Speiser, Textile Techniques by Haupt Verlag

NOÉMI SPEISER

AN ANNOTATED CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE TECHNIQUES

By the same author:

Noémi Speiser The Manual of Braiding Published 2018, reprint of the 2nd edition 1988 160 pages, b/w illustrations, hardcover ISBN 978-3-258-08111-3

1. Edition: 2024 ISBN 978-3-258-60289-9 Author: Noémi Speiser Collaboration and editing: Thessy Schoenholzer Nichols Drawings: Noémi Speiser Drawings on pages 128, 138, 212, 220-228, 254: Thessy Schoenholzer Nichols English collaboration: Nigel Stevensen Glossary: Frieda Sorber Graphic Design: Nils Fisch Layout: Nils Fisch Photography: Nils Fisch Transcription: Urs Gaechter Cover Design: Tanja Frey, Haupt Verlag Copyright © 2024 Haupt Verlag, Berne, and the author All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy and recordings, or stored in a retrieval system, without prior permission from the right holders. Printed on FSC®-certified paper. FSC® ensures the use of forests according to social, economical and ecological criteria. Printed in Slovenia

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie. Detailed bibliographic data are available at: http://dnb.dnb.de. Haupt Verlag is supported by the Federal Office of Culture for the years 2021–2024. We publish our books with great pleasure and commitment. Therefore, we are always happy to receive suggestions for the programme and to hear of any errors in the book, should we have made any. www.haupt.ch

AN ANNOTATED CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE TECHNIQUES NOÉMI SPEISER

Haupt Verlag

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

WORKING WITH A SINGLE ELEMENT

DRAWING THE END THROUGH THE FELL

LINKING AND LOOPING

CREATING KNOTTED NETTING

TYING A KNOT WITH ONE OR TWO SINGLE ELEMENTS

WRAPPING OR LOOPING OVER A FOUNDATION ELEMENT

DRAWING LOOPS THROUGH LOOPS

B 1

ONE CARRIER FOR EACH LOOP

B 2

WORKING WITH MULTIPLE LOOPS ON SEVERAL NEEDLES

B 3

MANIPULATING ONE LOOP ON A HOOKED NEEDLE

SPECIFIC CASES

A 1 (1)

CREATING A COMPACT AND CORRUGATED FABRIC

A 1 (2)

TWO ELEMENTS WORKING SIMULTANEOUSLY

A 1 (3)

EUROPEAN NEEDLE-LACE

A 1 (4)

TATTING (ENGLISH), FRIVOLITE (FRENCH), OCCHI (ITALIAN)

A 3 (1)

TYING TURK‘S HEAD KNOTS

A 4 (1)

AN EXCENTRICAL FORM OF WRAPPING

B 1 (1)

EACH CARRIER SEPERATE AND FREE

B 1 (2)

INDUSTRIAL WEFT-KNITTING

B 3 (1)

TUNESIAN CROCHET

INTERWORKING MULTIPLE ELEMENTS

II A

PLAITING AND BRAIDING

INTERWORKING ELEMENTS WITH FREE ENDS

A 1.1 INTERWORKING STRIPS

A 1.2 WORKING WITH UNMODIFIED FRONDS

111

A 1.3 BRAID GROWING ALONG THE START LINE

113

A 1.4 INTERWORKING FLEXIBLE STRANDS WITH FREE ENDS

125

A 1.5 PLY-SPLIT OBLIQUE INTERWORKING

133

143

A 2.1 INTERWORKING ELEMENTS SPREAD OUT IN FAN-SHAPE

143

A 2.2 DOWNWARD BRAIDING WITH SUPPORTED ELEMENTS

149

A 2.3 UPWARD BRAIDING ON A BASE

153

161

A 3.1 EXCHANGING LOOPS CROSS-WISE BETWEEN HANDS

INTERWORKING ELEMENTS WOUND ON YARN-CARRIERS

INTERWORKING FINGER-HELD OR HAND-HELD LOOPS

165

A 3.2 LOOPS ACTING AS PAIRED UNITS

165

A 3.3 LOOPS ACTING AS TWO PLY-TWINING UNITS

165

A 3.4 EXPLOITING THE RECIPROCAL POTENTIAL OF LOOPS

167

A 3.5 INTERWORKING BUNDLED LOOPS

173

A 4

SPRANG

175

II B

TYING KNOTS WITH MULTIPLE ELEMENTS

187

B 1

TYING KNOB KNOTS WITH SEVERAL STRANDS

187

B 2

INTERKNOTTING A SET OF ELEMENTS

193

SPECIFIC CASES

A 1.1 (1) FORMING THE CROWN OF A HAT

109

A 1.3 (1) HAT MADE WITH A SINGLE PALM FROND

117

A 1.3 (2) FRENCH RANDING - A BASKETRY-TECHNIQUE

121

A 1.4 (1) SWISS LOCAL BRAIDING TRADITIONS

129

A 1.4 (2) TUBULAR OBLIQUE INTERLACING WITH LOOP-HEDDLES

131

A 1.5 (1) SPLICING

141

A 2.1 (1) JAPANESE KARA-KUMI DAI (Stand for the Chinese braid)

143

A 2.1 (2) JAPANESE TAKA-DAI (The high stand)

145

A 2.1 (3) BOBBIN LACE

145

A 2.2 (1)

149

THE FOUR-STRAND TUBULAR BRAID GROWING WITHOUT SUPPORT

A 2.2 (2)

THE MAYPOLE DANCE

151

A 2.2 (3)

THE INDUSTRIAL „MAYPOLE BRAIDER“

151

A 2.3 (1)

COMPARING TABLETOPS

157

A 4 (1)

ARROW-SASH BRAIDING

183

A 4 (2)

RESTITUDED TECHNIQUE FOR A TYPE OF PERUVIAN HEADBAND

185

B 1 (1)

„KNOTTED SINNETS“

191

III

WORKING ELEMENTS INTO A STARTING SET

199

III À

INTERLACING SINGLE LENGTHS ON SEVERAL AXES

201

III À 1

STARTING AT THE CENTRE AND ADDING TO ALL SIDES

201

III À 2

INTERLACING ON TWO OR MORE AXES WITHIN A FRAME

209

III À 3

BINDING THE CROSSINGS OF NON-INTERLACED ELEMENTS

215

III 0

PREPARING AND MOUNTING A STARTING SET

219

III A

ADDED ELEMENTS ACTING ON THE STARTING SET

229

III B

STARTING SET ACTING ON THE ADDED ELEMENTS

239

III B 1

THE STARTING SET FREE AT ONE END

239

III B 2

FLEXIBLE STARTING SET FIXED AT BOTH ENDS

251

III

B 2.1 WARP TWINING WITH TABLETS AS A SHEDDING DEVICE

251

III

B 2.2 CROSSING AND RE-CROSSING WARP ELEMENTS

253

III C

WARP AND WEFT IN RECTILINEAR PROGRESSION

257

III C 1

SPLITTING THE ELEMENTS OF A STARTING SET

257

III C 2

INTRODUCING WEFTS WITHOUT A SHEDDING DEVICE

261

III C 3

INTRODUCING DISCONTINUOUS WEFTS

265

III

C 3.1 DESIGNING WITH COLOURS

265

III

C 3.2 OPEN WORK

267

III

C 3.3 INTERLOCKING DISCONTINUOUS WARPS AND WEFTS

269

III C 4

JOINING EXTRANEOUS MATERIAL TO THE WEFT

269

III C 5

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATIC SHEDDING

273

SPECIFIC CASES

III

À 1 (1)

VARIATION OF OPEN TRI-AXIAL INTERLACING

207

III

À 1 (2)

ADDING ELEMENTS ALONG RADIAL AXES

207

III

À 2 (1)

AN EXAMPLE OF MULTI-AXIAL DESIGN

211

III

À 2 (2)

FOUR-AXIAL INTERLACING

211

III

À 2 (3)

CHINESE BEDS

213

III

À 3 (1)

A CASE OF PASSEMENTERIE

215

III

0 (1)

COMPARING THREE COMBS

227

III

0 (2)

DREAMCATCHER

227

III

0 (3)

A CHAIR-SEAT WORKED WITH TWISTED STRAW

227

III

A (1)

TAANIKO, TRADITIONAL MAORI WEFT-TWINING METHOD

235

III

A (2)

THE POTIR

237

III

A (3)

FORMING TWINED LOZENGE-SHAPED FABRICS

237

III

B 1 (1)

MAKING WARP-TWINED MAT

241

III

B 1 (2)

WARP-TWINING IN LOOP MANIPULATION

243

III

B 1 (3)

JAPANESE „AYA TAKE DAI“

245

III

B 1 (4)

OBLIQUE TRANSPOSITION OF WARP GROUPS

245

III

B 1 (5)

SECURING THE ADDED ELEMENTS BY HALF KNOTS

247

III

B 1 (6)

THE STARTING SET HITCHING

247

III

B 1 (7)

THE STARTING SET CHAINING

249

III

B 1 (8)

PETER COLLINGWOOD‘S „MACROGAUZES“

249

III

B 2.2 (1) MULTI-COLOURED CROSSED-WARP BANDS

255

III

C 1 (1)

THE SOLE OF AN ESPADRILLE

259

III

C 2 (1)

INTERWORKING STRIPS FASTENED AT ONE END

261

III

C 2 (2)

ENGLISH RANDING AS A BASKETRY TECHNIQUE

263

III

C 2 (3)

WEFT-FACED STRAW MATS ON A STRETCHED WARP

263

III

C 2 (4)

STRAW SANDALS

263

GLOSSARY

276

BIOGRAPHY

280

There are many people with whom I had a very intensive and enlightening interchange working both on this book and „The Manual of Braiding“, one in particular was my dear friend Peter Collingwood (1922-2008), with whom I had, till his death, an active letter exchange. The concept and the writing of „The Classification of Textile Techniques“ was completed, but without the relentless assistance of Thessy Schoenholzer Nichols it would not have been published.

INTRODUCTION Why I wrote this book: This is a book about textile techniques and their working processes. Textiles can be made of round or flat, soft or rigid, short or elongated elements; and can be operated exclusively by fingers and/or other parts of the body, or aiding supports, that can reach from the simplest to the most complex implement. A metaphor: What does one view from the basket of a balloon way up in the air? Water, mountains and plains. By descending gradually one distinguishes lakes, rivers, forest, and cities. Finally up on landing on a meadow, flowers, grass and earth appear under us. Associating these observations to this book, we have at the highest point the three Supercategories: I Working with single elements II Interworking a set of elements III Working single elements into a previously prepared set These are followed by few under groups such as categories of which each will have many subcategories. Then come the general views, that apply to all Supercategories and finally to illustrate with some examples, there are also speciﬁc cases, which are arbitrarily chosen examples. The illustrations on each text page are not meant as instructions, but rather to give a general idea of the complexity of the subject. As we get closer and closer to the object we can distinguish material and structure and finally we will be able to disclose more of the technique and find a possible working solution. Although we will never be able to disclose one of the countless techniques with which an object was really completed; unless we are able to observe the worker elaborating the technique to produce the object. In short: The same structure can be executed in many different ways. In a final structure the work process is lost. One can reproduce a work process but one has to be aware that it is not to original process. Non the less it is always extremely important to emphasize the essential and disclose it clearly and accurately. What is important when looking at anything wanting to elaborate on the subject: We cannot ignore that an object, a material or anything else exists in this world by itself. Materials are made, grow or develop in certain circumstances and can be used as such or can be further developed. As it is in the case of fibers to make textile structure, using a very wide array of techniques it cannot exist without a working process. Fibers to thread then to textiles, cannot exist by themselves and always have to be linked to the surroundings, this necessarily includes the world far away in time and space. Thus we cannot look at them and study them for themselves but have to include them in a greater view. On the other hand, as we often tend to do, is looking at things under a microscope or with the nose close to the object, we will acquire many details but we tend to miss out on important informations. The question is always the same, when we look at an object, do we talk about the work process or the finished object. When we have the object at hand, a sock for example, we should not readily say it’s knitted, but rather start by saying it’s a tubular, flexible and maybe an elastic object. Looking at it closer with a magnifying glass we can see horizontal loops that link with one another, maybe also cross one another, thus it will belong to the Supercategory I (Working with single elements). Therefore we can exclude Supercategory II (Interworking a set of elements) or Supercategory III (Working single elements into a previously prepared set).

When Professor Alfred Buehler1 took charge of and organized the Iklé collection2 in the Natural History Museum, Basel, Switzerland, he developed a classification based on the objects, which was fundamental for me as a textile student at the Basel School of Applied Arts. In 1945, as a young student, I introduced myself to Professor Buehler, my uncle Felix Speiser3 used to be his professor. He was very nice and let me inspect and take notes on the very curious textile objects, clamped between glass plates, which were kept in a shabby little box. Afterwards he always enquired to know what I thought about them and what I had found out. At the time he worked on cataloguing textiles from the Iklé collection. Even then I felt how important his categorization of textile techniques was and it was at that moment that the basic idea of the view from the top developed in my head, which ultimately led me to define the three main categories of textile techniques that are fundamental in my classification. I was already aware, back then, that people where usually in the habit of looking at textiles very closely to analyzing them, which always ends up being too detailed. The view from the top, on the other hand, allows a categorization into which, depending on the production, the different techniques fit, thus creating an order. My work is therefore based on Buehler‘s work, which can be seen as a general classification of the Iklé collection, which I was able to design and develop in a much more differentiated way thanks to my practical knowledge of the subject. Especially as far as my second Supercategory is concerned, Interworking a set of elements, this wide-ranging and difficult group was only clearly classified through my research. I made an apprenticeship of hand weaving, which I loved but had to interrupt unfortunately, due to physical problems with my arms. I knew then that I would never go back to weaving, but would hence fore dedicate my interest to textile making away from the looms. A breakthrough came about when, in the 1980’s, I met Professor Jamanobe, specialized in textiles, in Tokyo, through Professor Buehler. He invited me kindly to Japan where he introduced me to a kumi himo4 dealer, Mr. Adacisan in Kyoto. I was able to visit many workshops with him around Kyoto, where, at that time, no European had ever visited. I took notes, observing the workers braiding over their Marudai, producing beautiful braids used to tie the traditional obi5. I did not learn to braid in Japan, but I had bought many braids from various braiders, which I analyzed thoroughly, once back home. I also improvised a circular table and started to braid, wrapping the yarns on makeshift bobbins.

1 Alfred Buehler, 1928 – 1981, studied ethnography at the University of Basel, specializing on east Asian textiles. He was professor of ethnography at the University of Basel and from 1950 – 1964 he was director at the Museum für Völkerkunde, Basel, (today Museum of Cultures, Basel). His famous legacy is the study and classification of textile from the Iklé collection. 2 Iklé collection: Iklé, Fritz, 1877 – 1945, Son of Leopold Iklé, creator of the famous Iklé collection of textiles (Die Sammlung Iklé) at the Textilmuseum St. Gallen, Zürich, Switzerland. His life-work was the creation of the important collection of different textile techniques, housed at the Museum für Völkerkunde, Basel, since 1945. After two generations of textile collectors in the Iklé family, the remaining textiles (including Coptic pieces) in the family collection were sold at Christie‘s, London, in 1989. 3 Felix Speiser, studied in Berlin and promoted at the University of Basel Ethnology, where he was professor since 1917; from 1942 till 1949 he was director of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Basel, (today Museum of Cultures, Basel). 4 Japanese braid worked on a a circular Madurai table. 5 Traditional Japanese woman’s robe.

Whilst braiding, I realized that the whole process was nothing else but the result developing during the pleasurable Maypole6 dance, done all over Europe since many centuries. I illustrated the track, completed by the dancers and discovered that the working process was also the same on the circular braiding machine7. I applied these intricate or simple track plans to my use, which turned out to be the way to explain all braiding processes. This eventually lead to my first book The Manual of Braiding. For my publication on classification, I retained an important lesson, looking at the finished object of the braids acquired in Japan, years back. I was looking at the finished structure, the braid, on which the working process was lost. Thus it was important how I looked at the structure, describing exactly what I saw. In order to better understand I had to undo some of the braiding (often not possible). I looked at each of the elements and the way they interacted with each other, how they crossed over and under other elements, how they repeated their pathways, how they behaved in the whole structure and so on. This, I was able to describe perfectly well in my track plans, in order to visually understand the whole braid. As I also have had the opportunity to observe the workers as they braided on their tables, I was able to unify the finished structure and their working process, a rare situation which made it possible for me to understand the whole process. Noémi Speiser

6 A high pole, installed usually in the town center, from which high top many fancy ribbons fall. Each end is taken by a person, then in a roundabout dance people circle around each other and the pole, thus wrapping the pole with a circular ribbon braid, exactly like one type of braids done on the Madurai. 7 The braiding machine was invented by Thomas Walford in 1748, only in the early 19th century braids as laces were produced thanks to important improvements on the braiding machine.

KNOTS AS TEXTILE STRUCTURES DEFINITION • A KNOT PROPER is a clearly delimited and well organized thread formation, typically more or less equal in all extensions. • It is worked with one or two single elements ¤ I A3, or with a small number ¤ II B1. • It is „locked“ in itself and separate from other parts, be they similar or different in construction. The locking implies that pulling the protruding ends of such a loosely tied knot construction CONTRACTS rather than disintegrates it; it will not collapse in a disorderly muddle but gradually assume an individual shape. • The degree of TIGHTNESS is a prominent feature of a knot. The ability to be compacted and then to maintain its shape by internal friction is an essential part of its definition. The fabrics that match the above definition range from very small to a considerable size and extent, forming a flat or a three-dimensional enlargement. Among these we distinguish between: – UTILITY KNOTS, also called practical, occupational, functional knots. – DECORATIVE KNOTS also called fancy knots. The former are small whereas the latter are invariably larger, exhibiting many sizes and shapes. This division is helpful, though, admittedly, the line of demarcation is not entirely clean; there are transitional forms: Identical knots can be either utility or decoration, often both. A UTILITY KNOT has to fulfill an intended function: – – – – -a -b -c -d -e -f -g -h -i

It must be as small as possible. It must exercise a suitable grip. It must be resistant to the direction of the pull. It must withstand the friction occurring in practical use. Connecting an element with an inert part of another element or an object of another quality is a hitch rather than a knot proper. Securing the frayed end of a cord and preventing it from slipping through some opening is referred to as a knob knot. Binding or tying up a package. Forming a fixed or sliding loop. Gripping and fixing an added element, e.g., feather, pile, hair, etc. Joining two elements head-on is called a bend. Connecting two elements laterally ¤ II B2.1. Connecting an element with the tip of a loop, e.g., a filet knot ¤ I A2. Other options possible.

IN DECORATIVE knots the function is secondary. They are best characterized according to size and shape. -k -l -m -n

Single layer of many size and shape, tubular or flattened-out Turks heads ¤ I A3 (1). Two layers connected along the rim. Multiple-element, three-dimensional knots forming a compact protuberance (II B). If a fabric answers to the above definition but is very large and open, maybe stretched in a frame, we call it SINGLE-ELEMENT INTERLACING.

KNOTS IN A CONTEXT -a -b

A knot can be a singleton of any size and function, whether utility or decorative. It can be one among several individual or interdependent knots, be they similar or different in construction.

1) 2) 3)

Formed by one or a few single elements in linear sequence ¤ II B1 (1). Formed by single-element knotted netting ¤ I A2. Formed by multiple-element knotted netting ¤ II B2.

KNOTS CONSIDERED TECHNICALLY Having provided an overview of knot structures, we now come to the techniques used to produce them. The technique for creating any form answering to the general definition of KNOT, be it I A3 or II B1 is described as: Leading the end of one or a few elements in well organized curves, bending sideways or backward whilst passing through bights or loops and being tucked under selected parts formed by itself or a partner, when crossing its path. This is followed by tightening. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES • A knot is clearly determined from the very initial moves onward. This means: it must be planned ahead; it requires some sort of mental template of the final product. • In tying a knot there is no fell; the working end runs across the planned construction in any direction until the space is completely filled. • In tying a knot there normally is no repeat of entirely identical moves, in the exceptional cases that this does occur, then only once or twice and the process must be planned with the increases in mind. Obviously the tying of large knots requires exact planning and meticulous adherence to a previously created diagram. Inventing new knots is a matter for shrewd specialists, but countless traditional knot-designs are available in books on the subject.

♦♦ 2 MANIPULATION When interworking multiple elements the crucial problem is to select the next running element and to know how to displace it accurately or to create a correct shed for its passage. Four methods for maintaining the needed ORDER and supplying the required TENSION were decisive for the division into sub-categories II A 1, 2, 3, 4: II A 1

In manipulating elements with free ends close to the fell, the preceding bit of the growing structure will tell you what to do next. This acts as a sure guide; no further ordering means are required. However, a certain degree of tension is in dispensable. It is implicit in II A 2, 3, and 4, but not in II A 1. Stiffness is an adequate substitute but with flexible elements a use-related, in other words, a temporary tension is applied to a short length with one hand whilst the other hand deals with the running element. The tension is released immediately afterwards. Under these circumstances it is even possible to use loop heddles.

II A 2

With elements wound on themselves or on carriers, the exposed lengths are usually supported by some kind of stand and the tension is supplied by the weight of the carrier. Thus the order is maintained physically and the correct element can be selected and displaced without reference to the fell. Manipulation occurs on the carrier or slightly above.

II A 3

In loop-braiding the elements are fastened at the far end. The order required for interworking as well as the required tension is entirely managed by the fingers or hands inserted in the stretched loops at the near end. The fabric grows towards the worker whilst the fell is remote and cannot be controlled; nor does it need to be controlled.

II A 4

In sprang the elements are stretched out at full length. They are manipulated close to the fell as in II A 1. But since they are fastened at both ends, every picked shed is duplicated reciprocally beyond the hands.

ASP 2 THE AREA OF INTERWORKING When the number of elements simultaneously present is large, the worker can inevitably be in contact with only a small group whilst all the rest is temporarily idle. There are three ways in which the growing fabric, whether flat or tubular, can be subdivided: -a

LENGTHWISE SECTIONS The passage of the elements running course-wise either in S or in Z can be limited to a “handful” of standing elements by dividing the growing fabric into lengthwise sections. - Two mirror-image passages from selvedges to centre = V-fell - From centre to selvedges = A-fell - In larger fabrics: W-fell, M-fell, zigzag fell, etc.

-b

DIAMOND AREAS A row of diamonds grows on a zigzag fell. Successive rows are set over by half a diamond leaving in every second row a triangle along both selvedges. The diamond can be worked by subsequent passages all in the same direction, either Z or S, or on A-fell or on V-fell.

-c

TRANSVERSE SECTIONS Start at the right selvedge with building up a triangle by leading gradually increasing course-wise passages up to a “handful” of standing elements. Then continue with passages that always stop at the same level. Eventually this level stretches across the whole width and constitutes a cross-course WAITING LINE from which the same operation is repeated. This waiting line must be secured by means appropriate to the quality of the elements. Transverse sections are used above all in plaiting large fabrics with strips.

♦ 4 CREATING STRUCTURE The technique lends itself to creating. - a An open mesh, either in a simple repeat or in elaborate openwork design - b A dense and hard fabric. THE KNOTS There are basically two types of two-strand knots ¤ general view under IIA 3. - Type 1 A half hitch or a full hitch can slide along its stretched partner. The leading representative is the omnipresent clove hitch. - Type 2 A proper knot holds both partners firmly engaged, a) as a paired unit or b) by two strands interlacing in symmetrical or asymmetrical curves. The leading representative of a) is the over-hand knot, of b) the square knot, both omnipresent. Furthermore, a knot can enclose two or several strands serving as a foundation. The leading representative is the Solomon knot: A square knot is tied around two temporary idle strands. THE COURSE OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE GROWING STRUCTURE -a

In a set of elements two adjacent strands can be connected by any knot of Type 1, then divided up and made to participate similarly with their neighbours on both sides. Thus the trend of the strands undulates, somewhat analogous to interlinking in braiding.

-b

A number of strands all hitching over a stretched partner can steer the latter obliquely in one direction, while the former take the counter direction. This is roughly analogous to oblique interlacing in braiding.

-c

A well organized repeat of half-hitches or half-knots over a foundation forms a knotted bar.

Note that a mixture of clove hitches and Solomon knots, occasionally knotted bars, single Carrick bends at selected points goes under the name of Macrame or Square Knotting. The centuries have seen a sheer endless number of designs in this technique. ♦ 5 THE FELL Since the interworked strands are firmly fastened by knots, the fell can take on any irregular shape, depending on the chosen structure and design. ♦ 6 COLOUR-EFFECTS - In openwork fabrics, multi-colour design is ineffective. - In a two-colour fabric of closely set clove hitches, every knot can bring either this or the other colour to the surface. Similar to pixels in a display unit, this is an opportunity to create colour designs. - Other options possible.

195

III

♦ 5 MANIPULATION The conditions presented by a set of rigid elements fixed at only one end, and a set of tightly stretched but supple elements, are SIMILAR mainly in that the elements are perfectly rectilinear in both cases, so they easily maintain their lateral sequence without getting tangled up. But DISSIMILAR in that the free ends of a starting set, even when stiff, allow the added elements to pass round their tips which, in their own place, will give way. For example, a basket maker will pass the flexible „weaver“ behind the upright stake and then gently lower it towards the fell. Whereas on a warp stretched horizontally, the flexible wefts pass full length downward and upward again between the closely set warp elements. They are pulled vigorously away from the warp and then dropped. In this way you achieve two counter-twining pairs with almost the same effort as a single pair. Many other examples could be given. ♦ 6 RELATION OF THE WEFT-WISE ROWS AMONG THEMSELVES. THEY CAN BE: -a -b -c -d

Close to one another so as to cover the elements of the starting set completely. Spaced at whatever distance that suits the range and blend of qualities in the working elements and the intended use of the fabric. For flat fabrics the behaviour of the weft-wise elements at the selvedges must be described in particular. In tubular fabrics the rows can be helical or circular – in which case the end must be carefully made to merge with the start in every row.

♦ 7 DEFLECTION OF THE STARTING SET Appropriately behaving added elements can make the elements of the starting set, even though stiff, slightly divert from their upright stance. -a -b -c -d

The elements of a rigid starting set are forced into oblique courses, which are maintained within each group of added elements. As a result the structure is triaxial. Between widely spaced rows as in -a, the oblique courses can even be interlaced, which means there is interaction also in the starting set. Moving to and from: Crossing and re-crossing at very steep angles. Many more complex formations are possible.

♦ 8 COLOUR-EFFECTS Produced by the starting set: - a For example, dark and light alternating 1/1, crossing one another ¤ ♦7a, can form a pattern or a design with either black or white on top. - b Many other options are possible. Produced by the added elements: - c Different colours in twining units. - d Coloured strips added to the weft groups for coloureffect. This is sometimes called „false embroidery“. - e Many other options possible.

233

III

C 3.2 OPEN WORK

THE WEFT CREATES DECORATIVE OPENINGS BY CRAMMING GROUPS OF WARP ELEMENTS. III C 3.2.1 “DRAWN WORK” OR “CUT WORK” – In a woven fabric of convenient quality, a few adjacent threads are cut and the chosen length is withdrawn. The counter-course, now bare, represents the „starting set“. – A discontinuous weft is darned over/under two or several small units, or wrapped around only one. In drawing this „fagotting“ tightly, an openwork insertion grows in the woven fabric. The units of the starting set can be entirely concealed or party left uncovered. Often a continuous weft element is included, fastening one or connecting several units by means of simple knots. This is a form of embroidery; however, considering the work process, it is fabricconstruction in a small area. III C 3.2.2 SO-CALLED SOLS OR RUEDAS Discontinuous wefts are introduced into a radial starting set. This is a type of needle-lace based on the warp-weft principle. THE STARTING SET Any number of threads from eight to a large amount, depending on the planned design and the size of radius, all crossing the point at the centre, are stretched radially: – Within a neatly lined hole in a woven fabric. – Wound over a disk-shaped mould equipped with metal points or slots along the periphery from where the fabric will be withdrawn and placed elsewhere. – The outlines of a large composite design of sols can be stitched to a piece of strong paper or starched cloth acting as a support. The finished fabric is then removed from the support ¤ I A1(3). THE ADDED ELEMENTS A spiralling weft starts at the centre of a sol and creates order in the radial elements whilst creating a disk-shaped area of any diameter. Moving outwards the discontinuous wefts create warp-faced trapezoid or triangular areas shaped by diligent tension. Sections of the radiating threads remain uncovered and occasionally a circle is formed by a continuous weft, producing knots as described in III C 3.2.1.

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BIOGRAPHY Noémi Speiser was born in Surbiton Surrey, United Kingdom, on August 11th 1926. In 1932 she came to Switzerland where she did her schooling in Ennetbaden, Baden and Aarau, Switzerland. Later she visited the preliminary course at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Zurich, and began an apprenticeship as a hand weaver in the Heimatwerk Brugg, Aargau; due to an illness she had to abandon it. Instead she studied textile design at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Basel. After her studies she taught many years embroidery in Basel and since the 1970’s she has been teaching oblique interlacing (off-loom) techniques in the Textilfachklasse at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Basel. In the 1980’s her first book „Manual of braiding“ was published. During her research she traveled several times to Japan. She introduced and encouraged the study of oblique interlacing at the CIETA (Centre international d’étude des textiles anciens). In the late 1990’s she began working on her most important publication, „The Classification of Textile Techniques“.

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The internationally renowned textile artist and researcher Noémi Speiser has been working with textile techniques for over 70 years. In this book, she publishes her long-awaited classification of textile techniques, which she divides into three Supercategories: “Working with a single element”, “Interworking multiple elements” and “Working elements into a starting set”. Noémi Speiser focuses on the working process, i.e. the production of the textile structure. Hand-drawn illustrations by the author accompany the system with its numerous subcategories and provide a profound overview of the variety of textile techniques.

ISBN 978-3-258-60289-9