Authors: Oliwia De Vito, Kseniia Arnaut, David Březina, Ihor Huityn, Monika Pietrasik, Maria Targosz, Natalia Nowak, Kornelia Spruch, Dagmara Dąbek, Wiktor Oleś & others
Layout: Wiktor Oleś
“Think Tank - chance for Youth” logo author: Wiktor Oleś
Cover design, interior design and book implementation author: Wiktor Oleś
ISBN: 978-83-970707-5-2
License: CC-BY 40
The publication was produced as part of the “Think Tankchance for Youth” project, under the honorary patronage of: the Vice-Rector for Education and Students of the University of Silesia in Katowice the Mayor of Katowice the President of Bytom the Chair of the Management Board of Metropolis GZM
Funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). Neither the European Union nor EACEA can be held responsible for them.
II. INCLUSION OF MIGRANTS IN EDUCATION AND WORKSPACE IN THE EU - POLAND, CZECH REPUBLIC, GREECE & EUROPEAN UNION AVERAGE
I. INTRODUCTION
The European Youth Strategy, was created as part of the ''Think Tank - chance for Youth'' project with the participation of young people from Poland, Greece and the Czech Republic.
The topics addressed in the document were selected through debate and brainstorming by members of the three European youth think tanks, and were labeled as those that concern the daily lives, as well as the future of young Europeans.
Among them are issues related to the inclusion of migrants in European Union countries, the influence of the church on politics and democratic processes in selected European countries, as well as radical environmental movements or diminished labor market opportunities for young people in some EU economies.
These topics may seem unrelated at first glance, but they are the ones that young people identified as having an impact on the creation of reality around them and the development of their societies, countries, and the European Union as a whole.
The publication was prepared by members of three think tanks, created within the framework of the "Think Tankchance for Youth" project, they are:
SIPE Silesian Institute of Political Education (PL), which is a youth think tank of the Foundation of European Initiatives in Silesia, dealing with civic education and Silesian identity.
Mosaic Minds (CZ), which is a Czech think tank dedicated to trying to juxtapose academic background, leadership experience, and cultural diversity so they can solve social problems.
EmbranceAll Hub (GR), that focuses its discussions on the issue of social inclusion, mainly concerning youth. Social inclusion and diversity is a matter of great importance to the group's members, who share common values such as equal opportunities for development and progress, as well as equitable participation in all kinds of activities.
"Think Tank - chance for Youth" is an international project implemented by youth from Poland, Greece and the Czech Republic by the FEIS Foundation and partners: EUphoria
Youth Lab from Greece and Petrklic Help from the Czech Republic. The project is co-financed by the European Union. The project has received patronage from:
the Vice-Rector for Education and Students of the University of Silesia in Katowice Dr Katarzyna Trynda, prof. UŚ
the Mayor of Katowice
the President of Bytom
the Chair of the Management Board of Metropolis GZM
II. INCLUSION OF MIGRANTS IN EDUCATION
AND WORKSPACE IN
THE EU - POLAND, CZECH
REPUBLIC, GREECE & EUROPEAN UNION AVERAGE
As the European Union grapples with the multifaceted challenges of migration, the integration of migrants into educational frameworks and labor markets has emerged as a critical area of focus.
This publication, titled "Inclusion of Migrants in Education and Workspace in the European Union: A Comparative Analysis of Poland, Czech Republic, Greece, and European Union Average" provides a comprehensive examination of the strategies and outcomes associated with migrant integration in these regions
Utilizing data sourced from Eurostat and national statistical offices, the study presents an in-depth analysis of the demographic characteristics of migrants, their participation in educational and work sectors, and the pivotal role of NGOs in facilitating their integration.
This publication aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on migration by offering evidence-based insights and recommendations that can assist policymakers, educational institutions, and NGOs in crafting more effective integration strategies. By comparing the integration experiences of migrants in these specific EU regions, the study provides a clearer understanding of the complexities involved and the potential pathways toward more inclusive and cohesive societies.
Research strategy:
Number of migrants in each country ( Statistics, using Eurostat, Ministry of Interior)
Education possibilities
Work possibilities
Work of NGOs - main role of integrating migrants
Integration theories - integration through education (language courses)
European Union average
Migration Statistics in the European Union
As of 2023, the European Union has a total population of approximately 448.8 million inhabitants, of which 27.3 million (6%) are non-EU citizens, and another 42.4 million (9%) were born outside the EU. This demographic shift underscores the importance of discussing the inclusion of migrants in the EU's societal structures.
Education Opportunities for Migrants in the EU
The EU provides significant opportunities for migrant education, critical for successful integration. This is evident in the issuance of residence permits for education purposes, which saw an increase of 29% in 2022 compared to the previous year. Such educational initiatives often focus on language acquisition and cultural adaptation, which are fundamental for migrants to gain meaningful employment and integrate effectively into their new environments
Education is pivotal for the successful integration of migrants, yet various barriers exist:
Language proficiency is a fundamental requirement for successful integration into educational systems. However, many migrants arrive with limited knowledge of the host country's language, necessitating language courses which might not always be accessible or adequate. The European Commission has recognized this issue and supports initiatives aimed at improving language training for migrants to facilitate smoother integration into the education system.
Migrants often struggle with getting their prior educational credentials recognized in the EU, which hampers their ability to continue education or pursue employment relevant to their qualifications. For instance, the EU's "Your Europe" portal provides information and services to help migrants get their qualifications recognized across member states, but the effectiveness and awareness of such services can vary
Economic hardships disproportionately affect migrant families, impacting their educational opportunities. For instance, the cost of textbooks, transportation, and other schooling expenses can be a significant barrier. Some EU countries have implemented subsidy programs or educational grants targeting low-income families, which can include migrants, to alleviate these financial burdens.
The variability in educational support at local and national levels significantly impacts migrants' educational access Programs like the EU's Erasmus+ aim to support educational institutions in developing inclusive policies and practices that cater to the needs of diverse student bodies, including migrants.
Employment Prospects for Migrants
In the realm of employment, approximately 9.93 million nonEU citizens were employed in the EU labor market in 2022. This represents about 5.1% of the total workforce aged between 20 and 64. Despite these numbers, the employment rate among non-EU citizens (61.9%) remains significantly lower than that of EU citizens (77.1%).
Migrants are notably over-represented in sectors such as accommodation and food service activities, administrative and support service activities, and construction. Conversely, they are under-represented in public administration, education, and health and social work activities, highlighting the need for policies that broaden employment opportunities across various sectors.
Employment integration is another critical area, with several challenges facing migrants:
According to Eurostat data, non-EU citizens are notably overrepresented in sectors like accommodation and food services, where they constituted 11.3% of the workforce, compared to just 4.2% for EU citizens in 2022. These sectors often involve lower wages and less job security.
The mismatch between migrants' skills and the jobs they perform is a significant issue. For example, despite high educational levels, migrants are often employed in roles that do not utilize their skills fully, leading to underemployment. This is partly due to the undervaluation or non-recognition of foreign qualifications, a challenge the EU addresses through the European Qualifications Framework, which seeks to compare qualifications across member states.
Discrimination in hiring practices can limit employment opportunities for migrants. The EU has directives against discrimination, yet implementation and enforcement vary by country. Furthermore, non-EU citizens often face additional legal restrictions on employment, depending on their residency status.
The lack of robust professional networks can disadvantage migrants in the job market. Initiatives like the European Network of Public Employment Services aim to facilitate better employment connections for migrants by offering networking events and job matching services that consider the specific needs and skills of migrants.
Role of NGOs in Integrating Migrants
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a pivotal role in the integration of migrants through various support mechanisms, including legal assistance, job training, and cultural orientation programs. These organizations are often at the forefront of providing practical solutions that facilitate the integration of migrants into the education system and the workforce.
Example: Caritas International
Caritas International is a confederation of Catholic relief, development, and social service organizations operating worldwide. In the European Union, Caritas organizations in various countries provide assistance to migrants and refugees, focusing on integration, social support, and humanitarian aid.
Service Provision: Caritas organizations offer a wide range of services to migrants and refugees, including accommodation support, language courses, job training, and legal assistance. For example, Caritas provides temporary housing for newly arrived migrants and refugees in countries like Germany and Italy, helping them transition to independent living. Partnerships and Collaboration: Caritas collaborates with other NGOs, government agencies, churches, and community groups to enhance their impact and reach. By leveraging diverse partnerships, Caritas strengthens service delivery, shares resources, and fosters community engagement.
For example, Caritas works closely with local authorities and volunteer networks to provide comprehensive support to migrants and refugees in reception centers and urban areas
Emergency Response: In times of crisis, such as natural disasters or large influxes of refugees, Caritas mobilizes emergency response efforts to provide humanitarian assistance. They distribute food, water, shelter, and other essential supplies to displaced populations, working in coordination with other humanitarian actors and local authorities.
Example: International Rescue Committee (IRC)
The International Rescue Committee is a global humanitarian organization that provides assistance to refugees and displaced populations worldwide. In the European Union, the IRC operates in various countries, offering a range of services to support the integration and well-being of migrants and refugees. Here's how they typically operate:
Service Provision: The IRC provides a wide range of services to migrants and refugees in the European Union, including resettlement assistance, housing support, language classes, job training, mental health services, and legal aid. They work to address the immediate needs of refugees and support their long-term integration into host communities.
Partnerships and Collaboration: The IRC collaborates with governments, NGOs, community organizations, and other stakeholders to enhance its impact and reach. They work in partnership with local authorities to deliver services, share best practices, and coordinate responses to refugee crises. The IRC also engages with private sector partners to create employment opportunities for refugees
Emergency Response: In times of crisis, such as sudden influxes of refugees or natural disasters, the IRC mobilizes emergency response teams to provide immediate assistance to affected populations. They deploy staff and resources to support emergency shelter, food distribution, healthcare, and protection services for refugees and migrants.
Challenges and Opportunities
Despite the progress in integrating migrants into European society, challenges persist. The initial challenge for many migrants is the complex and often lengthy asylum and immigration procedures. Legal hurdles include obtaining the right to stay, work, and access to services. There are also frequent changes in immigration laws which can affect their status unexpectedly. Furthermore integration into new communities can be challenging due to language barriers, cultural differences, and social isolation. Migrants often face difficulties in accessing education and employment opportunities at levels commensurate with their qualifications. Many migrants face economic instability due to difficulties in finding employment.
Those who do find work often end up in low-paying, unstable jobs that do not make full use of their skills and qualifications. Discrimination is also a significant issue, manifesting in various forms including social exclusion, xenophobia, and institutional biases. Such discrimination can impact their job prospects, housing, and broader social interactions. Another challenging factor is access to healthcare can be limited for migrants, especially for undocumented migrants or those in the asylum process. They may face legal barriers, lack of information, or discrimination in accessing health services
As for the opportunities the EU has established a framework of rights for migrants, including the right to seek asylum and protections under various human rights conventions. Several EU directives also aim to improve the integration process and ensure equal treatment in employment and social security. Various NGOs and community organizations in the EU offer support to migrants. These include legal aid, language classes, employment training, and cultural integration programs, which are designed to help migrants settle and integrate. Once legally recognized, migrants in one EU country can benefit from the principle of free movement within the Schengen Area, allowing them to seek employment or education opportunities across multiple countries.
When it comes to the opportunities that migrants bring to the EU, migrants contribute to the EU’s economy in significant ways, including filling gaps in the labor market, contributing to cultural diversity, and boosting demographic sustainability. In some sectors, migrants are highly entrepreneurial and help to stimulate economic innovation and growth. An aging population and declining birth rates in the EU mean there are labor shortages that migrants can help fill, particularly in skilled professions. Initiatives like the EU Blue Card aim to attract highly skilled migrants.
Summary
Statistical data:
In 2023, 49.6 million migrants lived in the EU, representing 8.3% of the population.
3.9 million migrants received refugee status or subsidiary protection. Most migrants come from neighboring EU countries such as Morocco, Türkiye and Ukraine. The main reasons for migration are family reunification, looking for work and escaping persecution or conflict.
Challenges:
Migrants may experience discrimination and racism. The language and culture of the host country may constitute an obstacle to integration. Lack of access to appropriate accommodation and social support.
Chances:
Migrants can make a valuable contribution to the EU economy and society. They have different skills and experience that can enrich local communities. Migration can lead to cultural exchange and innovation.
Inclusion in education:
Migrant children have the right to education on an equal basis with children from the host country. There are programs to help migrants learn the language and catch up on their education.
Scholarships and other forms of financial support are also available for migrant students
Switching on to work:
Migrants have the right to work in the EU if they have the appropriate permit.
There are career counseling and job placement services that help migrants find work.
Training programs can help migrants acquire skills needed in the labor market.
Activities of non-governmental organizations:
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play an important role in supporting the social inclusion of migrants. They provide a range of services such as language learning, legal advice and help finding accommodation.
NGOs also defend migrants' rights and raise awareness of migration issues.
Examples of NGOs working for the social inclusion of migrants in the EU:
European Network of Councils for Refugees (ECRE)
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
Caritas International
International Rescue Committee (IRC)
Sources:
https://knowledge4policyeceuropaeu/dataset/ds00026 en https://eceuropaeu/eurostat/web/interactive-publications/migration-2023 https://joint-research-centreeceuropaeu/jrc-news-and-updates/atlas-migration-2023-2023-1218 en
https://commissioneuropaeu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/promoting-oureuropean-way-life/statistics-migration-europe en
Poland
Introduction
Immigration has become one of the key challenges and topics of discussion at the global level, and Poland, as a dynamically developing European Union member state, is no exception in the context of this phenomenon. In particular, from 2022, due to Russian aggression against Ukraine, Poland has become one of the most involved countries on its continent in the matter of migration, which is why the Republic of Poland was chosen as the subject of our analysis.
Data
Data on how many immigrants are in Poland vary depending on the source and type of analysis. Polish Social Insurance Institution (ZUS) that there are 1 127 744 people from different countries registered in Poland by the end of 2023.(1) Warsaw Enterprise Institute estimates that estimates that there are approximately 3.5-4 million immigrants in Poland as of September 2023(2) The Central Statistical Office (GUS) in the demographic yearbook of 2023 (with data from 2022) says that in Poland resides 84088 immigrants in total in the context of immigration to Poland for a period of at least 12 months.(3)
Eurostat data also indicate that in 2021-2022 the largest group of people immigrating to Poland were Ukrainians, Belarusians and Georgians(4) however ZUS indicates that by the end of 2023 the majority are Belarusians. The next places in this ranking are taken by citizens of Ukraine and India (out of registered foreigners.(5)
According to the data from Eurostat (from 2021) the most common reason for permanent residence in Poland is work56%, followed by family - 12% Work and family are again on the first and second place when it comes to temporary stay in Poland for non-EU citizens. Eurostat cites education as the third reason for the temporary migration. (6) That is why we chose Poland as the subject of our analysis in the context of employment and education because these are the most common reasons for immigration to Poland.
Data regarding education
Education most often concerns children, teenagers and students, therefore these groups of people should be taken into account when considering education. Dziennik Gazeta Prawna indicates that the number of children of foreigners in Poland is constantly growing. (7) The Ministry of Education indicates that by the end of September 2022, there were 135.8 thousand foreign children learning in Polish schools. (8)
According to the system POL-on data of the academic year 2022/2023 there are 102.2 thousand foreigners studying in Poland. Most of those students are the citizens of Ukraine, Belarus and Turkey. GUS says that there are 105.4 thousand international students in total (including students from student exchanges). Taking into account the total number of students in Poland, these numbers translate into an internationalization rate of 87% (9)
Eurostat data also indicate that in 2021-2022 the largest group of people immigrating to Poland were Ukrainians, Belarusians and Georgians(4) however ZUS indicates that by the end of 2023 the majority are Belarusians. The next places in this ranking are taken by citizens of Ukraine and India (out of registered foreigners.(5)
According to the data from Eurostat (from 2021) the most common reason for permanent residence in Poland is work56%, followed by family - 12% Work and family are again on the first and second place when it comes to temporary stay in Poland for non-EU citizens. Eurostat cites education as the third reason for the temporary migration. (6) That is why we chose Poland as the subject of our analysis in the context of employment and education because these are the most common reasons for immigration to Poland.
Data regarding education
Education most often concerns children, teenagers and students, therefore these groups of people should be taken into account when considering education. Dziennik Gazeta Prawna indicates that the number of children of foreigners in Poland is constantly growing. (7) The Ministry of Education indicates that by the end of September 2022, there were 135.8 thousand foreign children learning in Polish schools. (8)
According to the system POL-on data of the academic year 2022/2023 there are 102.2 thousand foreigners studying in Poland. Most of those students are the citizens of Ukraine, Belarus and Turkey. GUS says that there are 105.4 thousand international students in total (including students from student exchanges). Taking into account the total number of students in Poland, these numbers translate into an internationalization rate of 87% (9)
Data regarding workspace
The Central Statistical Office (GUS) says that in the first half of 2023 there were 986.0 thousand immigrants working in Poland. By the end of June 2023, foreigners constituted 6.4% of all people performing work in Poland. Participation of foreigners working in Poland (in the total number of all people performing work in Poland) increased at the end of June 2023 by 1.2 percentage points compared to January 2022. Until midlast year, Ukrainian citizens constituted the largest group of immigrants working in Poland. The next places in this ranking were taken by Belarusians and Georgians.(10) OECD in the International Migration Outlook 2023 indicates that the unemployment rate of foreign born people in Poland was 5.7% and the employment rate of this group was 75.1%.(11)
Education possibilities
The biggest challenge in the context of including immigrants in Polish schools and universities is the way of thinking about Polish schools which is often outdated. Polish schools are still often thought of as homogeneous, culturally coherent, that there are Polish-speaking children from Poland and that children from other countries are exceptions, and if they do attend a Polish school, it is mostly for a short period of time or they attend bilingual schools or those dedicated to a given nationality.
This approach to school may have been valid 25 years ago, but in today's world, where Poland got developed, is in the European Union and gives more work opportunities than in the beginning of the century, more and more people choose Poland as a country for permanent settlement
Also, the current times of unrest, disturbance and war in the countries beyond Poland's eastern border mean that there are more and more children from these countries in Polish schools for a longer period of time. Such a situation forces the Polish educational system to transform the functioning and understanding of the school in line with today's times.
However, the understanding that Polish schools have changed and continue to change must also be followed by actions that will combat the remaining challenges faced by today's Polish schools. More students who speak other languages may contribute to the creation of a language barrier both between students and teachers.
Therefore, it is necessary to introduce Polish language classes as a foreign language in schools; another solution may also be to expand the offer of teaching in English at both school and university levels. The next challenge is the cultural adjustment. Additional teacher training is necessary so that they can adapt their teaching to a culturally diverse group.
NGOs can offer teacher training and professional development workshops to help educators better understand the needs of immigrant children, implement inclusive teaching practices. A good solution would be to introduce classes introducing other cultures from the youngest grades, so as to teach children from the very beginning what diversity is and what other cultures are while not omitting the issue of teaching Polish culture to make it easier for children from other countries to adapt to Polish culture
Due to background disparities, Polish schools often create classes with only foreign students. On the one hand, it can be a good solution for young children when they start a new school by providing them more comfort. Going to a new school is usually a stressful event and going to school with a new language or different traditions may be even more stressful.
However, such a solution in the long term may lead to a situation where children from other countries will have a hard time adapting and children from Poland may develop the belief that "these children" are different, unknown.
This may result in misunderstandings in the future and deep divisions in society which may lead to cases of discrimination, aggression on one side or the other and it may result in conflicts on larger levels in the future society all around the country. That is why social integration and inclusion of migrants in the case of education is truly important on every level.
NGOs can help by establishing peer support and mentoring programs where immigrant children are paired with peer mentors or older students who can provide guidance, support, and friendship. These programs help immigrant children build social connections, develop confidence, and navigate the challenges of adapting to a new school environment.
Workspace possibilities
Human capital flight “brain drain” is a widely known phenomenon when the qualified employees and specialists leave for another country due to better earnings or development prospects. This phenomenon applies to a large extent to workers from Asian or African countries coming to Poland for economic purposes.
Other countries from which many highly qualified employees come to Poland are Belarus and Ukraine due to the hard situation in those countries. Another group of workers coming to Poland are manual workers or those with basic qualifications who also come to Poland from beyond the eastern border or mainly from Asia or Africa. The challenge they often face is recognition of foreign qualifications and experience. Because of this, immigrant workers may meet difficulties because of limitations in their employment opportunities.
Streamlining the process for the recognition of foreign qualifications and professional credentials can help immigrant workers integrate into the Polish labor market more effectively. It is also crucial not to lose the level of qualifications due to the process of accelerating procedures to not lower the level of highly qualified employees in Poland. Providing guidance and support services to help immigrant workers navigate the recognition process can also facilitate their transition into the workforce. Another challenge is the lack of access for the immigrants to the essential support services, such as legal assistance, healthcare, or housing support. To solve this, it is important to create a unit that would help in such matters
This is where NGOs can play a big role by offering information sessions, workshops, or resource guides. NGOs can collaborate with local communities, government agencies, businesses, and other stakeholders to promote intercultural understanding, tolerance, inclusion and social cohesion. Although Poland is a country where a large percentage of citizens speak English, especially in the younger generations, many officials and employers of the older generation still do not speak English, and employment may be difficult due to the language barrier Here, once again, NGOs can get involved through offering language training programs or language courses specifically tailored to the needs of immigrant workers, through implementing language buddy systems or providing translation services to facilitate communication in the workplace. It is also important to educate both immigrants and employers on legal issues, that is why NGOs can offer legal aid clinics and rights education programs to inform migrants and employers about their legal rights and entitlements in their cooperation.
NGOs may also provide legal representation and advocacy support to migrants facing discrimination, exploitation, or human rights violations. Inclusion of immigrants in the case of workspace is crucial to prevent creating a stereotype that immigrants are mostly unemployed and that is important to prevent divisions in the society in Poland. Including immigrants in the workspace can give Poland a good reputation on the international arena, which may increase the inflow of qualified immigrants to the country
Greece
Introduction
Greece historically was always a country of immigration and as due to its geographical location was serving as a gateway to Europe for people from third-world countries. After the crisis in 2010 the migration to Greece and generally to Europe reached a bigger scale.
Data
The most updates statistics from the 1st January from 2022( newest update should have been released by Eurostat in March 2024, however it was not yet) show the following numbers:
According to the Eurostat statistics: 6% of the population of the Hellenic Republic - 632 700 are third-country nationals (TCNs). Moreover, there were 1.1% (115 200) of the population of EU citizens, making together 7,7% of the Greek population. At the end of November 2023, the Hellenic Republic received 26 657 of Ukrainians, who were seeking temporary protection. In 2022, Greece witnessed a total of 27,380 international protection applications( which in December 2023 was 26 850), encompassing asylum requests This marked a slight decrease from the previous year, as there were 28,355 applications in 2021, a significant drop from the peak of 77,285 in 2019 and 40,560 in 2020. Notably, the primary countries of origin for first-time applicants were Syria, Afghanistan, and Palestine.
Examining the distribution of first-time permits in 2021, 51.4% were granted for family reunification, 9.6% for employment purposes, and 3% for educational pursuits. Family reunification emerged as the predominant reason for permit issuance. Turning to naturalization figures, 9,433 Third-Country Nationals (TCNs) acquired Greek citizenship in 2021. This represented a decline compared to the previous years, with 12,514 naturalizations in 2020 and 15,830 in 2019, indicating a decreasing trend in the number of individuals gaining Greek citizenship through naturalization
Migration Policy Updates
In February 2022, Greece and Bangladesh formalized an agreement regarding migration and mobility through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). This agreement, which has been ratified by both countries, outlines the recruitment of 4,000 Bangladeshi workers annually for employment in Greece's agricultural sector.
Additionally, it includes provisions for regularizing the status of approximately 15,000 Bangladeshi individuals already residing in Greece at the time of signing. The MoU aims to facilitate legal migration channels, combat irregular migration, and streamline visa procedures.
A similar bilateral agreement was also established with Egypt in November 2022 and subsequently ratified in January 2023.
This agreement specifically addresses seasonal employment opportunities for Egyptian workers, primarily in Greece's agricultural industry. Moreover, in February 2022, Greece updated its list of safe countries of origin to include Egypt, Nepal, and Benin, while removing Ukraine from the list in December 2022. This designation implies that individuals from these countries may face less persecution or risk, affecting their asylum claims in Greece. In June 2022, Greece enacted Law 4 939/2022, consolidating various amendments made since 2019 into a comprehensive legal framework known as the Asylum Code.
This legislation governs the reception, international protection, and temporary sheltering of third-country nationals and stateless persons, particularly addressing cases of mass displacement. Furthermore, in July 2022, Law 4 960/2022 was passed to regulate guardianship and accommodation arrangements for unaccompanied minors (UAMs).
This law establishes guidelines for appointing guardians and operating hospitality centers and supervised apartments to provide semi-autonomous accommodation for UAMs.
Additionally, Law 5 007, enacted in December 2022, increased the minimum investment requirement for real estate investors applying for the "Golden Visa" program to EUR 500,000 in specified areas, including Athens, Thessaloniki, Santorini, and Mykonos, effective from May 1, 2023. Investors in these regions are restricted to investing in a single property. Finally, the parliament approved the new Migration Code (Law 5 038/2022) in March 2023, which came into effect on January 1, 2024.
This comprehensive legislation consolidates existing migration regulations and introduces modifications to residence permit regulations. Notably, it includes provisions for labor migration and offers benefits for second-generation children born and raised in Greece. Additionally, it simplifies residence permit requirements for unaccompanied minors, reducing the years of required schooling for eligibility. (12)
Data regarding education
According to Article 55 of L. 4939/2022, asylum-seeking and refugee children in Greece are obligated to attend primary and secondary school, under conditions akin to Greek nationals. The law underscores the integration of these children into the education system, treating access as a duty rather than merely a right. The Ministry of Education has implemented programs like afternoon preparatory classes (DYEP) and facilitated access to schools for children aged 6-15 living in dispersed urban settings. Despite efforts, challenges persist, particularly in ensuring attendance and addressing barriers like limited school capacity and mobility.
In 2021-2022, enrollment saw improvement, with 17,186 children enrolled, and attendance rates increased compared to the previous year. However, transportation issues and staffing shortages remain. Initiatives like the UNICEF All Children in Education project aim to enhance inclusiveness, but curriculum adaptation and teacher training are ongoing needs.
Despite progress, shortcomings persist, exacerbated by factors like the termination of accommodation programs and changes to the asylum application system. The new electronic application system complicates enrollment, rendering many children 'invisible' until their asylum claims are registered. This, coupled with fears of arrest or movement restrictions, hampers parental engagement with schools.(13)
Data regarding labor market
Access to the labor market for asylum seekers in Greece has undergone notable changes and persistent challenges in recent years. Until the end of 2019, asylum seekers could seek employment upon formal application and receipt of an asylum seeker’s card. However, significant obstacles persisted, including Greece's high unemployment rates, economic conditions, and competition with Greek-speaking workers. Administrative hurdles and the need for documentation also hindered access to formal employment, often leading asylum seekers to seek informal work, with implications for their social and economic rights.
In 2020, the introduction of a 6-month limit for accessing the labor market further complicated matters. This provision allowed access to employment if no decision was reached on the asylum application within six months, with automatic withdrawal of this right upon a negative decision. While aimed at expediting the asylum process, this policy added pressure on asylum seekers to secure employment within a limited timeframe, amidst ongoing challenges in the labor market
According to statistics collected by UNHCR between February 2022 and April 2023, 29% of asylum seekers who were working or had worked occasionally did so without any formal contract, highlighting the prevalence of informal employment among this population. Of the total respondents, 73% were not working at the time of the survey, underscoring the barriers to labor market participation faced by asylum seekers in Greece.
Despite efforts to facilitate integration, challenges persisted. Language barriers remained a significant hurdle, with many asylum seekers lacking proficiency in Greek or English, essential for securing formal employment. Additionally, the lack of documentation, including proof of qualifications and training, posed challenges in verifying skills and educational backgrounds, hindering access to certain job opportunities.
Prolonged displacement, secluded accommodation, and movement restrictions further complicated access to employment, particularly for those residing in camps or informal settlements. In March 2022, only 3% of eligible residents of ESTIA II had managed to open a bank account, highlighting the magnitude of the challenges applicants and beneficiaries face in accessing the labor market.
Efforts to address these challenges have included pilot programs to assess educational backgrounds and skills. In April and May 2021, UNHCR conducted a pilot registration of the educational background and professional skills of asylum applicants and beneficiaries of international protection residing in the islands of Lesvos, Chios, Samos, Kos, Leros, Rhodes, and Tilos. The exercise highlighted a significant range of skills amongst the population of concern, with 78% of those interviewed having at least some level of formal education
Moreover, refugee and asylum-seeking women faced additional hurdles, including balancing professional and family responsibilities, childcare obligations, and gender-based discrimination in the labor market. According to UNHCR data, lack of childcare for children was classified by asylum-seekers as the main barrier to finding employment (23.53%).
Additionally, gender stereotypes in job sectors further hindered women's entry into the labor market.(14)
These statistics underscore the ongoing need for comprehensive policies and support mechanisms to facilitate the integration of asylum seekers into the labor market, promote their autonomy and self-esteem, and combat discrimination based on gender, nationality, or refugee status.
Education/work possibilities
The primary support for migrant employment comes from civil society organizations, stepping in to fill the gap left by government policies. These NGOs offer essential programs, particularly focusing on language training during migrants' initial period in Greece. Beyond language lessons, NGOs tailor their assistance to address specific obstacles faced by migrants, taking into account factors such as immigration status, country of origin, cultural differences, and gender. While Migrant Integration Centers (M.I.C.) provide job counseling and facilitate connections with potential employers, not all centers have the capacity to offer comprehensive support. Similarly, Municipal Community Centers offer job search assistance, particularly targeting younger individuals, but these services often fall short of meeting the needs of the entire migrant population.
One notable educational initiative led by NGOs is the "HELIOS" program, managed by the International Organization for Migration. This program includes professional counseling services aimed at improving migrants' job readiness and enhancing their prospects in the labor market.(15)
Summary and suggestions
Greece has made strides towards integrating immigrants by establishing a legal framework with clear procedures for residence permits, family reunification, and work authorization. Additionally, government-funded Migrant Integration Centers (MICs) offer language courses, vocational training, and legal aid. Social programs also provide documented immigrants access to healthcare and education.
However, challenges persist. High unemployment rates make finding work difficult, hindering economic integration. Limited Greek language proficiency creates barriers to employment, education, and social interaction.
Prejudice and discrimination against immigrants exist, and complex bureaucratic procedures can slow down permit acquisition and accessing services. Some immigrants may have qualifications unrecognized in Greece, further limiting job opportunities. Integration success also depends on factors like length of stay, community support, and the immigrants' motivation and skills.
Longer residency, welcoming communities, and strong motivation with relevant skills contribute significantly to a smoother integration process.
What can be done in regard to migration in Greece? Here are concise policy suggestions to address challenges for migrants and refugees:
Digital Registry: Create a centralized digital registry operated by OAED where migrants and refugees can record skills, education, and interests for job matching.
Streamlined Residence Permits: Simplify procedures for migrants and refugees with job offers to obtain residence permits, reducing bureaucratic hurdles.
Targeted Training Campaigns: Conduct campaigns in migrant-heavy neighborhoods to inform residents about training programs and job opportunities.
Rural Employment Initiatives: Implement strategies to guide migrants and refugees to rural areas with high demand for labor, especially during peak tourist seasons in Greece.
Czech Republic
Introduction
Czechia has never been a country seen as a final destination of migrants or refugees until recently with the war on Ukraine. If we speak about migration in Czechia, it would be much more a debate about a transit country, which means there is little possibility a high numbers of migranrs or refugees would stay, rather reach to other western countries such as Germany, or Belgium.
Data
According to data provided mainly by the Ministry of Interion of the Czech Republic, foreign migration had a positive balance of 50 thousand persons in 2021, the highest in the last decade. The number of immigrants reached 69.2 thousand people, in the opposite direction from the Czech Republic 19.2 thousand people left abroad.
From the point of view of citizenship of migrating persons, the balance of foreign migration continued to be dominated by citizens of Ukraine (28.4 thousand). In 2021, the second most numerous group was represented by citizens of Russia (27 thousand), the third citizens of Slovakia (1.9 thousand). A total of 248.1 thousand moves were registered as part of internal migration among the municipalities of the Czech Republic, the most in the last five years.
The number of foreigners in the Czech Republic decreased compared to 2022. As of December 31, 2022, a total of 1,010,692 persons of foreign nationality were registered in the Czech Republic, of which 672,300 were granted a temporary residence permit and 338,392 were granted a permanent residence permit. The decrease is mainly due to the return of some holders of temporary protection back to Ukraine. At the end of the first quarter of 2023, a total of 504,107 temporary protections were issued in the Czech Republic.
A total of 251 persons applied for international protection in the Czech Republic in 2023 as of February 28. Regarding illegal migration, a total of 2,658 persons were found to be in an illegal status in the Czech Republic in the first quarter of 2023. Compared to the same period in 2022, this is an increase of 35%. Within the main Mediterranean migration routes, a decrease compared to 2022 was recorded for the first quarter of 2023 on the Western Mediterranean and Western Balkan routes, while on the other hand, a significant increase was recorded on the Central and Eastern Mediterranean routes compared to the previous year. In 2023 (as of March 31), a total of 35,521 people arrived illegally via the Mediterranean, i.e. 102% more compared to 2022.(16)
Migration Policy Updates
Czech migration policy has undergone a fundamental transformation in the past two years. While two years ago it was completely unthinkable that a larger number of people (even more than 3 thousand people) would receive a residence permit, now it is a matter of course and a policy of solidarity with refugees.
The Czech government continuously reflects the needs of refugees and adjusts its migration policy based on these needs. If we are about to speak about migration policy updates, it would be necessary to mention the power of NGO and solidarity among people in the Czech Republic. Currently, the non-profit sector plays an irreplaceable role in the integration and assistance of such a large group of refugees located in the territory of the Czech Republic. Data regarding education
Already before spring 2022, the number of foreign pupils in Czech schools has been increasing for a long time. Large shares of foreign pupils have been in primary schools in the Czech Republic for a long time. Statistical analysis from the 2019/2020 school year is provided, for example, by the organization META. In the 2021/2022 school year, there were over 30,500 foreign pupils in primary schools. However, this statistic does not include all pupils with a different mother tongue. [17]
In the 2022/2023 school year, 50,849 children from Ukraine were added to primary schools, which made up 70 percent of foreign students. According to the report of the Ministry of Education and Culture, most of them were children of refugees before the war (39,478).
It can be assumed from the available data that the number of foreign pupils has more than doubled since September 2022 and almost half of these pupils had a very low level of Czech when they started school.
In the Czech Republic, 162,256 foreigners were educated at all types of schools in the 2022/23 school year. The total number of all pupils and students was 2,169,111 (including citizens of the Czech Republic), so foreigners made up 748% of them
Data regarding labor market
Foreigners can work in the Czech Republic as employees or as entrepreneurs (traders) The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs records summary data on foreign employees. Data about foreigners who obtained a trade license in the Czech Republic are registered by the Ministry of Industry and trade. Foreign workers play an increasingly important role in the Czech labor market, especially in some sectors of the national economy. While after our entry into the EU, in 2004, they were made up of foreigners working on the Czech labor market, less than four percent of the total number of employees in the Czech Republic, by the end of 2008 this share increased to 7.2%.
Between 2009 and 2010, as a result of the economic crisis, however, the share of foreign workers in total employment in the Czech Republic decreased (to 6.3% in 2010). There was a revival again only from 2011.
The statistics of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and s of the Ministry of Industry and Trade show that that the number of foreigners employed in the Czech Republic (i.e. employees and self-employed) reached in 2020 741 967 persons. Foreigners thus participated in total employment in the national economy by 14.2%. Both the number of foreign employees (644,164) and the number of foreign business license holders (97,803) increased year-on-year in 2020, despite the ongoing covid-19 pandemic
While the numbers of foreigners-employees saw a growth of 3.6%, the number of foreigners-holders of trade authorizations compared to 2019, they increased by 4.3%.
According to data from the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, the number of foreign employees in the territory reached of the Czech Republic at the end of 2020, a total of 644,164 people. Most of these people (390,058 or 60.6 %) were EU-27 citizens registered by labor offices on the basis of information cards
More than a fifth (144 316) of the total number of foreignersemployees accounted for citizens of third countries for whom entry does not require a work permit to enter the domestic labor market (e.g. foreigners-third-country nationals can be included among these persons with permanent residence or granted asylum or supplementary protection, and others exhaustively by law defined groups).
A total of 37,193 foreigners had a valid work permit at the end of 2020. Another 71,579 people had a valid employee card and 838 foreigners were holders of blue cards.[18]
Integration
All integration programmes set up by the Czech government target specifically the beneficiaries of international protection. The first support programme provided to persons granted international protection was introduced in 1994, 6 years before the first Policy for the Integration of Immigrants was established. Language and training courses, as well as help for access to the labour and housing market were main priorities. The second State Integration Programme was published in 2000, while the third integration programme was designed in 2015 as a response to the expected increase in the number of asylum seekers due to the war in Syria.
The State Integration Programme includes 3 parts:
an individual integration plan to help secure housing, employment, appropriate education, health care, as well as guidance on applying for social benefits
Czech language courses with 400 hours guaranteed
A compulsory civic education course with 8 hours of attendance
The integration programme is, however, optional. Beneficiaries of international protection may enroll within a year after their protection status has been granted and are encouraged to use each tool available, as relevant for their individual case.
Adaptation and integration of beneficiaries of temporary protection displaced from Ukraine In April 2022, the Ministry of Interior of Czechia defined the strategic priorities of the government in dealing with the wave of new arrivals from Ukraine following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia.
Integration
All integration programmes set up by the Czech government target specifically the beneficiaries of international protection. The first support programme provided to persons granted international protection was introduced in 1994, 6 years before the first Policy for the Integration of Immigrants was established. Language and training courses, as well as help for access to the labour and housing market were main priorities. The second State Integration Programme was published in 2000, while the third integration programme was designed in 2015 as a response to the expected increase in the number of asylum seekers due to the war in Syria.
The State Integration Programme includes 3 parts:
an individual integration plan to help secure housing, employment, appropriate education, health care, as well as guidance on applying for social benefits
Czech language courses with 400 hours guaranteed
A compulsory civic education course with 8 hours of attendance
The integration programme is, however, optional. Beneficiaries of international protection may enroll within a year after their protection status has been granted and are encouraged to use each tool available, as relevant for their individual case.
Adaptation and integration of beneficiaries of temporary protection displaced from Ukraine In April 2022, the Ministry of Interior of Czechia defined the strategic priorities of the government in dealing with the wave of new arrivals from Ukraine following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia.
Summary and suggestions
Czechia has without further doubt changed its approach in migration policy, but to be more specific, the change has occurred only for Ukrainian refugees and migrants. Other nations and refugees from Middle east area are still seen as a possible threat. However the main suggestion would be an increase in integration policy which is still undeveloped in Czechia. The role and massive help from local NGO’s is still needed and sometimes seen as counterproductive with the official policy of Czechia. Perhaps balanced approach in migration and integration policy is what Czechia needs right now.
Radical activists often appear in the news to draw attention to the issue of climate change. However, their actions can sometimes have the opposite (even negative) effects, which also impact the perception of climate issues in Europe.
Research/analysis
What’s happening (radical activists)? - news, etc.
Events/description of the situation
Characteristics of radical activists
Highlighting the most popular activist groups
Who are they:
Radical climate activists are a group of people committed to intense actions aimed at accelerating efforts to protect the environment and combat climate change. They are characterized by a strong belief that current societal and governmental actions are insufficient to effectively address the climate crisis, and therefore, they employ more radical means.
Characteristics:
Uncompromising attitude: They do not hesitate to employ drastic measures to draw attention to the issue of climate change, such as road blockades, summit protests, or even acts of civil disobedience.
Determination in action: Radical activists are determined and resolute in taking immediate and effective action. They do not accept delays or compromises that could impede environmental protection efforts.
Global reach: They often operate on the international stage, engaging in global initiatives and collaborating with activists from various countries. They see climate change as a global issue requiring a global response.
Diverse methods of action: Their actions may include public protests, media campaigns, educational efforts, as well as more radical tactics like sabotage or blockades.
Strong belief in the need for systemic change: Radical climate activists typically believe that to effectively combat climate change, profound systemic change is necessary, both politically and economically.
Youth and social engagement: They are often young people who not only engage in environmental activism but also undertake broad social actions within their communities.
Critique of capitalism: Many radical climate groups criticize the capitalist system as the primary cause of environmental degradation and climate change They call for alternative economic models
Originating in the United Kingdom, XR has gained international attention for its disruptive protests and calls for urgent action on climate change. They use civil disobedience as a tool to demand governments take immediate action to reduce carbon emissions and address the ecological crisis
Fridays
for
Future
https://fridaysforfuture.org
Started by Swedish activist Greta Thunberg, Fridays for Future is a global movement of students and young people who strike from school to demand climate action from their governments. The movement has spread to numerous countries and continues to organize protests and events worldwide.
Sunrise Movement
https://www.sunrisemovement.org
This movement is primarily based in the United States and focuses on building a coalition of young people to advocate for political action on climate change. They've gained attention for their calls for a Green New Deal and for pushing politicians to adopt more ambitious climate policies.
350.org
Founded by environmentalist Bill McKibben, 350.org is an international movement focused on building grassroots support for climate action. They organize campaigns, protests, and educational events to push for policies that will reduce carbon emissions and transition to renewable energy.
CAN is a global network of over 1,500 NGOs working to promote government and individual action to limit humaninduced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels. They coordinate advocacy efforts and campaigns around the world to push for ambitious climate policies.
European countries:
1. Germany: Germany has a strong tradition of environmental activism, and climate protests have intensified in recent years. The country has been a leader in renewable energy adoption, but activists continue to push for faster action to phase out coal-fired power plants and reduce carbon emissions further.
2. United Kingdom: The UK has seen a surge in climate activism, notably with the emergence of Extinction Rebellion, which has staged large-scale protests and acts of civil disobedience. Additionally, youth-led movements like Fridays for Future have mobilized thousands of people across the country to demand urgent action on climate change
3. France: France has been a hub for climate activism, with organizations like Extinction Rebellion and Youth for Climate leading protests, strikes, and civil disobedience actions. The country has seen large demonstrations calling for stronger climate policies, reduced reliance on fossil fuels, and greater emphasis on renewable energy sources.
4. The Netherlands: The Netherlands has experienced significant climate activism, particularly concerning issues related to rising sea levels and flooding risks Groups like Extinction Rebellion Netherlands and Fridays for Future have organized protests and campaigns to demand more ambitious climate policies and greater investment in sustainable infrastructure.
5. Sweden: Sweden has been at the forefront of the global climate activism movement, thanks in part to Greta Thunberg's influential Fridays for Future strikes. Swedish activists have called for urgent action to address climate change, including measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, phase out fossil fuels, and protect vulnerable ecosystems.
The differences
What does it really look like?
Radical climate activists operate outside the norms of the environmental movement, focusing on shock tactics like blocking traffic to draw attention to the climate crisis. While their actions may spark controversy and negative reactions, research suggests they garner media attention and support moderate forms of activism
Climate activists are often well-educated, white, and predominantly female. Individuals become radicalized activists due to frustration with the lack of progress through traditional institutional channels. This mirrors the trajectory of the civil rights movement, where younger activists turned to civil disobedience to provoke reactions and mobilize both supporters and opponents. Controversial books like "How To Blow Up a Pipeline" by Andreas Malm express frustration with the ineffectiveness of current climate efforts but may not directly incite violence However, increasing frustration could lead to greater involvement in radical actions.
How radical should you be when you’re trying to save the planet? - https://www.vox.com/23892818/climate-changeactivism-radical-protest-civil-disobedience
Radical actions by radical activists often bring about the opposite effect of what was intended, especially when it comes to climate change. Their radicalism can deter society from engaging in environmental efforts. Many people might feel discouraged or intimidated by extreme methods, leading to withdrawal from activities aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions or promoting sustainable practices. Radical actions can deepen social and political divisions, making it harder to implement effective climate policies. When a movement becomes extreme, it's easier to ignore or reject, leading to a standstill in environmental protection efforts.
Extreme methods can tarnish the overall image of the environmental movement, undermining its credibility and legitimacy in the eyes of the public. Instead of attracting attention and gaining support for their goals, radical behaviors can make people perceive environmental issues as extreme or unrealistic
How to fight climate change?
The planet Earth, approximately 4.54 billion years old, has been and is home to all living organisms known to science. Man is one of them, even though, by his conquering nature, he claims the Earth as his property, categorising and degrading the rest of the organisms that are his fellow inhabitants.
The fate of the planet and, to put it tendentiously, of our world has been haunted by a problem that resounds and makes itself felt. Ruining the equilibrium on many levels, from ecosystems to economic structures, climate change is not only causing visible damage to the environment, but is also affecting economies and societies across the globe. For a long time, environmental protection and action against climate change have been marginalised, often ignored in public debates and political decisions.
However, recent years have seen a significant shift in attitudes towards these issues. What used to be treated with disregard is now one of the most important challenges. The fight against environmental degradation and the effects of climate change has entered the centre of political discussions, transforming from a long overlooked issue into a priority issue for the European community, for example. This transformation is mainly due to political debates that have made these issues central to the political agenda
When describing climate change processes, the first term that comes to mind is global warming which is the long-term warming of the planet's overall temperature.(Global Warming (nationalgeographic.org) (date of access : 28.02.2024)). The fact is that 2011-2020 was the warmest decade on record and the global temperature in 2019 was 1.1 °C higher than before the industrial era. Warming is now increasing by 0.2 °C every decade and such an increase threatens serious negative consequences for the environment and human health. When talking about climate change and global warming, we need to look at the issue of greenhouse gases.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the main culprit, with concentrations increasing by 48% by 2020. Other gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, also contribute to global warming. Between 1890 and 2010, the effect of natural factors on temperature rise was small, estimated at less than ±0.1 °C.(Europejski zielony ładConsilium (europa.eu) (date of access : 28.02.2024)). However, it is also worth highlighting the reasons for such strong gas emissions. The first would definitely be the process of burning fossil fuels which produces carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Other examples are deforestation (releasing carbon into the atmosphere) or livestock farming (intensive cattle and sheep farming generates large amounts of methane during digestion).
In addition, there is the use of nitrogen fertilisers or fluorinated greenhouse gases (emitted from equipment and products).
All of these examples contributing to greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere have one essential feature in common - Man. The biggest problem facing our Earth is man, and the majority of climate change is caused by him. The question arises as to why it is now that the problem of global warming has become so pressing and crucial in the international arena.
The answer to this question may lie in economic development. The transition and transformation of European countries over the last decades has been enormous, from economic changes to human mentality. The responsibility for this lies to a large extent with the current of capitalism that has spread in Europe over the decades and focused its values and assumptions in development - development at any cost, or rather at the cost of our planet. To show the coherence of environmentalism and capitalism, it is worth looking at its cradle, the United States.
It is there that capitalism has resiliently exploited environmental factors and even natural disasters to develop the economy and thus privatise important institutions in the state. The idea of state development, privatisation and a focus on the individual and his or her needs reached the point where people began to produce more, from inferior products, to earn more in order to have more.
In many companies, residues and waste, often poisonous to the environment, were disposed of in rivers and other bodies of water just to reduce costs in this case. Of course, this issue does not only concern the United States, because with the advent of the current economic change and the development of countries, these problems have also reached Europe.
It could therefore be argued that an economic trend such as capitalism contributes significantly to climate change because it can develop fully, unchecked, at the expense of the environment. (Klein. N.,The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, Canada, 2007). It is important to realise what dangers, largely man-made, await us or are already surrounding us as a result of climate change.
It is the previously mentioned temperature rise that is already affecting ecosystems and human life. The process of melting glaciers and intensive evaporation of water have consequences for global water management, increasing desert areas, leading to the extinction of plant and animal species.
There is also an increase in extreme weather events, which used to be rare but are now occurring with increasing frequency, such as heat waves, strong winds, droughts or floods.
Faced with all these problems, the European Union appears on the horizon, with an idea and a readiness to act. The launch of the European Green Deal in 2019 has given impetus to change in the climate and environmental sphere, and has also given rise to initiatives and strategies leading to the betterment of our Planet
An important part of the Green Deal is of course the European Climate Law, which aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. In December 2020, environment ministers agreed on a new reduction target - 55% less emissions by 2030. A preliminary agreement was reached in April 2021 and the Council adopted a position in June.
The law calls for a net reduction in emissions of at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 and an increase in carbon sequestration A scientific advisory committee on climate change and an intermediate climate target for 2040 are also planned.
A major strategy introduced in June 2021 by EU environment ministers concerned adaptation to climate change. It aims to make EU society resilient to climate change through better data collection on the impacts of change and the promotion of solutions based on nature's resources and integrating climate adaptation into macro fiscal policies.
The conclusions provide guidance to the Commission and guidance ahead of COP26. In addition, in April 2020. The EU adopted a regulation to reduce the risk of water scarcity, allowing the use of recycled water from municipal wastewater for agricultural irrigation.
Other measures include: CO2 emissions from transport, which refers to the tightening of limits for cars and vans by the Council of the EU, requiring new cars to emit on average 37.5% less CO2 (for cars) from 2030; changes to the rules of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (which decides how much CO2 heavy industry and power plants can emit); and the Clean Energy Programme
Under this programme, the EU is focusing on decarbonising the energy sector, the main source of greenhouse gas emissions. In December 2020. The Council adopted an offshore renewable energy and hydrogen strategy, presented by the Commission, while energy ministers discussed energy system integration.
Member States are required to present their national energy and climate plans for 2021-2030, and the Council set out actions under the European Green Deal, including a fair transition mechanism, a farm-to-table strategy, a biodiversity strategy and a European industrial strategy. These measures, and all others under the European Green Deal, are designed to improve the condition of our environment and reduce pollution as much as possible. This programme is intended to be the key to a climate-neutral and climate-sustainable European Union (Najnowsze działania klimatyczne UEConsilium (europa.eu) (date of access : 11.01.2024.)).
The assumptions and plans of the European Union with regard to the Green Deal are a definite opportunity to improve the climate situation in Europe.
Many of them, by being restrictive, offer the chance to reduce the effects of pollution. This pollution, however, was to some extent a question of our past behaviour and the kind of consumerist life we led. The alarming problem of pollution and climate change caused mainly by human beings has prompted the Union to take measures, which are all well and good, but not all of which can be implemented 100%. It could also be argued that the environment has become a matter of political gamesmanship and that some unrealistic assumptions and plans have become one of the key issues in the discussions
The problem with the implementation of the Green Deal may be, in the main, the excessive costs that this plan absorbs, an aspect in which businesses and consumers may suffer by increasing costs. This is especially true for industries related to production and processing, for which strict regulations may negatively affect their competitiveness in the global market. There are also many social impacts concerning, for example, the loss of jobs in the energy sector and the consequent increase in social inequality.
On the social front, there is also concern about the effect of the transition negatively affecting communities dependent on sectors traditionally associated with high emissions. A nagging and worrying question is also the issue of the short timeframe of the whole transformation, whether the ambitious goals of the Green Deal are achievable in practice, especially in the short term.
This mainly concerns the technological ability to meet the requirements and the efficiency of the solutions used. In view of this, it can be concluded that the Green Deal programme is a partial solution to environmental problems because, unfortunately, not all of the programme's assumptions are feasible on such a scale and in such a short time. In addition, it involves many problems and difficulties in economic or social sectors that may be affected by the introduction of some of the programme's assumptions. It is also worth stressing that action to improve and mitigate climate change is largely a necessity brought about by human ignorance and a tendency towards conformist living. The Green Deal can help to offset the ill effects and improve the quality of our environment but it cannot fix the effects of climate change, some issues are already irreversible and unworkable
IV. CHURCH’S INFLUENCE ON COUNTRIES POLICY
AND THEIR
PRESENCE ON SOCIAL MEDIA
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the presence of the Church in social media. In order to do that, we are going to look for the official accounts, and in case there are not any official accounts, we will look for the personal accounts of significant religious personalities.
We will consider only the social media that are widely available, e.g. not many people in Poland know about the professional network LinkedIn, or the Greek equivalent of it called Goldenline.
We are aware of the fact that there are religions other than Christianity practiced in both of these countries, but for the purposes of this paper, we are using the terms Church and Christian to mean the Christian traditions and will not be discussing the activities of other religious groups.
We are focusing this paper around Christianity, the largest and most influential religion in all of presented by us countriesPoland, Greece and Czech Republic. In this paper, we will also use the term 'religious communication' to mean the communication between churches, religious groups, and their followers.
Analysis of the Church’s influence in Poland
It is clear that the Church has impacted the national identity of Poland greatly. However, controversy exists about the extent of influence it has had, and in recent years, public opinion towards the Church has strained.
With the Church losing its role as a prime support against foreign aggression and the nature of the globalized postmodern society being a threat to tradition, the Church has been left as a contested issue. It is no longer a symbol of national solidarity, and at times, it is seen to be a barrier to further integration with Western Europe.
This essay will explore the Church's influence in Poland from a historical perspective and how its role is intertwined with the national identity.
The Roman Catholic Church is cited as being central to the national identity of Poland. Poland's strong alignment with the Catholic Church has been built upon a long history of ecclesiastical tradition. According to tradition, 966 saw the Baptism of Poland by Prince Mieszko I, an event that introduced the faith to the Polish state. To many Poles, the Church and its traditions are synonymous with national identity. It provided a mechanism for the reacquisition of Polish sovereignty during partitioned times, and it positioned itself as a key mediator and sanctuary against the powers of foreign authoritarian regimes that ruled Poland at various points in history.
The Church's role as a socio-political agent was clearly evident during communist rule in Poland. As it drifted towards its integration with Western Europe, it sought to maintain a separate identity from Communist ideology and criticized the ruling authorities. It has been noted that at various times, the Church had been seen as an alternative power base that may challenge the national government or even as an exploitation for foreign interests. With the fall of communism, the Church was able to reclaim its identity as the symbol for Polish resistance to foreign aggression
The Catholic clergy as a group has historically been seen as legitimate authority throughout history, and with the church being the longest-standing and surviving institution in Poland, this is especially true when the church defied the communist regime during the time of Solidarity. Pope John Paul II's visit to Poland in 1979 was a turning point in the struggle against communism, and his support at a mass in Victory Square for Lech Walesa symbolized the recognition of the end of the legitimacy of the regime. This historical legitimacy means that the church has been given a broad spectrum of direct and indirect influence in political circles, up to and including the current democratic government.
Church in Poland owns a lot of land, which it is required by law to upkeep due to it being historically significant or 'culturally valuable'. Therefore, the church enjoys an immense amount of state funding, tied in with the fact that it has nearly unlimited access to government grants and exemptions for business operations and sales. Its raising of income through a variety of investment methods means that the clergy state is wealthier than many other governments.
Most shockingly, it is only very recently that Polish citizens have been allowed access to the church's financial records due to a 1989 concordat on mutual relations guaranteeing the church financial privileges, which was confirmed in the year 2000. This showed church income at this time valued at over 6% of the entire national budget.
Analysis of the Church’s influence in Greece
In the circle of legislative issues, church resistance assumed a critical part in the Greek War of Independence and resulting protected turn of events. From being at firmly controlled branch of the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Greek Church sought after and acquired self-sufficiency, yet this soon prompted a reliance by the express, wherein it was frequently just an instrument of political nature, the subordinates of the afendika turning into the intruded on underlings of political patrons.
National strategy got entwined with the arrangements of the numerous foreigners; any semblance of France, England and Russia playing interference with inner issues, frequently through their strict missions, and habitually was the cleric to be seen advancing the reason for remote influence.
Although the periods of Turkish and Italian control saw numerous showings of love and excitement for the congregation, the declaring an independent Greece generally neglected to have positive ramifications for the Greek Church, for albeit various excessive odd accounts of sanctuary things occurred and numerous clerics and services gave their lives to the reason, it is hard to arrange any much characteristic with regards to the now free Church with the wartime undertakings. Once more, the ward of different express, regularly abroad, was to manage the rule of eternal unfamiliar intervention, a lot to the ruin of political and public steadiness.
The main separation of the Hellenic culture and Christian norms is that the antiquated Greeks were worried about improving their lives here; the life following death is just referenced, as in Homeric verse, where it is an uninteresting presence, not in a cheerful or a pitiful sense. Glory was a significant idea in Homeric culture, and this is one of the notable contrasts from Christian teaching. The congregation has additionally altogether formed the character of the Greeks. The advanced picture of the fast talking, disobedient Greek, slipping away from charges and discovering escape clauses in contracts, was censured by the congregation and most recent two centuries. Education as the old Greeks had comprehended it was dependent upon analysis and master questioning, and in spite of the fact that these were long held in the study halls, they were consistently under a cloud. The disobedient soul was to a great extent smothered, for, as certain contemporary Greek rationalists bring up, to a quick talking, enquiry addressing age, the suitable answer is silence and the best solution is protection from additional conversation.
It was just in the War of Liberation that the free Greek soul started to stir from its long rest, and it actually has far to go before it can break the chains of church and fatalism completely.
Church is a very important institution in Greece and still has an impact on the progress of the country. At first glance, it does not have any significant impact on the policy of the country, but it's only a first impression based on looking at the official facts The Greek Church, a branch of Eastern Orthodoxy, is very powerful and influences the lives of many Greeks. It asserts considerable political influence on the Greek parliament, to which it has channeled substantial state funding since the recognition of the autocephalous nature of the church in 1850.
The Greek Church is financed by a supplementary tax that the Greek government agrees to fund based on the number of church personnel, pensions, and restoration of ecclesiastical buildings damaged in WWII. There is nothing wrong with funding the church to repair damages sustained in the world wars or pensions, but why are the salaries of the church personnel, predominantly the clergy, funded by the government? This does not comply with the agreed-upon separation of church and state, and all other professional groups in Greece. The pay is often siphoned elsewhere as many priests work second jobs. The money provided by the tax is substantial, hence the church is the second richest entity in Greece, next to the shipping industry. This funding structure gives the church the ability to act independently of other state institutions and policies, of which it should be subordinate. This creates a feedback of church support for church funding, which is detrimental in times of budget cuts and economic crises for a progressive and modern state
Church’s presence in social media in Poland
The church and its believers are increasingly recognizing the potential of the internet and media to further their religious mission. Despite some negative instances, many are actively using these platforms to reach out and spread their message. A notable example is the Polish Jesuits, who have their own YouTube channel dedicated to videos on the Catholic faith.
Additionally, priests are incorporating podcasts, web interviews, and blogs into their ministries, focusing on topics such as pro-life advocacy and sharing their thoughts and teachings. Some priests are even utilizing platforms like Twitter to offer concise daily reflections.
Moreover, high-profile Catholic speakers are lending their support by amplifying the messages of these priests on their fan pages. It is important to evaluate the impact of the internet and social media objectively, taking into account negative examples.
However, by utilizing these platforms responsibly, priests and religious individuals have the ability to effectively spread the good news and promote a positive influence online.
It is understandable that since the church is always "for all," there will be various responses from different groups in facing the church's virtual movement in Polish social media. But we strongly urge that any response must be constructive, in accordance with ethics, and there is no need to eliminate Christian virtues that are full of compassion and peace when facing something.
Any positive or negative response from society can be used as an evaluation material for the church to be further improved in utilizing this new media as a medium to remain faithful to the gospel and apply to various aspects of life today.
Contrary to the positive responses, negative reactions regarding the church's virtual movement in social media come from various parties. Some critics perceive that the church does not need to follow the technology trend that is "worldly" in nature and more appropriate for secular society.
They judge that the church's charging its movement in social media is a persuasion step to attract more people to join faith in an indirect way, and the critics think that the church does not need to do that because faith can be obtained simply by the Word of God.
There are also people who respond too extremely negative by creating anti-Catholic groups on Facebook and Twitter and publishing mockery and hatred comments to the church. On the other side, this virtual movement also became a new land for spreading negative issues about the church.
The positive responses mostly come from the church side and several groups of people which support the church. They said that by entering social media, the church can take advantage of growing information technology, providing easily accessible faith teaching materials and interacting with the congregation even more. The church activities that coincide with youth culture and technology also receive positive responses simply because it looks like the church is trying to adjust to the culture of youth now
Church has long been an undeniable force in the cultural life of Poland as it is the main center for Roman Catholic faith. After entering the communication era, the church in Poland has been actively entering the social media world, one of them by creating websites, Facebook, Twitter accounts, and other interactive sites.
Just like the first time it was introduced in Poland, this act has sparked a variety of responses from people, both positive and negative.
Church’s presence in social media in Greece
The current state of church presence in social media in Greece is a very underdeveloped and underutilized area. Attempts to locate an online presence by the church in Greece offered little in regards to social media. Formal sites have been set up by the Orthodox Church such as Holy Archdiocese of Athens and All Greece.
This site, however, offered little to drawing a society into the church. This site seemed to be a translation from a traditional church flier, forum, or bulletin. It consisted of articles, letters, and messages from religious figures.
This idea of reaching the audience is old and not very effective in today's fast-moving world Static websites do not offer much to drawing in new members and, more importantly, young members of society.
The Church of Greece seemed to have had similar success with their site. Nothing is really of interest to draw one in. All of the content is strictly religious and not very engaging to the average social media user.
The only other social media presence of the church with the intention to draw in society was just a Facebook page by both organizations. These attempts showed some progress but neither have updated in years and couldn't grab the interest of people who were not already involved in the church. Today, both these Facebook pages have less than 200 fans.
For pages having static information and not much of an effort, they really haven't done that bad. Today, being present on Facebook is almost a requirement to have an active online presence. This is a network necessary for every church community to connect and plan together, so these pages are barely a start for something reaching out to the Greek community.
The presence of the church on social media in Greece elicits both positive and negative reactions and comments. One positive aspect is that simulation videos related to the church receive favorable reviews. This is because the content aligns with the knowledge and beliefs of today's society. These videos effectively convey the truth of the church to the modern world, especially to the younger generation, who can draw inspiration from them and engage in positive endeavors for themselves and society.
When we refer to truth, we are emphasizing the methods of reasoning and relevant matters concerning the church, rather than mere parish culture or traditional practices.
However, there are also negative comments and reactions, typically from individuals who had different expectations. It's important to note that the virtual world cannot replace our real-world responsibilities and activities
Nevertheless, these simulation videos still hold value as they can serve as a potential solution to real-life problems and provide a genuine benefit in the physical world.
The reactions and comments posted by viewers in the church video present a secular paradigm of the public towards the privatized church. This is due to the fact that viewers can now interact with the contents of the church from the private space of their minds. Before the existence of social media, they were unable to react publicly, other than on the feasts and celebrations of the church, and also through occasional voting.
Another great social change of the public is the partial fragmentation of traditional church communities and their customs, as well as their homogenization into the global church community and intermingling with secular means. This is evident from the inclusion of secular music styles, fashion, and exposure to global scientific knowledge that is in line with the times in the videos. Now, we must categorize the comments from the two types of videos.
Sources:
https://rozrywka.spidersweb.pl/katolicki-tiktok https://www.rybnik.com.pl/wiadomosci,rybniktiktokerka-najjjka-skazana-na-prace-spoleczne-omzrik-szczula-na-ukraincow,wia5-326655353.html https://www.papilot.pl/zwiazki/sos/63132/seks-w-ciazy-to-grzech-ksiadz-zabral-glos https://conciliumcivitas.pl/almanachy/almanach-2019-20/polska-jako-anomalia-w-stosunkachpomiedzy-kosciolem-i-panstwem/ https://magazynkontakt.pl/zmiana-w-relacjach-panstwokosciol-jest-niezbedna-dla-kosciola-i-dla-panstwa/ https://www.money.pl/pieniadze/ile-i-jakzarabia-kosciol-w-polsce-proboszcz-zdradza-sekrety-swojej-parafii-6657074358397472a.htmlfinances https://www.money.pl/gospodarka/mial-zniknac-w-100-dni-a-jest-w-budzecierekordowa-kwota-na-fundusz-koscielny-6975815502989824ahtml - finances Greece Czech https://wwwaspicz/products/lawText/1/39330/1/2/zakon-c-308-1991-sb-o-svobode-nabozenskeviry-a-postaveni-cirkvi-a-nabozenskych-spolecnosti/zakon-c-308-1991-sb-o-svobode-nabozenskeviry-a-postaveni-cirkvi-a-nabozenskych-spolecnosti Církevcz | Zprávy (cirkevcz) Jager-Cirkve-anabozenske-spolecnosti-v-CR-str-113-238pdf (municz) Náboženské vyznání obyvatelstva České republiky | ČSÚ (czsocz)
V. REDUCED OPPORTUNITIES OF YOUTH ON LABOR MARKET –
GREECE, POLAND, CZECH
REPUBLIC AND EUROPEAN UNION
AVERAGE
During the aftermath of the global 2008 financial crisis, youth unemployment went up from 16.0% in 2008 to a peak of 24.4% in 2013. The figures went down dramatically since, with record lows of 14.9%, just before the COVID-19 pandemic hit.
The employment rate in the EU among young people in 2020 was -2.8 percentage points (pp) compared to pre-pandemic 2019. However, 2021 saw a recovery, as the employment rate was -0.1 percentage points compared with 2019. Comparing 2020 to 2019, all countries recorded a drop in their employment rates of young people. The largest decreases in youth employment even went beyond 5 percentage points in Lithuania, Portugal, Ireland and Spain.
In 2021, a majority of the EU Member States (16 out of 27) haven't fully recovered yet, as the employment rate for young people was still below the rate of 2019.
Young individuals entering the labor market are generally considered to be an at-risk population. They face a higher risk of unemployment than older workers, are more likely to switch between states of joblessness, training and working, and are more likely to enter temporary or precarious types of employment. The challenges of globalization, technological development and migration - just to name a few - are posing both threats and opportunities for young people in Europe today.
Fewer opportunities for young immigrants
EU unemployment statistics for immigrants
In 2019 in the European Union, foreign-born persons aged 2064 had higher unemployment rates than native-born. Finding work was especially difficult for persons born outside the EU. Their unemployment rate was more than twice that of the native-born population (12.3% vs. 6.0%). The rate for persons born elsewhere in the EU (other than born in the reporting Member State) stood at 7.3%. According to Eurostat, the youth employment rate refers to those between the ages of 15 and 24 who are in employment (i.e., performing work for pay, profit, or family gain) (2021).
Within this age group, EU employment rates ranged from 31.1 % for those born outside the EU, to 31.3 % for those born in the EU (Eurostat, 2021). It’s important to remember that many people in this age group are still in school, college, or further education and that if they’re studying full-time, they may not be willing or able to work alongside their studies (Eurostat, 2021).
In regard to unemployment, the EU unemployment rate climbed in 2020 for all populations: native-born, persons born in a different EU Member State, and persons born outside the EU, after falling between 2013 and 2019 (Eurostat, 2021). It can be argued that such a spike in the unemployment rate was directly related to the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic on the labor market. It’s worth noting that a disproportionately large number of young individuals are considered or categorized as unemployed, usually due to pursuing full-time education (Eurostat, 2021).
In 2020, the EU youth unemployment rate for those aged 15 to 24 was 15.9%, but rates for those born outside the EU were higher: 19.4% for those born elsewhere in the EU and 27.5 % for those born outside the EU (Eurostat, 2021).
As the data illustrates, young migrants within the EU are consistently placed among the social groups mostly hit by the problems of (un)employment. Furthermore, obstacles such as language barriers, a misunderstanding of the survey’s aim, difficulty speaking with the survey interviewer, or fear of the survey’s negative consequences (for example, jeopardizing a migrant’s chances of obtaining the requisite authorization to remain in the host EU Member State) are among some of the inadequacies of the data collection exercise
It can be affirmed that more often than not, migrants in general and young migrants more specifically are excluded from decision making and participation, deficiencies which coupled with the impacts of transnational phenomena such as economic crisis, or the Covid-19 pandemic only serve to further the fragility of young migrant groups. Political engagement can be characterized as activities that allow people to develop and express their views on current events, as well as participate in and influence decisions that affect their life. This is inextricably tied to the freedoms of peaceful assembly and association, as well as the freedom of expression (Beddock & Elsod, 2021: 16). In today’s Europe, policies, regulations, laws, and decisions that are made without their participation or involvement but that still have an important impact on the daily lives of millions of migrants contribute to the perpetuation of a basic multilevel and intersectoral democratic deficiency (Beddock & Elsod, 2021: 16). In sum, while continuing to meet immediate needs, the EU and its Member States must develop a system that controls and normalizes migration over time and is completely founded in European principles and international law (EC, 2020). Indeed, migration has always been a part of human history, and it has had a significant impact on European society, economy, and culture, besides being able to actively contribute to prosperity, innovation, and social dynamism in a well-managed economy (EC, 2020). Demography, climate change, security, the global race for talent, and inequality are all socioeconomic concerns that have an impact on and are impacted by migration (EC, 2020). All of the efforts employed in order to better the integration of young people to the labor market should be far-reaching and not centered only around EU Member State nationals, with the EU striving to build an ever more inclusive, representative, and democratic governance
Greece
The target population of the survey was people aged 15 to 74 years. For the purposes of the survey, individuals with a migrant background were considered to be persons who were born or at least at least one of their parents - abroad. Of the total number of people aged 15-74 surveyed, it is estimated that 93.1% were born in Greece and 6.8% abroad. Persons with a migrant background amount to 9.5% (out of which 6.8% were born abroad and 27% were born in Greece and one or both of them were born in Greece. both parents abroad). Until 1989 most immigrants came from countries with significant presence of Greek immigrants (European countries, countries of the former USSR), while from 1989 onwards the main source of migration was Albania, followed by the countries of the former USSR and other Balkan countries.
Characteristics of people with a migrant background
The proportion of women is higher in both groups with an immigrant background while, in persons who were born themselves as well as their parents in Greece, the proportions of women and men are almost equal. In terms of age, the average age of foreign-born persons is only slightly older than the average age of people who do not have a migrant background. In contrast, the population of second-generation immigrants is much younger than those who both of their parents were born in Greece (30.2 years compared to 45.9 years). the age group 35-44 is dominated by foreign-born people, while the proportion of foreign-born people is particularly low 15–24-year-olds.
People born in Greece (and to Greek parents) are generally older. In contrast, the population of persons born in Greece but with a Greek nationality is more likely to be older. but with at least one foreign-born parent is particularly young, with over 70% of the population having at least one foreign-born parent. It is made up of people under 35 years old.
The employment rate is almost the same for people born in Greece to Greek parents and for people born abroad (50.4% and 507%, respectively) In contrast, the employment rate is much lower (33.4%) for second generation immigrants. Analyzing the employment situation by age group, it appears that this difference in employment levels of second-generation immigrants can be explained by the different age composition of this category of the population: due to the high proportion of 15–24-year-olds among second generation migrants, it is the group with the highest participation in education. It should be noted that in the age group 25-44, the employment rate of second-generation immigrants is almost the same as the rate of employment of Greeks without a migrant background (while it is significantly lower for those who are born abroad).
Finally, abroad-born individuals show the highest rate of unemployment, as well as the lowest participation in education. People without a migration background have the highest proportion of higher education graduates and the lowest proportion of lower education. Conversely, secondgeneration immigrants have the lowest proportion of higher education and the highest proportion of lower education. It is worth pointing out, however, that these results are also shaped by the different age structure of second-generation migrants: a large proportion of these individuals continue their studies in the formal education system
Characteristics of employment
People without a migration background have the highest rate of employment in non-migrant jobs in highly skilled manual occupations (33.8%), while foreign-born people have the lowest rate of employment (33.8%). The majority (42.0%) of secondgeneration migrants are employed in non-manual, low-skilled occupations. Significant differences also appear in the sectoral distribution of occupations by migration background. The share of foreign-born employed in manufacturing is almost twice as high as the corresponding share for persons without an immigrant background (26.4% compared to 14.4%). Secondgeneration immigrants are mainly employed in the trade, transport and commerce sectors, hotels and restaurants (55.4 %), while people without an immigrant background show the highest rates of unemployment in the EU (55.4 %). employment rates in the primary sector and in the public administration sectors, education, health and arts.
Poland
According to the Social Insurance Institution in Poland the number of foreigners registered for pension and disability insurance exceeded one million (1.024.757) in July 2022, which is a new high for the country. The largest groups of insured foreigners are Ukrainians (736 000), Belarusians (91 000) and Georgians (29 000). These represent three of six countries whose citizens receive facilitated access to the Polish labor market under simplified procedures for hiring foreigners.
The unemployment rate in Poland has been low in recent years: according to the Ministry of Family and Social Policy, unemployed people represent less than 5 % of the population as of July 2022. 7.1 % of the newly registered unemployed in July 2022 were foreigners, which is much higher than a year ago (when foreigners constituted only 0.4 % of the unemployed).
The reason for the increase in the number of unemployed foreigners is the large influx of refugees from Ukraine, following the Russian invasion of 24 February 2022. Currently, there are 17 000 Ukrainians registered as unemployed at local labor offices, however the vast majority of new Ukrainian arrivals in Poland find employment without any problemsindeed, their employment is filling gaps in the Polish labor market.
Czech Republic
In 2021, as in the previous year, migration was affected by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Despite this, the number of foreigners living legally in the Czech Republic continued to increase, with the migration of foreign workers being the main long-term contributor. The structure of foreigners in terms of nationality has been relatively stable in the long term: most foreigners come from Ukraine, Slovakia and Vietnam.
There has been a significant increase in illegal migration to the Czech Republic, mainly due to foreigners entering the country in violation of the protection measures of the Ministry of Health.
More migrants also traveled through the country due to the development of migratory movements along the Balkan migration route: the Czech Republic remains primarily a transit country for illegal migration from refugee-producing countries. In terms of beneficiaries of international protection, the most frequent applicants were citizens of Ukraine, Georgia and Afghanistan. In particular, the evacuation of Afghan citizens from Afghanistan in 2021 caused the number of applicants in the Czech Republic to increase by approximately 20% in comparison with the previous year
Migrants and illegal labor
The problem of illegal employment of immigrants in Europe appears to be on the rise. While any estimates of the phenomenon need to be treated with caution, commentators have suggested that around 500,000 migrants enter EU countries illegally every year. Estimates of stocks of illegal migrants in individual countries meanwhile put the number at around 500,000 in Germany, 300,000 in France, 200,000 in the UK, and up to 800,000 in Italy. It can be estimated that around 70% of these are engaged in illegal labor. A large proportion of this stock of illegal migrants entered EU countries legally, but subsequently overstayed their visas or permits. In other cases, foreign illegal workers are legally resident, but are working without being in possession of relevant work permits. The phenomenon of illegal employment has raised a number of concerns in west European states. Domestic workers –especially in low-skilled work – may fear being undercut by lower-cost labor.
Others have argued that illegal work generates huge losses to national revenue, because of the non-payment of tax or social security contributions. Illegal employment is also politically sensitive, putting into question states’ ability to enforce their migration rules. And it raises a number of other economic, social and humanitarian problems revolving around the living conditions, legal protection, and integration of immigrants working illegally.
Defining the problem
Labor migration and the incentives of employers to circumvent the costs of employing legal labor. In some industries – such as agriculture, construction, hotel and catering, tourism, or cleaning – the restriction of legal labor migration opportunities since the 1970s and a lack of supply of indigenous workers willing to do low-status, low-paid or seasonal work gives them little option but to hire illegal immigrants.
But the problem also reflects the advantages for employers of minimizing costs through non-payment of social contributions, lower salaries, and hiring workers willing to work more flexible hours or with substandard working conditions. Some economists see this as a product of increased global competition, which forces many small and medium-sized firms to draw on a supply of cheap, flexible labor in order to stay competitive.
Others locate the problem in the rigidity of European labor markets: in some countries the costs of employing workers are more than double what they actually receive in wages.
Whatever the cause, illegal employment is a highly problematic issue for governments. On the one hand, it is clearly economically beneficial for employers of illegal labor and for the economy as a whole. Indeed, it has been argued that business-friendly governments have a strong interest in tolerating a substantial level of illegal labor, even if they cannot publicly acknowledge this goal.
On the other hand, governments are also under intense pressure to control the problem, and respond to concerns about competition with domestic workers, loss of fiscal revenue, or the exploitation of workers. While many of these negative impacts have been contested – indeed, there is little evidence of any significant impact on native wages, or indeed of a net welfare burden – governments risk losing legitimacy if they are not seen to be effectively enforcing legislation.
What Works?
This raises the question of what sorts of measures are most likely to reduce illegal employment – and in a way that minimizes any negative impacts on business, civil liberties, or migrant rights.
Expand legal programmes. One approach recently adopted by the UK government is to increase the supply of regular migrants in the hopes that this will decrease the numbers coming illegally and will encourage firms to switch to using legal labor.
Regularization. The same arguments apply to amnesties or regularization programmes: creating a possibility to draw on regular labor will not in itself eliminate demand for illegal labor. And regular amnesties may act as a strong pull factor for would-be migrants, who may attempt to enter illegally or overstay and work illegally, in the expectation that their status will be regularized after some years.
Moreover, experience of regularizations in countries such as the US, France, Italy and Belgium suggests that offering regularizations of short duration may mean that people slip once more into illegality once this period has expired.
Having said this, such programmes can provide stability and increased rights for some illegal migrants who would in any case have stayed on in the host country.
Entry controls. Many immigration countries, and Schengenland as a whole, have focused on border control as the main instrument for preventing illegal migration and employment. However, while visa requirements, tighter border control and entry checks may decrease numbers, they can also have a number of unintended consequences. First, the reinforcement of such controls has almost certainly contributed to the burgeoning of migrant smuggling and trafficking and has prompted organized criminal networks to adopt increasingly sophisticated methods. As these latter become more expert in circumventing controls, governments become obliged to invest in more expensive equipment, and to control entry to an extent that can damage business and tourism.
Second, more stringent border checks can encourage illegal migrants to stay longer in host countries, to minimize the risks of repeated entry
Employer sanctions. There is a good case for arguing that employer sanctions are the most efficient forms of control, as they are specifically targeted to reduce the incentives for hiring undocumented migrants. However, these are notoriously difficult to enforce. Effective enforcement requires not just watertight legislation, but a substantial investment of resources in personnel from police, immigration or labor ministries (including, for example, check-ups outside regular working hours). Even once caught, it is often impossible to prove that employers knowingly hired undocumented workers. Finally, penalties have to be sufficiently high to counterbalance the economic gains from hiring illegals – thus in some countries, penalties include not just fines and payment of arrears on tax or national insurance.
Financial incentives to employ legal workers. If the costs of employing regular workers were reduced, there would be less of an incentive to draw on illegal migrants for labor. However, the US experience suggests that illegal employment can be a major problem even in more flexible labor markets: recent estimates put the number of illegals there at 6-8 million, despite the far lower costs of regular employment. Moreover, while many European states are currently attempting to have flexible labor markets, any attempts to reduce minimum wages, or lower social payments or working conditions would face substantial resistance from organized labor and many sections of public opinion. One alternative option would be to introduce exemptions from these payments for specific jobs. In France, for example, employers can get tax rebates or reduced social charges for some domestic jobs; in Germany, unemployed people can take up some seasonal jobs without paying tax or social costs
Conclusions
West European governments will find themselves under increasing pressure to expand regular labor migration in the coming decades.
This will make it more important than ever to develop better strategies for combating illegal employment. Far from reducing the supply of irregular workers, expanded legal programmes may well generate an increase in their supply: the expansion of migrant networks can facilitate migration outside of legal programmes, while temporary workers may overstay their permits and enter illegal employment.
Efforts to limit the supply of irregular labor through entry controls or internal checks, meanwhile, are socially and economically costly.
The best strategy would be to develop better ways of tackling the problem at the demand side: increasing the costs and probability of apprehension for employers and lowering the costs of hiring regular workers.
Managing migration is one of the key challenges facing nation states in a 21st century marked by closer connections and rising inequality between countries. In a world in which travel and tourism are becoming a major industry, and in which wages across borders can be 20 or 30 times higher, there are increasing incentives to cross national borders for employment.
The industrial countries, which have about 12 percent of the world’s labor force but 60 percent of the world’s migrants, are struggling with the best ways to respond to rising numbers of irregular workers. Most responses are some combination of prevention, interior enforcement, and legalization: the challenge is how to include the fourth element, cooperation with migrant countries of origin.
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Unemployment experienced by migrants in the EU: https://eceuropaeu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/DDN-20200519-1
The effects of COVID-19 on youth employment: https://youth.europa.eu/news/effects-of-covid19-youth-employment en
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Youth employment and the future of work: https://pjp-eu.coe.int/en/web/youthpartnership/youth-employment-and-the-future-of-work1
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7 Poland: Record number of migrants working legally: https://migrantintegrationeceuropaeu/news/poland-record-number-migrants-working-legally en
9
Emilio Reyneri Department of Sociology and Social Research University of Milan Bicocca: MIGRANTS INVOLVEMENT IN IRREGULAR EMPLOYMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
8 Situation of foreigners, migration and integration in the Czech Republic 2021: https://migrantintegrationeceuropaeu/library-document/situation-foreigners-migration-and-integrationczech-republic-2021 en
Funded by the European Union Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). Neither the European Union nor EACEA can be held responsible for them
