhood. Unlike Hester who was alone, Pearl has her mother always there to support her. Their closeness is similar to the instance in the research

where “mothers and daughters tended to describe emotional support and influence as largely unidirectional, with mothers continuing to provide support and guidance to their adult daughters” (Bojczyk, et al., 2022). Throughout the story, the two grew such a strong bond that the change of interpretations of the scarlet letter demonstrates how Pearl and Hester coexisted and positively influenced each other in all the tough moments.

References

Bojczyk, Kathryn E, et al. (2022). “Mothers’ and Their Adult Daughters’ Perceptions of Their Relationship.” Journal of Family Issues. Accessed on July 7, 2022. https://www.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/attachments/115726/mothers-and-theiradult-daughters.pdf

“Baroque Art and Architecture.” Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/Baroque-art-andarchitecture, Accessed on June 29, 2022.

Ghaedrahmati, Maryam, et al. (2022). “Postpartum depression risk factors: A narrative review.” Journal of Education and Health Promotion. Accessed on July 7, 2022. https:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5561681/

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1850). The Scarlet Letter. Ed. Leland S. Person. New York.: Norton, 2017.

Moskalenko, Olena (2021). “The Subtle Residual: Baroque Echoes In The Scarlet Letter.” 4887Article Text-17938-4-10-20210601.pdf

The True Nature of Roger Chillingworth

Ayaka Kobayashi Keio Academy of New York

The story of The Scarlet Letter begins with the prison, indicating the sin of humans as the theme of the story. Indeed, all the main characters in the story, Hester Prynne, Arthur Dimmesdale, Roger Chillingworth, and Pearl, are told to be related to sin in some way. Among them, Chillingworth has long been considered as the most sinful man. However, when one looks at the overall storyline objectively, he is a miserable man who is betrayed by his young wife. Even though he should be blamed for his mistreatment of Hester, adultery is a heavier sin, and she did not apologize for her sin but treated Chillingworth as the “Black man” (Hawthorne-1850, 52). In addition, some factors in the story seem ambiguous and possible to change his general impression and position in the story. Through discussion of these points, the paper reconsiders the true nature of Roger Chillingworth, the allegedly worst villain of the romance.

First, it’s necessary to analyze the reasons why Chillingworth is a villain in the story. Obviously, the biggest reason is his obsession with revenge on a man who had a child with Hester. While it’s mentioned throughout the story, readers can confirm that revenge was his solitary motivation for life when “All his strength and energy…seemed at once to desert him” after Dimmesdale’s death (p.153). To revenge against Dimmesdale, Chillingworth “commit the unpardonable sin that Hawthorne hates the most” (Takaba-2007, p.2). Chillingworth makes contact with Dimmesdale in an attempt to investigate him in Chapter 10. Here, Chillingworth is said to “dig into the poor clergyman’s heart, like a miner searching for gold” (p.81). Since Hawthorne regards the human mind as the most sacred field, this act is considered to be an unpardonable sin (Takaba-2007, p.2). Also, since Hawthorne had been wary of science, he tends to describe the occupation of villains in his works as related to science (Bao-cang-2020, 5). Taking these into consideration, Chillingworth’s job as a physician implies Hawthorne’s intention to make him an inhumane and cold-blooded man who opposes the Puritan religious doctrine and threatens society.

From the above, what makes Chillingworth a villain is his extremely strong obsession with revenge and the author’s characterization of him; It is reasonable for Hawthorne to spotlight Chillingworth’s negative aspects rather than describe him objectively in order to clarify his position in the story. However, still, there are some positive elements of him. In Chapter 10, he is said to be “calm in temperament, kindly” and “a pure and upright man” throughout life (Hawthorne-1850, 81). Thus, he was not evil in nature; he was an ordinary man who owns both positive and negative aspects. Therefore, if there is a way Chillingworth can be free from sin before his death, his position in the story can change from the villain to an ordinary person who is as much sinful as other people like Hester and Dimmesdale, as they also commit sin.

Regarding salvation for Chillingworth, there are some factors that should be taken into consideration. First, let us rethink who sleeps with Hester in the tomb. Generally, the one is believed to be Dimmesdale. However, it’s strange that given his high status as a Puritan minister,

Dimmesdale didn’t have his grave for many years after his death. Considering that his friends, Governor Bellingham and John Willson have “stubborn fidelity” to Dimmesdale, it’s unlikely that they left him dead without a grave (p.152). For the same reason, they are not likely to let him sleep under the grave with the letter “A”. If Dimmesdale is not a person under the grave, it is assumed that the one is Chillingworth. This is highly possible since Hester didn’t divorce Chillingworth officially until the end of the story, and Chillingworth “bequeathed a very considerable amount of property” to Pearl, Hester’s child, at his last will (p.153). In order to bequeath such a great property, he must have followed certain procedures using his real name, Prynne (Iriko-1995, pp.8-9). In this way, it is assumed that the relationship between Hester and Chillingworth is officially recognized as married, and it is natural that they sleep under the grave together. The fact that Chillingworth shows mercy to Pearl as a form of inheritance and sleeps with Hester after his death indicates the salvation of Chillingworth at the end of his life.

The second factor that might change the role of Chillingworth is his possibility of being an alchemist. Chillingworth is introduced as a physician, but he does not have a medical degree but uses techniques based on alchemical knowledge (Takaba-2007, p.3). In the novel, there is a description of his laboratory which says “not such a modern man of science would reckon even tolerably complete, but provided with ….chemicals, which the practiced alchemist knew well” (p.80). Accordingly, Chillingworth is not a modern scientist, Hawthorne hated, but an anachronistic alchemist. This leads to the possibility of Chillingworth playing a role in making Dimmesdale confess his sin and become a truly holy man through his evil deeds by using “weeds” to make “drugs of potency”(p.82).

The last factor for the salvation of Chillingworth is the one for Dimmesdale. Dimmesdale once turns into a devil when Hester tells him that Chillingworth is her husband. At that moment, he possesses “violence of passion, which…the portion of him which the Devil claimed”, and it is called “a dark transfiguration” (p.117). He recovers from the evil state when he “forgives” Hester; he is described as “out of an abyss of sadness, but no anger”(p.118). When Dimmesdale who has been possessed by the Devil even for the moment can regain his humanity by forgiving Hester, Chillingworth should be relieved in the same way. This is likely to occur, all the more because after the death of Dimmesdale, he lost all the energies that derived from the devil inside him, and it is stated that Dimmesdale and Chillingworth may have found “their earthly stock of hatred and antipathy transmuted into golden love” (p.153). Therefore, there is a possibility that Chillingworth forgives Dimmesdale within the time between Dimmesdale’s death and his own death. He also earns the punishment by sleeping under the grave with the dishonored character “A” with Hester.

Finally, while it seems undeniable that Roger Chillingworth is a villain who commits a sin that Hawthorne regards as unpardonable, many factors prove that he was not purely evil, indicating his salvation in the end. If even one of the characters in the story could notice the devil in Chillingworth as just one of many aspects of him, the seemingly pessimistic conclusion of the story would be significantly different, and the same applies to Hawthorne’s contemporary readers. We tend to judge people just by looking at a few aspects of them. The distorted image of

people, for better or worse, causes misunderstanding, forming obstacles in social relationships. If we are careful enough to reconsider our impression of people as reflecting not the whole picture but fragments of them, we will have a broader perspective on others and thereby the world can change the narrative of our life totally. Just as the letter A goes through metamorphosis in the romance, so Chillingworth has the alchemic power to transform the whole narrative of The Scarlet Letter.

References

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1850). The Scarlet Letter. Ed. Leland S. Person. New York.: Norton, 2017. Iriko, Fumiko (1995). 「 Chillingworthのゆくえ最終章を読む」. 『英⽂学研究』. 71巻, 8-9. Retrieved from: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/elsjp/71/2/71_KJ00006942969/_pdf/-char/ja Takaba, Junko (2007). “A Study of The Scarlet Letter Chillingworth and His Alchemistic Transfigurations .” Nihon University, Graduate School of Social and Cultural Studies, October 31, 2007. Retrieved from: https://gssc.dld.nihon-u.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/journal/ pdf08/8-303-314-takaba.pdf

ZHANG, Bao-cang (2020). “A Tentative Defense for the Villain Roger Chillingworth in The Scarlet Letter.” Journal of Literature and Art Studies, July 2020, Vol. 10, No. 7, 575-583. doi: 10.17265/2159-5836/2020.07.008

The Spectrum of Discrimination in The Scarlet Letter

Mayuka Kitada Keio Academy of New York

Reading Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter (1850) for the Headmaster’s Book Club, we discussed how this romance novel could be related to institutional racism, violence, and slavery. Just like Hester Prynne, the heroine of The Scarlet Letter was stigmatized by being forced to wear the letter “A” on her dress, likewise, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a backlash against Asians, which was exacerbated by comments made by political leaders in the United States. These comments, such as “Wuhan virus” and “Chinese virus,” created a dangerous Anti-Asian stigma.

The number of anti-Asian hate crimes has drastically increased due to the spread of the coronavirus and anti-Asian rhetoric (Inside Edition 2021). On September 27, 2020, Mr. Tadataka Unno, a distinguished Japanese jazz pianist, became the victim of an Anti-Asian hate crime and suffered a complex fracture of his right shoulder with the devastating news that he might never be able to play the piano again. Our family got a mail from the Consulate General of Japan regarding this news. That was when I truly felt that being Asian in this country is not easy and that hate crimes against Asian are becoming more prevalent. I have lived in Westchester County for over six years and feel a sense of belonging. However, this brutal attack took place just twenty miles away from here. Anti-Asian hate crimes increased by 339 percent in 2021 compared to 2020 (Yam 2022). My family once went to a nearby park and saw a kid running toward us and screaming, “dangerous yellow!” Now, I feel a little anxious when walking past strangers. New faces make me wonder whether or not they like Asians.

The Scarlet Letter alludes to discrimination in the introduction called “The Custom-House.” There, the author Hawthorne tells of his ancestors’ misdeeds: persecution of the Quakers and people accused of witchcraft. Hawthorne states, “At all events, I, the present writer, … hereby take shame upon myself for their [my ancestors] sakes” (Hawthorne 2017). If the Salem witch trial in 1642 was unjustly caused by sexism, Hawthorne, who felt guilty about his ancestors’ misdeeds, may have wanted to relieve himself from the guilt by writing The Scarlet Letter. In this sense, The Scarlet Letter could be considered the author’s attempt to discourage discrimination and persecution.

Looking at Hawthorne’s other writings, such as “The Birthmark” and “Young Goodman Brown,” it is noticeable that he examines symbolism and markedness. If a subject has an extraordinary element attached to him/her, it is considered “marked.” For example, during the Biden Presidency, Kamala Harris became the first black, Asian-American female vice president. Since this is not the universal image of a typical vice president, her unique attributes make Kamala Harris “marked.” Hester Prynne, the heroine of The Scarlet Letter, is marked as an adulteress and a heretic in the Puritan society of the 1700s. As Hawthorne himself indicates, Hester is like reallife Anne Hutchinson, who was ostracized from society because she sought religious freedom. To

generalize the idea, Hester Prynne represents whoever is ostracized from society. The whole story relates to discrimination or oppression that endures in society today. Hawthorne very skillfully concealed deep within the novel numerous themes of discrimination such as racism, sexism, and even ageism dominant in Puritan America in the 17th century. His gothic romance is not out of date even now. We still confront horrible discrimination and oppression.

Hawthorne gave the scarlet letter “A” multiple meanings and dared to be ambiguous about what the scarlet letter symbolizes. The author showed that its meaning could change over time.

Though the main meaning of “A” was ‘adultery’, today we recognize “A” for possibly meaning ‘Atlantic,’ ‘ambiguity,’ or even ‘abolition.’ However, I would like to propose another idea in this paper, A as ‘Asian’. How is Hester Prynne similar to Asians?

During the pandemic, Asian skin color became a symbol of a virus for some people. Frequently, our skin color has created many stereotypes. Perpetual foreigner stereotyping, such as “So where are you really from?,” is a common one that perceives Asians as outsiders and aliens even if they are native-born or naturalized. The Model Minority myth, such as “You are an Asian. You are supposed to be smart and good at math,” is another famous stereotype Asians have to endure. In the 1960s, after Japanese Americans were released from internment camps, William Petersen used the term “model minority” (Densho 2021). He used it to describe the “success stories” of Asian Americans. During WWII, many Japanese Americans faced discrimination and suspicious eyes. They were considered to be spies of the enemy country. After WWII, they tried to look as harmless as possible and attempted to integrate into American society. As a result, people started to believe Asians as intelligent, hardworking, obedient, and respectful. However, in reality, Asians have the most significant income gap of any racial group (Palmer, n.d.). Since Chinese immigrants came to the US looking for job opportunities, Asian hate has existed and continues to this day. And now, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Asian community in the US sees hatred towards them increasing. The tragedy of the Atlanta Spa Shootings sent shockwaves through the Asian community. That was not the end of the story. We were horrified by the news of other Anti-Asian hate crimes, including two brutal killings in New York City.

Not only do sensational incidents make people of Asian descent suffer, but also verbal violence and the unwelcoming atmosphere afflict them daily. The hashtag #IAmNotAVirus, originally started by French Asians, has been globally used (García 2020). Using the hashtag, Lisa WoolRim Sjöblom, an activist, has posted illustrations of the Anti-Asian hate issue. She shares the story of her son saying to her partner, who is Caucasian, “Look around you. There are only three people here who look different and that’s me and my sister and mama. Everybody else looks like you. And I wish that I could look like you” (García 2020). Due to discrimination, many Asians tend to develop internal feelings of inferiority toward white people. Just as Sjöblom stated, “It isn’t actually about skin color. It’s about the whole idea of what whiteness is and the privileges it gives you if you’re white” (García 2020).

Even after 172 years, Hawthorne’s theme in The Scarlet Letter is relevant to our contemporary society. In the beginning, the A of the scarlet letter means ‘adultery’ and symbolizes Hester’s sin

in the Puritan community. Hester wears the letter as punishment and a reminder of her sin. However, as the story continues, this A transforms into ‘able.’ Hester is later seen as helpful in the community. The story of The Scarlet Letter reveals that our perceptions change over time. Due to the pandemic, Asian skin has represented a virus and something abhorrent for some people. In white society, our skin color represented a “model minority” to a “virus.” At this point, we cannot fail to note that Hawthorne finds in Hester’s nature “a rich, voluptuous, Oriental characteristic (p.55). Then, isn’t A for Asians from the beginning? Reading The Scarlet Letter now in the 21st century, I only hope that the Asian skin color will represent something good in the future, not a symbol of shame.

References

Densho (2021). “Inventing the “Model Minority”: A Critical Timeline and Reading List.” Densho. https://densho.org/catalyst/inventing-the-model-minority-a-critical-timeline-andreading-list/.

García, Stephanie (2020). “'I am not a virus.' How this artist is illustrating coronavirus-fueled racism.” PBS. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/arts/i-am-not-a-virus-how-this-artist-is-illustratingcoronavirus-fueled-racism.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (2017). The Scarlet Letter and Other Writings: Authoritative Texts, Contexts, Criticism. Edited by Leland S. Person. N.p.: W.W. Norton.

Inside Edition (2021). “NYC Pianist Tadataka Unno Returns to Stage After Being Told He Wouldn't Play Again Following Subway Attack.” Inside Edition. https://www.insideedition.com/nyc-pianist-tadataka-unno-returns-to-stage-after-being-told-hewouldnt-play-again-following-subway.

Palmer, Mark (2022) “The Model Minority Myth.” The Practice. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://thepractice.law.harvard.edu/article/the-model-minority-myth/.

Yam, Kimmy (2022). “Anti-Asian hate crimes increased 339 percent nationwide last year, report says.” NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/anti-asian-hate-crimesincreased-339-percent-nationwide-last-year-repo-rcna14282.

The Scarlet Letter and Women’s Role in Counseling

Momoko Takahara Keio Academy of New York

Introduction

Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter (1850) ends with the scene where the heroine Hester Prynne conducts counseling for a number of women, “as best she might” (p.155). This scene reminds me of the evident increase in demands for counseling and mental therapy services across the world in recent years. According to a survey conducted by the American Psychological Association (APA), over 84% of psychologists who treated anxiety disorders said they have seen an increase in demand for anxiety treatment, compared to 60% in pre-pandemic 2020. The pandemic has highlighted the importance of mental well-being amongst individuals, and also brought the counseling profession under spotlight.

Although the counseling field has become greatly popular recently, the practice itself has existed since long before, including indications of such activities in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter (1850). This paper will briefly go over the history of counseling such as those described in The Scarlet Letter, as well as explain the significance of the roles women play in the field of counseling.

The History of Counseling

Counseling -- or the idea of what is now described as “counseling” --is said to have originated from the idea of psychoanalysis, which was developed by German neurologist Sigmund Freud in the 1890s. Freud’s psychoanalysis was “a method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior” (McLeod, 2018). Counseling became more mainstream in the 1940s and 50’s due to the aftermath of World War Two. In 1951, the APA established the “Counseling and Psychology Division,” which defined counseling as a profession. In 1954 the first issue of the academic journal The Counseling Psychology was published, followed by the journal The Counseling Psychologist published in 1964. Since then to modern day, counseling has been recognized as a major profession in the United States, and in other countries as well.

However, although counseling was acknowledged as a profession for the first time in 1946, the act of counseling had already been around decades prior. The APA Dictionary of Psychology defines “counseling” as “professional assistance in coping with personal problems, including emotional, behavioral, vocational, marital, educational, rehabilitation, and life-stage (e.g., retirement) problems.” Activities that fit under this same definition are said to have taken place since early tribal times, where people would come together in a group and share their experiences and sometimes their dreams. In addition, as civilization developed, religion offered a type of counseling, usually by priests who would listen and advise parishioners on their problems (A Brief History of Counseling). The act of counseling prior to 1946 can also be seen in The Scarlet Letter, where it is written that “Such helpfulness was found in her, - so much power to do, and power to sympathize, - that many people refused to interpret the scarlet A by its original

signification. They said that it meant Able; so strong was Hester Prynne, with a woman’s strength” (p.99). The fact that The Scarlet Letter was written about a century before the establishment of the counseling profession by the APA, signifies how the practice has existed already back then.

Significance of Women in the Counseling Field

According to a study conducted by Tytti Artkoski and Pekka Saarnio, female therapists tend to be significantly more positive towards clients than male therapists. In addition, other findings have shown that male mental health professionals indicate more stereotypical attitudes towards clients than do females (Aslin, 1977).

From the above information, it can be expected that women have a tendency of doing better in the counseling profession -- and in fact, The Scarlet Letter also demonstrates the aptitude women (in this case Hester Prynne) have at the profession.

It is written in The Scarlet Letter that “Women, more especially, - in the continually recurring trials of wounded, wasted, wronged, misplaced, or erring and sinful passion, - or with the dreary burden of a heart unyielded, because unvalued and unsought - came to Hester’s cottage, demanding why they were wretched, and what the remedy! Hester comforted and counseled them, as best as she might” (p.155). This practice by Hester shows her abilities as a counselor, and also demonstrates the way women connect with each other as a social group through the act of counseling. The Scarlet Letter further notes: “She [Hester] assured them, too, of her firm belief, that, at some brighter period, when the world should have grown ripe for it, in Heaven’s own time, a new truth would be revealed, in order to establish the whole relation between man and woman on a surer grounder of mutual happiness” (p.155).

Examples of Hester comforting others in The Scarlet Letter, as well as studies on female counselors both indicate the significance of the positive role females play in the mental health field. Furthermore, through counseling, many females have demonstrated the ability to come together as a social group, empowering their gender role in society.

Conclusion

With the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, the demand for counseling is now greater than ever before. From the examples of Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letter, as well as from research conducted by many, it can be clearly stated that women have played a significant role -- and continues to play a significant role today, in counseling their community members, as well as encouraging and promoting mental wellness of others. the encouragement and promotion of mental wellness. Although it was only in the postwar years that counseling became a major profession, the ability to listen to others and confront one another has always been cherished within social groups for centuries. It is essential that we continue to respect and appreciate these activities and take part in them whenever possible; not only for our own benefit, but to provide and contribute to the communities in which we reside, following in the footsteps of Hester Prynne.

APA Dictionary of Psychology (2002). American Psychological Association. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://dictionary.apa.org/counseling.

Artkoski, Tytti, and Pekka Saarnio (2013). “Therapist's Gender and Gender Roles: Impact on Attitudes toward Clients in Substance Abuse Treatment.” Journal of addiction. Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 2013. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4008091/.

Aslin, Alice L. (1977). “Feminist and Community Mental Health Center Psychotherapists' Expectations of Mental Health for Women - Sex Roles.” SpringerLink. Kluwer Academic Publishers-Plenum Publishers, December 1977. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/ BF00287837.

“A Brief History of Counseling - Counseling Tutor.” (2021). Counseling Tutor, September 14, 2021. https://counsellingtutor.com/history-of-counselling/.

“Demand for Mental Health Treatment Continues to Increase, Say Psychologists.” (2021). American Psychological Association, October 19, 2021. https://www.apa.org/news/press/ releases/2021/10/mental-health-treatment-demand.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1850). The Scarlet Letter. Ed. Leland S. Person. New York: Norton, 2017.

Kanahara, Shunsuke (2014). “The Influence of the Concept and Attitude Counseling-mind on Japan’s Student Guidance and Educational Counseling Focusing on the Negative Issues.” Faculty of Contemporary Social Studies Nagasaki Wesleyan University, December 1, 2014.

Mcleod, Saul (1970) “Sigmund Freud's Theories.” Simply Psychology, January 1, 1970. https:// www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html.

Sheppard, Glenn (2022). “What Is Counseling a Search for a Definition? - Homepage CCPA.” Notebook on Ethics, Legal Issues, and Standards for Counselors. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://www.ccpa-accp.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/NOE.What-is-Counselling-A-Search-fora-Definition.pdf.

Tadokoro, Katsuyoshi (2018). “Identity Formation as a Professional Counselor: History and Definition of Counseling.” Sakushin Gakuin University Bulletin, March 2018. https://core.ac.uk/ download/pdf/234769823.pdf.

Contrastive Analysis and Pedagogical Applications for Japanese University English Language Learners

Christopher D.M. de Lozier Keio Academy of New York English Department

Introduction

English language learning classrooms and their constituent learner populations come in a variety of shapes and sizes. As teachers, investigating the linguistic and cultural backgrounds of the learners in one’s classroom can aid in curriculum planning by identifying key differences and similarities between the learners’ L1 and English and isolating the particular areas where students may have advantages or disadvantages.

In this paper, I will perform a contrastive analysis on a typical first year Japanese co-ed liberal arts university EFL classroom and its learners’ writing, sound and syntactic systems to identify some key similarities and differences between the learners’ L1 and English. To each system I will then suggest a classroom activity as a pedagogical application to address difficulties.

Learner Population

The demographics of the Japanese university classroom are remarkably homogeneous. This due to the fact that out of 127,298,000 residents, only 1.6% are foreign born (Statistics Japan, 1996). With regard to age demographics, Japan places a clear distinction between two stages in life, the learning stage prior to early adulthood and the work stage after schooling (Ogden, 2010). This distinction is the reason we see almost no adult students in a university classroom. The result is that a first year Japanese university classroom, EFL included, is filled completely with 18-yearold native Japanese speaking boys and girls, and within a liberal arts university classroom, there are usually many more girls than boys. These recent graduates from high school have a nearly uniform level of proficiency that only ranges from low to high beginner with regard to language reception, production, and vocabulary and grammar skills. As a result of socio-cultural conditioning and mundane test preparation based English language learning in secondary schools, Japanese first year university ELL’s have often grown weary of English and, except for some outliers, are nearly uniform in their assumption that it is a very difficult, rule-bound language that they are genetically predestined not to learn. Nevertheless, the Japanese Ministry of Education stipulates that every student is required to take at least two semesters of English.

Introduction to the L1 - Japanese

The Japanese language is the singular national language and thoroughly diffused lingua franca of all of Japan. Japanese has been standardized so much so that at 99%, Japan’s literacy rate is one of the highest in the world and with a Greenberg Diversity Index rating of .035 it is one of the least linguistically diverse countries in the world. (Ethnologue, 2015) (Lieberson,1981) (UNESCO, 2015). Outside of Japan, a small but not insignificant diaspora of Japanese speakers

exists, largely in Hawaii, and other major urban centers in Mainland USA. There are many different dialects, or hōgen, in Japan carried over from the Sengoku period when Japan was a still a divided and warring island. These dialects are a source of pride and local identity but they exist along side the standardized form of Japanese and do not interfere with effective communication.

The Japanese Writing System Contrastive Analysis

Excepting Romaji, a borrowed form of the English alphabet, the Japanese language has two native writing systems. The first system is a phonologically opaque, meaning-based writing system known as kanji and the second is a phonologically transparent, sound-based writing system known as kana (Cook & Bassetti, 2005).

Kanji are borrowed Chinese characters (graphemes). Each character is endowed with an implicit morpheme or unit of meaning. A single character can be verbalized in Japanese in either its onyomi, or Chinese derived sound, or its kun-yomi, the traditional Japanese meaning based sound, giving rise to multiple readings depending on context, thousands of homophones and when put together to form larger concepts, a confusing array of permutations of readings that even native speaking Japanese have a difficult time reading and writing them.

The two kana writing systems, hiragana and katakana, roughly similar to English upper and lower case letters, are phonologically transparent writing systems that represent the 48 signs of the Japanese syllabary. Apart from simply acting as syllabic building blocks for words, kana also serve as case particles and the many inflective affixes to morphemic stems.

Traditional Japanese is written in columns from top to bottom and proceeding from right to left. Books, magazines and newspapers begin at what the English world would consider the back and paginate to the front. This pattern continues today, although in business and other settings, Japanese writing oftentimes follows the same pattern as English writing.

In contrast to Brown et. al’s (2014) description of spoken language as ‘the’ language, with the written form being a rough derivation of the spoken, Coulmas (1989) explains that the Japanese language has been so “thoroughly influenced by the way it came to be written” that the written form is commonly considered to be primary. Though it has been simplified to a great extent, the intricacy of Japanese orthography, especially kanji, can still be seen as …”so complex it needs the aid of another system [kana] to explain it” (Sansom, 1928).

The Japanese writing system is so remarkably different from the English writing system that one can almost say there are no similarities at all. Where similarities do exist, differences still abound to the extent that knowledge and expertise of Japanese writing lends probably no help in acquiring skills in English writing.

Addressing the Difficulties

Due primarily to its diffusion through advertising Japanese ELLs have little problem becoming acquainted with English orthography (Thompson, 2001). By the time students arrive at university, other than higher order punctuation and paragraph structure rules, ELLs have already practiced most basic orthographic skills so that we rarely find a student that has any particular difficulties. Still students do indeed struggle with some English orthographic conventions, for example, singular and plural possessives and the use of the apostrophe.

Andrade & Evans (2013) point out that in a foreign language classroom “each learner is surrounded by individuals who can serve as respondents to a learner’s” writing. These authors suggest a self-regulated approach for responding more effectively to second language writing. Peer feedback sessions can be structured in such as way as to provide both the reader and writer with opportunities to learn from mistakes. After learners are made explicitly aware of the rules and conventions governing the apostrophe, students can respond to question prompts that elicit a writing sample rich in singular and plural possessives, share their productions with their peers and review their usages.

Japanese Phonology Contrastive Analysis

At the heart of Japanese phonology is its syllabary, which consists of 48 base syllables, or what Crystal (2006) might more accurately call ‘morae’. The structure of the syllabary is rather simple with 5 vowel sounds [a, i, u, ɛ, o] that either stand alone or can be combined with roughly 15 consonants to produce syllabic sounds such as [k]+[a]= [ka] as in kanji and [ts]+[u]=[tsu] as in tsunami. With a few diacritic modifications available to each syllable, these sounds form the basis of Japanese phonetics.

The similarities and differences between the sound systems of English and Japanese originate with the presence and absence of similar and different sounds in each other’s phonology. When certain phonemes are present in both languages’ phonologies and are articulated in nearly identical fashion, Japanese ELLs have little or no problem with pronunciation. There are in fact many sounds that do and for this reason, Japanese ELLs do not have as many pronunciation issues as other ELLs whose L1 sound systems might have fewer similarities with English.

Where Japanese ELLs do have problems is when phonemes do not coexist. Some notable examples are the labiodental and interdental fricatives /f, v, θ, ð/ and the voiced alveolar flap /ɾ/. Students also have issues with the voiced alveolar and alveolar lateral liquids /l/ and /r/. When vocalizing these /l/ and /r/ phonemes, unpracticed Japanese ELLs tend either to overdo it or reverse their usage, leading to vocal expressions such as /sari/ for Sally and /rəlen/ for Lauren. This problem extends into writing also as students tend to reverse the /l/ and /r/ phonemes in the cognitive writing process thus causing spelling mistakes. However, the biggest problem is what is commonly referred to as ‘katakana English’. This is the practice of aspirating the ending consonant of every word. Words like, ‘stop’ are tail-end aspirated with a /pu/ syllable, as in / stopu/, and ‘shirt’ is given an extra /tsu/ syllable, resulting in a plural sounding ‘shirts’.

Addressing the Difficulties

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is very useful in addressing pronunciation issues. Online computer programs such as EnglishCentral.com have been proven to increase students’ phonetic skills by listening to students recorded voices, analyzing their pronunciation patterns, identifying their weak areas and automatically cueing listening and speaking activities that address those particular weaknesses (Kimura, 2013). As we move deeper into the information age, CALL is an indispensible tool for English language learning.

Syntax Contrastive Analysis

There are myriad differences between English and Japanese syntax, but two major differences stand out: word order and verb conjugation. In contrast to the English language’s Subject-VerbObject (SVO) word ordering system, the syntactic structure of the Japanese language is ‘loosely’ governed by a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) system. While English sentences, in most cases, must adhere to strict ordering for meaning to be successfully transferred, Japanese sentences do not. Other than the general restriction that the verb be placed last in the sentence, in Japanese, the subject-object (SO) word order often seems random, not adhering to its typical SOV word order. This syntactic phenomenon is called scrambling (Saito, 1992). While scrambling of English sentences is ungrammatical and leads to miscommunication, scrambling of Japanese sentences is in fact grammatical and causes no confusion as the meanings are reconciled by case particles. These case particles, は(ha), を(wo), に(ni), で(de) and が(ga), indicate who, as the subject of the sentence, is doing what, as the direct object, where, as the preposition and to whom, as the indirect object, (Tsujimura, 1996).

Owing to the agglutinative nature of Japanese, conjugation of Japanese verbs relies on a sequence of inflectional affixes to alter tense mood and aspect (Spencer, 1991). While similarities in usage do indeed exist, in the form of gerunds and participles for example that pose no particular problems for learners, Japanese conjugation differs greatly from the English system of conjugation that uses an equally if not more complex combination of inflectional affixes, auxiliaries and modals to alter tense mood and aspect.

Word order and verb conjugation are the main reasons Japanese ELLs consider the English language to be so strictly rule-bound and very difficult to learn. The flexibility the Japanese language offers with regard to ordering (as well as other unique conventions such as the implied subject), and the near complete difference in rules for verb conjugation results in awkwardly scrambled sentences, inappropriate usage of auxiliaries and modals and a lack of communication.

Addressing the Difficulties

Explicit instruction in sentence structure, parts of speech and verb conjugation is necessary to give students a foundation on which they can begin to create English sentences correctly. At the lowest of levels, students can work in groups with sample subject, verb, direct and indirect object

cards to practice the most basic of word ordering. Adjective and adverb modifier cards can be introduced gradually to increase sentence complexity.

Reading materials that lend themselves to certain verb tenses, moods and aspects can be introduced at gradual intervals as well as verb conjugation exercises. Students could read sample sentences, paragraphs or longer stories, identify the subjects, objects, verbs and verb structures, then write similar sentences or stories themselves, responding to question prompts that lead to particular type of sentences, for example, ‘What did you do yesterday?’ or ‘What are the people doing?’ when describing a picture. The students could share these sentences with others in the class as a peer review activity, giving both writer and reader more opportunity to find mistakes and learn from them.

Conclusion

Used in much the same way as a needs analysis, a contrastive analysis of a discrete group of ELLs’ L1 and English can help to identify a set of problem areas unique to that particular group. Once identified, ESL/EFL teachers can structure pedagogical activities to target those problem areas in a much more effective, efficient and strategic fashion.

After performing a contrastive analysis on a typical first year co-ed Japanese liberal arts university EFL classroom, some critical similarities and differences between Japanese and English were identified. Structured lessons that include peer reviewed writing sessions, and CALL are suggested as pedagogical applications to address those difficulties.

References

Andrade, M. & Evans, N. (2013) Principles and practices for response in second language writing. New York: Routledge.

Cook, V. & Bassetti, B. (2005). An introduction to researching second language writingsystems In V. Cook and B. Bassetti (Eds.) Second language writing systems (pp.1-69). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Coulmas, F. (1989). The writing systems of the world. Oxford: Blackwell.

Crystal, D. (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Ethnologue (2015). Linguistic diversity of countries in the world. [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/country

Statistics Japan (2015) Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Japan. [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/nenkan/1431-02.htm

Kimura, T. (2013). “Improvement of EFL learners’ speaking proficiency with a web-based CALL system.” Paper presented at WorldCALL 2013: Global Perspectives on ComputerAssisted Language Learning. Glasgow: Retrieved from http://www.arts.ulster.ac.uk/ worldcall2013/userfiles/file/shortpapers.pdf

Lieberson, S. (1981). Language diversity and language contact. Stanford University Press.

Ogden, A. (2010). “A brief overview of lifelong learning in Japan.” The Language Teacher, 34 (6). Retrieved from file:///Users/deLozier/Downloads/art1%20(2).pdf

Saito, M. (1992). “Long distance scrambling in Japanese.” Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 1, 69-118.

Sansom, G. (1928). An historical grammar of Japanese. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Spencer, A. (1991). Morphological Theory. Oxford: Blackwell

Thompson, I. (2001). “Japanese speakers.” In Swan, M. & Smith, B. (Eds.), Learner English: A teacher's guide to interference and other problems (296-309). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tsujimura, N. (1996). An introduction to Japanese linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. UNESCO. (2015). EFA Global Monitoring Report. [Data file] Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/uil/ litbase/?menu=14&programme=131

Research Thesis Summary: Peer Tutoring in The Secondary Classroom

Ed Consolati Keio Academy of New York Social Studies Department

Peer Tutoring- What Is it?

Definition: Peer tutoring is an educational strategy through which students teach each other. Peer tutoring occurs whenever a more academically successful student helps a lower achieving student (Rekrut, 1994).

At the secondary level, peer tutoring is described as a situation where fellow students assist their educationally disadvantaged peers (tutees) in attaining grade-level proficiency in basic skills by assisting with homework, providing instruction, and fostering good study habits (Pringle, 1993)

Review of Previous Research

Here are a few of the studies that supported the effectiveness of peer tutoring:

Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, Simmons, 1996: Elementary and middle school students in reading programs with and without learning disabilities.

Fuchs, Fuchs, Betz, 1994: Elementary school students in math classes.

Fantuzzo, King, Heller, 1992: Elementary school at-risk students in math classes.

Cosden, Pearl, Bryan, 1985: Elementary and middle school learning disabled and nonlearning disabled students in reading classes.

Greenwood, Delaquadri, Hall, 1989: Elementary students in reading and math. This was an interesting study because it lasted four years. A major limitation was that only 182 of the original 416 finished the study.

Allsopp, 1997: Middle school students in math with one-third of the sample population identified as at-risk.

Rekrut, 1994: High school students in an urban school where the majority of the sample population were minorities. Reading skills were emphasized.

Maheady, Sacca, Harper, 1987: Urban high school students in a math program. Many of the students were identified as minorities and/or learning disabled.

Allen, Devin-Sheehan, Feldman, 1976: This research was a meta-analysis that reviewed many of the earliest studies regarding peer tutoring. One of studies examined was a watershed study conducted by Cloward in 1967. This study was one of the first to gauge the effectiveness of peer tutoring programs.

Cohen, Kulik, Kulik, 1982: This meta-analysis examined 52 peer tutoring programs. In 45 of these programs that peer tutoring had positive benefits for the students involved.

In summarizing the review of literature, it can be stated that peer tutoring has proven to help a diverse group of students at the elementary and secondary levels. Groups that have statistically

been proven to benefit from peer tutoring include low-SES, ESL, mildly LD, and at-risk students. The subject content in which peer tutoring has been used to improve academic performance includes English and Math. Improvements in these subjects were not only seen in basic skills, but also in higher-order thinking skills.

The common trait in all of these studies is that they all had a structured peer tutoring program.

Methodological Design

Goal: To explore an area of peer tutoring that remained uncharted. The study examined the effectiveness of a structured peer tutoring strategy on an ESL population at the secondary level in a Social Studies class.

Setting: Keio Academy of New York, a bilingual and bicultural Japanese secondary boarding school. Upon graduation, all students are automatically enrolled in the prestigious Keio University System.

Time: The entire second quarter

Sample Population: Experimental Group: Section One with 24 students Control Group: Section Two with 24 students

The experimental group received peer tutoring sessions which took place on average of twice a week for twenty minutes. Tutors were selected based on TOEFL test scores and past academic performance. Tutors were trained and provided with basic educational strategies on how to be an effective tutor. During the in-class tutoring sessions, the teacher’s role was to facilitate and provide support.

The control group: during this study, did not receive any peer tutoring instruction and instead had independent assignments or teacher lead instruction.

Academic performance was monitored by comparing pretests, midterm tests and exams in World History. The curriculum, instructional time, and teacher were all constant between the two sections.

Results and Analysis

The chi square test was used to analyze the change in Section One’s scores from first to second quarter. X2 was 4.55 and was determined to be significant at one df: .05<p<.01. Chi square was also used to monitor the change in Section Two’s scores from first to second quarter. X2 was .16 and was not determined to be significant at one df: .7<p<.5. There was a statistical difference between the results of Section One and Two at the end of the second quarter. The chi square analysis showed that the number of individual students that improved in Section One was statistically significant when compared to Section Two’s results. The data analysis confirmed the author’s hypothesis that a structured peer tutoring program involving ESL in a social studies classroom can have a significant impact on academic performance in the secondary classroom.

Limitations and Future Recommendations

The sample was unrepresentative of the larger population. These students rely on extensive cooperation in academic, social, and athletic events. Strong Japanese communal ties are magnified at Keio Academy because it is an isolated overseas boarding school. Individual ambitions many times are sacrificed for the peer group. These communal impulses do not exist as strongly in American society and may enhance the outcomes of a well-structured peer tutoring program. This sense of community automatically gives a peer tutoring program a natural chance for success at Keio Academy. This limitation follows Webb’s (1988) claim that a shared cultural background increases the likelihood that students will benefit from tutoring.

Future researchers should track students over a multi-year period and across various academic subjects at the secondary level to monitor the long-term effects of tutoring. Also, a sample size larger than the 48 used in the study would eliminate any statistical swings that a few students’ scores might exert on the analysis. Finally, future studies should conduct a component analysis to better understand why peer tutoring tends to be a successful educational strategy.

Conclusions

As public schools across the country become increasingly diverse, educational strategies such as classroom peer tutoring programs will be of increased importance. This study conducted with an ESL population provides solid evidence that a structured peer tutoring program can have an immediate and significant impact on academic achievement at the secondary level.

References

Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, Simmons (1996). Peer Assisted Learning Strategies: Making Classrooms More Responsive to Diversity. US Department of Education.

Fuchs, Fuchs, Betz, Phillips, Hamlet (Spring 1994). “The Nature of Student Interactions During Peer Tutoring With & Without Prior Training & Experience.” American Educational Research Journal, vol. 31, no. 1., pp. 75-103.

Fantuzzo, King, Heller (1992). “Effects of Reciprocal Peer Tutoring on Mathematics & School Adjustment: A component Analysis.” Journal of Educational Psychology, vol.84., pp. 331-339.

Cosden, Pearl, Bryan (October 1985). “The Effects of Cooperative & Individual Goal Structures on Learning Disabled & Nondisabled Students.” Exceptional Children, pp. 103-105.

Greenwood, Delaquadri, Hall (1989). “Longitudinal Effects of Classwide Tutoring.” Journal of Educational Psychology, vol 81, no. 3., pp. 371-383.

Allsopp (1997). “Using Classwide Peer Tutoring to Teach Beginning Algebra Problem-Solving Skills in Heterogeneous Classrooms.” Remedial & Special Education, vol. 18., pp. 367-379.

Rekrut (February 1994). “Peer & Cross Age Tutoring”: The Lessons of Research. Journal of Reading, PP. 356-362.

Maheady, Sacca, Harper (1987). “Classwide Student Tutoring Teams: The Effects of PeerMediated Instruction on the Academic Performance of Secondary Mainstreamed Students.” The Journal of Special Education, vol. 21, no 3., pp. 107-121.

Allen, Devin-Sheehan, Feldman (Summer 1976). “Research on Children Tutoring Children: A Critical Review.” Review of Educational Research, vol. 46, no. 3., pp. 355-385.

Cohen, Kulik, Kulik (1982). “Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings.” American Educational Research Journal, vol. 19, no. 2., pp. 237-248.

Webb (1988). Peer Helping Relationships in Urban Schools. ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. Retrieved September 2001 from: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ ed289949.html/

Learning Japanese History Abroad

Fumiko Kikuchi

Keio Academy of New York Department of Social Studies

At Keio Academy of New York, 10th grade students will study world history, 11th grade students will study American history, and Japanese history, politics, economy, and civics will be studied in the 12th grade. What are the advantages of studying Japanese history abroad?

Recently, it has been said “to teach Japanese history from the perspective of world history", but for that purpose, it is necessary to take a bird's-eye view of the world including Japan. Students who have lived abroad for a long time and whose foreign country is Japan have an objective perspective on Japan, but even students who leave Japan for the first time must have a bird's-eye view as long as they are abroad. In the sense that international students are ready to study "Japanese history in world history."

Because Japan is an island country in the Pacific Ocean, it was necessary to be recognized by neighboring countries to establish a relationship. In other words, Japan has built its own history while being influenced by changes in the international situation through methods such as subordination, aggression, war, and study abroad. Therefore, no matter how much I teach in detail what happened only in Japanese history, the true history cannot be understood.

For example, the Yuan (Mongol Empire) attacked during the Kamakura period (13th century), but we do not know about the situation of the Mongol Empire at that time. What was the real purpose of Mongolia, which succeeded in capturing Eurasia, to attack Japan, a small island nation, twice? A Mongolian student said that the history textbook about the Mongol Empire is as thick as one Kojien, a Japanese dictionary. Considering that Mongolia, which organized the vast empire in its own way, brought an end to the Kamakura Shogunate, we realized that we had to know the movement of Eurasian history at that time.

Also, in the 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who was a top leader at that time, wrote a letter to the kings of Spain and Portugal. He demands, "Stop kidnapping Japanese people and selling them as slaves." The four Christian Japanese boys who went to Europe to meet the Pope are also distressed to see the Japanese being enslaved wherever the ship berths.

At that time, Japan began trading with Westerners (mainly Spain and Portugal). Everyone knows that the condition of trade was to accept Christian missionary work. However, at the same time, there was a situation in which the Japanese people were sold overseas as slaves after the trade began. Missionaries also participated in the slave trade, and Spain had the ambition to colonize Japan as it did to other countries. For Japanese leaders at the time, in order to prevent the slave trade and occupation attempts that the king and the pope allowed, the missionaries and believers were burned or tortured as a show to the West. Isn’t it possible to think that Hideyoshi threatened

to the West with a strong attitude that he would invade the Asian countries? Tokugawa Ieyasu had been negotiating with Spain to learn silver processing techniques from Mexico (called Nobispan=Nueva Espana), so he could not embark on a Catholic ban. However, Spain did not allow direct negotiations between Japan and Mexico. That is why Ieyasu decided to shut down the country. He would have been an economic and political decision that it would not be worthwhile to include a problematic foreign country without the provision of technical cooperation. And all the relations with foreign countries were put under the shogunate and continued to control.

By the way, the seclusion itself is not so unnatural. At that time, most countries in Asia were isolated. In other words, the politicians only made the choice of seclusion + local trade in opposition to overseas movements, which I think was a wise choice. However, if you look at the fact of “isolation” from the perspective of Japan alone, it is difficult to see the whole picture. There are many documents outside of Japan, and recently, more and more Japanese scholars are looking up overseas materials by foot, and Japanese slaves in other countries are being tracked. I have also confirmed that there were some Japanese names on the list of slaves in the museum in Jakarta, Indonesia.

Now, regarding the relationship between the United States and Japan, in terms of knowing the situation of the partner country, the relationship between Japan and the United States, especially after the opening of the country with the arrival of Perry in the mid-19th century, must be studied from the perspective of the United States. After the occupation of Japan by the United States, Japan has moved the country in line with the wishes of the United States, especially in terms of politics.

If you read Perry's letter to General Tokugawa at the end of the Edo period, and listen to General MacArthur's speech when Japan signed the instrument of surrender on the battleship Missouri, you can see how the United States think about Japan. Japan reports that the Prime Minister and the President playing golf so that US-Japan relations are going well, but there is no report beyond the fact that the US side has only confirmed that Japan follows the US’s wishes. There is a big gap between them. Students who are accustomed to American English can feel from nuances and facial expressions, not by translation, that there is a power structure. This is an indispensable ability to analyze history.

When discussing the US-Japan issue with national defense in class, the opinion that it is better to trust the United States and continue the peace constitution, and the opinion that the constitution should be amended to form an army considering the economic deterioration of the United States. Conflict. Most of the students assume that it is better to get along with the United States, but as the discussion continues, they reach the consensus that "The Japanese government should be more independent and think on an equal footing with the United States. The time has come to be equal." They are experiencing the importance of communication. People and countries cannot understand unless they have a serious discussion. I call them "stars of hope." Students are

interested in politics, saying that they will always vote when they return home. Students who grew up in the United States may also learn about the United States by studying Japanese history. "Understanding" does not mean to memorize. History cannot really be "understood" without discussion. There are some difficulties in studying abroad at the academy, but it is certain that the future resources needed for Japan are growing.

References

de Souza, Lucio and Oka, Mihoko (2021) Japanese Slaves in the era of Great Voyage, Augmented New Edition. Chuokoron-Shinsho

Hirakawa, Arata (2018). War-time Japan and the Great Voyage Era: Hideyoshi, Ieyasu, Masamune's Diplomacy Strategy. Chuko Shinsho

Matsukata, Fuyuko(2014). The world told to Japan by Dutch. Chuko Shinsho

Murai, Shosuke (2013). War-time Japan in World History. Chikuma Gakugei Bunko

日本は、太平洋にある島国であるからこそ、周辺国に認識され、関係を結ぶ必要があっ た。言葉を変えれば、従属、侵略、戦争、留学などの方法で、国際情勢の変化に影響さ れながら、日本は自国の歴史を築いてきた。だから、いくら日本社会の中で起こったこ とを細かく教えても、本当の歴史は理解できないのではないかと思う。 例えば、鎌倉時代に元（モンゴル帝国）が攻めてきたが、そのころモンゴル帝国の状況 はどうだったのだろうか。ユーラシアの攻略に成功したモンゴルが、島国の小国日本に 二度も攻撃をしかけた本当の目的はなんだったのだろう。以前在籍したモンゴル人の生 徒が、モンゴル帝国についての歴史教科書は、広辞苑1冊分の厚さがあると言ってい た。広大な帝国を独自な方法でまとめたモンゴルが、結果として鎌倉幕府に終焉をもた らしたことを考えると、当時のユーラシアの歴史の動きを知らなければいけない、と気 づく。 また、16世紀のことになるが、当時為政者であった豊臣秀吉は、スペインやポルトガ ルの国王宛に手紙を出している。「日本人を誘拐して奴隷として売るのをやめろ」と要 求するためだ。ローマ法皇に会うためにヨーロッパに行った天正遣欧使節の少年たち も、船が停泊する先々で日本人が奴隷として働かされているのを見て心を痛めている。 その頃の日本は、西洋人（主にスペインとポルトガル）との交易を始めた。交易の条件 はキリスト教布教であったことは誰もが知ることである。しかし同時に、交易が始まっ てからは日本国民が奴隷として海外に売られるという状況があった。宣教師も奴隷貿易 に加担しており、その上スペインには、他国に対してと同様、日本を植民地化するとい う野心があった。当時の日本の為政者たちとしては、国王や法皇も許す奴隷貿易や占領 の試みを阻止するために、西洋への見せしめとして宣教師や信者を火あぶりにしたり、 拷問したり、秀吉の場合などは、西洋の持つアジア諸国を侵略するぞ、と強い態度で威 嚇した、とは考えられないだろうか。徳川家康は最後までメキシコ（ノビスパン）から 銀の加工技術を学ぼうとスペインと交渉しており、そのため、カトリックの禁教に踏み 出せなかった。[JH1] しかしスペインは日本とメキシコの直接交渉を許可しなかった。 だから家康は鎖国に踏み切った。技術協力の提供もないのに、問題のある外国を入れる のは割に合わない、という経済的政治的な判断であったろう。そして海外との関係はす べて幕府の下に置いてコントロールを続けた。 ちなみに、鎖国自体はさほど不自然なものではない。当時、アジアではほとんどの国が 鎖国していた。つまり、為政者たちは、海外の動きに対抗して、鎖国＋局地貿易という 選択をしただけであり、それは賢い選択であったと思うが、日本の視点からだけで見て

いると、その頃の国際的傾向が見えない。資料も日本以外に多くあり、最近は日本の学 者の中にも海外の資料を足で調べる人も増え、他国にいた日本人奴隷の追跡も行なわれ ている。インドネシアの博物館にある奴隷の名簿に日本名がいくつかあったのを私も確 認している。

さて、学院がある米国と日本の関係であるが、相手国（または周辺国）の状況を知ると いう意味では、特にペリー来航で開国してからの日米関係は、米国側の視点なくしては 理解できない。米国による日本占領後は[JH2] 、政治もしかりだが、特に経済面におい て、日本はアメリカの希望にそって国を動かしてきた。 幕末にペリーが江戸の徳川将軍に出した手紙、戦艦ミズーリ上で日本が降伏文書に署名 した時のマッカーサーのスピーチなどに直接触れれば、米国が日本をどう見ていたかが わかる。日本は、首相と大統領はゴルフする仲で、日米関係はうまくいっている、と報 道するが、アメリカ側は、日本が引き続き米国側の国だと確認したという事実以上の報 道はない。その間には大きなギャップがある。米語に慣れ、ニュアンスや表情などから 多くの情報を感じ取ることができる生徒たちは、翻訳ではなく、肌でアメリカを知る。 これが、歴史を分析する上で必要不可欠な能力である。 授業の中で国防と日米問題について話し合った時、米国を信頼して平和憲法を継続する のがいいという意見と、米国の経済悪化を考えると憲法を改正して軍隊を作るべきだと いう意見が対立した。米国とはうまくやっていった方がいいという生徒がほとんどだっ たものの、次第に、「日本の政府はもっと自立し、米国と対等に考えをたたかわせるべ きだし、そういう時代が来ている」との意見で一致した。コミュニケーションの大切さ を彼らは身をもって体験している。人も国も本気で話し合わなければわかりあえない。 私は彼らを「希望の星」と呼んでいるが、生徒たちは、帰国したら必ず投票する、と政 治に興味を示す。米国で育った生徒も、日本史を学ぶことで、逆に米国を知ることもあ る。 「わかる」ということは覚えることではない。歴史的事実であっても話し合ってみなけ れば本当に「わかる」ことはできない。高校で留学して学院生でいるにはそれなりの苦 労はあるが、日本の将来にとって必要な人材が育っているのは確かだろう。

A Sanitation Test at Keio Academy of New York

Michael Kovens Keio Academy of New York Department of Science & Technology

Introduction

During a unit on diversity of life, students learned about bacteria. Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms that can be found almost everywhere on Earth. They can be found on almost every surface and even within our own bodies. Humans have a critical symbiotic relationship with certain bacterial species, such as the gut bacteria that we are dependent on for digestion of our food. Humans have a critical parasitic relationship with other certain species, such as salmonella. Most bacteria, though, humans have a neutral relationship with, or no relationship at all. It is still important, however, to be able to identify areas of prominent bacterial populations to ensure the safety and wellbeing of ourselves and those around us by limiting risk of exposure to pathogenic species.

Bacteria are distinguished from the other prokaryotic organisms, archaea, by the peptidoglycan in their cell walls. The bacteria known as gram-positive have a thick cell wall surrounding their cytoplasmic membrane. The bacteria known as gram-negative have a thin cell wall sandwiched between their cytoplasmic membrane and an additional outer membrane. The names “grampositive” and “gram-negative” come from a staining technique developed by Hans Christian Gram. Gram-positive bacteria more readily absorb the stain, resulting in the bacteria presenting a darker purple color when viewed under the microscope. Gram-negative bacteria do not absorb the stain as easily, resulting in them presenting a lighter pink color when viewed under the microscope. Even though both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria are able to be pathogenic, the outer membrane around gram-negative bacteria acts as an extra layer of defense against, making it more difficult for immune systems to successfully defend an individual from infection. Because of this, most cases of disease are caused by gram-negative bacteria. However, only about 1% of all bacteria are pathogenic.

To demonstrate the spread and abundance of bacteria throughout our lives, students tested various surfaces around Keio Academy of New York’s campus. Cotton swabs were used to collect bacterial samples from the surfaces being examined, which were then transferred onto the nutrient medium known as agar. Colonies were given time to grow before being examined to determine the cleanliness level of the various surfaces. This data was compared among all the students in order to determine which area of the campus is the cleanest, as well as which types of surfaces are the most prone to bacterial growth and which are the least prone. The students developed a wide range of hypotheses, which are collected in Table 1. The most common hypothesis, was that the bathrooms, especially the boy’s bathroom, will be the least sanitary area, and the dining hall will be the most sanitary.

Methods

Students worked in ten teams. Teams chose one of six locations to test, with no more than two teams testing each location. These areas were the second floor girl’s bathroom, the second floor boy’s bathroom, the second floor hallway, the gymnasium, the dining hall, and the biology lab.

HYPOTHESIS

Bathrooms will be the least sanitary areas, the boy’s more so than the girl’s, and the dining hall will be the most sanitary.

Least sanitary surfaces will be those touched the most by human hands.

Places of “garbage” trashcans, sinks, and plates will be least sanitary because bacteria can easily feed and multiply. High contact areas (i.e. – tables, doorknobs) will be most sanitary since cleaners would pay more attention to them.

Bacteria are everywhere, so every tested surface will be unsanitary.

Solid and smooth surfaces will be more sanitary because they are more difficult for bacteria to survive on since they are difficult to stick to. Unsmooth and rough surfaces will be less sanitary because they are easier for bacteria to cling to.

Food and beverage items will be the most sanitary and points of high contact (i.e. – doors, desks, etc.) will be the least sanitary.

# OF STUDENTS

7

3

2

2

1

1 Porous surfaces will be more sanitary than non-porous surfaces because the bacteria may sink into the gaps and create unfavorable conditions, whereas non-porous surfaces won’t absorb the bacteria, providing a better growing environment.

Not a lot of bacteria will be found because everyone uses so much sanitizer from the pandemic

1

1 Carpet will have most bacteria because of all the dirt tracked onto it. Toilets will have the least bacteria because they’re regularly cleaned.

1 Gym, dining hall, and hallway will be the least sanitary because of heavy use and because they are too large of areas to properly clean. Bathrooms and biology lab will be the most sanitary because it is cleaned every day.

Table 1. Summations of student hypotheses

1

Each team selected three surfaces within their area to test for the presence of bacteria. In the girl’s bathroom, the surfaces tested were the wall, a faucet knob, and a toilet seat. In the boy’s bathroom, the surfaces tested were the floor around a toilet, two toilet seats, a sink, a faucet knob, and the doorknob. In the hallway, the surfaces tested were two areas of the wall, the floor, a door, and two areas of the handrail. In the biology lab, the surfaces tested were the floor, the trashcan, and the inside of the faucet of a bench sink. In the dining hall, the surfaces tested were a rack for dirty trays, a chair, a table, a cup, a door, and the button for the milk dispenser. In the

gym, the surfaces tested were two areas of the main floor, the stage floor, the wall, a doorknob, and the rope to workout equipment.

To test a surface for bacteria, a sterile cotton swab was used collect a sample. The swab was swiped across the surface three times. It was then rotated a quarter turn and swiped along the surface another three times. This was repeated two more times to ensure all sides of cotton swab had equal contact with the surface being tested.

Each swab was then streaked across the surface of the agar in a culture plate to transfer any bacteria onto the agar for growth. The first side of the cotton swab was streaked three times along one side of the plate to make a zig zag pattern. The cotton swab and the plate were both turned a quarter turn and another three-streak zig zag was made. This was repeated two more times to ensure that all sides of the cotton swab had equal opportunity to transfer any bacteria onto the agar (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Streaking pattern of culture plates

Culture plates were covered with their lid and turned upside down onto a bleached surface during the experiment. They were lifted and turned over while actively being streaked with cotton swabs and then immediately flipped back upside down onto their lids. This was done to minimize the opportunity for airborne bacterial cells to be introduced to the agar and produce inaccurate results.

Parafilm was used to fully seal the culture plates, which were then placed into an incubator at 35°C for 24 hours. The following day, teams examined the growth of bacterial colonies on their culture plates. The total number of colonies were counted for each plate. In cases of extensive coverage, a colony count was estimated by drawing a square of known size, counting the number

of colonies within that area, and the colony number multiplied by the number of squares that make up the entire area of the culture plate. In cases of extreme coverage, percent area cover was estimated in lieu of individual colony counts.

Results

Size of colonies was highly variable, but only number of colonies was examined, not size. For the most part, the surfaces tested were very clean, with 80% of surfaces growing less than 10 colonies, and 25% of those surfaces (20% total) growing no colonies at all. The highest rates of growth came from the boy’s bathroom, the biology lab, and the dining hall, with the dining hall producing the highest rate of growth, overall. Conversely, the girl’s bathroom, the hallway, and the gym had the lowest rates of growth, with the girl’s bathroom producing the lowest rate of growth, overall (Tables 2-7; Figures 2-7).

SURFACE

# OF COLONIES

Faucet handle 1

Wall 1 Toilet seat 3

Table 2. Colony counts for cultured plates from the girl’s bathroom

Figure 2. Cultured plates from the girl’s bathroom

The girl’s bathroom had only a single colony grow from the faucet handle & wall and three colonies grow from the toilet seat (Table 2; Figure 2). The boy’s bathroom had only 4 colonies grow from the faucet handle and toilet seat, 6 colonies grow from the sink, 9 colonies grow from the floor around the toilet, and 11 colonies grow from the doorknob. The handicapped toilet seat

SURFACE

# OF COLONIES

Faucet handle 4

Toilet seat 4

Sink 6

Toilet floor 9

Doorknob 11

Toilet seat (handicapped) 264

Table 3. Colony counts for cultured plates from the boy’s bathroom

in the boy’s bathroom had the third highest growth rate out of all surfaces tested, with 264 colonies estimated to have grown (Table 3; Figure 3). The hallway had 0 colonies grow from the door, handrail, and wall, however, another section of wall grew 2 colonies and another section of the handrail grew 4 colonies. The floor in the hallway grew 5 colonies (Table 4; Figure 4). The floor in the biology lab had 2 colonies grow and the trash can had 18 colonies grow. The inside of the bench sink’s faucet had the second highest growth rate out of all surfaces tested, with 2,699 colonies estimated to have grown (Table 5; Figure 5). The dining hall had 0 colonies grow

Figure 3. Cultures plates from the boy’s bathroom

SURFACE

Wall

from the button to the milk dispenser, 1 colony grow from the chair, 2 colonies grow from the rack for dirty trays, 3 colonies grow from the table, and 34 colonies grow from the door. The cup had the highest overall growth rate out of all surfaces tested, with the colonies growing to cover around 97% of the agar’s surface. Growth was so extensive, that it was impossible to estimate a discrete value (Table 6; Figure 6). Finally, the gym had 0 colonies grow from the wall and the rope for the workout equipment. The doorknob in the gym grew 2 colonies and both sections of the main floor grew 3 colonies. The floor of the stage had 6 colonies grow (Table 7; Figure 7).

In addition to the bacterial colonies, there were a few instances of fungal growth from the boy’s bathroom, dining hall, and gym. For the boy’s bathroom, fungus was grown from the non-

OF

Table 4. Colony counts for cultured plates from the hallway

Figure 4. Cultured plates from the hallway

SURFACE

OF COLONIES

Floor 2 Trash can 18 Sink 2699

Table 5. Colony counts for cultured plates from the biology lab

handicapped toilet seat (Figure 3). For the dining hall, fungus was grown from the table, the door, and the milk button. It is possible that fungus was grown from the cup, as well, however the total growth is so extensive, it is difficult to identify any fungal growth, specifically (Figure 6). For the gym, fungus was only grown from the stage floor (Figure 7).

Conclusion

To gain a deeper understanding of bacteria and their presence within our environment, students tested various surfaces for the presence of bacteria. While a variety of hypotheses were formed, the majority predicted that surfaces in the (boy’s) bathroom would be the least sanitary,

Figure 5. Cultured plates from the biology lab

compared to the surfaces in the dining hall, which would be the most sanitary. This idea mainly stems from the purpose of each area.

Students chose surfaces they encounter every day from various locations in the school. Samples were taken from the surfaces by swabbing with a sterile cotton swab and transferring any collected bacteria to a culture plate with agar. The next day, the number of bacterial colonies grown on each plate were counted.

SURFACE

# OF COLONIES

Milk button 0

Chair 1 Tray rack 2

Table 3 Door 34 Cup 97% coverage

Table 6. Colony counts for cultured plates from the dining hall

Figure 6. Cultures plates from the dining hall

SURFACE

# OF COLONIES

Wall 0 Workout equipment (rope) 0 door knob 2 Floor (main) 3 Floor (main) 3 Floor (stage) 6

Table 7. Colony counts for cultured plates from the gym

Figure 7. Cultures plates from the gym

Most surfaces were very sanitary, with 80% of surfaces growing less than 10 colonies, and 25% of those surfaces (20% total) growing no colonies at all. The surfaces of biggest concern were the toilet seat in the handicapped stall of the boy’s bathroom, with an estimated 264 colonies grown, the inside of the faucet of a lab bench sink in the biology lab, with an estimated 2699 colonies grown, and a cup from the dining hall, with total growth covering an estimated 97% of the agar. Fungal growth was also observed on at least 17% of the plates.

Therefore, the student’s belief that the bathroom is dirtier than the dining hall was not supported. Almost all samples from both locations were low on growth. The boy’s bathroom did have one surface with very high growth, but the cup from the dining hall had, extensively, the most overall growth.

Of course, these results cannot be taken as true representations of the reality of bacterial presence. Every surface was tested only once. Some surfaces are identified as being tested twice, but the samples were collected by different students at different times, so it cannot be assumed that the samples were taken from the same area of that particular surface. At least 3 samples of each surface taken under conditions that ensure consistency would be needed to fully trust the results. This was also the first time any of the students had done anything like this before, so their technique for sampling and culturing are not practiced, and, therefore, not aseptic. This means that any of the growths, bacterial colonies, or fungal, may have been present in the air, not the tested surface.

For these reasons, it would be ideal to repeat this experiment with proper repetitions, consistency, and technique. However, this experiment still was successful in opening up the student’s eyes to the prevalence of bacteria in their lives.

Language Use and Policy in Japan

Christopher de Lozier Keio Academy of New York English Department

Language Use and Policy in the Japanese Archipelago

Language use and policy are intrinsically bound to ideas of national identity. This is especially so on the Japanese archipelago. From the ancient language purity ideals of Shintoism to the cultural exceptionalism of the ‘economic miracle’, Japan has cultivated a myth of cultural and linguistic homogeneity (eg. Yates, 1986 & “Aso describes Japan”, 2005). Despite this perception, there is in fact a great deal of cultural and linguistic dynamism within Japan. In 2013, Japan set a political course for internationalization with education and language at the vanguard of policy. These progressive policies, however, run head on into historically persistent notions of national homogeneity, uniqueness and superiority and hinder Japan's ability to deal with the complex cultural issues the country faces today (Morinaga, 1995). These policy shortcomings also affirm what Gottlieb (2012) says about formulation and implementation of policy in the real world, that “deep-rooted language ideologies… both overt and hidden” have the potential to disrupt goodintentioned language policies.

The Indigenous Languages of Japan

The Japanese archipelago is considered to have three indigenous languages, Ainu, Japanese and Ryūkyuan (Shibatani, 1990). The Ainu language is a critically endangered language isolate, originally used over much wider areas, but now found primarily only in Hokkaidō. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, forced relocation of the indigenous Ainu people, deliberate government efforts to assimilate them into Japanese culture, and fear of discrimination resulted in decimation of the Ainu people, marginalization of their culture further north and a nearly completed language shift to Japanese. Though difficult to assess, the number of native Ainu speakers at present is believed to be no more than about ten (Paul, Simons, and Fennig, 2015).

The southern most reaches of the Japanese archipelago are a collection of islands populated by the Okinawans. Prior to their annexation to Japan in 1879, these islands were ruled by the Ryūkyuan Kingdom, who spoke the dialectically diverse Ryūkyuan language. In 2013, the Okinawa prefectural population stood at roughly 1.4 million, making the Okinawans the largest ethnic minority in Japan (Japan Statistical Yearbook, 2015). This official statistic is by no means representative of the true number of ethnic Okinawans. Reflecting official sentiments of national homogeneity, census data based on ethnicity in Japan is unavailable. During the period of Japanese nation building in the 20th century, the Ryūkyuans were subjected to forced assimilation and forbidden to use their dialect in school or public life. Students found to be speaking Ryūkyuan for example, were made to wear a hōgen fuda, or dialect tag, around their necks as punishment (Aikyo, 1998). As a result, a 2011 survey found that about 90 percent of people in their twenties and thirties could not speak or comprehend a traditional Okinawan dialect, thus making the Ryūkyuan language another endangered language isolate in Japan (Mie, 2012).

Japanese, the third indigenous language of Japan, firmly established itself in the central regions of Japan by about the 7th century and became the language of nobility in the ruling cities of Nara and Kyoto. Though Japanese is of contested origins, current theories relate it to the Altaic family of languages that spread across the South central Asian mainland from Turkey to the Korean peninsula (Shibatani, 1990). However, like Ainu and Ryūkyuan, no definitive proof has ever been found to conclusively link the Japanese language to any of the major languages of the world (Miyagawa, 1999). This is significant for language policymaking as it plays into the hands of the nihonjinron writers who seek to “demonstrate the unique qualities of Japanese culture, society and people” and perpetuate the myth of cultural homogeneity (Befu, 2001).

The Current Disposition of Language Use in Japan

In the absence of any real competition and through a campaign of nation building, Japanese emerged as the lingua franca of Japan. Though not an official language, standard Japanese is used as the national language in government, legal and business affairs and is spoken throughout Japan by almost all of its nearly 127 million native inhabitants. This is not to say however, that everyone speaks standard Japanese all of the time. Those people that identify themselves as ethnic Japanese continue to demonstrate wide dialectic diversity. Also, certain ethnic minorities and their languages continue to thrive in Japan, and in some cases, are gaining in cultural capital as a result of internal political dynamics and recent efforts toward internationalization.

Due to its intricate honorifics, most Japanese either speak less formal common Japanese or the dialect of their particular region. Given the history and geography of Japan, deep dialectic variation was and continues to be very vibrant. Strong isogloss bundling shows three major dialectic divisions in the Japanese archipelago (Tōjō, 1927). These three dialectic divisions can be further divided into sub-dialects that are connected via dialect continuums and are in some cases mutually unintelligible at their extremes (Osumi, 2001). Regional Japanese dialects are used bi-dialectally with standard or common Japanese, especially among the older members of the agricultural and working classes. But as Brown et al. (2014) suggest, issues of solidarity, covert prestige and accommodation theory contribute to the perpetuation of dialects and their passing from generation to generation, thus it is very common to hear young Japanese using these local dialects as well.

Japan’s ethnic Korean population (zainichi) represents the largest ethnic minority in Japan outside of the Okinawans. Official 2013 census data indicate a resident population of 519,737 Korean nationals living in Japan (Japan Statistical Yearbook, 2015). The actual number of Korean language speakers is difficult to determine with confidence given their history of discrimination, the practice of masking true ethnic identity and inevitable acculturation and language shift (Gottlieb, 2005). Fukuoka (2000) however, estimates that only about 20% of young zainichi are able to use their heritage language. Currently a “culture cool” has been attached to the Korean language and it is gaining ground as a second language of choice among Japanese university students (Gottlieb,2005).

Chinese make up the third largest ethnic group in Japan. Traditionally, Chinese communities were within the large urban centers of Tokyo-Yokohama, Kansai and Southern Kyushu. Indeed, the world’s largest and oldest Chinatown is in Yokohama. Most Chinese however, now live outside of the Chinatowns they were once confined to and are reported to be residing in patterns reflective of their Chinese province of origin (Vasishth, 1997). As with Korean, efforts at language maintenance at the community level and within private Chinese schools have sustained Chinese language usage in Japan. With the emergence of China as an economic powerhouse, Chinese too is gaining in popularity as a second language of choice in Japanese universities.

Though they remain critically endangered languages, internal and external political forces are giving a slight boost to the Ainu and Ryūkyuan languages. In 2008, the Japanese government officially recognized the Ainu people as the indigenous people of Japan. Since then, efforts have been underway to revitalize the language to the point that the number of Ainu as second language speakers is actually increasing (Martin, 2011). For its part, Okinawa prefecture has struggled for 70 years with the burden of hosting nearly the entire U.S. military presence in Japan. This long and trying history, coupled with recent internal political events, are providing impetus for resurgent identity creation and current efforts towards revitalization of the Ryūkyuan language (Mie, 2012).

Except for brief periods when Portuguese and Dutch were important for international trade and German for military and intellectual pursuits, the English language has remained the dominant foreign language in Japan (Shibatani, 1990). Its rise in importance is concurrent with the rise of American influence on the world stage. The American occupation of Japan after WWII and continued stationing of hundreds of thousands of military troops since then has had lasting effects on language in Japan, from the formation of restricted pidgins around the many military bases in Okinawa to America being viewed as a dominant source for pop culture. Today, Japan continues to look toward the West for its security alliances, especially America, as persistent tensions between Japan and its Asian neighbors, all former wartime colonies, dominate current headlines and foment distrust between the publics and polities, to much effect on policies for acceptance and inclusion of Asian languages. While Chinese and Korean languages have made some inroads as foreign language courses of study, with an eye towards improved Asian trade relations, English has maintained its educational and cultural hegemony (Tsuda, 1990).

Language Use and Policies in Education, Government and Religion Education

Language use and policies have played a major role in Japanese education for many years. Learning to read and write Japanese occupies a great deal of educational time from elementary school onwards. No surprise as the writing system is considered one of the most complex in the world. Throughout the 20th century, Japanese student have increasingly spent more time with the study of foreign languages, especially English, but in the earlier part of the century, German was very much a part of the medical school learning program. Beginning in the early 2000’s and reflecting the government’s views toward education reform and internationalism, a series of Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) policies began by

making the study of the English language mandatory from the 5th grade. Much criticism has been leveled against the way English is taught in Japan, or for that matter other subjects as well, with nearly full focus placed on wrote memorization as preparation for high school and university entrance examinations rather for real knowledge or communicative purposes. Indeed, while the Japanese are noted for their high scores on standardized tests, their speaking ability and scores on the TOEIC and TOEFL tests are consistently at the bottom of international rankings, despite all the time, effort and money they put into it (Hagerman, 2009)(Hongo, 2013).

Government and Law

Language has been and continues to be used as a means of soft international diplomacy for the Japanese. The Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Program, administered by among others, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), began in 1987, ostensibly as an English language teaching and cultural exchange program. However, from the view point of Joji Hisaeda, MOFA's Director of Foreign Affairs, the JET program is more part of Japan's national security and international trade policies than anything else, designed to placate American criticisms of unfair trade practices and manufacture sympathizers for Japan as they participate in the program then return to their home countries (Irons, 1999)(Reesor, 2002).

Religion

The ancient mythical notion that the Japanese language embodies some kind of divine power is part of the Shinto belief system. This notion, or kotodama, played a very powerful role in Japan as both justification and a means of solidarity for the Japanese effort in WWII. This divine power however, resides only in a pure form of Japanese, thus justifying its protection and use in a pure form, and confirms a spiritual superiority of the Japanese people. Dower (1986) explains how kotodama and Japanese purity was at the core of the rationale in 1943 when “Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus” was drafted as a policy instrument for sustaining Japanese public support for the war effort. In modern times, the myth of linguistic purity persists in the mind of the Japanese with kotodama being invoked in response to globalism and the rapid increase of loanwords coming into Japanese, creating a sense of insecurity and linguistic and cultural identity crises in Japan (Hosokawa, 2014).

Japanese Policymaking and English Education

Japan has wrestled with English language education ever since 1853 when Commodore Matthew Perry first appeared in Tokyo Bay with his ‘Black Ships’ demanding that Japan open its doors to the rest of the commercial world. Since then a series booms and backlashes have occurred in English education policymaking. The booms came in response to official views in support of the need for greater English ability to respond to larger historical trends toward globalization and the backlashes amidst internal Japanese nationalist political movements informed by racist sentiments and a fear of the foreign ‘other’ (Fujimoto-Adam, 2006). This schizophrenic policymaking endures today as a boom, albeit in the form of incompatible goals between policymakers at the macro level and mixed interpretations and execution of policy at the

micro level. The most current English education policy developments are the best example of the effects of persisting ideological tensions on policymaking and implementation.

Citing as a goal the year 2020, when the Olympics are scheduled to come to Tokyo, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced an aggressive “Japan is back” initiative that emphasized English education reforms to put Japan on more competitive footing on the world stage. Following this, in their most recent iterations of education policy, MEXT advocated a number of policy changes as a progressive approach to English education. Among them were reinventing the university entrance examination scheme, promoting all English International Baccalaureate (IB) programs, hiring more foreign teachers, reducing class sizes and sending more students overseas on study abroad programs. (Clavel, 2014b). MEXT cited Davidson’s (2011) “65 percent of children entering grade school this year will end up working in careers that haven't even been invented yet” (MEXT 2015a) and “Amid ongoing globalization, the development of students’ proficiency in English, a common international language, is crucial for Japan's future” (MEXT 2015b).

Resistance in the form xenophobic immigration and hiring policies however, belie any efforts at hiring more foreign teachers, as most native speaking English teachers in Japan are on short term limited contracts (Brooks, 2015). Resistance also manifests itself at the micro level (i.e. local jurisdictions and at the schools themselves) with local bureaucrats and school administrators exerting their overt and hidden agendas to undermine the success of English education in Japan.

Public educational institutions in Japan operate under the authority of the government and often like a fiefdom under the control of a local government jurisdiction (McVeigh, 2002). English education policy making and implementation is most often left up to the local bureaucrats and administrators at each institution, resulting in decisions rationalized in terms that are in total opposition to national level MEXT policy. Although anecdotal, the following comment by a high-level university administrator sums up the views of many Japanese towards internationalism and English as a foreign language in Japan:

"Our institution's students, they are Japanese, and in terms of Japan, the way of thinking is, well, basically within Japan should be enough" (Izu, K. Personal Communication. November 12, 2014).

McVeigh (2002) would have to agree that this sentiment is more systematic and institutionalized than anecdotal. As he says, “The problems confronting Japanese education are not pedagogical, but rather political.”

Conclusion Japan has made a great deal of effort to improve English language abilities with an eye on improving its standing in the economic world. Its most recent policies on English language education are forward looking instruments that could reap great economic and societal benefits if executed in earnest. However, Japan’s history of exclusion and xenophobia, and lingering

misperceptions of cultural and linguistic homogeneity continue to undermine its well-meaning policy goals.

References

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夏目漱石、ラフカディオ・ハーンなど、日本と海外との架け橋となった人物が短い文章 で紹介されているが、ジョン万次郎ほど数奇な運命を辿った者はいない。14歳で遭難 し、米国に渡って教育を受けた時期が生徒たちと同年代であり、異国の言語や文化・習 慣に戸惑いながら生活する点に海外での生育歴の長い生徒たちの共感を得られることが 彼を取り上げてきた理由である。

2017年度、英語科で “Heart of a Samurai” (Margi Preus, Amulet Paperbacks, 2012) を扱って いることを知り、原文を読んでみると比較的平易な表現で心理描写も丁寧に描かれてい た。それまで、ジョン万次郎を題材とした日本語の書籍は、どれも日本語を履修してい る生徒には難しいものだったが、この本なら読み進めることができると考えた。2018年 5月に日本語版『ジョン万次郎 海を渡ったサムライ魂』（訳：金原瑞人）の文庫が出版 されたのを機に、教材として扱うことを決断した。また、「ホイットフィールド・ジョ ン万次郎友好記念館 (Whitfield-Manjiro Friendship Society)」がマサチューセッツ州フェア ヘーブンにあり、実際に訪問が可能であることも視野に入れた。校外学習をカリキュラ ムに組み込み、現地の施設を訪問することによって、書籍で学習した内容をより深く理 解することが期待できるからである。 2018 年度の2学期から4学期まで、原作者が追加 したフィクションの部分に注意しながら授業で読解を進め、2019年4月22日に旧「日 本語10」履修生徒全24名（全3セクション）を引率し、「ニューベッドフォード捕鯨博 物館 (New Bedford Whaling Museum)」および万次郎の足跡をたどる「万次郎トレール」 を訪問する校外学習を実現することができた。 翌2019年度も同様に、校外学習を組み込んだカリキュラムを予定していたが、パンデ ミックによる休校と訪問予定の施設の閉館に伴い断念した。2020年度の終わり、2021 年6月6日より、ホイットフィールド・ジョン万次郎友好記念館が5人以下のグループ受 け入れを再開することを知り、2021年度は、生徒数4名の Japanese 9 (sec. 2) で校外学 習を実施することとした。

このクラスの4名は、いわゆる超・英語派で、日本語の長文読解には限界がある。そこ で、ジョン万次郎に関する書籍の中から、万次郎の直系5代目の子孫である中濱京さん の著した『ジョン万次郎　日米両国の友好の原点』を選んだ。この本は、日英対訳の形 で書かれているため、授業で日本語の部分を読んだり、説明を聞いたりしてもなお不明 瞭な箇所について、各自英語で読んで補えると考えたからである。書籍は、ホイット フィールド・ジョン万次郎友好記念館より購入した。長引く休館の収入減を少しでも支 援したかったためである。

たりしながら、内容について確認した。他の資料も参考にしながら史実に基づいた内容 について授業を展開するよう留意した。

当初、万次郎の話を信じられないという表情で学んでいた生徒たちも、ゴールド・ラッ シュやペリー率いる黒船来航の件で一気に現実に引き戻され、さらに、万次郎と福澤諭 吉が咸臨丸に同乗していた事実は、慶應義塾の一貫校で学ぶ生徒たちとの接点の発見と なった。なお、特筆すべきことは、ホイットフィールド船長と万次郎の出会いが単なる 過去の歴史ではなく、その友好関係が両家の子孫たちによって1世紀以上も脈々と続い ていることである。

また、校外学習の前週には、今道友信による『温かいスープ』（光村図書『国語３』掲 載）を学習し、国際性の基本となる「隣人愛」について触れた。ホイットフィールド船 長が万次郎たちに示してくれた温かい人間性は「隣人愛」そのものであり、将来、国際 的な世界に羽ばたいていく生徒たちの心に深く刻まれることを願ってやまない。 出発前までの準備 校外学習の日程は、雪の影響を受けない春学期を希望。「万次郎トレール」の重要な拠

＊ホイットフィールド船長と万次郎が住んだ家。当時は2階建てだったが、現在は改築 されて3階建てになっている。万次郎が実際に使ったものではないものの、同時代の ベッドや勉強机が再現されている。和室や装飾はあとから作られたものである。ルー ニーご夫妻がお茶とお菓子を出してくださり、和やかな歓談のひとときを過ごした。

HF

た。彼はアメリカ初の日本人移民と考えられています。この校外学習で最も印象に残っ たのはミリセント図書館でした。このミリセント図書館には、ゲストブックがあり、そ

授業で習って校外学習でより深く理解出来たことの一つはくじらの捕り方でした。実際 に船長だった方が、くじらの捕り方をくわしく説明してくださったのはとてもいい経験 でした。くじらが風に向かって泳ぐことや日本とアメリカの捕鯨のしかたの違いは捕鯨 の博物館に行かなければ分からないものだと思います。僕はこの一時間の説明で10時 間の読書と同じ情報を得た感じがします。

漁業と捕鯨の長い歴史があるニューベッドフォードのシーフードレストランでサーモン を食べられたのも良い経験でした。学校の食堂ではサーモンを食べることができないの で、特別な気分になりました。車で三時間は少し長い方だと感じましたが、途中に休憩 があったので車で飽きることもありませんでした。

SH 僕は、この旅行でいろんなことを習いました。一番印象に残ったのは昔どうやってクジ ラを捕まえていたかです。本を読んだ時クジラの捕まえ方がよく分かりませんでした。 僕は本を読んでいた時はクジラを捕まえるのにはあまり時間がかからなくて簡単にとれ ていたと考えていました。説明をしてくれた時に本当に難しいと学びました。僕は一番 長くて一日かかるのがびっくりしました。本を読んだ時は、一時間ぐらいかかっただけ だ思いました。この後にクジラが捕まえられる確率は七十五パーセントだけと聞いて簡 単ではなかったと思いました。 僕はフェアヘーブンの町の話を本で読んでやっと行ってみたときに本当に小さな町だと 思いました。本では、もっと大きな町みたいな感じがしたので行ってみたら驚きまし た。本で書いてあった万次郎さんの学校や、があった教会で本当に起こった素晴らしい 話でした。ジョン万次郎の話はフィクションじゃないということが分かれて万次郎のお かげでアメリカの情報が正しく伝わり日本が開国できたのです。 校外学習は車に乗る時間が多くてよく眠れてよかったです。休憩ができてその上にドー ナツが食べれて良かったと僕は考えています。この旅行は大人になっても忘れない体験 だったと思いました。またこんな体験をもう一度したいです。

KH 最も印象に残ったことは万次郎トレイルが終わった後にホイットフィールド船長の家で ツアーガイドのジェリーさんとあやこさんの話しを聞いていた時です。ジェリーさんは 世界のいろいろな所に行って様々な経験をした人だったのでジェリーさんの話は興味深 かったです。あやこさんはジェリーさんが話している時に飲み物や食べ物をくれて本当 に誰かの家に行ったみたいで快適でした。それも印象に残りました。授業で学習した内

容についてより理解が深まったことは捕鯨のことでした。クラスでは捕鯨の事を習いま したが捕鯨博物館では元の船長のマイクさんがもっと詳しく説明してくれて捕鯨の事が もっと分かりました。博物館では実際に捕鯨を捕まえるボートがあってどんな道具を 使っていたとかどうやって捕まえているか教わりました。

全体的にこの校外学習は貴重な体験でした。校外学習ではマサチューセッツ州に行く時 の途中と帰る時の途中にサービスエリアでだいたい10分ぐらい止まってダンキンドー ナツでドーナツを買ったりマックで飲み物を買ったり出来ました。普段は学校の外に行 けないのでマックやダンキンを久しぶりに食べれて美味しかったです。万次郎と捕鯨の 事を習えたしニューベッドフォードとフェアヘーブンの人たちは人懐こくて僕たちを歓 迎してくれたのでいつかまた戻ってみたいです。

AS 私が一番印象に残ったのは、ホイットフィールド船長の家に行った時、いろいろな昔の 家具を見られたことです。私たちは現代を生きているので、昔はどういうふうに日常生 活をしていたのかはよくわかりませんが、船長の家でいろんな昔の家具を見ることで、 少し昔どんな感じか分かりました。その家具の中で最も印象に残ったのは、昔アメリカ で使っていた湯たんぽみたいなものです。それは、長い持ち手があるやかんみたいな道 具で昔はそれを使って寒い時、ベッドを暖めたのです。他にも今では使われていない道 具を見られたので、印象に残りました。

私たちは万次郎が鯨をとっていたことは知っていましたが、捕鯨博物館で本物の船の二 分の一サイズのモデルに乗った時、マイクさんとナンシーさんがどうやって鯨を取って いたかを詳しく説明してくれました。個人的に、船の一番上にリングがあってそこに 登って海を見て鯨を探していたことにびっくりしました。なぜなら、私なら、そんなに 高いところに長い間いたら怖いと思ったからです。

また、旅先の食事はとても美味しかったです。例えばそこで食べたクラムチャウダーが 美味しかったです。ですが、スケジュールがタイトだったからもあると思いますが、あ んまりレストランでゆっくりできなかったのでもっとゆっくりできたら良かったです。 車のライドは長かったのですが、ほとんど寝ていたのでそんなに辛くはなかったです。 他には、レストストップでダンキンが買えたのが嬉しかったです。

最後に、このジョン万次郎校外学習を通して、より深く万次郎、捕鯨について知ること ができたのと、クラスメートと心に残る思い出ができて良かったです。

でなく、さまざまな場面でご指導をいただいた。ホイットフィールド・万次郎友好記念 館のルーニーご夫妻との親密な交流が始められたのは、ピアス先生のお人柄とご尽力に よるものである。前回の校外学習にも引率してくださり、残念ながら、2018年度を最 後に退職されたが、この場をお借りして感謝の言葉を申し上げたい。本当に、ありがと うございました。

発端

隣のコネチカット州のイェール大学で外国語としての日本語を教えていた。教室の前の ホールのベンチで授業開始を待つ間にヒジャブ（イスラム女性が用いる頭と体を覆うた めの布）を身にまとった女子学生に日本語の練習がてら話しかけてみたのが最初だっ た。別の日本語教師のクラスの学生だったため名前も知らなかった。話してみると、気 さくでかつ勉強熱心な学生であった。学生の民族や背景の多様性はイェール大学のいい ところの一つである。ユダヤ系から先住民族のナバホ族まで、それはアメリカの縮図で あるとともに、多くの留学生の存在により世界の縮図でもあった。ただ宗教に関して は、ユダヤ教徒が非常に多い（30％）などバランスが全人口比（2.5％）とは合わない 面は残る（注１）。ちなみにイェール大学でのムスリム学生の割合は3.7%である。

イスラム系の学生と話してみたかったのは自分の中での中東への関心からである。9.11 以来モスレムというだけでひとしなみに差別を受けるアメリカの現状に疑問を感じても いた。事実、後で聞いたところによると、ルバさんもヒジャブをまとっているいるため 空港では罵声を浴びせられることもあり、「自由の城」であるべき大学内でさえ夜は危 険で今に至っても一人では歩けないとのことであった。テロとの戦いを掲げつつもアフ ガニスタンから撤退したアメリカ。中東、あるいはイスラム世界との関係は戦いでな く、理解であるべきだと私は考えていた。また言語教育にかかわってきた者として、 「人は母語によって、その枠組みに従って現実世界を「見て」いる。あるいは母語によっ てしか世界を見られていない」ことを痛感してきた。外国語を学ぶことによって初め て、新しい視点を獲得できるのである。その意味でアラビア語という未知の世界にも、 その宗教とともに興味をいだいてきた。そこにヒジャブをまとったルバ・サバーイさん が現れたのだ。 教員として学生たちの会話練習のためもあり、まずは遠慮なく出自を尋ねる。パレスチ ナ系アメリカ人とのこと。サウジアラビアでもなくエジプトでもなくパレスチナ、親が パアレスチナ出身とのことだった。長年の中東戦争、壁に囲まれたガザ地区などが頭を かすめた。私は質問した。「で、パレスチナに行くことはありますか。」しかしこれは

愚問であった。あるいは自分の無知をさらけ出した質問であった。イスラエルによる占 領地域は自由に行き来できる場所ではなかったのだ。入れてもパレスチナ系アメリカ人 が問題なく出てこられる保証はないのだった。つまり彼女は行ったことがない。これが 無知の自覚の始まりだった。

ニューヨーク学院の現在の日本語の授業 現在は１１年、１２年の日本語は１年を前期後期の半年に分けて文学中心のクラスと社 会問題を中心に論説を読み、話し合うクラス（Research and Presentationsという名 称）とに分かれている。２０２０年の秋からのカリキュラムでまだ２年目である。私は 外国語としての日本語指導の中で中級・上級の経験が長く、アメリカの大学の学部生・ 大学院生を対象に言語指導と同時に日本の社会問題を議論してきた。その経験を生かし て、ニューヨーク学院でも社会問題中心の日本語コースを担当している。私自身が言語 指導上でアメリカ人の大学生から得てきた様々な刺激を今度は日本の高校生に伝えて、 彼らの知性の活性化に貢献したいというのが私のクラスの大きな目標である。結果とし て米国大学生の知的好奇心にも十分応えられる内容について話し合っていることにな る。そのコースの一環として日本人には極めて馴染みの薄い、あるいはステレオタイプ にあふれているであろう中東問題に取り組んでいるわけである。上記のルバさんが卒業 後も大学周辺で仕事をしつつ日本政府の英語教育のためのJETプログラム（注２）への 参加待ちをしているという好条件に恵まれたのがこの企画の背景であった。 準備：オマールの壁、ワグナー音楽禁止とダニエル・バレンボイム 上記のように、馴染みの薄い話題について日本の高校生が議論をしようとするには、周 到な準備を必要とする。ただ全体的知識の紹介は不可能でもあり、また不必要でもあ る。そのため中東問題に限らず、接点のありそうな部分に限って彼らとの関連付けを十 分に行い、興味を持ってもらうことを心がけている。何と言ってもビジュアルなものを 通してまず興味を喚起することが重要である。2013年のパレスチナ映画「オマールの 壁」（原題はOmar）（注３）を紹介する。分離壁を越えなければ抵抗運動の同志と会 うことが出来ない主人公の青年がロープで壁を越えようとした瞬間、銃弾が主人公の頭 をかすめる、そんな場面をクラスで見せる。友人によるイスラエル兵殺害の罪で投獄さ れた後、同志や恋人からもスパイの嫌疑をかけられて最後に彼のとる行動は、、、といっ た内容である。予告編のみの紹介ではあるが。 まずユダヤ人とは何か、アラブとは何かから始める必要がある。イスラエルがユダヤ人 の「国家」であることさえ知らない学生も多い。またユダヤ教、キリスト教、イスラム 教が同じ根を持っていることは日本人の大人でも知らない人も多いかもしれない。とに かく知らないことだらけの状態なのだが、私自身、無知の自覚から始まっているので、

逆にポイントは教えやすいとも言える。そして教師もいっしょに学んでいく様子を見せ られればいい教育になる。なお「国家」と書いたのは国連に加盟しているとは言え、パ レスチナ側は国家として認めないからである。 このイベントの半年前（２０２１年５月）には１１日間にわたる激しい戦闘があり、対 立の存在は表面的には高校生も見聞きしていた。そこで教材としてはNHKの中東解体 新書という特集シリーズ（注４）からイスラエル内での和解への試み、ユダヤ人とアラ ブ人が幼児期からいっしょに学ぶ学校の紹介記事を選んだ。解決・和解への希望がある こと、それに努力する人々の存在も知るべきだと考えたからである。イスラエル＝ユダ ヤ人国家ではあっても、その領域内には当然のことながらパレスチナの民が居住してい ることを知ることにもなる（イスラエルの全人口に占めるアラブ人の割合は約21％ で、その中にはキリスト教徒なども含まれる）。 ニューヨーク学院の中央螺旋階段下にはグランドピアノが設置されていて放課後は自慢 のピアノを披露してくれる生徒も少なくない。ショパンの小品などで疲れた教員の心を 癒してくれるのであるが、そんなピアニストたちの音楽意識の高さに応える意味もあ り、ワグナーの楽曲のイスラエルでの演奏禁止も取り上げた。ワグナー自身が反ユダヤ 主義者であり、後に彼の楽曲がナチに好んで利用されたため、ホロコーストの象徴とし てイスラエルではワグナー音楽はタブーとなっている。指揮者でピアニストであるダニ エル・バレンボイムは２００１年にイスラエルでの演奏会のアンコールで聴衆の了解を 得た上でワグナー曲を指揮したことでイスラエル政府から糾弾された。彼自身ユダヤ人 でありながら、ワグナー音楽はワグナーという人間とは別であり、また歴史とも切り離 して評価すべきであり、イスラエル国民もその音楽を聴く権利を剥奪されるべきではな いと考えたのだ。 このことについては我々は何が正しいのか必ずしも正解を持っておらず、生徒とともに 考えなければならない。ユダヤ人、ホロコースト、イスラエル建国を理解する上で生徒 に音楽を通して感覚的に訴えることができるのではないかと考えてこれを取り上げた。 ユダヤ人の中にも多様な考え方が存在する、ひとまとめにして考えてはいけないことを 体感してもらいたいからである。なおここでも日本の高校生の知識レベルを意識してお かなければならない。多くの生徒がホロコーストという言葉さえ知らない。しかし多く の生徒はアンネの日記は知っていた。ごく少数の生徒は映画「シンドラーのリスト」の シンドラーのごとくユダヤ人を脱出させた杉浦千畝（すぎうらちうね）について説明し てくれた。こうした知識の共有プロセスもまた楽しい。

その他、謎のグラフィティ・アーティストであるバンクシーはパレスチナ問題にも関心 が深く、さまざまな風刺画を破壊された建物の壁などに描いている。2021年から22年 にかけては日本で彼の展覧会が開かれた（注５）。パレスチナ地域の破壊の様子を伝え る彼のビデオも紹介した。グラフィティやヒップホップ文化に関心のある生徒の反応は 大きかった。

ルバさんのクラス訪問 さて彼女の訪問は夏の間に話し合ってはいたものの２０２１年段階でまだコロナ感染が 心配される状況下で学校への部外者の訪問は許可されずに予定の９月訪問は延期され た。ズームでの話し合いの可能性もあったが、ルバさんの希望は、じかに会って話すこ とであった。後に実感したことであるが、ズームやビデオとは比較にならない「何か」 を伝えるためには、それは必須であった。話の内容ではない、空気とか、バイブとか、 制限された小さな画面だけではなかなか伝わりにくいものであることが実感された。 やっと訪問者解禁となった１１月に、彼女の訪問は実現した。 私はニューヨーク学院から車で１時間のコネチカット州、ニューヘイブンに住んでお り、彼女もそこに卒業後も居住していたという状況で、平日は大渋滞なので朝5:30に出 発しなければならない。まじめな彼女は数日前から夜型からの修正を行なってくれてい たとのこと。車中ではクラスに備えて寝てもらおうとした。しかし途中で日の出前のそ の日最初のお祈りをしてもいいかと尋ねられた。それまで昼間の時間に会っていたの で、祈りの姿は見たことがなかった。宗教的できわめて私的な行為である。非ムスリム である私にとっては貴重な場に立ち会わせてもらったことになる。真 で、何か優しさ が伝わるようなお祈りだったように感じられた。私にとっての緊張の数分が過ぎて、終 わりました、と言われてほっとした。

クラスでの質問と話し合い

ルバさんには私が担当していた５つのクラスすべてに参加してもらった。彼女の希望で 自分からのプレゼンテーションは行わず、生徒の方から何でも質問してもらうという形 式をとった。これも彼女の見識だと思う。１０分程度の話では不可能だろう、中東と日 本を結ぶことは。彼女は大学の２年から日本語を習い始め、初級終了後にサマー・プロ グラムで２か月間日本に滞在したのみにもかかわらず、彼女の日本語はかなり流暢なも のである。アラビア語が母語で英語は幼少期からアメリカにいてやはりネイティブ。母 がフランス語を話すのでフランス語も出来、大学１年の時には韓国語を習い、やはりサ マースクルールでソウルに滞在したとのこと。多言語環境にあったためもあり、日本語 に対する姿勢も柔軟で上達も非常に早かったようだ。非ヨーロッパ言語でも強みを発揮 するのは本当の才能だ。そういう訳でクラスはすべて日本語で行われた。流暢さ、自然 さに反して語彙力は若干劣っているので、適宜私が補いつつ問答形式で進めた。

きは当然だ。一夜漬けのアラビア語で生徒たちに、ようこそ！と言わせて場を和ませ

だけのキャパシティーは十分あることを実感している。はるか以前の自分の高校時代、

4.

飲食が出来ません。水も飲めません。夜の間は食べてかまいません。食べ物がな い人、飲める水のない人の心情を思いやるのが目的。感謝の気持ちも持てる。さ らに空腹は精神集中を促進し、胃腸の掃除にもなり健康にもいい。またその期間 は喜捨（寄付）が奨励される。それは前述の貧困者への共感から。嫌々やってい るのではなく、むしろ積極的にやっている。

5. なぜ日本語を学ぼうと思ったのですか：ドバイにいる従兄たちがアニメを見てい て興味を持った。始めは東アジアのことはまったくわからなかったが、その後日 韓関係にも興味を持ち、韓国語から始めた。（＊筆者追加説明：比較文学を専攻 した彼女は韓国併合・植民地支配および在日韓国・朝鮮人の問題とイスラエル・ パレスチナの関係にある種の類似を見出しているようである）

6. 一番難しい言語は何でしたか：意外に聞こえるかもしれませんが、フランス語で す。私はアラビア語が母語です。英語もネイティブですので文法的に近いフランス 語が易しいはずですが、なぜか日本語の方が易しく感じます。おそらくアラビア の文化と日本の文化が近いからだと思います。（＊筆者追加説明：これは極めて 高いレベルの言語学習の話であるように思われる。一般には文法やら語形変化や らが外国語習得の障害になるのが普通だが、彼女の場合その上のレベルの話をし ているように思われた。そうした形式上の文法の差異を習得した上で、最も理解

写真２：授業後に生徒の名前をアラビア文字で表記してくれた

7. 好きな日本語の言葉がありますか：木漏れ日、とか。（生徒たち；おしゃれです ね！）アラビア語にはない言葉だから、、、美しい。その他、懐かしい、と か、、、。

8. タリバンについてどう思うか（＊筆者追加説明：この訪問の２か月前に米軍のア フガニスタン撤退があった）：政治と宗教の違いを理解してほしい。また一般論 も言いにくい。イスラム教には戦争にかかわる法律もある。子ども、女性、高齢 者を殺してはいけない。さらに寺院、木などを破壊してはいけないなど。

9. タリバンは西洋の価値観に抵抗しているのではありませんか、西洋文化が嫌いと いうのがイスラムなのではありませんか：（ルバさんから逆に質問：）イスラム はどういう文化だと思うか？　全てアラビア人だと思っていませんか。イスラム 教の多くはアラビア人ではない。文化と宗教の違いを理解してほしい。イスラム

生徒A：(…)　教えてくださった内容については、ヒジャブが女性を大切にするため、 女性の尊厳を守るためのものであったことを初めて知り、驚きました。私を含め多くの 日本人は、イスラム教はどちらかというと男尊女卑なのかと誤解していました。正反対 の事実を知り、思い込みの恐ろしさも学ぶことになりました。

とはいえ、女性を大切にする世界で育ったルバさんからは、自信や誇りのような強い輝 きを感じ、それに最も、女性としての美しさを感じました。女性であるルバさんが自分 で自分のことを、「女性は大切な存在です」と言い切った姿。その強さは、日本人に足 りないものです。日本の文化ではそういった考え方を持つようにはなれないかもしれま せんが、自分自身の存在価値を認め、自らに自信を持つことは、自分の人生に責任を持 つことにも繋がるかもしれません。だからこそ、日本人としての謙虚さは忘れず、誇り を持って生きていけるようになりたいと思えました。 生徒B：私が彼女から感銘を受けた点は大きく分けて三つある。一つ目は、彼女の臨機 応変な応答だ。流暢な日本語で、ハキハキと質問に合った返答ができる彼女の言語に対 する愛着心に私は感動した。彼女は、言語を学ぶことは文化を学ぶことだと述べてい た。その通りだと思った。他言語を学ぶことで、他国の人が何の会話をしているか、他 国にはどんな流行があるのかなど、私から見た視野が広がると思う。 二つ目は、彼女の考え方だ。彼女は筋の通った考え方を持っていると感じた。彼女は人 生哲学を述べていた。木に生えた葉っぱを一枚一枚切るくらいならば、木を植えない、 もしくは根本から抜き取るべきだと。つまり、人間は物事を先延ばしにする、後回しに する生き物であるから、だらしなくなってゆく前に、根本をしっかり考え直し、行動す ることが大切だということだ。私は彼女から、葉っぱを一枚一枚ゆっくり切っている自 分に気付かされた。（＊筆者追加説明：木の葉の比喩は分かりにくいかもしれない。

酒・アルコール禁止に関しての説明だったが、少しだけ許すなら歯止めが利かなくな る、それが人間だという認識だ。木の葉を摘むという中途半端なやり方ではなく木の根 から問題をなくすべきだという考え方。少しずつ改善するというのは、人間には誘惑が 多く達成が難しい、やるなら根本的に改革するべきだという考え方をイスラムでは推奨 するということであった）

三つ目は、アラブと日本の文化の違いだ。例えば、恋人という文化がない、お風呂は一 人が入った後は流す、などだ。私からしたら当たり前だと思っていたことが、他国の視 点からするとありえないことだということに気付かされた。何もかもが当たり前だと 思って発言、行動をすると、他国の文化を理解することができないと気づいた。

結論、私はルバさん（のおかげで）慶應ニューヨークで初めての異文化交流を体験する ことができたこと、ルバさん視点から見た考え方を知ることができたことに感動した。 またこのような機会を設けていただけると嬉しいです。

生徒C：まず第一に、ルバさんの日本語が想像以上に流暢で驚いた。ルバさんが１５歳 のとき、従兄弟が住むドバイで日本の文化（アニメなど）が人気になり、言語の勉強を したら、文化の勉強にもなると思ったことが理由で日本語を学び始めたとおっしゃって いた。言語の勉強をすることが文化の勉強につながるという考えが素敵だなと感じた。 私の場合、両親に言われて英語を習い始めたので、ルバさんのように自分から「何かを 学びたい！」という姿勢を私も持ちたいと思った。ルバさんが、「イスラム教は全員が アラビア人ではないから、それぞれ違いがあることをわかってほしい」とおっしゃって いて、同じイスラム教徒でもそれぞれ違いがあり、「イスラム教徒」という枠で一括り にしてはいけないのだと気付かされた。また、クラスメイトがタリバンやイスラエル・ パレスチナ問題についての質問をした時に「政治と宗教は別の存在である」ということ をルバさんの話から学んだ。私たちは、タリバンやパレスチナの現在の問題を、「宗教 対立」であると思いがちだが、実際は政治や文化など様々な要因がこのような問題を引 き起こしているのだと学んだ。それと同時に、自分たちが日頃ニュースで見ていること はほんの一部分に過ぎず、勝手に決めつけて思い込んでいることが多くあることに気づ くと同時に、ショックを受けた。

まとめ 上記の生徒の感想からもある程度分かるように、訪問の大きな目的はほぼ達成されたよ うに感じる。ステレオタイプから出来るだけ逃れること、分からないものを理解しよう とする姿勢を持つこと、自分の無知を自覚すること、そのようなことがある程度、生徒

に伝わったようだ。９月の予定を伸ばして、オンラインではなく実際に訪問してもらっ た意義は大きかった。 一人だけ病欠のため事後にビデオでやり取りを見た生徒がいた。彼女は事前にグルー プ学習を進めておき、質問を彼女に送っておいて、準備してきて答えてもらう方が効果 的ではなかったかといい指摘をしてくれた。確かに適切な日本語がすぐに出て来ずに時 間を最大限効率的に使えなかった場面もあった。しかしそうやって外国人が必死に日本 語で意思を伝えようとしている姿を見るのも重要な学習ではなかったかと一方で思う。 情報量や効率だけでは測れない「何か」の方がむしろ重要でもある。たとえ不完全で あっても、その国の言語で伝え合うこと、言語の重要性・力強さを今回ほど痛感したこ とはない（彼女の場合は生徒の感想にもあるように、流暢かつ臨機応変の問答で、私は あれ以上のやり取りは望めない）。おそらく英語でも同じ量の知識は伝えられるだろ う。しかし彼女が日本語で語り掛けることが最大のポイントだった。言語こそが異文化 に近づく最大の武器なのだ。相手言語・母語の使用とオンラインやビデオではない臨場 感によって生徒の情動に訴えることが出来たのだと思う。それこそが「現地」に行くこ と、現地の人と触れ合うことの意味であろう。 現在の世界では何らかの信仰を持つ人口の方が信仰を持たない人口より圧倒的に多い。 調査によると世界の人口の７１％が神を信じている（注８）。日本人にも日本人なりの 信仰心があるはずだが、その多くは無宗教だと自称もする。世界では少数派である。だ がこれからの世界で宗教的信仰なり民族統合の「ストーリー」なりが重要性を失うこと はなさそうである。歴史学者ユバル・ノア・ハラリによれば宗教は最古で最大の「フェ イク・ニューズ」であるとしながらも、その意義が失われるとは考えていない（注９）。 今後、そうした世界の多数派と日本人は交流していかなければならない。さまざまな宗 教への理解は極めて重要な事項になるだろう。その中でもイスラム教徒の人口は拡大し つつある。2020年に１９億人となり、すでに世界人口の1/4を占めているとのことであ る。2030年には２２億人になると予測されている（注１０）。近年、鎖国的傾向を強 めがちな日本にとっては、彼女のような人材は非常にありがたい存在である。 話し好きでフレンドリーな彼女は異文化交流に最適の人材であったと思う。連絡先を 交換し合い、その後も交流を続けている生徒もいる。　JET教員としての渡日はさらに ２０２２年３月まで延期されたが、現在は島根で英語を教えている。彼女の温かい人間 性でその地でも文化理解に貢献してくれていると私は確信している。今回の授業は生徒 にとっても私自身にとっても極めて貴重な体験となった。生徒たちが彼女を見倣って、 多くの言語、文化、宗教に興味を持って、積極的に自らの先入観を取り除く努力をする きっかけになれば、こんなに嬉しいことはない。

Muslim who wears a hijab. She learned both Korean and Japanese and is interested in Japanese culture. Japanese society is not generally accepting to foreigners and Japanese people often lack knowledge about different cultures, not to mention Islam and the Middle East. So in November 2021 I decided to invite her to Keio Academy of New York as a guest speaker.

Before she came to the school, students learned about issues related to the Middle East. I introduced a Palestinian movie called Omar, which depicts the harsh life in the occupied areas of Palestine. Students learned about Palestine and Israel and the conflict between Jews and the people in Palestine. despite knowing about The Diary of Anne Frank, some students were not really sure what exactly the Holocaust was, so I gave an overview of the Jews in the last century and introduced the pianist and conductor, Daniel Barenboim, who is Jewish himself and conducted a piece of Wagner for the first time in Israel.

She visited all five sections that I taught (11th and 12th Japanese Research and Presentations). She wanted the class to be a questions and answers style, not a presentation from her. She is very fluent in Japanese and the classes were conducted in Japanese. Students were immediately interested in her black hijab and asked what it meant to her. Unlike a common stereotype that it constrains women’s life, Ms. Sabawi told that she loved to wear it. In Islam, women are precious as a Queen, if put it figuratively. Women are a special existence and should not be seen and touched by others easily. Women wear it because they are respected. Then students asked more specific questions such as its design, color, when to wear and so on.

Ms. Sabawi is a multilingual person who speaks several languages fluently. Keio Students are curious about her language ability and asked what the most difficult language for her was. Although she speaks English and her mother speaks French, French is the most difficult for her, she told. The reason is that Japanese and other Asian cultures are similar in some ways to Arabic culture. Culture is the most important part for her when learning a language rather than grammar and vocabulary. Students were amazed by her unexpected answer and were very engaged. Students were also surprised by the fact that sentences are written from right to left in Arabic.

Being asked about Ramadan, she introduced a few rules of fasting adding that Muslims do it because they think about people who have no food and no water and thank for their life in comfort. Rich people should give their charity during the period. When she told that fasting is good for health and an empty stomach will increase concentration, students totally agreed. For Muslims, fasting is far from pain but they are happy to do it against the expectation.

Of course, there were questions about Taliban and terrorist acts because the U.S. army retreated from Afghanistan in a chaotic way only a few months ago in 2021. Her answer was that there are laws concerning conducting a war such as not to kill women, elderly people and not to destroy temples and even trees. Killing is not Islamic. She told students not to confuse religion and politics.

About the conflict between Israel and the Palestine, Ms. Sabawi summarizes the history of occupation of the land by Israel and clearly denied Israel as a country. She contended that Zionists wanted people around the world to believe that this issue was a religious conflict, but in reality it was a political one, far from a religious conflict between Jews and Muslims. Of course, this is a highly political issue and we should listen to the arguments by Jewish people. Students need to know there are different standpoints and should conduct research on their own. The most important thing is that they should widen their perspectives as high school students.

One student asked her what she should do if she came to know that the person she loves was a citizen of Israel. It was a naïve question and the situation was unlikely if you know the actual relationship between them. However, it was a serious question for a female high school student from Japan. Ms. Sabawi answered to her wisely this time as well. If an organization invaded our land killing our family, and if a person were to support the policy of the organization, how could I love him? The student’s question was too simple and naïve but they needed to start from that point since the majority of young people in Japan can lead a life without thinking about and being engaged in politics, fortunately or unfortunately.

Being asked about what sport she does, she told that she was a member of a horse riding club adding that Arabia people had particularly loved and cherished horses because there is no other way but run when you encounter a danger in the desert.

Below are only a few summaries of students’ impression of the class.

Student A: I thought that the predominance of men over women was one of the characteristics of the Islam. But I was surprised to know for the first time that hijabs are something to protect women’s dignity. I have learned anew that we should not assume anything and throw away prejudices. Also, she was confident and proud as a woman. She was beautiful when she said “women are precious.” Being confident entails taking responsibility for one’s life, I think. I would like to live with pride like her while not forgetting modesty as a Japanese.

Student B: …Ms. Sabawi began to study Japanese wanting to learn Japanese culture. I have not thought about relationship between a language and culture until now because I was just told by my parents to study English. I would like to have a clear sense of purpose for my study.

Student C: Ms. Sabawi told in class that all Muslims were not the Arabs and she wanted us to realize the difference between religions and cultures. I realize that we should not simply categorize people by one label. Also, I was shocked when I learned that what we see in the media every day is only a part of the facts and we often make a judgement without sufficient grounds.

I am still ignorant about Islam and the Middle East and trying to learn about them. I wanted students to realize their ignorance and to strip off their stereotypes about the world issues. I wanted students to know how important and fun it is to directly communicate with foreign people. Those purposes of this event seemed to be achieved. Thanks to Ms. Sabawi’s friendly personality and witty responses, the classes were full of excitements. She has a talent of grabbing

people’s heart using her language skills. She herself enjoyed the conversation with young Japanese students.

I was never as amazed by the power of a language as this time. The moment Ms. Sabawi started to talk in Japanese in class, all the students’ attention concentrated on her words and I felt that their minds became open and ready to absorb new ideas. Her natural and fluent use of Japanese not only shocked the students who were in the middle of working hard to learn English but also clearly demonstrated her deep respect and appreciation of Japanese culture. The knowledge that were delivered to students in this way should be very different from the mere knowledge that was told in a foreign language such as English, even if the ‘contents’ were the same. I realized anew that the use of the native language of the target culture was crucial in order to understand with each other. I am sure that Ms. Sabawi’s visit to Keio Academy was an invaluable experience for the students.

Lastly, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Ms. Roba Sabawi here again.

Keio Academy of New York