Exotics Keeper Magazine - January 2023

THE CHAMELEONS OF MADAGASCAR

There are around 100 species of chameleons in Madagascar. Thomas Marriott shares details on his most recent expedition.

MASTERING UROMASTYX CARE

We caught up with one of the most wellknown breeders in Europe, Kamiel Hamers, to discuss these unique desert animals.

SEPARATE US & MAKE IT SNAPPY!

For years the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) was thought to be extinct in the wild. How is it fairing now?

How researchers at the University of Amazonas discovered sustainable fisheries in the Amazon are saving the planet.

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MAGAZINE PUBLISHED BY

Peregrine Livefoods Ltd Rolls Farm Barns Hastingwood Road Essex CM5 0EN

Print ISSN: 2634-4697 Digital ISSN: 2634-4688

EDITORIAL: Thomas Marriott

DESIGN: Scott Giarnese Amy Mather

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Happy New Year and welcome to the third year of Exotics Keeper Magazine. We have some interesting ideas currently bouncing around the board rooms on how we can make this magazine the very best it can be and as always, we’re always seeking input from the people who matter the most – you, the readers. As we move forward we will be leaning further into the reptile content, whilst still providing some valuable insight into other areas of exotics keeping. This issue is a great example of that new split as we cover the keeping and breeding of popular species, conservation in the wild, field herping and important issues in the trade.

This particular issue has been a joy to work on partly because I get to ramble on about an expedition I was involved in just before Christmas. I am an advocate for responsible ecotourism as one of the best ways to learn about the animals we keep in captivity. Although I have always shied away from first-person perspectives, I would love to hear your thoughts on these going forward. Luckily, there’s a real balance in this issue as expert Uromastyx breeder, Kamiel Hamers talks us through how he cares for his animals, Jackie Anderson at Project Piaba discusses the sustainability of wild-caught tetra in the Amazon and we shine a light on the complexities of crocodile conservation.

Herpetoculture and the keeping of exotic animals is something that is widely misunderstood. It is a hobby to some, a craft to others, and a job for many too. It is intrinsically linked to conservation, but rarely in obvious ways. These confusing connections require a broad spectrum of stories and perspectives to truly understand. By supporting Exotics Keeper Magazine you are supporting the means to tell these stories and give people the ability to develop their own well-rounded approach to the keeping of exotic pets.

Thomas Marriott Features Editor

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Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors. Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.

Front cover: Parson’s chameleon (Calumma parsonii parsonii)

Right: Moroccan Uromastyx (Uromastyx nigriventris)

EXOTICS NEWS

The latest from the world of exotic animals

CITES Pleco Upgrade

At the CITES CoP19 in Panama City it was agreed that the zebra plecostamus (Hypancistrus zebra) will be moved to CITES Appendix II - banning the trade in wild-caught specimens (with a zero quota) and imposing extra regulatory requirements (including export permits from source countries) for the trade in captive-bred specimens.

The listing is expected to come into effect from 25th February 2023.

This is a much more sensible solution for both conservation and trade than the original proposal from Brazil to list the species on appendix I, but it will require the sensible cooperation of all parties to CITES to secure legal commercial trade in captive bred specimens continues.

bring 18 year old Kiburi to London, after the last breeding male died in 2018. He was chosen, as part of the EEP, due to his age, genetic suitability and behaviour, to join the group at London in the hope of continuing the breeding programme. The journey from Tenerife to London covered 1,903 miles and was carefully carried out courtesy of a DHL Express aircraft.

Meanwhile over at the ZSL`s country estate at Whipsnade a male Reticulated giraffe named “Wilf” has been born to parents “Luna” and “Bashu”.

classified as "near threatened" with some 18,000 existing in the wild. He went on to say “the birth was a welcome surprise to the team as white rhinos have a gestation period of 16 to 18 months and mother Meru had passed her expected date, sparking concerns the pregnancy could not progress”.

"The keepers were keeping a very close eye on her and spotted the signs of the impending birth and prepared the rhino house with a deep layer of straw to help the calf to stand - which typically happens just an hour later”.

New Gorilla

At ZSL London Zoo a new male western lowland gorilla, named “Kiburi” has arrived from Loro Parque in Tenerife, where he had lived since arriving from Hannover Zoo in Germany in 2014. It has taken four years of searching and planning to

Rhino Birth

A southern white rhinoceros has been born at Knowsley Safari Park. The female, which has not yet been named, was delivered to mother “Meru” after a long labour. The 10 stone (63 kg) calf is the first rhino born at the park since 2018. The park's Chris Smart said: "We're thrilled to play our part in the fight to prevent their extinction." The calf will join the rest of the park's crash of eight white rhinos. Southern white rhinos are

Rhino Poacher Gets 17 Years in Jail

Convicted rhino poacher from Mozambique, Silvester Sidney Zitha, 40, has been sentenced to an effective 17 years behind bars by the Skukuza Regional Court in Africa. Zitha and his accomplice were caught after entering the Kruger National Park via Tshokwana Section in October 2018. Field rangers

Colobus monkey infant

©Philip Joyce

©ZSL

©Knowsley Safari Park

in the park had spotted human tracks towards the area. The footprints were followed until the rangers heard gunshots and saw two men running in their direction. One of the men was carrying a bag and an axe whilst the other had a firearm. The rangers ordered the intruders to stop. However, the two continued to run, dropping the items they were carrying. A chase ensued and the pair were caught. Two backpacks were also found in their possession with rhino horns as well as another backpack with live ammunition and a hunting rifle with a silencer on it. Police were summoned and Zitha and his co-accused were arrested. Police discovered that Zitha was in South Africa without valid documentation. The co-accused never returned to court and later died, leaving Zitha to stand trial alone. Zitha was found guilty and sentenced. He was given 10 years for killing a rhino, and on year for possession of a dangerous weapon.

He was also given four years for conspiracy to commit crime. The court ordered that the sentences would run concurrently effectively totalling 17 years in prison.

New Fourth Species of Anaconda

Two decades after having described a new anaconda species based on morphological characteristics, a team guided by David Tarknishvili succeeded in extracting DNA from some old, pre-existing tissue samples. They used these to substantiate and verify the specific status of the new species. The new findings have been published in Amphibia-Reptilia

Nowadays, the discovery of a new species is for the taxonomical zoologist not very unusual, as long as these new species are small and inconspicuous. In contrast, the discovery of a large, conspicuous new vertebrate species is much rarer and attracts the attention not only of specialists, but also of the broader public. But undiscovered largegrowing reptiles can be found, as has been shown by the more than dozen new monitor lizard species that have been described by members of the herpetological section of the Museum Koenig in Bonn since 1988. The giant snakes, however, had some surprises ready for the researchers from Bonn. Apart from two new insular subspecies of the Reticulated Python—up to 9 m in length and together with the Green Anaconda the longest snake on earth—which were discovered by Museum Koenig's former Ph.D. student Mark Auliya, his former fellow Ph.D. candidate Lutz Dirksen managed to find a new, fourth anaconda species in the Beni region of Bolivia which he introduced to science as Eunectes beniensis.

©JWPT

First erroneously regarded as a hybrid between the big Green Anaconda and the smaller Yellow or Paraguay Anaconda, the morphological analysis strongly suggested its status as an own, independent species, the fourth of its genus and growing at least up to 4 m in length.

Two decades later, the team guided by David Tarknishvili succeeded in extracting DNA from the old tissue samples to substantiate and verify the specific genetic status of the Beni Anaconda.

Two New Pit-vipers Discovered

Together with a South American team, scientist Juan Pablo Hurtado-Gómez has described two new toad-headed pit-vipers. To date, hardly anything is known about these venomous snakes which are native to Colombia. The new species descriptions were made possible by the National Institute of Health in Colombia aimed at improving the treatment of snake-bites. The study, published in the journal Vertebrate Zoology, outlines the benefits of taxonomy for medical care, among other things.

Toad-headed pit-vipers (Bothrocophias) live in isolated and hard-to-reach South American rainforest areas such as the Choco rainforest in Ecuador, the western lowlands of the Amazon rainforest, the Pacific highlands, and the eastern slope of the Andes. "These venomous snakes are among the most enigmatic and least known South American vipers," explains Juan Pablo Hurtado-Gómez, the study's author and a Ph.D. student at the Senckenberg Natural History Collections in Dresden. He went on to say; "The lack of Bothrocophias material in scientific collections as well as the tendency to confuse the species of this genus with the more common and widespread members of the American pit vipers (Bothrops), have greatly complicated the taxonomic assessment of this group."

Hurtado-Gómez, together with Colombian colleagues, succeeded in identifying two new species within the genus Bothrocophias. The snakes originate from the highlands of the Colombian Andes and were previously confused with the species Bothrocophias microphthalmus. However, based on morphological and genetic analyses, the team has now determined that they represent two previously unknown species: Bothrocophias myrringae sp. nov., and Bothrocophias tulitoi sp. nov. "The new species differ in a number of external characteristics, such as the arrangement and number of their scales or the colour pattern of the body and tail," adds the Colombian scientist.

Snakes from the genus Bothrocophias, such as the newly

discovered Bothrocophias myrringae sp. nov., live in isolated, nearly inaccessible rain forests in South America.

The two new species were named in honour of Tulio Angarita and Myriam Sierra, who both were instrumental in developing a modern educational model that is now used in all schools in Colombia. They are also the parents of the study's first author, Teddy Angarita Sierra. The discovery was made possible by the National Institute of Health in Colombia (Instituto Nacional de Salud, INS), which has made a major effort over the past decade to assemble collections of venomous snakes, including the newly studied Bothrocophias material. The initiative's goal is to develop anti-venoms for the treatment of severe poisoning from snake bites. All species of the genus Bothrocophias studied by Hurtado-Gómez and his team are venomous, but there is limited data on the venom's effects in humans ranging from mild presentations with short-lasting pain and mild swelling to severe poisoning and isolated deaths. “Knowing the biology and habitat of a particular species also reduces the risk of being bitten in the first place. The new taxonomic findings of the study thus make an important contribution toward achieving the World Health Organization's goal of reducing the number of snake bites" say researchers.

Collated and written by Paul Irven.

The Tortoise Table was formed when a group of experienced tortoise keepers decided that it was time to put together an indepth database of plants, flowers and other food suitable for our Chelonian friends to eat, after years of seeing the effects on tortoises and turtles which had been fed incorrect diets.

https://thetortoisetable.org.uk/

MASTERING UROMASTYX CARE WITH KAMIEL HAMERS

How to keep and breed Uromastyx in captivity.

Uromastyx ornata

Spiny-tailed lizards are a large group of desert-dwelling reptiles from Africa and Asia. Comprised of the Uromastyx and Saara genera, they are iconic lizards and have been reasonably popular in captivity for decades. In the past, they were imported in large numbers from Africa and the Middle East. Since 1977, all are listed under CITES Appendix 2. Although some species are still exported to the USA under strict quotas, Europe and the UK have seen a decline in the availability of even the most popular Uromastyx species. Luckily, some passionate breeders are working hard to reestablish them in European herpetoculture. We caught up with one of the most well-known Uromastyx breeders in Europe, Kamiel Hamers of Hammerhead Reptiles to discuss these unique desert animals.

Species within the trade Kamiel has been working with Uromastyx for around 25 years and breeding them for 15. Over that time, he has bred around nine of the thirteen different Uromastyx species and subspecies. “I started with Uromastyx ornata” explains Kamiel. “Honestly, I like all reptiles but when you have a collection of desert species it’s really difficult to keep anything else because the room is so hot.”

“For me, all thirteen species and subspecies have something cool about them. For example, the thomasi have huge round tails and beautiful colouration but behaviour-wise they’re pretty boring. Then you have the princeps, they’re not so colourful and have large spines on their tales, but they’re really active! I think it’s just a matter of what the keeper wants. Some

like the colouration, some want a tame animal, and some want their lizard to be active. It’s really up to the keeper to pick what’s right for them, rather than the pick the rarest species, just because they are rare. I think people that go for the rarest animals are not keeping them for the right reasons. But then again, I’ve done it myself. I had some Egernia’s but after a few years I lost interest because they weren’t as cool to me as Uromastyx.”

Although demand for Uromastyx changes periodically, the most popular species has been the ornate Uromastyx (Uromastyx ornata). These animals are reasonably small, extremely colourful and can often become quite tame. They are also a very active species within the genus. All these factors have supported their popularity over time

which means they are also readily available as captivebred animals, particularly in Europe. Although all species are reasonably straightforward to care for providing their conditions are met, different Uromastyx “groups” require slightly different care. The nigriventris and dispar group are bigger than other species so requires bigger caging and a very hot environment during summer but can handle low temperatures during winter. The Yemenensis group are far less common in herpetoculture and can be more challenging to keep. Princeps, yemenensis, macfadyeni and a few other species will require a little more humidity and some might even drink from a water bowl, which is unusual for most species of Uromastyx. “There’s a lot of information out there” added Kamiel. “It’s quite easy to see if the species lives in more coastal or more arid regions

and even get climate information on the temperatures, daylight hours and UVI readings, which can be easily found through google. This is important because some species come from areas where these temperatures don’t drop at all and others come from areas where, in the winter, temperatures drop drastically.”

Sadly, the availability of Uromastyx in the UK has dropped greatly in recent years. Kamiel added: “I think for the UK, Brexit has been pretty terrible for all species listed under CITES, not just Uromastyx. Before Brexit, friends in the UK could visit shows such as Hamm and pick up various species of juvenile Uromastyx. Back then, we could do the paperwork for them on the spot but now people have to apply for the paperwork ahead of time.”

Kamiel with Uromastyx flavifasciata

Keeping Uromastyx

Uromastyx need exceptionally hot temperatures to thrive and should have access to a hot area that reaches up to 55°C. Not only does this require a lot of energy it also requires several different bulbs to create a hot zone that covers the entire animal, provides UVB and maintains an exceptionally bright environment. Kamiel uses a T5 for the UVB as well as two halogen lamps next to each other (of different wattages to create a gradient) and in the cold zone where they can retreat from the heat, a 6500K energy saving light to ensure the enclosure is as bright as possible. “People think my cages are really bright, but I have a lumen meter and it’s not one-tenth of what I can measure in my garden in the Netherlands and that’s not even half of what I can measure in a desert in Africa. Uromastyx enclosures need to be really bright! I think it’s strange that people use black cages for desert species because the black absorbs the light. Although my white PVC enclosures stain quite easily, I personally think it’s better to use white or light wood vivaria for desert species. The minimum size is 4 x 2 x 2 feet for one Uromastyx, but bigger is better. I see people using glass tanks that are way too small to provide a proper temperature gradient. Also, glass tanks have exposed sides which can make the Uromastyx uncomfortable easily stressed and less tame.”

Uromastyx need a cool end surface temperature of 28°C, a middle-zone surface temperature of 35-45°C and a hot spot that reaches 50-55°C. This is extremely difficult to achieve in small vivaria and requires careful consideration towards the placement and choice of lighting products. Therefore, it is important that new keepers fully understand the nuances of each individual electrical component before building their Uromastyx’s enclosure.

Although Uromastyx are expensive to keep, Kamiel is resourceful with his hobby. Firstly, he uses solar panels to provide electricity during summer. Also, by investing in a

solarmeter he can see whether lamps are still giving off UVB. If they are not providing UVB, they can still be used alongside a T5 tube and a heat source to add more visible light to the enclosure. Kamiel’s collection is also comprised mostly of desert species, meaning that the room is always kept warm. For the average person who wants to keep a single Uromastyx in their home, several very high-wattage bulbs are required. However, Kamiel can reach similar temperatures with lower wattage bulbs because of the conditions within the room.

Kamiel added: “My energy bill did go up by €200 a month and I’ve heard of people who can’t sell their animals because people are scared of the costs, but most people that breed Uromastyx don’t do it for the money because it is already a very expensive animal. The lizard may only be €200 - €500 but they need a big enclosure, special lighting and a lot of heat. I think people that are into keeping Uromastyx for the right reasons, as a pet or hobbyist, won’t have such a problem with the rising energy costs as a hobby can cost a bit of money.”

Uromastyx are best housed in a naturalistic enclosure with a natural substrate. Kamiel uses a mix of granite rock, play sand and soil to achieve similar results. The use of natural substrates and décor can produce an excellent-looking cage without the need to add plants or create a bioactive setup. Although arid bioactive enclosures are reasonably easy to build for species that require lower temperatures, Uromastyx inhabit some of the most uninhabitable areas on earth and therefore, experimenting with bioactive might jeopardise the welfare of the animal.

“Bioactive should be a way to achieve a goal and the goal should be to have a healthy, thriving animal” explains Kamiel. “Going bioactive should be a way to achieve that goal, not the goal itself. In my opinion, I have not seen one good bioactive Uromastyx setup. The simple

Kamiel’s enclosure setups

reason is that they need a very high temperature and all vivariums are too small to achieve this with a bioactive setup. If you go to their natural habitat, their basking spot is a rock that gets really, really hot. They have to travel much further to reach plants and get to their food source of plants. My largest cage is 10 feet long, three feet deep and two feet high. That’s for my loricata pair, so I can split them up. Even if I housed a much smaller species in there, it would be the only enclosure where I could maybe try to make it bioactive.”

For Uromastyx, it is much easier to create a naturalistic enclosure than a bioactive one and there are practical ways to achieve this. Uromastyx use thigmotaxis to warm up and feel secure. This is when an animal wedges itself into a tight crevice to press its body against both the top and the bottom of the hiding place. Uromastyx can even inflate their bodies and use their spiky tail as a defence mechanism, so choosing a hide that simulates this is extra important. Kamiel uses roof tiles that are angled to create a wide opening and a narrow interior so the lizards can hide amongst them. Tiles also warm up quickly and will produce an additional warm area with IR-C away from the dedicated “hot zone”.

Although ambient humidity should be kept low for most species, all should be provided with a humid hide that’s large enough for them to enter and turn around. This is most easily achieved by using a plastic box containing a layer of sand mixed with either moist vermiculite or peat moss. The additional humidity will allow the animal to hydroregulate and shed its skin much easier.

Diets

Uromastyx are primarily herbivorous, although some species will eat insects occasionally. A varied diet is extremely important for most reptiles and Uromastyx are no exception. Leafy greens should make up the bulk of the lizard’s diet, but adding carotenoid-rich toppers such as shredded carrot or pumpkin can provide a nutritious treat. As most vegetation grown for commercial use is far richer than wild vegetation, Kamiel also adds hay to his reptiles’ diets. By finely chopping the hay and mixing it with more palatable leafy greens, he can mitigate the richness of shop-bought salad.

The ratio of hay is also increased during winter when the Uromastyx are less active and would naturally experience food shortages in the wild. “I still feed my animals in winter, but a lot less” adds Kamiel. “I give them a few hours of UVB, so they can still eat, drink and digest their food. Some will be visible for a few hours a day, while others wont be out for a few weeks or alost all winter.”

For some herbivorous species that can be fussy about supplements, the keeper must have a good knowledge of the calcium-to-phosphorous ratios of the plants they are feeding to their animals. For example, endives, dandelions and many garden weeds will have good amounts of calcium in them. If an animal is fed a natural diet and has access to the right level of UVB, it should be able to synthesise vitamin D effectively. Uromastyx are highly adapted to the aridest places on earth so their bodies are excellent at gaining nutrients from small amounts of vegetation.

Uromastyx nigriventris breeding

“I only really use calcium and vitamin supplements once every two weeks” added Kamiel. “For gravid females, I will add a bit more calcium. The problem is Uromastyx don’t like the taste of calcium and vitamins, so if you add it too often they won’t eat as much as they normally do. I used to add calcium one day and vitamins the next but they wouldn’t eat the food. Now, I feed them every other day so they have enough food to skip a meal when I do add calcium but it is available to them if they need it.”

“In the summer I try to provide about 50% store-bought plants and the rest is from my garden. Just about everything in my garden is edible, I also have some huge hibiscus plants, so I try to add all those things in during summer. If I only had a few lizards, I would hand-pick their food every day but because I have so many animals I do need to use some store-bought stuff as well. Luckily, the tortoise table app is really good, because you can put in the Latin name of a plant in your garden and see whether it’s good for a tortoise or not. About 90% of the time, if it’s good for a tortoise, it’s good for a Uromastyx!”

An aspect of Uromastyx care that carries some controversy is hydration. Not all Uromastyx species will drink from a water bowl, but the novice keeper should provide access to water where possible. In some countries, it is a legal requirement that all animals have access to water. However, the average pet keeper will not raise the humidity in their lizard’s enclosure too drastically by including a small shallow water bowl. “Some species will drink and some won’t. So, for novice keepers, I would recommend including a shallow water bowl. They might not drink from it, but it’s certainly not a bad thing,” explained Kamiel.

Breeding Uromastyx

Uromastyx, like most reptiles, require seasonal fluctuations to encourage breeding. Although it may take several years to ‘cycle’ a pair of Uromastyx, the breeding process begins and temperatures in Europe start to fall. “The year starts in November” explains Kamiel. “This is when the animals go into their winter resting period. Some species are awake for an hour every day, others will be hiding for many days. Thomasi and princeps come from a climate that has higher temperatures all year round, so they barely change. Others will have a proper cooldown process, so even though they have access to a hotspot of 45°C, it’s only on for 4-6 hours a day. They are also allowed to drop to 13°C at night. I would probably tell an inexperienced keeper to not drop below 15°C, but my heater kicks in at 13°C. This prompts them to enter brumation around December time but I try to plan it around the Dutch weather as it can be unpredictable. They tend to wake up and go into breeding mode around March. This is when I’ll increase daylight by 2 hours a day until I’m back up to about 13 hours of light and the heat is usually on for nine or ten hours a day.”

Some species that are kept togehter for the biggest part of the year will start to showing some mating rituals like chasing, headbobbing , neckbiting and females turning on their backs around April. At this time, he also searches for signs of breeding behaviour in individually-housed animals. If he begins to notice the males getting restless and the females becoming more active, he will introduce the female into the male’s enclosure. Each species will be paired slightly differently. Most Uromastyx are left in pairs for between two to four weeks, while others must be removed instantly after copulation. Even individual males belonging to a docile species can become territorially

Juvenile Uromastyx thomasi

aggressive towards the female after mating and females can become extremely agressive to males after breeding, especially after egglaying.

“The eggs usually start appearing in May, June, July and even August if it’s a late year. This is the best part of the year for me! When I see that a female looks thin and I can go digging in the nest box, I always find that a lot of fun. If the animals are still paired, I will remove the female to get fat and healthy again and add a water bowl to every enclosure, especially the females.”. Smaller lizards will usually produce smaller clutches, so U. thomasi, U. princeps and U. o. philbyi generally produce around six to 15 eggs whereas U. nigriventris and U. d. flavifasciata will generally lay 18 – 25 eggs. Some medium-sized species can be sporadic with their clutch sizes. For example, Uromastyx ornata can lay clutches of six to 20, but in extreme cases even 30 eggs without complications whereas phillbyi will only ever lay between six and 10 eggs at a time. This has produced interesting waves of demand for Uromastyx.

Kamiel incubates most eggs at around 32°C – 33°C and the incubation period can vary from 65 to 90 days. Hatchlings appear in September/October and after this, the cycle begins all over again. Kamiel added: “It’s very healthy for a female to skip a year, but if she skips several years I need to re-think what I’m doing. So, in winter I will analyse everything I have done and start to think about the next year. Now is also the perfect time to change bulbs over and re-do cages because all the lizards are down for winter so I can begin preparing for next year.”

A love nurtured

Uromastyx are some of the most energy-demanding of all exotic pets. They are infrequently bred in captivity and some species lay such small clutches that they will never reach the height of popularity as other desert species. However, they are perhaps some of the best pet lizards for the right type of keeper. As we are still learning a lot about them in captivity and breeders are getting better results, they will likely be more available in the near future.

Many people describe Uromastyx as tortoises without a shell. They have bulky heads, a flattened stocky body with short but strong limbs and claws that are perfect for digging. Although every species, and even every individual, is very different, some can be easily tamed, are robust and strong, feed mostly on vegetation and in some cases, are amongst the most colourful reptiles in the world. Kamiel concluded: “Although I love all reptiles, it’s the ones with the spiny tails that appeal to me most. What started out as an interest in all reptiles slowly developed into a passion, a love, for the Uromastyx and became a way of life. I cannot imagine my life without Uromastyx. They are a great and diverse genus that can adapt well to captivity. With more and more people starting to breed them there will be a good variety of captive bred Uromastyx species available in the near future. As long as their basic needs are met, the Uromastyx can be a rewarding and long-lived pet and a lifetime hobby. Just make sure you do your homework, like you need to do with every new animal!”

Base: • Curly endive, escarole, romain, hay and toppers like grated corrots, grated pumpkin, alfalfa sprouts, bok choi

Home grown:

Thistle (Cirsium arvense) & (Cirsium vulgare)

Slowthistle (Sonchus sp.)

Rose flowers ( Rosa sp.)

Mint ( Lamiaceae labiatea)

Dried flowers (safflower, chamomile, mallow, calendula, butterfly pea & rose)

Hibiscus (Hibisucseae) = Uromastyx favourites!

Turtle vine (Callisia repens)

Corn flower (Centaureae) (limited amounts)

Top: U. thomasi Bottom: U. priniceps

Species Spotlight

SPECIES SPOTLIGHT

The wonderful world of exotic animals

Taiwan beauty snake (Orthriophis taeniurus friesei)

The beauty snake is a large species of arboreal colubrid from Asia. Several different subspecies are routinely bred in captivity but the Taiwan beauty snake (Orthriophis taeniurus friesei) is arguably the most popular. This subspecies is native to Japan and (unsurprisingly) Taiwan.

The name ‘beauty snake’ refers to the snake’s facial markings. Black stripes run from each eye to the labial area and this is said to resemble mascara. Taxonomic changes see regular recategorization between Elaphe taenura and Orthriophis taeniuris but both are considered synonymous. These snakes are still sometimes called ‘cave racers’ which indicates their captive needs. Beauty snakes require large, arboreal enclosures and will navigate and explore all given space. In the wild, these snakes will traverse cave walls in search of easy meals such as fledgling birds and eggs. However, most of their hunting is done on the ground as they feed primarily on small rodents. Luckily, this makes enrichment easy and rewarding. Feeding

different-sized mice, rats, chicks and eggs in different areas across the enclosure is a great way to keep the animal healthy and active.

Beauty snakes developed a bad reputation in the 00s when almost all captive individuals were imported from the wild. They were considered defensive and hard work and thus were only kept by dedicated hobbyists and breeders. Today, there is a reasonable availability of captive-bred juveniles that, over time, can become very tame. Although, their larger size (up to 9 feet for females) and unpredictable nature make them better suited to experienced keepers.

Beauty snakes require a temperature gradient, with the Taiwan subspecies friesi, needing a hot area of around 30°C and a cool area of around 22°C. Other subspecies are far more suited to cooler temperatures and in fact, a non-native population of Elaphe taenura has become established in Belgium in recent years.

FISH SCIENCE

With Dr David Pool

How can I get rid of snails from my aquarium?

Snails are a very common sight in planted aquariums and most keepers will encounter snails at some point in their aquarist hobby. They usually arrive in the aquarium on plants or other décor. Because freshwater snail eggs are so small and laid in tiny transparent sacks, they are extremely difficult to spot and will quickly stick to other plants. As most store-bought aquatic plants are farmed in either very large aquariums or outdoor ponds, the transfer of snail eggs happens very easily.

When present in small numbers they pose no problems, but once they start to breed and increase in numbers they can be unsightly, damage plants and block aquarium filters. Some hobbyists will use bleach dips before adding new plants to their aquarium, but there are many alternatives to remove the snails after they have become established.

Controlling snails can be undertaken in the following ways.

1. Manually remove the snails. Simply disposing of the snails that you can see in the tank will help to reduce numbers, though is unlikely to completely eradicate the problem.

2. Commercial snail traps are available, or you can use a lettuce leaf or piece of cucumber put into an empty plastic fish food container that is sunk to the bottom of the tank. The food container stops any of the fish

eating the lettuce leaf. Put the trap in the tank in the evening and remove it before the lights come on the following morning – and discard any sails that are in it. Repeat this process with the same leaf for several days and you will get rid of a good number of snails.

3. A number of fish will eat any snails that fit in their mouth. Clown loach are great at doing this and will quickly get the problem under control

4. Snail treatments. There are some copper sulphate based snail treatments available for use in aquaria. They certainly work, but take great care that you have removed as many snails as possible before treating, and remove any dead snails as soon as possible afterwards. Dead snails will very quickly pollute the aquarium water causing serious problems for your fish.

Snails and their eggs can be transferred between tanks in a myriad of ways. Although décor and plants are most common, eggs can become attached to equipment and even substrate. Irradicating the snails entirely is a difficult task. It is also important to note that a small, manageable population of snails can actually be beneficial to the aquarium as they help break down detritus. Like a clean-upcrew in a terrarium, this created a mini eco-system. Adding the correct ratio of loaches can produce a naturalistic environment for both predator and prey.

TEACH A MAN TO FISH…

How sustainable fisheries in the Amazon are saving the planet.

The Rio Negro fishery in Amazonas, Brazil exports huge numbers of fish for the commercial pet trade. It has been operating since the 1950s and until recently, has exported at least 20 million fish each year. This is less than half the amount it was exporting during the fishkeeping boom of the 1960s. These statistics are likely to send shudders down the spines of any conservationist, but in the 1990s Conservation Scientist, Scott Dowd along with researchers at the University of Amazonas began assessing the sustainability of this seemingly impossible surplus of fishes. What they discovered stunned them.

History of the cardinal tetra in Amazonia

The cardinal tetra (Paracheirodon axelrodi) is one of the most popular species of tropical fish in the aquarist hobby. It was first described by Herbert Axelrod in 1956 after being discovered in a small section of the Rio Negro, close to Barcelos, Amazonas. With its vibrant red and blue colouration and peaceful schooling behaviour, the cardinal tetra was the perfect candidate to join the influx of aquariums being established by hobbyists throughout the 20th Century. Over time, this popularity continued to grow and the exportation of tropical fish became big business in the region. Fishermen relied on this business to feed their families and still today almost 60% of all income in

Barcelos is directly linked to the exportation of tropical fish for the aquatics industry. A vast majority of these fish are cardinal tetras. Since reliable data began being collected in 2006, cardinal tetra made up 68.8% of the total number of fish exported from the state of Amazonas. At the time, 126 different fish species were exported, making cardinal tetra the most popular species by a long shot. In 2015, 200 species were exported from Amazonas, but cardinal tetra continued to make up a whopping 56%. Whilst the number has fluctuated each year, cardinal tetra have always made up at least half of all fish exported from Amazonas for the pet trade.

Sustainability

“Project Piaba began in the early nineties” explains Jacqueline Anderson, Education Materials Coordinator at Project Piaba. “Our Executive Director Scott Dowd was originally interested in visiting Brazil for a fish collecting trip. He became exposed to the cardinal tetra fishery in the Rio Negro and was blown away by the number of fish being exported. As a conservation scientist when you hear that 90 million fish are being exported per year you think ‘hit the brakes’, there’s no way that could be sustainable.” Scott joined a researcher at the University of Amazonas and turned his focus towards the fishery. “What they found was that this number wasn’t changing. Also, a lot of fish possibly weren’t counted as they didn’t go through the hub at Barcelos. In fact, data suggests any number between 40 million and 150 million fish could have been exported in the early days of the fishery” adds Jacqueline. It was here that they discovered that the fish populations

are related to the flood and drought cycles of the river itself. Jacqueline continued: “The Rio Negro is a blackwater river, meaning it is slow-moving, has a lower pH and has far fewer nutrients than a whitewater river. When the river expands, there is a monumental change. The river can rise by anything from four to ten meters. When the water level goes up and into the forest, there are all these new food sources for the fish. Most of the carbon in the river comes from the forest itself. All the little nuts and berries and fruits and leaves that are falling into the river are now food for the fish and with the expansion of space it is now perfect for cardinal tetra, hatchet fish (Gasteropelecus sp.), rummy nose tetra (Hemigrammus rhodostomus) and all these pretty little fish that live in the forest. They now have all this extra habitat and leaves and branches to hide in that aren’t available in the dry season. So, they respond to this new habitat by spawning. They spawn a lot and basically every time it rains. These babies then grow up fast.”

Teach a Man to Fish…

When the floods recede and the dry season returns, many of the fish wouldn’t otherwise make it back into the main population. When those fish are caught, they do not affect the breeding stock for next year. This presents an opportunity for people to collect the fish which provides a livelihood and an incentive to protect the forest. “It is an anticipatable source of income every year” added Jacqueline. “This is unlike timber harvesting, slashand-burn farming, illegal gold mining, etc which is only there once and then the person must make their money somewhere else. Those things can’t exist in the same place as the fishery, so it’s created the ultimate ‘not in my backyard’ conservation opportunity as people begin to think ‘anything that disrupts the fish, disrupts my family and my livelihood.”

Fishermen on the Rio Negro have harvested fish for 70 years, sometimes spanning three generations. The methods that are used today are almost identical to how they were in the 1950s. As the flooded areas are far too shallow to drag trawling nets through, fishermen paddle through the forest in canoes equipped with small handheld nets. This ensures that the sustainability model outlined in the 50s remains intact and the habitat is not disrupted at all.

Protecting the rainforest

The Rio Negro Fishery is comprised of 46,000² miles of rainforest. Not only does this protect hundreds of endangered species, but it also sequesters 7.6 billion metric tons of carbon each year, making it globally significant in the fight against climate change. The commerce of wild-caught fish is the catalyst for the forest's protection, but it is the people of Amazonia that protect it. Unfortunately, many of the people that live along the Rio Negro cannot access data on the changes in the global market. This is where Project Piaba steps in.

Project Piaba is operated by a small group of American and Brazilian volunteers. It does not buy, export, or sell fish. Instead, it supports the fishery through education both in-situ and ex-situ. The organisation has worked with the fishery by sending veterinarians to assess the supply chain and improve the handling practices of these fish. This not only prevents mortalities but also provides a more reliable source of income. Internationally, Project Piaba assesses the global market for cardinal tetra and feeds this back to the fishermen who have seen a serious drop in demand for wild-caught fish since aquarists first managed to breed cardinal tetra in captivity in the early 00s. Across rural Brazil and much of the Amazon, people are threatened with food insecurity. They must turn towards agriculture or infrastructure development to earn a living, which can be very destructive, and the increased number of captivebred tetra is having a serious impact on local confidence to earn a living from the fishery.

Jacqueline continued: “In most cases, the market changes are driven by people who think they are protecting the environment by buying aquacultured fish. In this case, the fishery is having to compete with bio stock that is produced somewhere else. The fish that are produced somewhere else don’t put any money back into the economy, they don’t provide any sustainable income for the people who live in the region, and they don’t protect the habitat.”

Sadly, one of the major challenges that Project Piaba faces is that of public perception. “A lot of the time in conservation science, people want to put the environment in a little box to protect it, but you cannot divorce the environment from the 3.8 million people who live there” adds Jacqueline. “Those people need ways to support themselves and their families. If you’re threatened with food insecurity or poverty you will do whatever it takes to support your family. You cannot take people out of the equation.”

In the 1970s anywhere from 40 to 150 million fish were exported from the fishery. In 1999 this number dropped to 22 million fish and remained fairly consistent for almost a decade (even rising in 2006 to 26 million fish). However, in 2009 this number dropped drastically to 2.7 million fish. This number changed due to market demand, rather than the number of fish available in the fishery. Jacqueline added: “This was an a-ha moment for many people who had been fishing for generations. Their grandparents supported their parents by fishing for cardinal tetra, and their parents supported them by fishing for cardinal tetra but all of a sudden, they cannot support their kids in the same way. The people who were doing the fishing and involved in the fishery at its base didn’t necessarily understand why people weren’t buying the fish anymore.

Captive bred vs wild caught

In most cases, particularly in the reptile-keeping hobby, captive-bred animals are preferable to wild-caught animals for a whole host of reasons. However, there are no proven ‘boom and bust’ population cycles in which wild-caught reptiles can be harvested without having some form of impact on the wild populations. However, that is not to say that with ongoing research, there is no capacity for the sustainable harvesting of other animals. For example, many frog species produce huge amounts of spawn to account for mortalities throughout the growth cycle. If 70 years of data proved that a certain amount of spawn could be collected sustainably, there would be a plausible argument to bring these animals into captivity to strengthen the genetics of a captive population and provide income for keepers of the forest. Sadly, this data does not exist and the Rio Negro Fishery is perhaps the only example with longstanding and irrefutable evidence justifying its sustainability.

Wild-caught animals have historically encouraged local people to protect wild areas that may be at risk of deforestation. Yet, without significant research to guide the number of animals collected (particularly for those in high

demand with high price tags), captive-bred animals generally provide a safer alternative. Unfortunately, the Rio Negro Fishery faces the opposite problem. They must compete with captive-bred animals to ensure the preservation of the habitat and thus, the survival of the species.

Jacqueline explains: “The fish that are bred in captivity are sort of like super fish. They were born in captivity, they’ve lived in an aquarium their whole life, they haven’t gone from a pH of 3 to an aquarium of 7 and they eat flake foods and know what they are. They are generally healthier, more robust aquarium fish. This is why we need to make the wild-caught fishery competitive against the aquacultured market.”

Project Piaba sent a team of vets on an expedition to the Rio Negro to identify problem areas which might affect the health of the fish throughout the supply line. By tracking the fish from the moment they are caught to the moment they are introduced to the aquarium, the vets were able to identify any issues which might make the fish less appealing than their captive-bred counterparts.

Jacqueline continued: “They identified a few problems which helped us develop our ‘best handling practice’ guidelines. For example, nutrition was a big issue. It’s hard to keep good quality fish food fresh in places that are 105 degrees and 100% humidity. Food does go bad, so we’re working on ensuring that this food remains as fresh as possible for as long as possible. Also, when you scoop a fish up in a net and it damages its slime coat, that is a problem for the fish but not immediately. This happens a few weeks down the road when it catches a bacterial or protozoal infection that it wouldn’t otherwise be susceptible to. For years, the people who were capturing the fish never saw those problems arise.”

Project Piaba also formed a cooperative of fishermen called Ornapesca. It allows fishermen to come together and discuss their practices and has facilitated in-situ training programmes. Veterinarians have also played an instrumental role in authenticating the geographic indications of cardinal tetra. This will allow aquarists to

identify an ‘authentic’ cardinal tetra from the Rio Negro and add value to the wild-caught fish. In many cases, it is easy to identify a wild-caught cardinal tetra from a captive-bred one. “A lot of people mistake cardinal tetras for neon tetras, but they’re a different fish from a different river system” explains Jacqueline. “Neon tetra have a blue stripe on the top and a red stripe on the bottom that goes halfway across their body. Cardinal tetras have a blue stripe on the top and a red stripe on the bottom that goes the whole way down their body. When that fish is healthy and conditioned and the lights have been on for a few hours, they are very striking. They’re like little swimming jewels. If you look at a wild-caught cardinal tetra it will blow your mind. Not that the farm-raised fish aren’t beautiful, but they’re not like those found in the river. Wild cardinal tetra look almost holographic. They have these bright shining eyes and striking colours that are crucial for communication in a blackwater environment. They don’t quite look like that in captivity. If you can support the health of the wild animals, they certainly look far more striking than captive-bred individuals”

Plenty more fish in the Rio There are 250 commonly recognised species of aquarium fish that come from the Rio Negro region. As well as cardinal tetra, angelfish, discus and freshwater stingrays are also collected from the river and exported by the fishery but in far fewer numbers. As they do not breed as prolifically as the tetra, they must be carefully managed. However, as higher-value fish, they still represent an important aspect of the fishery even though

they are exported in smaller numbers. Freshwater stingrays, for example, only produce one or two pups a year so the fishermen must be very selective with which ones and how many can be removed to ensure that there is ample breeding stock for the following year. Fortunately, these species have been exported by the fishery for decades and even with new technology to monitor fish populations, the fishery remains sustainable.

Jacqueline continued: “Recently, Brazil went from having a ‘whitelist’ (a list of fish species that are allowed to be exported) to a ‘blacklist’ a list of species that are not allowed to be exported. This has allowed for far more freedom in the exportation of sustainably sourced animals. At a local level, Brazilian authorities are very supportive of the fishery. This is likely because the environmental agency IBAMA has known the fishery now for around 80 years and therefore understands how to assess and work with the institution.”

Despite a good amount of support from Brazilian authorities, some challenges are out of the fishery’s control. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, there are no longer direct flights from Manaus to the USA. Instead, flights must stop at Panama City or Sao Paulo which adds another day of transit for the exported fish. Whilst Project Piaba can educate the fishermen and those transporting the fish to the airport, it is far more difficult to pass this information on to airport officials. This, combined with the fact that the fish are confined in temporary accommodation for a further 24 hours means higher levels of stress for the fish which can materialise as health defects further down the line.

The future of the fishery

Because the number of fish that are being exported has dropped so low in recent years, many local people are beginning to turn to other ways to make money. “We are seeing that a lot of fishing families are now beginning to pivot towards sport fishing” explains Jacqueline. “There are a lot of peacock bass (Cichla ocellaris), which are one of the big fish in the river, that are worldrenowned for sport fishermen. I don’t know what the future holds for that. I am quite hesitant to be supportive because it’s a different kind of resource management. I noticed a huge difference in the amount of trash in the river, the number of people around and the kind of things that are going on. If people do want to continue living how their families have lived for generations, then this influx in sport fishing is certainly changing that. Is this a good thing for the environment, or a bad thing? We don’t know yet.”

The Rio Negro Fishery offers a unique look at the global benefits of the pet trade. Whilst unregulated aspects of the exotic pet trade can be very detrimental to the ecology of various habitats, it is important to consider data-led research before assuming that the harvesting of wild animals is a heinous crime. Illegal trafficking poses numerous welfare concerns and unregulated trade can damage localised populations of animals, but there are sustainable, regulated ways to introduce animals into captivity that benefit the species long-term. There will always be ethical considerations when harvesting animals, but if the harvesting of animals does not compromise welfare, directly supports the oxygen we breathe and protects hundreds of endangered species from habitat destruction, perhaps it’s time to rewrite the narrative.

Peacock bass (Cichla ocellaris)

Are your tadpoles bloated – maybe with pink or yellow discolouration around the abdomen?

the Tadpole Doctor

Disease in your captive tadpoles?

Have you seen any disease, noticed unusual symptoms, or had unexpected deaths in your tadpoles?

Are your tadpoles bloated – maybe with pink or yellow discolouration around the abdomen?

Have you observed any change in their behaviour, such as: sudden and erratic movements, swimming in circles, loss of equilibrium, sluggishness, floating at the surface or death?

Have you observed any change in their behaviour, such as: sudden and erratic movements, swimming in circles, loss of equilibrium, sluggishness, floating at the surface or death?

Researchers at the University of Oxford need your help. They are trying to track the spread of a newly identified disease of tadpoles. If you suspect that your tadpoles are showing signs of the disease symptoms mentioned above, please make contact at http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk.

Researchers at the University of Oxford need your help. They are trying to track the spread of a newly identified disease of tadpoles.

If you suspect that your tadpoles are showing signs of the disease symptoms mentioned above, please make contact at http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk

http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk

tadpole-doctor.co.uk

The Royal Society and the University of Oxford bear no responsibility for this project.

The Royal Society and the University of Oxford bear no responsibility for this project.

THE CHAMELEONS OF MADAGASCAR

There are around 100 species of chameleons in Madagascar. Thomas Marriott shares details on his most recent expedition.

Furcifer oustaleti in the central highland

Madagascar is home to around 100 species of chameleons. These include the ‘Brookesia’ leaf chameleons, the enormous Parson’s chameleons (Calumma parsonii ssp.) and just about every conceivable variation between. Falling into the Brookesia, Calumma, Furcifer and Palleon genera, the chameleons of Madagascar display a stunning array of variations from unique species-specific adaptations to mind-boggling locality variants. On a recent trip to Madagascar, I was fortunate enough to find and photograph many of these unique lizards across a variety of habitats.

Madagascar’s geography

Madagascar, like many species-rich regions across the world, is split by a central ridge of high-altitude mountains that produces a variety of habitats. To the East of the central highlands is a stretch of rainforest with different areas experiencing different amounts of rainfall. These mixed-altitude forests produce a dizzying array of habitats from the moss-drenched humid forests of Ranomafana to the much drier primary forests of Andasibe. These regions tend to hold the greatest biodiversity on the island, but only occupy a narrow strip of land covering just a small fraction of the country itself. To the south of the central highlands is a much drier savannah habitat akin to its longitudinal neighbour, Mozambique and South Africa. The West of Madagascar is also reasonably dry, but far more forested, with interesting rock formations and iconic baobab trees. This is the region that most tourists see in their travel brochures, but interestingly hosts some of the most fragile and localised of all chameleon species. North Madagascar is characterised by a wide range of habitats as the central highlands give way for an amalgamation of

different elevations and climates. The biodiversity in the North, whilst often widespread, is completely different to that of the south. Some of the most popular captive Madagascan species, such as Furcifer pardalis, phelsuma grandis and Dyscophus sp. are most commonly associated with the North.

Central Highlands

The central highlands host several interesting chameleon species. Some can even be found in urban locations around Antananarivo, the capital city of Madagascar. There are officially 1.3 million people living in this city (though it is assumed the actual number is at least double this statistic) and there are few green spaces. The city is mostly plagued with non-native Jacaranda trees (Jacaranda mimosifolia) and many natural resources are utilised to build temporary homes. On the outskirts, where the Ikopa River dissects the city and within regions of neighbouring gardens, one the most colourful of all chameleons can be found, furcifer lateralis – the carpet chameleon. Whilst

males are generally green with a few dorsal patterns, females are extremely colourful exhibiting blue, yellow, white and orange patterns. The females are most colourful when gravid.

Growing to an average of 20cm, these medium-sized chameleons are quick to mature. They reach adulthood within just three months and lay clutches of around 10-20 eggs three times a year. The stable temperatures of urban environments create the perfect biological niche for these chameleons and some research (Bartlett & Bartlett) suggests the carpet chameleon is benefitting from habitat alteration. In one region of Antananarivo, we found a carpet chameleon on every shrub, totalling half a dozen in a short walk from the hotel to the local market (and another three in the hotel

grounds). Although tribal communities’ perceptions of chameleons differ across regions, Malagasy children in Antananarivo will often catch these abundant lizards to show tourists in hope of a tip. Furcifer lateralis can also be found across most of the central highlands and arid regions of the East.

The second most populous chameleon in the highlands is the Oustelet’s chameleon (Furcifer oustaleti) or ‘Malagasy giant chameleon’. It is in fact, the longest of all chameleons. Whilst Parson’s chameleons (Calumma parsonii parsonii) are far heavier, much bulkier and visually ‘larger’ than Oustaleti, the immensely-long prehensile tail of this species makes it a solid contender for ‘longest’. The Oustalet’s chameleon is characterised

by distinct spines down its crest and an almost weathered appearance. Browns and greys can sometimes make way for dazzling white and orange patterns, but this species is generally more cryptic in colouration than other chameleons. We found most Oustaleti on robust branches overhanging steep drops close to running water. This is a perfect example of the bold personalities of reptiles that have almost nothing to fear in a region without significant threats from predators.

Outside of the city, there are many more species that call the central highlands ‘home’. The lesser chameleon (Furcifer minor) is a species that takes sexual dimorphism to an entirely new realm. To the untrained eye, the females and the males could

The Chameleons of Madagascar

Blue-legged chameleon (Calumma crypticum)

be entirely different species. Males possess rostral horns, have drab colouration and can reach up to 24cm in length. Females, on the other hand, are a vivid green and can produce beautiful yellow and black patterns and rarely exceed 15cm in length. This species is considered ‘Endangered’ by the IUCN as it requires tapia forest dominated by the Uapaca bojeri tree. Unfortunately, this dry forest habitat is constantly falling victim to slashand-burn farming to make way for rice plantations. It now only lives in the Itremo region of Madagascar as most habitat has been replaced by unsuitable grassland. In these regions, they are reasonably populous, and we managed to find one male and one female after a few hours of searching. Despite them being documented as territorial and solitary chameleons, both lizards occupied the same tree, less than three meters away from one another, suggesting they might be a breeding pair.

Some species found in the central highlands of Madagascar look very similar. The short-horned chameleon (Calumma brevicorne) is widespread across mid-elevations between 810 and 1000m and is extremely common in both dry and tropical forests. Their close relative Calumma crypticum (possibly named due to its cryptic similarity to brevicorne) looks almost identical and occupies many similar habitats. Both have heterogeneous scales, rostral appendages, and occipital lobes. For those that are not taxonomists, this means “random scale patterns, a protruding nose and flaps on the side

of their heads.” Each species is best characterised by its colouration, which (being chameleons) is often difficult to pinpoint. However, male Calumma crypticum will turn a majestic pastel blue with orange and brown stripes when introduced to a female – giving it its localised common name the “bluelegged chameleon.” We were very lucky to witness one male exhibiting breeding behaviour and managed to photograph this startling colour change.

Mixed-altitude rainforest Ranomofana National Park is one of, if not the most biodiverse area in Madagascar. Mixed altitudes set amongst rich evergreen forests play host to a range of endemic and endangered lemur species, as well as birds, invertebrates, amphibians and of course, reptiles. Dozens of chameleon species can be found in the forest, but the most abundant species is perhaps Calumma nasutum. This species (which has been given the common name of ‘pimple-nosed chameleon’) rarely exceeds 5cm SVL (snout to vent) length. They are mostly found tenderly holding stems of plants, where they will rest underneath broad leaves. Whilst many Malagasy animals can live a life without fear of large predators, everything is a ‘large predator’ to Calumma nasutum – even praying mantis and small birds. It is thought that nasutum is a species complex, meaning that with further study more species are likely to be distinguished from this species. As it is extremely widespread and shares much of its distribution with another

tiny chameleon we found along the way, Calumma fallax, this certainly rings true. Male fallax are identifiable by larger, more heterogenous scale patterns but are extremely difficult to distinguish from nasutum. This makes conservation efforts even more important across tropical Madagascar, as even though Calumma nasutum is considered ‘Least Concern’ by the IUCN, a disregard for its conservation in remote areas may lead to the extinction of new species before they are even described.

In stark contrast to the tiny species, the world’s largest chameleon, the parson’s chameleon (Calumma parsonii) also calls Ranomafana home. Although parson’s chameleons are widely distributed across the Eastern lowlands, the lower altitude regions of Ranomafana play host to a unique locality form – the ‘yellow-lipped’ parson’s chameleon (Calumma p. parsonii). Ranomafana in Southeast Madagascar comprises the most southernly point in the parson’s distribution. Further North, the ‘orangeeyed’ nominate form C. p. parsonii and the subspecies C. p. cristifer can both be found. Cristifer are generally smaller and less colourful than parsonii parsonii. Still, all subspecies are extremely impressive in size and appearance. They are the world’s largest chameleons, the longest-lived of all chameleons and have the longest incubation period of all reptiles, which can last up to 660 days! Once a clutch of eggs is laid, there can be up to one month between the first and the final egg hatching. We were lucky to be in

Yellow-lipped Parson’s chameleon (Calumma parsonii parsonii) male

East Madagascar during this time (which usually lasts from September to November) and witnessed almost a dozen juvenile Parson’s chameleons. In one case, three hatchlings (no more than two weeks old) had perched themselves on branches of the same tree. Hatchlings are just a few inches long and thus, at risk of predation from birds and other reptiles. The mother Parson’s compete with these odds by producing around 50 - 60 eggs. Previously, it was thought that an average clutch contained around 30-35 eggs. With more hobbyists and zoological institutions successfully breeding the species in captivity, herpetologists have confirmed parsonii parsonii can lay up to 70 eggs in a single clutch. Interestingly, this incubation period requires fluctuations in temperatures, with alternating hot and cold periods for success. Emerging literature is having a positive impact on the captive breeding of C. p. parsonii

Although the wet rainforests of the southeast were (in our experience) largely dominated by Calumma species, there were some Furcifer species also. The most common of which was the belted chameleon (Furcifer balteatus). This species gets its name from a distinct band that runs down its dorsum and is sometimes referred to as the ‘twin-banded’ chameleon. Despite being relatively abundant in Ranomafana, it is an endangered species and can be found nowhere else in the world. There may be a second population further south, but habitat fragmentation means the mid-altitude forests of Ranomafana are the last stronghold for this species. They are reasonably drab in colouration, sporting a uniform green or olive appearance. However, this changes entirely during territorial conflict. Balteatus, when assuming a defensive posture, is one of the most visually striking of all chameleons. Their bands become so distinct and contrasted that they could be easily mistaken for a plastic toy or a character from a Pixar film. Upon finding two males and a single female in a nearby tree, we introduced both males to document this colour change. As an endangered species that is rarely if ever kept in captivity, there are few records of this behaviour.

A third and relatively new genus of chameleon can also be found on the forest floors of south-eastern Madagascar. Formerly Brookesia nasus, Palleon nasus is a species of leaf chameleon no longer than 8cm in length. The genus Palleon, meaning old (Palea) and lion (leon) was formed in 2013 to describe two species of leaf chameleon that are genetically distinct from Brookesia. The ‘old’ (Palea) refers to the evolutionary distinction of this genus millions of years ago. Leaf chameleons are perhaps some of the most fragile of all chameleons and both members of the Palleon genus are considered “vulnerable.”

Although most species of chameleon we encountered were numerous, albeit restricted in their range, there were several that we only found once. In the southeast, the most notable must be Calumma glawi. This is an endangered species with a highly restricted range. There are several species, mostly found in the North, that have unique body shapes for chameleons. The first of which to be described was Calumma furcifer in 1880. This slender-bodied Calumma species adopts traits from both genera. Calumma glawi was described more recently in 1997. It has a low casque, but a long skull shape reminiscent of some Anolis species. It is named after the German herpetologist Frank Glaw, who has described several dozen Malagasy species and whose work with Miguel Vences on “A Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Madagascar” remains the most comprehensive publication on Madagascar’s herpetofauna to date. Calumma glawi prefers very dense primary rainforest at mid-altitudes between 300-800m, these “constantly wet” environments are characterised by rich vegetation and thick layers of moss.

Ranomafana National Park, despite being “protected” has seen considerable deforestation in recent years. Although there is less slash-and-burn farming than elsewhere in the country, even within the park’s boundaries there is an alarming rate of controlled burns. The biodiversity in this region is also largely dictated by altitudes, meaning some species inhabit small pockets of lowland forests while others thrive high in the mountains. Even if a species occurs within the park’s boundaries it does not necessarily occupy the entirety of the 161 miles2 that is supposedly protected. This unfortunately means that many of the chameleons in this region are still at high risk of extinction within the coming years, despite seemingly abundant numbers within the rainforest.

Eastern lowlands

A much sadder story is being told in the East of Madagascar, where slash-and-burn farming is entirely unregulated and huge acres of forest are being burned every day. We travelled from the East to the North for just a few days and returned to find entire regions burned and scenic photographs almost unrecognisable. This included a region where critically endangered golden mantella (Mantella aurantiaca) were previously found. Although Andasibe-Mantadia National Park loosely protects some land and several NGOs are working to conserve other areas, the eastern tropical forests of Madagascar are extremely vulnerable and so to are its inhabitants.

Banded chameleon (Furcifer balteatus) male

Banded chameleon (Furcifer balteatus) male in breeding colours

Perhaps the most interesting of all is Calumma gallus, the Pinocchio chameleon. Sexual selection has caused males of this species to develop a very long rostral appendage. Although these chameleons are extremely small, a close look at their ‘nose’ shows a vibrant two-tone colouration amongst their scales. Although the species is generally drab in colour, the male’s rostral protrusion can be a brilliant blue or green with a vibrant red tip. The male’s nose is also extremely fleshy and houses no bones or adapted skull shape. This supports the theory that it evolved reasonably quickly through sexual selection and has no real use in territorial disputes like other ‘horned’ chameleons. Females have a much smaller rostral appendage that is typically red. The Pinocchio chameleon is reliant on a very specific habitat, so it took several attempts to find and photograph one. They generally inhabit steep slopes rich in secondary vegetation and ferns. Like many smaller species, they are inconspicuous with their basking behaviours and therefore perch themselves within the centre of shrubs and bushes. This ensures that they can thermoregulate effectively, whilst avoiding predatory snakes and birds. Other species also call this dry, sloped habitat home. For example, Furcifer bifidus are abundant in these areas and are considered ‘least concern’ by the IUCN as they can occupy secondary vegetation across a wide distribution stretching from the Andasibe region, right up to the north coast.

Later, we visited a small patch of forest near Vohidrazana in search of the world’s smallest “true” chameleon. Calumma roaloko, sometimes referred to as the two-toned softnosed chameleon, was only described in 2018. Its name comes from the Malagasy “roa” meaning “two” and “loko” meaning “colour” and references the two-toned colouration of both the males and the females. It is a member of the “boettgeri” complex and shares many similarities. In fact, females are almost impossible to distinguish. Sadly, this species only lives in a tiny patch of rainforest that acts as a corridor in the AnkenihenyZahamena forest. Finding it requires several hours of

trekking on narrow paths, into a reserve managed by the NGO, GERP (which focuses most of its initiatives on Indri lemurs). Few tourists visit this location, however, our guide Patrick Andriamihaja was thought to be one of the first people to photograph the species before it was officially described by Protzel et al in October 2018. At the location, we found two specimens, a male and a female. As the smallest member of the Chamaeleoninae subfamily, it is considered the smallest ‘true’ chameleon in the world and rarely reaches 4.5cm SVL and never exceeds 10cm in total length. There have been no studies leading to an official conservation status of this species yet. However, the rampant forest fires that shrouded the habitat of this delicate species paint a worrying picture. Whilst GERP may be protecting some habitat within this species’ range, one uncontrolled burn could theoretically put an end to the world’s smallest chameleon.

The drier forests of central/eastern Madagascar play host to other tiny “chameleons”. Brookesiinae is a subfamily of chameleons belonging to Chamaeleonidae family but distinct from the Chamaeleoninae subfamily (slightly confusing, I know!) Most Brookesia diversity is concentrated in the North and West of Madagascar, where the climate is far more arid. However, several species can be found in the tropical rainforests in the East. The two most common are Brookesia superciliaris and Brookesia therezieni. The former is found across the majority of the East side of the country and is reasonably adaptable, living life amongst the leaflitter of both dry and humid forests. The latter inhabits similar ecosystems stretching north from Andasibe. They, like most species of Brookesia, are diurnal and will actively move through leaflitter searching for tiny insects during the day. However, they will roost on low-lying vegetation at night, making them far easier to spot. During the rainy season, pairs can be seen roosting close to each other suggesting that these animals may have complex mating rituals. Perhaps their most unique feature after their cryptic appearance is their defence strategies.

Furcifer bifidus male

Although most chameleon species are reasonably bold when approached by a would-be predator (or inquisitive herpetologist) and adorn themselves with vibrant colouration, threatening lobe displays or a striking open-mouthed posture, Brookesia are far more subtle. If so much as a roosting branch is disturbed, Brookesia will simply freeze and drop from their place of rest. They will curl their arms up into their body to “play dead” and roll into the leaf litter below, hoping their excellent camouflage will prevent them from being preyed upon. Some species of leaf chameleon also vibrate and thrust their spines perhaps to simulate a leaf in the wind. Brookesia superciliaris was the first species of Brookesia to be described and was named by Kuhl in 1820. Although we only found therezieni (a member of the superciliaris complex) in this region, superciliaris likely contains several yet-undescribed species.

Deforestation in Madagascar

According to Global Forest Watch, in the last 10 years, Madagascar has lost over 14% of its total humid forest and over 21% of its total tree cover. This has happened during a time when deforestation and environmentalism are becoming a growing concern worldwide. Shockingly, 2017 and 2018 saw the highest levels of deforestation that the country has ever seen. It is very difficult to fully articulate the extent to which Madagascar is being, essentially, burned down. Over 18 days, around 1750km of travelling and several jungle treks (to some very remote locations), there was not a single moment that I couldn’t see or smell a forest fire.

The socio-economic politics that dictate the development of this independent island are complicated. However, from a purely ecological perspective, Madagascar’s delicate flora and fauna are under serious threat. During the expedition, we found and photographed 23 chameleon species. A quarter of these are considered endangered, two are ‘data deficient’ and several are likely to include new species not yet known to science. Yet, agricultural development in Madagascar continues to pose a serious threat.

Eco-tourism may hold some hope for Madagascar. However, the success of these initiatives in places like

Costa Rica is partly due to government support schemes. Madagascar does not have the same infrastructure for tourism and in some cases, tourists are being redirected to islands such as Nosy Be where officials own large holiday resorts. The financial input from tourists therefore never reaches the farmers, giving them no initiative to protect the rainforest. Madagascar banned the exportation of all wildlife in 2019. Now, licences and permits are required to export many plant species also. This has removed some of the motivation to maintain natural habitats and supporting NGOs and ecotourism initiatives may be one of the last ways of adding financial value to wild Madagascar.

I recently joined an expedition to Madagascar with the Herpetological Education and Research Project (HERP). Bryan Minne and Laura Ruysseveldt established the project to fund vital conservation work across the world. As well as running educational programmes, the H.E.R.P also travels to remote regions to photograph and document herpetofauna. Over 16 days we documented 98 species of reptile and amphibian and gained valuable insight into natural history of these animals through observations and data records.

Author and Photographer: Thomas Marriott, Features Editor for Exotics Keeper Magazine

Calumma malthe male

SEPARATE US AND MAKE IT SNAPPY!

For years the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) was thought to be extinct in the wild. How is it fairing now?

Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis)

For years the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) was thought to be extinct in the wild. So, why is one of the most endangered reptiles on the planet so easy to spot in holiday snaps and what could this mean for the future of the species?

The Siamese crocodile was once widespread across the low-altitude wetlands of Southeast Asia. In 1992 it was reported to be extinct in the wild. Later studies in 1996 rediscovered this species and it was recorded by the IUCN as "critically endangered." Since then, Crocodylus siamensis has remained in this worrying state with numbers still depleting.

Although there is no official estimate for population size, IUCN suggests there are likely to be between 500-1000 adult specimens left in the wild. Conservation efforts have been made to save this crocodile species with mixed success. Unfortunately, the damage appeared to have already been done, as the species had been lost from around 99% of the wetlands they once inhabited.

The Siamese crocodile is a medium-sized, freshwater crocodile rarely reaching more than three and a half meters

in length. They are identified by a bony crest on their neck and prefer slow-moving water and marshlands. Their relatively broad snout suggests a varied diet of fish, birds, and small mammals and they rarely tackle larger prey.

Hunted to the brink of extinction across its former range, the rise in demand for leather during the 1950s forced the over-commercialisation of this species. As well as being hunted by rice farmers and villagers, these animals were collected from the wild and farmed, in poor conditions and on a huge scale.

Despite the Siamese crocodile being one of the most endangered reptiles on the planet, tourists visiting Bangkok in Thailand or Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam have likely seen a variation of this species on display. Could the catalyst for the destruction of the siamese crocodile, hold the key to its revival?

Commodification of crocs

Crocodile farming offers a sustainable alternative to wild collection. For some species, the regulated farming of crocodiles has saved the entire species. Saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus Porosus) are an excellent example of a species that, in less than 50 years, has gone from "vulnerable to extinction" to "least concern." In fact, Australia now permits the harvesting of crocodile eggs because they are so populous. In other parts of the world, legal farming of crocodiles for leather helps fulfil global demand, reduces the price and disincentivises poaching. However, not all species benefit from this model.

Crocodile farms and unregulated animal attractions across Southeast Asia have caused a significant increase in hybridisation between the siamese crocodile and the saltwater crocodile

Whilst they may share many features with subadult saltwater crocodiles, their most recognisable morphological difference is their twin-paired post-occipital scutes. Typically, this species has a more rounded snout than the “salty” suggesting a diverse range of much smaller, vertebrate and invertebrate prey. Experts can also identify up to 16 acute differences between the species, however, hybrids are much harder to distinguish.

The Siamese crocodile is also considered to produce much softer leather. This bourgeois alternative to other crocodilian leather created a new market amongst local and international buyers.

Some believe that the hybridisation of these species was intentionally caused by farmers who aimed to achieve a larger size from the Siamese crocs. One "saltie", known as Yai, was hatched in 1972 and housed at Samut Prakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo in Thailand. He reached 6m in length and was once considered the largest crocodile in captivity.

The crocodiles farmed across Thailand and Vietnam

often have bloodlines that extend beyond the siamese and the ‘salties’. Studies suggest that even cuban crocodiles (Crocodylus rhombifier), who are also critically endangered, had been imported to these farms since World War Two.

Test, track and trace

To many, this hybridisation may appear unproblematic. For generations, farmers have hybridised livestock for commercial gain and it is somewhat normalised in both Western and Eastern cultures. However, this can have a drastic effect on conservation efforts.

The hybridisation process ultimately tampers with the genetics of the animal and can lead to multiple complications further down the lineage. Introducing hybridised siamese x saltwater crocodiles to the wild population of siamese crocodiles, could likely drive the species into extinction.

With such a surplus of siamese crocodile ‘mongrels’ in captivity, conservationists have attempted to tap into that population for further studies. Whilst previously expected that pure bloodlines may have been lost in the interests of commercial gain, this shift to farming may provide the last hope for the species.

In 2001 an initiative was set out to test 103 captive-bred siamese crocodiles in farms across Thailand and Vietnam. While scientists were first very sceptical about the results, 10 crocodiles were found to be genetically pure. These were subsequently released into Cat Tien National Park in South Vietnam in 2002 and marked the first breakthrough in DNA testing as a viable route to reintroduction. As a result, in 2009 Fauna and Flora International managed to identify a further 35 genetically-pure captive-bred individuals. Instead of reintroducing these into the wild, they established a local breeding programme in Cambodia that has recently seen some amazing results.

Siamese crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis)

The last hope

As conservation efforts for the siamese crocodile have been largely unsuccessful across the majority of its now-depleted range, Cambodia appears to be the final stronghold for this species. An expedition led by Flora and Fauna International rediscovered the species in Cambodia in 2000 and has since worked closely with the Cambodian Government to protect and reintroduce the captive-bred specimens into the wild. Each genetically-pure specimen identified in captivity is thus providing more hope for the species.

The programme aimed to release 100 captive-bred crocodiles into the wild, whilst training 30 community rangers to provide support. The rangers have since monitored five sites across the region to ensure the survival and track the progress of the crocodiles.

A major breakthrough happened in 2020, as one adult female was photographed nesting in the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia. This particular female, identified by her scutes, was cared for by Phnom Tamao Wildlife Rescue Centre and represents a huge milestone in communitybased conservation for the species.

In February last year, a total of 10 juvenile crocodiles were also spotted in the Steung Knoung River in the Cardamom Mountains. Conservationists at Fauna and Flora International had confirmed this was only the second time juveniles had ever been spotted in the wild in Cambodia.

A further success story came from the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) in September. A total of 15 hatchlings were sighted during the expedition into the Cardamom Mountains. Although merely scratching the surface of what could be considered ‘hope’ for this species, the latest discoveries have at the very least, confirmed that the new initiatives are working.

On home turf

UK breeding projects for the siamese crocodile are now well underway. One breeding pair at Crocodiles of the World and another on loan to Woodside Wildlife Park provide fresh hope that captive breeding projects across Europe may begin to support wild populations.

Crocodiles of the World in Brize Norton currently has a pair of siamese crocodiles which have been successfully breeding since 2014. As well as a second pair which is currently on loan to another zoo, Crocodiles of the World have had major success with this species. Rebecca was hatched at Madras Crocodile Bank in 1999 and Hugo was hatched in Thailand in 1997. Together, the pair are proud parents of many of the young siamese crocodiles exhibited across Europe today.

Colin Stevenson, Member of the IUCN/SSE Crocodile Specialist Group and Head of Education at Crocodiles of the World spoke to Exotics Keeper Magazine about his involvement in the conservation efforts to save the siamese crocodiles.

How do the Siamese crocs at Crocodiles of the World fit into wider conservation or breeding projects across the world?

“Well, first of all, we’ve had our crocs tested and know they are pure siamese crocs, so we’re good to go, as far as breeding them is concerned. With all the hybrids in farms across Asia, it’s important to know where the pure siamese crocs are. The species breeds readily in captivity, and many collections breed them around the world. The importance for us is that not only are they helping with the education program for endangered species here at Crocs of the World but with a reliable breeding pair, we can supply other zoos within Europe that wish to exhibit the species.”

“Further down the track, there remains a strong possibility

Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis)

of sending some young crocs back to Cambodia to help establish the breeding program in the country run by Fauna and Flora International. However, this is not at all easy and we are not doing this yet. This is a longerterm project, as releasing captive animals into the wild calls for very strict protocols to be followed, not to mention the protected habitat needs to be available and local communities on board with more crocodiles being released into local waterways!”

“Although the species is kept in the thousands on farms across the Asian region – and therefore there are thousands of potential release animals available – it is the uncertainty of the purity of these farmed crocs that makes zoo-based animals so important. Zoos have spent the time to ensure they have genetically-pure animals.”

Have you made any observations of the pair at Crocodiles of the World which might be considered unusual of interesting, which would be difficult to make in the wild?

“In other collections, they’ve exhibited the parents with the hatchlings –successfully cohabiting the enclosure for several years. Madras Crocodile Bank has noted ‘double-clutching’ of siamese crocs (and other species). This means the female can lay two successful clutches of eggs in a single

year. We’ve not noted this here, and our adult enclosure doesn’t suit having hatchlings being placed within it, so again, we’ve not worried about trying this as yet. We did have one researcher looking at hatchling calls, and she got a very strong response from Rebecca when she played a hatchling call from one of her offspring as opposed to the call from another species. In fact, the response was so strong we had to stop the playback immediately to allow Rebecca to calm down. Safe to say that crocs have strong parental care instincts. Such observations are difficult to study in the wild, as the mere presence of a researcher will impact the behaviour before any observations can even be made.”

Do you believe there is hope for the siamese crocodile in the wild? What conservation efforts do you think would be needed to save this species from extinction?

“Yes, absolutely. It was considered pretty much extinct in the wild in the late 1990s. With small but relatively secure populations uncovered in both Cambodia and Indonesian Borneo, there are two large organisations working on the species (Fauna and Flora International and Wildlife Conservation Society). I think there is great optimism about the future for the species. We are working out our involvement with FFI and potentially

also with WCS, but 2020 has been a write-off for progressing such projects. For our plans to move forward, we need a good year in 2021 with visitors or some nice donations specifically towards our conservation projects”

Croc, stock and two smokin’ parallels

Crocodilians make up some of the most endangered reptiles on the planet. However, national reform against the hunting of crocodiles has proven time and again to be successful for conservation efforts. In Australia, the saltwater crocodile faced extinction during the 1970s, as a result of commercial hunting. Although this species has also been largely depleted across the majority of its range, the Australian Government imposed a legal ban on hunting ‘salties’ in 1971. Within less than 50 years, the population has reached upwards of 200,000 adults and the once-threatened species is now of least concern according to the IUCN.

A similar pattern appeared with the American Alligator (Alligator mississipiensis) which was also hunted to the brink of extinction. The species was classified as endangered in 1967 and was protected under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. This legal reform meant that by 1987 the American Alligator was no longer an endangered species as the US Fish and Wildlife Service announced it had fully recovered.

The bleaker picture

Despite significant success stories from some species, the plight of many crocodilians in less affluent countries is an ongoing crisis. Prized for their leather and limited to smaller distributions, many species of these prehistoric reptiles face the threat of extinction.

Chinese Alligator (Alligator sinensis)

The Chinese alligator (A. sinensis) is one of the most endangered species on planet Earth. Between 68 and 86 adult individuals remain in the wild. They are spread across fragmented wetlands in the Anhui Province of China and are under constant threat from the agricultural influences that decimated

Separate Us and Make it Snappy!

the species. Conservationists have managed to protect their last remaining waterways and this tiny population appears to be stable, for the moment.

Worldwide population estimates increased from less than 200 in 1974 to around 1500 in 1998, however, these have now dropped to around 250 breeding adults in the wild.

Cuban Crocodile

(Crocodylus rhombifier)

Philippine Crocodile (Crocodylus

mindorensis)

With less than 250 wild specimens, the Philippine crocodile (C. mindorensis) is facing extinction from the two remaining waterways in which it lives. Although protected by law since 2001, the distribution of this species means its survival is balanced on a knife edge. Occurring in just a few pockets of water in the far North of Luzon and Ligawasan Marsh on Mindanao, reintroduction to new wetlands appears to be the last hope for the Philippine crocodile.

Orinoco Crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius)

Just like the siamese crocodile (C. siamensis), the Orinoco crocodile (C. intermedius) suffered over-commercialisation since the early 20th Century. In the space of just 100 years, the population size of the Orinoco crocodile has dropped from an estimated three million to fewer than 1,500. As the name suggests, the range of this new world crocodile is limited to the lower and middle reaches of the Orinoco River, through Venezuela and Colombia.

Isolated to the Zapata Swamp on mainland Cuba and the Lanier Swamp on Isla de la Juventud, the Cuban crocodile (c. rhombifier) has the smallest distribution of any crocodilian. At just 657,000 ha, the Zapata Swamp is the last stronghold for this critically endangered species. The Lanier Swamp is just 100km2 and while releasing captive-bred crocodiles into this wetland has been successful in the past, the tiny distribution of this species puts it in constant danger from ecological threats. While the population of around 5,000 remains stable, their survival relies entirely on the two swamps they inhabit.

Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)

With its long slender snout, the gharial (G. gangeticus) is an iconic crocodilian amongst wildlife enthusiasts and Hindu worshippers on the River Ganges alike. Unfortunately, this hasn’t stopped the population from dropping by 80% in the last 10 years. Isolated to small patches of North India and Nepal, conservation efforts have seen an increase, followed by a rapid decrease in population numbers. There appears to be very little hope for sustainable management of this population as the damage caused by sand mining, agriculture and waterway interference has created an irreversible loss of habitat.

African Slender-snouted Crocodile (Mecistops cataphractus)

The African slender-snouted crocodile (M. cataphractus) was placed in its own genus Mecistops in 2006 by McAliley et al. This crocodilian inhabits a wide range of habitats across Central and Western Africa. Sometimes referred to as the African gharial, the African slender-snouted crocodile faces similar threats from human interference. Newly established fisheries have decimated the wild populations of this piscivorous predator. IUCN suggests there could be anywhere between 1,000 and 20,000 of these crocodiles left. They are difficult to obtain certified data for, but conservationists are certain their numbers are decreasing at an alarming rate.

What next?

The future of the Siamese crocodile may hang in the balance. While it doesn’t look good for the ancient predator, dedicated conservationists are starting to discover some optimistic results. The extensive farming of this species paints a conflicting picture. Although from the outside looking in, that picture looks bleak, with the correct education commercial farming may hold the key to the species' revival. Significant legal reform and extensive DNA testing may offer one last lifeline for this species. Crocodilians who have roamed the earth for longer than the dinosaurs are relying on modern solutions to ensure their survival. As we move towards wellregulated crocodile farming, it is important to consider the sustainability of our luxuries.

Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis)

Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)

African Slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops cataphractusis)

KEEPER BASICS: POISON FROGS

Tips and tricks for caring for Dendrobatidae.

Keeper Basics: Poison Frogs

Poison frogs are quickly becoming the most popular pet amphibians. A symphony of new products, better knowledge and successful breeding projects have fuelled this growth. Most reptile enthusiasts will understand the core components of creating and maintaining a tropical bioactive setup, but there are some tips and tricks that are only learnt through trial and error. The following feature should outline a few techniques for perfecting the care of Dendrobatids.

Décor strategies

Creating layers - Anyone with a tropical bioactive setup will understand the importance of a drainage layer, but layers can be incorporated into various aspects of the tank. They can help maximise the usable space for terrestrial species such as D. tinctorius. Stacking large pieces of cork bark on top of each other can create some extremely interesting hides without using up valuable floor space in the way a traditional coconut husk would. Creating raised platforms at the back of the enclosure that tapers into a dip at the front of the enclosure can increase the usable space within a taller terrarium.

Creating a riverbed - Sloping enclosures can help simulate a temporary riverbed, which is often the preferred habitat of many Dendrobatids. Lucky Reptile Hydrofleece can be used to create a barrier between the drainage layer and the lowest elevation in the enclosure. As the drainage layer fills, it will form a shallow stretch of water that is easy to clean and drain. Gravel should be added to reduce the depth. The water should be shallow enough for the frogs to comfortably stand in it but can be deep enough to prevent micro crickets from climbing the front of the enclosure and escaping through the vents or doors.

Semi submerged wood - Another benefit of having a shallow pool of water at the front of the terrarium is that décor can be added to provide a constantly damp platform for moss to grow from. Many hobbyists will experiment with numerous mosses before finding one that works for their setup. A part-submerged piece of wood offers the perfect trial area, especially considering most mosses used in the terrarium hobby are technically aquatic mosses anyway. This wood can then be removed and added to another part of the terrarium to provide a headstart for moss growth.

Buried wood - Adding décor within the terrain can bring a multitude of benefits. Part-buried wood will decompose quicker than exposed wood and provide a valuable retreat and food source for the clean-up crew. Cork bark tubes, particularly those with multiple entrances and exits can also be part-buried to provide a burrow for poison frogs. Although they are not technically a fossorial group of frogs, they will utilise burrows in the wild (particularly froglets and small Phyllobates sp.). Part-buried cork bark tubes will decompose quickly, so the keeper may need to tear parts of the bark open to ensure the frogs can always escape if the log collapses.

Diet and supplements

It is important to provide poison frogs with a varied diet. In the wild, they would consume countless species of tiny invertebrates so limiting them to just fruit flies is neither nutritious nor enriching. Instead, the keeper should consider alternating between micro crickets, small crickets and fruit flies. Springtails and juvenile isopods should also be made available to encourage consistent feeding behaviour. Fruit fly larvae can provide a fatty treat. These can be spooned out of a culture and added to a shallow bowl to prevent them from burrowing out of sight. Calci-worms are highly nutritious and although the keeper may need to hand-select the smallest worms, they make an excellent addition to a poison frog's diet. Bean weevils should be fed sparingly and only to large Dendrobatids (tinctorius, terribilis, largebodied auratus, etc). These are an excellent backup food source as a typical culture will produce weevils for up to one month. Occasionally adding these to the staple diet as and when they emerge will ensure the frogs have time to digest them effectively. It may appear at first that the frogs are struggling to swallow their chitinous shell but this should not be a cause for concern, especially if only a few weevils are fed at a time.

Golden Poison Frog (Phyllobates terribilis)

There are relatively few specific poison frog supplements out there considering their growing popularity. Keepers should provide a good quality all-encompassing multivitamin such as Repashy Calcium Plus. This is wellrounded, contains all the essential vitamins and minerals and adds a good amount of calcium. Although this supplement also contains various carotenoids and betacarotene, some research suggests that Dendrobatids are not very efficient at converting these Vitamin A precursors into Vitamin A. Therefore, an occasional dusting with Repashy Vitamin-A Plus will provide Vitamin-A in the Retinol form which should ensure there are no deficiencies.

Substrate

Novice keepers often use far too much substrate in their enclosures. A good quality nutrient-rich substrate such as BioLife Forest should provide ample opportunities for young plants to grow before their roots reach the drainage layer. Providing just a few inches of substrate means there is even more room for leaf litter. In tropical rainforests, there are often several inches of leaf litter between the frog and the soil. This should be replicated as best possible in captivity. Eventually, the leaf litter will be broken down by the clean-up crew and the substrate will be supplemented with fresh soil, perfect for plant growth.

Lighting

Most Dendrobatids require Zone 1 lighting. However, taller enclosures with a mesh lid may require a Zone 2 fixture to emit an appropriate amount of UV into the enclosure. It is okay if this does not quite stretch to the “forest floor” at the base of the enclosure. Instead, the keeper should provide solid wood platforms for the frogs to move closer to the lighting as they wish. Broad-leaved plants should break the direct light, but also offer a platform for the frogs to gain UV exposure. Flamingo flowers (Anthurium sp.) fill this niche perfectly. They have large enough leaves for

the frogs to perch on, will generally sprout more leaves to form a surprisingly robust structure and occasionally produce vibrant flowers to add some colour to the setup. LED lighting is a must to encourage good plant growth. There are two ways of looking at this. On the one hand, a Reptile Systems New Dawn ProTen will provide an immense amount of light and encourage powerful plant growth instantly. It is a universal unit that can be applied to tropical or arid setups to fill the enclosure with light. On the other hand, a less powerful LED component such as an ExoTerra Terrasky can still provide sufficient light for plants to grow and can be programmed to simulate the kind of light levels which would typically reach the rainforest floor.

Perfect Plants

There are around 391,000 plants known to science. This can make choosing the perfect plants for a setup extremely hard. On the one hand, there is plenty of choice that allows the keeper to create a geographically accurate depiction of the animal's natural habitat. On the other hand, the sheer breadth of choice and fragility of many plants means it is very easy to pick something that just does not thrive in a terrarium. Exotics Keeper Magazine has put together the perfect selection of jungle plants for a poison frog setup:

Heartleaf Philodendron

Philodendron

scandens

Found in the rainforests of Brazil, Philodendron scandens is possibly the most widely available of all Philodendron species. It is extremely hardy and can grow in a variety of different conditions. It is perfect for herpetoculture because of its versatility. It can be planted in soil or water, it can climb up the backgrounds of terrariums or hang over the edge of an aquarium, it can be used in rain chambers with 100% humidity or in semitropical colubrid setups.

Phyllobates bicolor

As its name suggests, the heartleaf philodendron possesses large-sized, broad leaves in the shape of hearts. These can grow up to 25cm long when planted outdoors in the right conditions, but they are also very manageable within a terrarium habitat. These leaves are excellent for poison frogs that can comfortably sit on them and use them to traverse the enclosure. As this plant (or its close relatives) can be found from Brazil to Mexico, it covers the native range of just about all poison frog species and although it doesn’t provide a specific ecological niche, it is the ideal terrarium plant.

Trailing Jade Peperomia rotundifolia

Trailing jade is a species of round leaf peperomia from South America. Its dense leaves and quick growth make it an excellent addition to a new poison frog terrarium. This species flourishes when it is pot-bound, so if it can be fixed to an elevated area within the terrarium, it will trail over the side of the pot and create a wonderful wall of vegetation. This provides excellent hiding opportunities for all smallbodied reptiles and amphibians and can create a highhumidity microclimate within the enclosure. If it is planted into the ground, it will quickly form ground cover and add a new layer of shelter for terrestrial frogs.

Although this species will grow in a variety of conditions

(including as an epiphyte), it prefers constantly moist soil and temperatures that exceed 24°C. This may mean it is unsuitable for montane species that prefer cooler temperatures, but for most poison frogs that should be kept between 21°C and 25°C, it is perfect. This species can also be propagated very easily so anyone with an expanding collection of poison frogs, or breeders who may need to pull together a temporary enclosure quite quickly, should certainly consider growing some additional trailing jade.

Vriesea Bromeliad

Vriesea

saundersii

There are around 3,600 species of Bromeliad. They are some of the most diverse plants on Earth and are only found in the Americas. Some genera of poison frogs rely on bromeliads to lay their eggs and raise their tadpoles (most famously Oophaga sp.), whilst others will use their broad leaves as shelter. Although not all poison frogs need bromeliads to thrive, most keepers can find major benefits in adding bromeliads to their enclosure. Their leaves create reservoirs of water which can help maintain humidity. They are also epiphytic and can be easily attached to elevated areas in the enclosure. This maximises the usable area within the terrarium without compromising floor space. Some species also produce dazzling flowers, additional pups (which can be replanted) or blush under intense sunlight – all of which are visually striking.

Trailing Jade (Peperomia rotundifolia)

Vriesea saundersii is a species of bromeliad endemic to Brazil. It has a stunning silver speckled colouration and a unique leaf shape, making it stand out from all other bromeliads. It is an incredibly robust species that will support the weight of even the largest of poison frogs. Although this species can grow up to 60cm in width, it is very slow growing making it ideal for a terrarium environment. Unlike other bromeliads, saundersii will grow in comparatively low light conditions.

Earth Star

Cryptanthus sp. Cryptanthus are the ideal decorative plant. They are technically bromeliads but tend to grow close to the ground and remain small throughout their growth cycle. Sometimes called ‘Earth Stars’, they are generally brightly coloured and have stiff leaves. These plants can help hold moisture, which will evaporate at a different rate from the surrounding areas, making them ideal for creating microclimates, particularly underneath a dense canopy. They prefer bright light, which helps them colour up and maintain a bright pink colouration.

There are 1,200 different species of Cryptanthus but most of the varieties commonly available in the UK are endemic to Brazil. Whilst these plants play far more of a decorative role in establishing a poison frog terrarium, they are geographically accurate, especially for Brazilian species such as Adelphobates and some forms of D. tinctorius. They are epiphytes and can be grown on the floor of the

terrarium or hung from branches or backgrounds with little to no substrate. They can be fixed to a surface with fishing line or bundles of sphagnum moss can be wrapped around their roots and placed in cork bark tubes. This can be particularly useful in utilising all the terrarium space both horizontally and vertically, which is perfect for a smaller terrarium.

Tradescantia

Tradescantia sp.

Tradescantia is a genus of around 85 flowering herbaceous plants. They grow across the Americas, although the ones most frequently associated with exotics keeping are found in Mexico’s rainforests. Species such as pallida and zebrina might not be geographically accurate for poison frogs, but the rest of the Tradescantia family are found throughout South America’s tropical forests where poison frogs are found. Tradescantia is stunningly vibrant, and extremely hardy and grows into dense bundles of leaves. This dense vegetation creates the perfect hiding spot for feeder insects and provides great enrichment for hungry frogs that must hunt amongst the leaves for their prey.

These plants will get spindly with age and therefore will require some maintenance to keep their unique appearance. However, they can be easily propagated and make excellent houseplants too. Most Tradescantia will flower under the right conditions, producing delicate brightly coloured flowers.

Oophaga pumilio

FASCINATING FACT

Something fishy going on...

Geckolepis are a unique genus of arboreal, nocturnal geckos found only in Madagascar and the Comoros Islands. Sometimes referred to as ‘fish scale geckos’ they have the largest scales of any gecko and their iridescent hue reinforces their “fishy” look. However, their most unusual feature is their ability to completely lose parts of their skin and scales to avoid a predator. The large scales of Geckolepis are attached by a narrow piece of skin that has a subdermal ‘splitting zone’ which when grasped by a predator, leaves the attacker with a mouth full of scales and the gecko looking like a raw chicken

breast. The lizard is able to lose most of the scales on its body with no obvious adverse effect. In fact, these scales grow back in just a few weeks. The new scales are almost indistinguishable from the old ones and providing the gecko does not encounter another predator while it’s exposed, it should live to see another day (and repeat the process once again).

There are several other genera of geckos that can lose scales to evade predators, but this is often very costly to the animal and will leave scarring.  Geckolepis  are thought to shed their scales almost immediately if touched by a would-be predator. Although this bizarre defence strategy has been known to science for over 100 years, herpetologists are only just beginning to understand the diversity of  Geckolepis  species across northern Madagascar.

ENRICHMENT IDEAS

Burrowing reptiles

Many reptiles naturally burrow. Some will opportunistically hide in shallow burrows to avoid predators or harsh weather, whilst others will build intricate tunnel systems to thermoregulate and lay eggs. Replicating burrows in captivity is something that has always and possibly will always present challenges to keepers. In some cases, this challenge can be so great that herpetoculturists may stick their head in the sand when it comes to replicating these natural behaviours in the wild. These enrichment ideas may help keepers get a better understanding of their animals and how to provide enrichment within a limited environment.

1. Natural substrate

Perhaps the most obvious option is to provide a substrate that allows at least some level of digging opportunities. Popular species such as bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) are adept at burrowing and will spend large portions of the day in shallow burrows no more than half a meter deep, that they have excavated themselves. Needless to say, tile flooring or “repti-carpet” is inadequate and denies them any form of natural behaviour. Keepers should try to use scientific papers to guide their keeping practices as almost all species have several dimensions to their natural behaviours that are not always illustrated in photography or natural history documentaries.

2. Plastic tunnels

Plastic tunnels are widely used as an enrichment method for many different species of snakes. Whether they’re added to a “play pen” style temporary enclosure or added to the vivarium as a novelty item, they offer tactile and sensory enrichment that might look ridiculous to the naked eye but facilitates natural behaviours. Other reptiles can also benefit from this type of enrichment, especially if the tunnels are part-covered by substrate or leaf litter.

3. Glass terrariums

Although glass terrariums are not suitable for all animals, they are ideal for adding deep layers of substrate that juvenile or small-bodied animals can bury into. They are the enclosure of choice for sand boa (Eryx sp.) keepers for this exact reason. However, terrestrial geckos, small monitor lizards and colubrids, burrowing amphibians and many other species can benefit from the additional inches of substrate that a glass terrarium can provide. Choosing a substrate that contains loam such as ProRep Leo Life or ZooMed Excavator Clay can allow reptiles to burrow deep into the ground and even create caverns and tunnel systems. If a keeper is particularly concerned about fragile species burrowing, a solid underground hide can prevent any possibility of the burrows collapsing. If thick layers of looser substrate is used, the keeper should be careful not to use heavy décor that could crush a burrowing animal. In most cases, cork bark can make an excellent alternative.

4. Heat mat placement

Most reptiles burrow to avoid the heat. If a heat mat is placed below the enclosure, the animal is forced to neglect its natural behaviours. Although overhead heating is almost always preferable to heat mats, there are many instances where a heat mat or heat cable is the perfect way to boost and maintain the ambient temperature of an enclosure. Where applicable, try to attach the mat to the side or the back of the enclosure, this way animals can easily move further from and closer to the heat source whilst still having the option to dig and climb as they please.

5. Mixed substrate and leaflitter

Sometimes we need to face that it’s not always possible to perfectly replicate the conditions an animal would be exposed to in the wild. However, we can create a microhabitat that incorporates several elements, including mixed substrates and leaf litter. For decades hobbyists have added additional sphagnum moss to a corner of the enclosure to create humid areas, but now we have so many different substrates available on the market that a 50/50 split of arid desert and dry forest is easily achievable within a moderately sized vivarium. If this is broken up with chunks of bark, leaf litter, rocks and slate, the animal will be able to navigate subterranean levels in a reasonably natural way. Although they will not be able to bury deep into the ground, they will encounter different textures and humidity levels as they move around their environment.