Welcome to the September issue of Exotics Keeper Magazine. We will have been operating for four years this month and the fourth anniversary of our first ever issue is just around the corner. So, now’s a good opportunity to fill you in on a few exciting things happening here at EK.
Firstly, we launched our tiktok account this week! At the ripe old age of 29, I’m a little bit rusty on this platform. So, if there are any young keepers out there that have seen our account and want to provide a bit of feedback as to what type of content you want to see more of, please do drop me an email at thomas@ exoticskeeper.com.
Secondly, EK is going global. We are in the process of seeking out distribution partners in the US and Europe with expectations to launch physical magazine subscriptions in those countries before Christmas. If you’re a business, wholesaler, shop or (perhaps less likely) a print house, we would love to hear from you to help gauge interest.
As we reach the final months of the year, we will also be preparing our events calendars for 2025. Recently, we’ve focused more on in-situ research and I’ve missed the chance to catch up face-to-face with our readership, but I look forward to meeting many more of you in 2025. Let us know where we should go!
Thank you,
Thomas Marriott Editor
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Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors. Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.
Front cover: Bumblebee poison frog (Dendrobates leucomelas) reptiles4all/Shutterstock.com
Right: Fruit fly (Drosophila hydei) Ernie Cooper/Shutterstock.com
This
Understanding the feeding behaviours of the most kept tropical fish.
Caring
EXOTICS NEWS
The latest from the world of exotic animals
New venomous snake species found
A new species of Asian green pit viper named Trimeresurus cyanolabris sp. nov. has been described from Vietnam.
The latest addition to the Trimeresurus genus was found in the southern and central regions of the country in the Phuoc Binh and Nui Chua national parks. The distinctive snakes are typically a striking green colour with bright yellow eyes and measures just over 63cm in length.
The species was found at low to mid-level elevation areas in tropical rainforest habitats at around 90 to 400 metres above sea level.
The paper, written by the research team who described the new species, notes that the discovery highlights the importance of the region in “herpetofaunal diversity and endemism” and emphasises the significant threat of deforestation in the area which poses a great risk to the newly described species.
Blue Iguana Conservation programme announces new hatchlings
The Blue Iguana Conservation programme (BIC) has announced the arrival of the first blue iguana (Cyclura lewisi) hatchlings of the season on the Cayman Islands.
Run by the National Trust for the Cayman Islands (NTCI), the programme is responsible for restoring wild populations of Blue Iguanas which had declined to fewer than 30 individuals in 2001.
The BIC, which started in 1990, successfully increased the Cayman Islands’ Blue Iguana population, prompting the IUCN to downgrade the species from Critically Endangered to Endangered in 2012. By 2018, the programme released its 1000th individual, and has now welcomed six more hatchlings, the parents of which were themselves released three years ago into the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park.
The programme collects eggs from
wild iguanas and incubates them to offer a far improved chance of survival, with wild nests being at risk from heavy rainfall and flooding.
Joseph Jamieson, Assistant Manager of BIC, said: “The use of incubators, monitoring the eggs and the hatchlings, has been a vital component of success for the Blue Iguana Conservation Programme. The newborn hatchlings are cared for and monitored in the incubators for about a week before being placed at the Blue Iguana Conservation Nursery.”
The incubated iguanas, including the 100 individuals released last year, are released into protected areas to give them a better chance of survival, shielding them from threats such as human development, wild animals and traffic.
As of 2019, the programme has shifted its focus from restoring the wild population of Blue Iguanas to sustainably conserving the species, ensuring the survival of an iconic animal for generations to come.
New research finds Komodo dragons have iron-coated teeth
A team of researchers from King’s College London have discovered that the serrated teeth of Komodo dragons are iron tipped.
Reaching up to 10 feet in length with a lifespan of up to 30 years, the Indonesian species is the heaviest lizard on Earth. The new discovery on how the Komodo dragon keeps its teeth sharp may also explain how dinosaurs like the Tyrannosaurus rex were able to eat their prey.
Essential to the fulfilment of their carnivorous diet, Komodo dragons’ teeth are curved and they have venom glands, allowing them to incapacitate and eat prey of all
Green and black snake (Erythrolamprus poecilogyrus) Leonel Baldoni/Shutterstock.com
sizes. They have a wide-ranging diet, including deer, pigs, carrion, and even large water buffalo. They have also been observed displaying cannibalistic tendencies, preying on smaller members of their own species.
The study revealed that the presence of iron is widespread in reptile enamels, but that Komodo dragons have iron placed along the sharp edges and tips of their teeth. The concentration is such that their teeth appear orange and allow them to maintain the sharpness of the serrated edges of their teeth.
Researchers used Komodo dragon skulls to examine the composition of the species’ teeth, as well as laser-stimulated fluorescence. The results shed light on the fascinating anatomy of one of the world’s legendary species.
Snake species discovered in Ecuador
A new species of the Erythrolamprus genus has been discovered in the tropical Andean mountains of Ecuador.
Erythrolamprus darwinnunezi sp. nov. was named after Ecuadorian herpetologist Darwin Nūnez.The snake is olive green in colour, with a number of yellow scales on the body and a yellow neck ring and the females measure up to just over 37cm.
The team that made the discovery included Omar TorresCarvajal, Katherin C Hinojosa and Diego A. Paucar from the Pontificia Universidad Católica Del Ecuador.
The snakes observed by the researchers were diurnal, in keeping with other members of the Erythrolamprus genus, which commonly mimic the behaviour of highly venomous coral snakes. The individuals were observed under leaf litter and under a plastic sheet, as well as in forest and in pasture. One individual exhibited defensive behaviour, flattening its neck horizontally, while another regurgitated a frog.
Alliance between conservationists and archaeologists aims to save gecko
An unlikely partnership between conservationists and archaeologists in Peru is striving to protect a threatened gecko species in the nation’s capital.
The Lima leaf-toed gecko (Phyllodactylus sentosus) once thrived in the desert habitat that surrounds the city but is
ON THE WEB
now Critically Endangered. Invasive species arrived with the Spanish invaders, including cats, dogs and rodents. Human settlements spread, encroaching on the geckos’ habitat, with declining populations increasingly suffering the effects of inbreeding.
The small lizard, measuring just 10 centimetres in length, differs from other geckos in that it cannot climb vertically. Its desert habitat means the skill is not often required, but it makes it especially vulnerable to predators.
The species has now found refuge in the ruins of the ancient Lima civilisation that emerged in the desert over two thousand years ago. The ruins of pyramids known as huaca can be seen surrounding the city, now providing shelter for the Lima leaf-toed gecko.
According to Mongabay, the geckos are a familiar sight to archaeologists working at the sites. The small gaps between the stones provides hiding and hunting places for the species, with insects providing an abundance of prey.
While the huacas have provided a refuge for the endangered species, they have forced the remaining population to congregate in small areas, leaving them vulnerable to inbreeding and easy prey for rats and stray cats.
Conservationists and archaeologists have now agreed to join forces to protect the dwindling species, resulting in the Gecko de Lima conservation project. The project has helped to adjust the way the sites are monitored and managed to reduce the number of predators, and primary habitat areas are protected.
The arrangement is mutually beneficial for both parties, with the archaeologists creating a safer environment for the geckos to thrive, and the geckos in turn controlling populations of insect that damage the fragile structures.
Written by Isabelle Thom
Websites | Social media | Published research
Each month we highlight a favourite website or social media page
THIS MONTH IT’S: REPTIFILES
It’s hard to sift through all of the care sheets, websites, scientific papers, climate data, forums, etc. to get the information you need to know how to care for a pet reptile. That’s why reptifiles has done the work for you — and put it online for the world to use.
www.reptifiles.com
Huaca ruins PARICHUT WONGTHAI/Shutterstock.com
BATTER DAYS AHEAD
Saving the pancake tortoise.
The pancake tortoise (Malacocherus tornieri) is arguably the most charismatic of all tortoises. It is miniature, with a flexible and flattened shell. It is an unusually nimble little tortoise that lives in communal units, venturing from rock crevices after dark to graze. Despite the species’ near-perfect profile for a leading role in a Pixar movie, it remains one of the most critically endangered tortoises on Earth. Exotics Keeper Magazine caught up with Dr. Dominic Maringa at the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy to learn more about the work of conservationists aiming to change the future of the world’s most adorable tortoise.
A ‘flipping’ unique tortoise
The pancake tortoise is a unique, monotypic species and the sole member of the Malocochersus genus. It is a small tortoise, rarely exceeding 17 cm in length and is perfectly adapted to thriving in rocky outcrops. It occurs in highly fragmented habitats across much of Kenya and Tanzania and into northern Zambia. The species’ unusual appearance allows it to wedge its body into crevices, where it spends the hottest parts of the day avoiding predators and extreme heat. As temperatures cool in the evening and early morning, the tortoises will leave the safety of their crevice to graze on vegetation.
Groups of pancake tortoises will often share the same rock crevice. Several individuals can be found sheltering together until the juveniles reach an appropriate breeding age. The species exhibits high site fidelity and rarely strays
far from their home range, although rains will trigger breeding adults to move locally between crevices to find new homes.
Interestingly, this species usually only lays one egg at a time. However, they can produce eggs at four-toeight-week intervals throughout the course of a single breeding season. “In this range, the tortoises breed from around March to May” explains Dr Maringa, who has been surveying the species in northern Kenya for the past 5 years. “This is when people encounter them on the roads as they move from one breeding site to another. Once the eggs are laid, the female will cover and protect them for several months before they hatch at the very end of the rainy season. It can take a pancake tortoise up to 5 years to reach breeding age and with just one egg laid at a time, they are a very fragile species.”
Squashing the trade
Pancake tortoises are extremely appealing reptiles and are popular amongst hobbyists. Unfortunately, the exploitation of this species for the private pet trade decimated populations. In 2019, the species was uplisted to CITES Appendix 1 after 25 years of proposals, effectively banning all international trade of pancake tortoises irrespective of their origins. This unfortunately means that even captive-bred animals are now unable to be traded legally anywhere in the world. Whilst this seems to be having a positive impact in Kenya, the story may be different in neighbouring Tanzania, where smuggling for international markets is still rife.
“The main threat that faces pancake tortoises in East Africa is illegal trade” explains Dominic, Maringa at the Lewa Conservancy, Kenya. “This incorporates the capture, trade, and export of tortoises for people to keep them as pets. Local communities report that people arrive in their villages with a picture of the tortoises and ask them to show them where they are for a bit of money. With no awareness of the tortoise or its threats, they take them there believing there is no problem.”
Whilst some communities in East Africa are completely unaware of the tortoise’s presence or threats that face them, Dominic and his team at the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy have another challenge to face with other villages that perceive the tortoises as a bad omen. “In some societies in this area, the tortoises are killed illegally because they are associated with witchcraft,” he said. “This negative culture is difficult to change but represents one of the major threats to the species.”
Lewa Wildlife Conservancy has been focusing on protecting the pancake tortoise since 2019 with the support of Turtle Survival Alliance. They have monitored populations across northern Kenya for several years and have recorded 287 unique individuals of this species.
Dominic continued: “Our fieldwork is challenging as it is all on foot. We climb up and down rocky hills while trying to avoid angry elephants, rhinos, buffalos, or hyenas who don’t enjoy seeing us out of our vehicles. Venturing into the bushy, rocky, and sometimes dangerous terrains of these conservancies, we embarked on daily missions to locate and document the pancake tortoise. Crawling on our bellies to inspect rock crevices, differentiating the tortoises' faecal droppings from those of other inhabitants like lizards, mongooses and squirrels, and cautiously avoiding the occasional spitting cobra, our team employs an array of tools and techniques to safely retrieve and examine these creatures. Each tortoise found is meticulously documented— photographed, weighed, measured, microchipped (PIT tags), and even swabbed for DNA sequencing, ensuring individual tracking and contributing to a growing database of knowledge on this species.”
“Since doing our monitoring we have also found Neumann’s helmeted turtles (Pelomedusa neumanni), the additional efforts to record them has allowed us to monitor new individuals and get a better understanding of their population numbers. We also see leopard tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis) which are popular with our conservancies. The more prominent a species is, the more that staff at the conservancies or local communities will monitor for that species and the more we can learn about population trends.”
As with many species of reptiles and amphibians that are finely tuned to their ecological niche, climate change adds additional pressure to the pancake tortoise. Despite the species’ resilience in arid conditions, prolonged droughts in eastern Africa have seriously impacted the tortoises.
Dominic continued: “Northern Kenya, in particular, is a seasonal area. There are two seasons when the rain comes. There are the ‘short rains’ between October and December and the ‘long rains’ throughout March, April and May. Both seasons have seen declines in the volume of water and the length of rain. We associate it with climate change. There was a long drought between 2016 and 2018 and then there was El Niñ o that impacted rain in 2019 and 2020. We have also experienced prolonged droughts from 2021 to 2023.”
“These droughts are seriously affecting the habitat of the pancake tortoise. These animals come out during the evening to look for soft forage and do not traverse wide areas or move long distances. If there is no forage in their immediate surroundings to sustain them, they die. Often, you can find carcasses of animals that have perished from starvation or dehydration or have been predated upon because they are weak from exhaustion.”
Climate change is an immense challenge for any conservationist to face. Dominic and his team at Lewa Wildlife Conservancy are addressing this problem by working closely with farmers and pasture communities. “Once people accept to coexist with pancake tortoises, they can identify areas to leave for recovery which can provide safe refuge for the tortoises,” he said.
Unfortunately, the impact of climate change is also affecting people in Kenya. 2022 saw a drought so severe
it prompted a mass famine affecting over 18 million people in East Africa. In Kenya alone, 4 million people are suffering from extreme hunger as farmable land and crops are decimated by drought and wildfires. In regions where wildfires are destroying pastures, people are forced to farm whatever land they can, including the rocky outcrops where pancake tortoises live.
Batter days ahead
Kenya is a leading country for conservation and is one of Africa’s “most visited” countries largely due to its fantastic ecotourism initiatives. Ecotourism offers communities and conservancies the ability to generate income whilst also protecting habitat for wildlife. The Lewa Wildlife Conservancy has been doing this for many years, but Dominic believes there’s even more that conservancies can do, with particular focus on the pancake tortoise.
“Out of awareness to conserve other species, herpetofauna is benefiting,” he said. “Northern Kenya is well known for its conservation efforts and communities are creating community land conservation areas with private conservancies and government parks to benefit the populations of pancake tortoises through holistic benefits. A rhino sanctuary in northern Kenya, for example, will help protect lots of herpetofauna.”
“Rhino population numbers are on the increase thanks to heightened awareness and additional protection. We think the same should be applied to pancake tortoises. If we can also improve ecotourism and allow people to see and photograph wild tortoises, it will generate economic benefits for people in local communities to protect the species.”
Collaborative efforts have accelerated the conservation
Dominic Maringa holds a Pancake Tortoise (Malacochersus tornieri)
“The data we have collected so far has excited the national agencies to formulate a recovery strategy on a national level. In April, Lewa hosted and protection of the pancake tortoise in Kenya. Over 45 stakeholders from local communities to large-scale organisations are now dedicated to the recovery of the pancake tortoise.
Dr. Maringa concluded: “In 2019 we joined hands with Turtle Survival Alliance to get momentum to focus on pancake tortoises. Since then, we have joined the National Museum of Kenya and received financial support
Turtle Survival Alliance
from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . This support has allowed us to move forward and expand with the project. We are now talking about 12 conservancies that are working with the species and are now working on a national species recovery strategy.”
the first meeting of its kind to protect the pancake tortoise. Next, before the end of the year, we will go to southern Kenya for a 2-day forum and later we will have a National Forum in Nairobi. We are very proud to be in the driving seat for this.”
For more information on Turtle Survival Alliance visit www.turtlesurvival.org and to keep up with the efforts of Lewa Conservancy visit www.lewa.org.
Turtle Survival Alliance partners with conservation entities in Kenya — the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy, the National Museums of Kenya, and the Kenyan Wildlife Service, to explore previously unsurveyed but promising areas of Kenya for undocumented populations of Pancake Tortoises. In the fall of 2023, we expanded our surveys to now include seven community conservancies, bringing the total to twelve by end of July 2024, and are now embarking on developing a national long-term survival plan focused on community protection measures that will include population monitoring, recovery strategies, potential augmentation, and learning more about the ecology of this species.
Many species face threats of illegal pet trade worldwide. We support programs around the world to address these issues, including our American Turtle Program through AZA SAFE, our rescue, rehabilitation, and release of confiscated Radiated Tortoises in Madagascar, and our assurance colonies of critically endangered species at our Turtle Survival Center, several of whose populations are presumed extinct in the wild due to illegal trade.
You can support Turtle Survival Alliance today by making a contribution to our conservation efforts at turtlesurvival.org/donate.
Team Pancake, comprised of members of Kenyan National Parks, Lewa Wildlife Conservancy, National Museums of Kenya, and Turtle Survival Alliance, on location in Kenya.
The Apalachicola kingsnake is now considered a subspecies of L. getula (the “common” or “Eastern” kingsnake). It is found in a small area of the Florida Panhandle, a lowland inlet of the Gulf of Mexico stretching from the Apalachicola River to the Telogia Creek. The subspecies is best recognized for its orange colouration which can be very pronounced in some individuals. Breeders typically focus their efforts on “high orange” specimens and therefore, the captive population of the Apalachicola kingsnakes are usually bright orange and black banded. However, some animals will have individual scales outlined with black colouration while the base colour is a pale orange.
Like many kingsnakes, the Apalachicola kingsnake is an adaptable species that occupies a wide range of habitats from farmland to desert and woodlands to riparian forests. During the hottest times of the year, these animals will transition from
predominantly diurnal to crepuscular and nocturnal.
This species should be kept much like the other L. getulaspecies. A wooden vivarium as large as possible, but no smaller than 4 x 2 x 2 feet should be used to house a single adult. A Zone 2 UVB-emitting T5 bulb should be installed alongside an LED strip to increase visible light. A halogen bulb should be used to create a 32℃basking spot. There should also be a harsher gradient into a “cool end” (20℃ is great).
Décor can be reasonably varied, but the layout should be busy with plenty of hiding and climbing opportunities. Cork bark, wooden branches, slate tiles, rocks, etc on a thick bed of natural substrate is a great start. Research suggests that these snakes spend a considerable amount of time beneath the leaflitter, so it should also be utilised in a captive setting.
NutriRep™ is a complete calcium, vitamin & mineral balancing supplement with D3. It can be dusted onto all food sources including insects, meats & vegetables. No other supplement is required.
The captive care of bumblebee poison frogs.
The bumblebee poison frog (Dendrobates leucomelas) is the second most popular species of poison frog in captivity and is thought to be the first species imported into the US (and possibly Europe too). Its striking black and yellow colouration, paired with a bold personality and relative hardiness makes it an excellent beginner species. However, their pleasant call and a dizzying array of locality variants make them a firm favourite with experienced keepers alike.
What’s the buzz?
The name Dendrobates leucomelas is an interesting scientific name. This is because leuco typically means “white” and melas means “black”. This is because the first person to describe the species was using specimens preserved in a colour-bleaching formula. Therefore, they were looking at black and white frogs and thus, named them this way. In reality, the “bumblebee”, “yellow and black” or “yellow-banded” poison frog is a striking yellow
and black frog. Some localities are banded whilst others have spots and there are endless forms between. Often, juvenile frogs will metamorph with heavier banding and develop their spots as they grow. Almost all locality forms are yellow and black (unlike some other poison frog species with colour indicators in their common name), but some can be slightly orangish and others have a pale green hue.
Francois Hurtaud/Shutterstock.com
The bumblebee poison frog is found throughout southern Venezuela, but its range extends into parts of Guyana, Brazil and Colombia. Interestingly, they are the only species of poison frog known to estivate in the wild, meaning they will become dormant during dry periods. This is an adaptation to survive the slightly drier conditions of their lowland forest habitats that can verge on grassland and scrub. It is also the reason that these frogs are so successful in captivity and early hobbyists could keep
and breed them in the 1990s as the flagship “poison dart frog” species. It is also worth noting that whilst many businesses list the species as a “bumblebee poison dart frog”, there is no evidence that the species has ever been used to poison darts. The traditional common name “dart frog” is cherished by many and whilst fewer people are using the term today, “dart frogs” generally refers to the whole Dendrobatidae family which D. leucomelas falls comfortably into.
slowmotiongli/Shutterstock.com
The bumblebee poison frog is a “medium-sized” poison frog. Whilst the larger members of the Phyllobates and Dendrobates genera are much larger than the bumblebee poison frog, the smaller members of the Oophagaand Ranitomeya genera are much, much smaller. Like all poison frogs, they are diurnal and use aposematic colouration to warn predators of their toxicity which allows them to be completely conspicuous throughout the day. Wild bumblebee poison frogs are typically less toxic than most Dendrobates, Oophaga and Phyllobates species. Although, each locality will have a slightly different toxin composition and there appears to be a direct correlation between vibrancy and toxicity.
Bumblebee poison frogs are subtly sexually dimorphic and follow the same pattern as most commonly-kept poison frogs; females are larger-bodied and males have larger toe pads. These differences become more apparent with age and an adult frog is reasonably easy to sex within a group of other frogs but can be troublesome when housed in single-sex groups, especially for the new keeper.
Beekeeping
The bumblebee poison frog offers the perfect introduction to amphibian keeping generally. The basic principles of maintaining high humidity, good quality water, smallsized prey and robust breeding cycles apply. However, the bumblebee poison frog is more forgiving than most species. They live more amicably in groups than the popular dying poison frog (Dendrobates tinctorius) and their smaller size makes them perfect to be kept in trios in an average-sized terrarium. To get the most enjoyment out of their active behaviours, a 60x45x60cm terrarium is ideal, although many collectors will house them in something slightly smaller.
Sadly, there is still much debate over the necessity of UVB for keeping frogs. It is possible to raise a breeding colony that does not appear to have immediate health defects, without UVB lighting. However, they are diurnal frogs that are stimulated by sunlight to hunt for prey. Furthermore, D. leucomelas lives in comparatively sparser environments than other poison frogs, perhaps increasing the value of
UVB lighting to this species. At Exotics Keeper Magazine we recommend giving UVB lighting to almost any living vertebrate where possible. A simple Zone 2 Eco T5 placed above the mesh of a glass terrarium will mimic the sunlight that bumblebee poison frogs experience in the wild. Couple this with a vibrant LED grow light (which is necessary for plant growth) and the lighting rig is complete.
Like many beginner poison frogs, “leucs” prefer temperatures of 21 - 25℃ with danger zones lower than 16℃ and higher than 29℃. For most people, this is “room temperature”. However, it’s worth having some tricks to lower temperatures (such as placing an ice pack in front of the ventilation and running a fan into it or spraying cool water) or keeping a heat mat handy for the coldest days. Most homes will typically drop to the lower end of the spectrum at night and 18 - 20℃ will not cause any problems. Humidity should always exceed 70%
with frequent daily spikes up to 95% and this is easier to achieve when the temperature in the terrarium is slightly warmer. If a prospective keeper has a cold home, installing a heat mat on one outer side of the terrarium can help heat the reservoir of water, creating a more humid environment for the frogs.
Water should always be dechlorinated and where possible, reverse osmosis water should be used. This is the purification process of evaporating water to remove toxins and then collecting the water again. Some hobbyists will even collect rainwater to avoid contaminants. R/O water can be bought over the counter. Most small-scale hobbyists will simply treat tap water with a few drops of dechlorinater and let it sit for 24 hours. After this time, the water is perfectly suitable to use. This is one of the fundamentals of amphibian care that is less essential to reptile keepers; planning ahead.
As bright as can “bee”
Unlike adult crickets and locusts that can be ordered online or bought over the counter, the most efficient way of feeding poison frogs is with a culture of fruit flies. A “culture” is essentially a breeding colony of flies and therefore, the keeper must wait up to two weeks before their flies are available to feed. This means that food availability must be planned and managed with some degree of commitment. A “culture” requires nothing but an environmentally stable spot on a shelf, but once it “crashes” (which is when the culture dries out and stops producing larvae) it is all but useless. Some shops will sell pots of adult flies, bean weevils and micro crickets over the counter but the frog keeper should be committed to maintaining a steady supply of flies also. You can learn how to do this in this month's "Keeper Basics" section.
Microcrickets are the most nutritious food source for poison frogs. In fact, keepers swear by micro crickets as an essential food item for breeding Mantella. If a keeper can maintain a steady supply of micro crickets, they are preferable to flies but this is a challenge for most pet keepers. Crickets are also more adept at hiding and escaping (particularly young) frogs.
Bean weevils are chitinous and not the ideal food source, but can be used to add some variety to the frogs’ diet. Equally, the larvae of fruit flies are high in fat and moisture, but can also play a component in the frogs’ diet.
Décor and plants
A bioactive enclosure should be considered standard if not essential for the long-term husbandry of poison frogs. A drainage layer is necessary to catch all the water that runs into the substrate and live plants are essential for maintaining humidity and providing refuge and climbing opportunities. Springtails also make an excellent food source, so by the time the keeper adds the first batch of springtails, chances are, the setup will be bioactive (and all the better for it). To spur this along, a healthy 2 inches of leaf litter and some isopods should be added.
Dendrobates sp. do not rely on bromeliad axels like thumbnail poison frogs (Oophaga, Ranitomeya, Ameerega) etc. Even many thumbnail species do not need a bromeliad to thrive or even to lay. Yet, they remain useful in the terrarium for holding water and creating humid microclimates. Therefore, installing one or two large bromeliads at the top of the tank is a good idea. Creeping plants such as Pothos should help create a three-dimensional environment, while ground cover and mosses will give a more natural look. The keeper mustn't prioritise a nice-looking tank over the use of leaf litter and decomposing wood. Leaf litter should be thick and almost separate the frog from the substrate entirely. A rather ridiculous amount of leaf litter should be added to the terrarium to begin with and over time, this will decompose and flatten into something far more natural-looking.
Because D. leucomelas has been imported into captivity for such a long time (and before the current demand for locality information increased) the different morphs are generally grouped into wider categories.
The “standard” leuc is around 3 – 5cm long (the former for males, the latter for females) and possibly came from Guyana in the early 00s. “Standards” have a mix of banding and spots. The bands are generally quite broad and spots are large splodges that sit between the bands. A whole plethora of locality forms are grouped under “standard” and being such variable frogs, this category is the default for most specimens. Over time, as people understand more about the wild locality forms “standard” will become a rarer morph.
“Banded” is quite simple. They have bold bands and no spots. Banded specimens come from southern British Guyana. On the other end of the spectrum, the “fine spot” locality is found in Venezuela and is sometimes referred to as “Bolivar”, the currency of Venezuela. These animals have lots of small spots and occasionally some thin bands across their dorsum. There are several lines of “fine spot” being produced in the US and Europe, making them reasonably available.
“Standard”, “banded, “fine spot” and a newly-emerging
“chocolate” morph (where the black colouration is replaced with a bronze look) are all reasonably wellestablished in captivity. However, some rarer localityspecific forms are occasionally imported into the US and sometimes bred too.
“Rio Negro” is a high-yellow form that hails from the border territories of Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia. The Rio Negro runs directly through the borders of these three countries. It is perhaps unsurprising why these frogs fetch such a high price in the trade as collection of wild specimens may be difficult. They are smaller than the nominate/standard form and only have very small black bands and tiny spots making them +90% yellow.
“Blue foot” is named after its blue toe pads. These frogs are found in the Cerro Autana mountain in Venezuela. They are mostly black with some yellow remnants of banding with blue toes.
“Camo” is a colour form that is beginning to appear in the trade. Its heritage is thought to lie in Venezuela but there is a question mark over this. Like the “camo” forms of D. auratus, these frogs have more spots including some brown patterning. They are not as striking as other colour forms but offer some unusual intrigue to the frog hobbyist.
A PERFECT PICTA
Caring for the Madagascar ground gecko.
Paroedura is a unique genus of geckos from Madagascar. It comprises a wide range of arboreal and terrestrial lizards found throughout the African island. Despite the dizzying diversity of the 20-plus species of Paroedura, each one has a strong resemblance to various other gecko genera. Like many species in Madagascar, convergent evolution has resulted in them sharing many traits with other geckos from across the world. Some bear a likeness to the bent-toed geckos ( Cyrtodactylus sp. ) of South East Asia, others have similarities with eublepharid geckos of Africa and the Middle East. Of these species, two are small, terrestrial, nocturnal lizards with large eyes and relatively chunky tails. The most popular, the Madagascar ground gecko ( P. picta ) is also very timid and ticks many boxes for the perfect pet lizard.
What’s in a name?
Paroedura picta (formerly P. pictus) has many common names. These include; the ocelot gecko, the Malagasy fattailed gecko, the Malagasy fat-headed gecko, the panther gecko, the pictus gecko and, for the remainder of this article, the Madagascar ground gecko. All the above names make sense in some form or another. The species has spotted patterns in shades of brown and beige, much like a panther or an ocelot (which also gets its name
from the word ‘ocellated’ which means ‘having eye-like markings’). Pictus was once the animals’ species name, while “fat-tailed” and “fat-headed” are morphological factors. Finally, ground gecko is a good indicator of this species’ terrestrial habits. Terrestrial gecko diversity is reasonably limited in Madagascar, so this species is a great candidate for that name as it traverses the dense leaf litter in forested areas of Madagascar’s arid west and southern regions.
Habitat and environment
The Paroedura picta group is far more terrestrial than other Paroedura species. This group contains a handful of species that share similar traits to the Madagascar ground gecko and typically inhabit the forest floor, rarely climbing higher than necessary. Almost all other Paroeduraspecies usually live in logs and tree hollows close to the ground, but will actively climb the trunk to hunt for prey. The Madagascar ground gecko is the most strictly terrestrial of all Paroedura species, including the closely related Paroedura maingoka
In the wild, the Madagascar ground gecko can be found in thick leaf litter or on sandy substrates in dry, scrub and thorn forests. Here, it rests during the day in crevices and between leaves and is surprisingly nimble to contort
its body and wedge itself within fallen leaves and bark. At night, it climbs to the top of the leaf litter to search for insects to feed on. The species is considered “Least Concern” by the IUCN and in some habitats, specimens are abundant under the right conditions. Warm, humid evenings can prompt increased activity as insects become more active, but the Madagascar ground gecko is also incredibly well adapted to a harsh and dry environment.
Although some ground geckos are reasonably timid, many keepers report a unique curiosity from this species. Naturally, their wild hunting behaviours drive them to take environmental cues to spark activity. Therefore, in captivity, a light misting, or some commotion in the room will prompt the geckos to investigate. This breathes a lot of personality into these small lizards.
A Perfect Picta
Care and keeping
Luckily, replicating a wild environment is very achievable in captivity. A natural substrate with stacks of cork bark and coated in several layers of leaf litter will provide the perfect habitat. Whilst this is excellent for the animal, it can be problematic for an eager keeper hoping to observe their new pet. Therefore, the keeper should be patient and allow time for their animals to settle in and become naturally inquisitive.
The Madgascar ground gecko can also be found in sandy and rocky areas near leaf litter. Using a natural substrate like ProRep Desert Life and stacking leaf litter on top, leaving some areas exposed for cryptic basking, is a great basis for a suitable setup.
The Madagascar ground gecko rarely exceeds 10cm in length (males are typically larger than females) and does not require much height to climb. A 45x45x45 terrarium is ideal for two adult females. Whilst a larger terrarium would certainly make a better display enclosure and establish stronger gradients, keepers must be prepared to house males and females separately,
at least through parts of the year to prevent overbreeding. Therefore, having two 45³ enclosures is a better use of space and resources than one very large vivarium.
Wooden and PVC vivariums can also be used, but as this species does not require particularly hot temperatures, the additional ventilation awarded by a ProRep Glass Terrarium makes it the better choice. Some breeders also report success with Really Useful Boxes and large acrylic tubs.
Environmental conditions
Although Madagascar ground geckos inhabit arid regions, Madagascar, broadly, is not that hot. Toliara “The City of Sun” is known for being the hottest and driest town in the country and sits in the centre of the Madagascar ground gecko’s range. Here, temperatures rarely exceed 31℃ (considered a hot day). The warmest months (December/ January) are generally 25 - 30℃ and the coolest (July) is 18 - 25℃. Ground geckos typically prefer the cooler end of the spectrum and actively avoid the heat by manoeuvring themselves deeper
into the leaf litter in summer. Therefore, captive conditions of 21 - 24℃are most appropriate. A terrarium kept in a warm home with a good quality Reptile Systems Eco T5 Bulb should meet this ambient temperature easily and the keeper may wish to place the enclosure in the coolest room in the house to avoid overheating. In a large enough terrarium a spot bulb can be used to increase a basking spot area up to 28℃, providing a sharp enough gradient to bring the ambient temperature down to 20℃ in the cool end.
Being a species that spends its entire life in the leaf litter where humidity is trapped, it is important to consider humidity in the enclosure. Sympatric species that live above the leaf litter like Dumeril’s boas (Acrantophis dumerili) or Madagascar swifts (Oplurus sp.) will happily tolerate dry spells. However, the ground gecko requires humidity of +60% to thrive. This can drop and spike throughout the day, but a hygrometer should be used so the keeper can maintain a stable humidity level. The introduction of live plants and lots of leaf litter will help this.
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Diet
The Madagascar ground gecko will eat just about any insect it can fit in its mouth. It’s specialized skull, which is comparatively huge, allows P. picta to eat surprisingly large insects. In the wild, they have been documented tussling with large venomous centipedes and in captivity will strike at most feeder insects. This makes it easy for the new keeper to provide a healthy diet, as they can rotate feeder insects every few weeks. A staple of gut-loaded crickets and locusts, supplemented with calci worms, snails, small dubia roaches, mealworms and waxworms is excellent. Smaller geckos can be fed on small crickets, bean weevils and firebrats too. As a predominantly nocturnal gecko, a multivitamin and calcium supplement with D3 should be used to dust all feeder insects. This will ensure the gecko is receiving the appropriate vitamins and minerals with each feed. Calcium is considered more important to this gecko than most other species, as the breeding process is an unusually delicate procedure.
Breeding ground geckos
Madagascar ground geckos are prolific breeders and reasonably straightforward to breed. If the keeper can maintain a colony of one male and two females comfortably, it is likely they will end up with eggs reasonably quickly and with little effort. They will breed all year round and even without seasonal fluctuations. A single female can lay several times a year so if the keeper does wish to keep a small colony of this species, they should be prepared to find permanent homes for the hatchlings. Interestingly, this
species has seen a decline in availability within the trade since the 00s. Demand possibly outweighs supply at least in the UK and US and maybe also Europe. This is good news for the new breeder, but efforts must be made to build networks with enough businesses and hobbyists to ensure the project is sustainable.
Madagascar ground geckos produce two small, round, hard-shelled (and very brittle) eggs per clutch. They will also produce a new clutch every other week during the rainy season and can continue this less frequently throughout the rest of the year. It is extremely unique for any reptile (let alone a gecko) to produce hard-shelled eggs and therefore, the keeper must delicately remove them for incubation. Breeders should also expect that trauma to the egg, inflicted by the gecko itself, is likely to occur. Tiny breaks in the membrane will be exacerbated during incubation and even the most professional breeders receive a relatively poor success rate when breeding these geckos (even though this is countered by the sheer number of eggs laid).
Madagascar ground geckos can also experience fatigue from overbreeding. The keeper should isolate the male from the females for at least 3 months of the year to reduce the strain placed on females whilst developing eggs. It is also extra important to provide plenty of calcium during the egg development stages.
Hatchling ground geckos are brighter and more contrasted than adults. They are highly variable and can
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look rather striking. Over time, they will generally become duller and colours will fade, but patterns and stripes will remain, creating a wide range of different-looking animals. In captivity, there is a wide range of morphs available too, including “hypo”, “orange”, “anery” and “amel”. However, these morphs are not as well established and thoroughly tested as those of more popular species, so much of the morph breeding is based on loose identification and anecdotes. Some hobbyists are also working with linebred “red”, “caramel” and “snow” morphs. Alongside these are the naturally occurring “striped” and “banded” variations, which can be combined with different morphs and lines to form a spectrum of different animals.
An excellent pet?
The Madagascar ground gecko is a reasonably hardy, small-bodied, docile gecko. It has the temperament of a leopard gecko, the patterns of a viper gecko, the size of a termite gecko and the personality of a fat-tail gecko. All of these traits make Madagascar ground geckos exceptional pets for the keeper who is patient and gentle. Being so small, they are fragile and they do require slightly increased humidity and calcium provisions than other geckos (making them arguably more demanding). However, these are very small tweaks to make, for the novice keeper wishing to expand their collection with something a little more unique.
Tropical fishkeeping has been a popular hobby for centuries. Some of today's most popular fish have been kept by Western hobbyists for almost 100 years. Over that time, our understanding of fish diets and tank compatibility has developed and meant that establishing a healthy and harmonious tank has never been easier. Whilst understanding water conditions might be the backbone to successful fishkeeping, knowing the feeding habits and natural behaviours of the most popular fish in the hobby can help exotics keepers kickstart their aquatics hobby successfully.
Zebra angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare)
South America - Surface feeder
Freshwater angelfish belong to the Cichlidae family. Their iconic shape and majestic movements have enthralled aquarists for decades. Pterophylum scalare is the most popular species by a long way, but of this species, there are many different varieties. The silver angelfish, zebra angelfish and koi angelfish are arguably the most popular in captivity. They each look unique yet they belong to the same species, P. scalare. Therefore, keepers have a lot of choices when it comes to stocking their tanks with this diverse and reasonably easy-to-care-for species.
Angelfish are very hardy. Provided they’re given enough space (some can grow up to 12cm) and are introduced in
a small group to help them feel secure, they should live happily in most tropical aquariums. They can be a little gregarious and therefore are best housed with much more docile species, such as plecos, mollies and guppies.
As surface feeders, angelfish are best fed floating foods and are perfectly suited to a flake diet. They are omnivorous and will eat a mix of plant matter and invertebrates. This diet will shift over time, particularly as the Amazon basin floods and allows them access to more surface-dwelling insects. Therefore, an omnivorous flake such as the FishScience Tropical Fish Flake Food is perfect for all members of the Pterophylum genus. This should be supplemented with aquatic live foods, or even terrestrial live foods, such as springtails and micro crickets to add enrichment throughout the summer periods.
A pair of Red wagtail swordtail fish (Xiphophorus helleri) Pavaphon Supanantananont/Shutterstock.com
Platies
(Xiphophorus sp.) & Mollies (Poecilia sp.)
South America - Mixed-level feeder
Both platies and mollies have been kept in the aquaculture hobby for over 100 years. Originally from Mexico and Central America, these tiny vibrant fish are now available in dozens of varieties. They are both very similar and often difficult to distinguish. Generally, mollies are larger than platies and tend to exhibit a wider range of colours. Part of their popularity for such a long time is that they are excellent community fish and will get on well with just about any tank mate. They are also avid breeders, so keepers may notice some aggression between males or some harassment if the sex ratio is incorrect. Aside from this, they will cohabit peacefully with most smaller, active fish including mollies, danios, plecos and tetra. As they are very active, it’s a good idea
to avoid putting them with slow-moving fish that might be intimidated by their quick movements.
Platies are livebearers, which makes breeding them a very interesting project. Although they are omnivores, they do exhibit a preference for vegetation. A specialised vegetable flake is perfect for this species which will happily feed at the surface and tear the flakes apart in an interesting display. Not only are vegetable-heavy diets better suited to these fish, but they also provide a base for keepers to trigger spawning. Simply switch diets to a protein-heavy mix of live food and insect-meal flakes to prompt breeding behaviours. Females can birth up to 80 young after a gestation period of 24-30 days. This should be done in a separate, controlled environment to stop the parents from predating the fry. A sponge should also be applied to the filter of the breeding tank to stop fry from being sucked into it. The fry will also need to be fed a suitably-sized, protein-rich diet to ensure healthy development.
Tetra (Characidae)
South America - Mid-water feeder
There are over 150 different species of tetra fish. These can be found across Latin America and Africa and exhibit huge variations in colour and shape. However, they are generally small, freshwater characiform fishes. Many of them are easy to care for, with docile temperaments and can form impressivelooking shoals. Keepers should research the species in-depth, as some tetras are far more fragile than others.
The most iconic species and long-time aquatic shop staples are the neon tetras. Due to their size, they do not require a particularly large aquarium and will happily live in a paludarium set-up, providing the water is properly maintained with good filtration. Groups should consist of at least eight individuals (though more are recommended for larger setups). They are amongst the most inexpensive of all fish and will readily breed in the most basic of tropical aquariums.
Because of their tiny size, tetra require very small foods. In the wild, they are opportunistic feeders and will consume any tiny invertebrate, larvae, egg or fry that they can fit in their mouths. Therefore, a bitesize insect-based pellet is ideal for them. FishScience Micro Granules are developed to sink slowly into the water, which allows the tetra to feed easily without competition from other fish. This food is also ideal for other smaller characins, danios, guppies and dollars.
“Pleco’s” are beautifully patterned, bottom-feeding catfish from South America. They occupy a unique niche in the aquarium and although they are slightly more specialist than most hobbyists assume, they can make an excellent addition to a large tropical tank. Some species can grow up to two feet in length, so hobbyists must understand exactly what species they wish to acquire. There are over 150 varieties of ‘pleco’ but the ‘normal’ form is a species from the Guiana Shield that can grow reasonably large (up to 50cm long in some cases).
Plecos are herbivorous fish that can often be seen feeding on algae build-up across the tank. However, this should not be encouraged as excessive algae can make some species ill. In the wild, they feed on ‘roughage’. This is a mix of driftwood, rotting vegetation and various algae. Although the common bristlenose catfish will feed primarily on algae, this should be supported by commercial fish food. Sourcing a wafer with natural ingredients such as oak or algae is best and allows the fish to feed on them as they slowly dissolve.
Plecostomus (Hypostomus plecostomus) South America - Bottom-feeder
Siamese fighting fish are arguably the most beautiful tropical fish that a person can keep. Belonging to the genus Betta, they are part of a group of over 70 different species which are often considered synonymous with the term ‘fighting fish’. Most Betta’s are vibrantly coloured with ornamental fins and move majestically through the water. Although they have been kept for over 150 years and are often presented as a ‘beginner’ fish, Betta vary in their hardiness and behaviour.
Betta splendens is a territorial fish – hence the common name. They are a common fish in Southeast Asia and can be found in shallow water, including rice paddies. Hundreds of years ago, Thai (formerly Siamese) children noticed that male Bettas would fiercely defend their territories. They placed fish together and watched them fight and unknowingly created an entire betting enterprise that lasted over a century. Since then, aquarists have learnt more about the genus and co-habiting Betta with other, more suitable species has become a common practice. By avoiding fast-moving fish such as tiger barbs, or large, colourful fish like clown loach or other gouramis, keepers can include Betta splendens as part of a harmonious tank.
Keepers should opt for a Betta-specific food, to ensure that the animals are fed with precision and the colourenhancing ingredients are of top quality.
Tiger barbs are amongst the liveliest of the commonly kept freshwater fishes. Hailing from Southeast Asia, their common name is a clear description of their physical appearance. They are striped, with vibrant orange fins and exhibit sexual dimorphism. Females are slightly larger than males with a broader shape and a more rotund belly. Males will also develop red/orange noses in the run-up to spawning.
In the wild, tiger barbs will inhabit rivers and swamps that are lined with trees. The decaying plant matter in these areas tends to make the water slightly acidic (pH 6.5), although tiger barbs are generally very hardy fish and can tolerate a range of water conditions. They are avid swimmers and can be very territorial, so they should be kept in a good-sized aquarium of at least 90 litres. A slightly larger tank should combat any overly aggressive behaviour.
Tiger barbs, like many popular fish, have forward-facing lips meaning they are a mid-water feeder. Therefore, they are best suited to sinking, granular foods. They also share a similar diet to most other tropical fish, in that they feed primarily on invertebrates and insect larvae. They can be fed a range of pellets, but the FishScience Tropical Fish Worm Pellets are comprised of bloodworms, earthworms, mealworms and silkworms. This added protein and insectheavy diet is a great choice as a primary or supplementary feed for these active little fish.
Tiger barb (Puntigrus tetrazona) Southeast Asia - Mid-water feeder
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Red-tailed shark (Epalzeorhynchos bicolor)
Southeast Asia - Mid-water feeder
Every aquarist, young and old are going to be impressed by a pet shark. Although red-tailed sharks are unlikely to ever appear in a reboot of Jaws, they are boisterous, territorial and adorn that classic torpedo shape associated with the giant ocean predators. Red-tailed sharks are, however, tiny species of carp. They are found in Thailand and providing they are given plenty of room and housed with appropriate species, can be successfully introduced into a large freshwater tank.
Interestingly, the red-tailed shark is considered critically endangered and was thought to be extinct in the wild until 2011. Now, only one lake and its connecting rivers in Central Thailand hold the world’s wild population. Even dedicated aquarists believe that the trade in exotic fishes may have spurred this decline. Luckily, these fish are now captive bred in huge numbers and despite the wild waterways under ecological threat, the number of captive red-tailed sharks is very strong.
Red-tailed sharks will bully tank mates if the aquarium is too small. Some hobbyists suggest that pairing these with other boisterous fish such as barbs, will stop any incessant bullying, although some conflict may still occur. It is also important not to house red-tailed sharks with other freshwater ‘sharks’ such as the rainbow shark. This is sure to spark aggression in both individuals and could have disastrous results.
Despite seemingly predatory behaviour, red-tailed sharks are omnivores and thrive on a range of foods including invertebrates, algae and plant matter. They require a granular food that is designed to sink to the mid-water level easily. This is especially important for active, territorial fish such as the red-tailed shark.
Kuhli loach (Pangio kuhlii)
Southeast Asia - Bottom feeder
The odd-shaped, Kuhli loach is a small species of Cobitid often mistaken for a colourful eel. They are equally as odd in their behaviour, as they are sociable bottom-feeders that will even burrow into the substrate. Despite being a unique and visually attractive species, kuhli loach are readily available and inexpensive. They have docile temperaments and will assimilate peacefully into a communal tank.
Under the right conditions, Kuhli loach can live up to ten years in captivity. Unfortunately, they are not nearly as hardy as other tropical fish on this list. Their soft skin makes them very susceptible to disease and water parameter changes. Yet, If the keeper can maintain clean water between 23°C and 26°C, with a pH of 5.5 – 6.5 the rest of their care is reasonably straightforward. They are omnivores and will readily accept a whole range of foods, but feed primarily on the riverbed, sifting through rocks for algae. The best way to mimic this is with an appropriately-sized wafer food.
Cichlids
Rift Valley, Africa - Mid-water feeder
Cichlids are an enormous group of fishes that span most of the world’s tropical climates. Many popular fish species are actually types of cichlid, but the archetypal species synonymous with the name, are the Rift Valley Cichlids. These are the fish that are found in the immense lakes of Tanganyika, Malawi, Kivu, Edward and several other bodies of water. There are hundreds of species that inhabit these freshwater lakes and could easily be mistaken for marine fish. Part of their appeal is their bright colouration and therefore, a good quality food is important in keeping them healthy.
As such a diverse group of fish, it is important that keepers research which food suits their fish’s diet best. A food with lots of carotenoid-rich algae will help accentuate the fish’s colour and as some species of Rift Valley Cichlid can grow extremely large, an appropriately-sized pellet or flake is needed. Some of these fishes will also take very large insects from the surface of the water, so providing some additional locust or crickets can lead to some exciting feeding frenzies.
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Fruit flies are an excellent staple for poison frogs and other smaller amphibians. They are also a good food source for juvenile geckos, spiderlings and mantids. Whilst they are widely available over the counter, fruit flies are perhaps the only feeder insect that cannot be bought and fed immediately. Although adult flies are available to purchase at most shops, their short shelf life and small quantity (when fed to ravenous frogs) make them not very economically viable. Therefore, the new keeper must learn to cultivate and maintain fruit fly cultures. Something as simple as a drop in temperature or a poorly producing culture can very easily leave the keeper without food for their pets for up to two weeks. The following feature will prevent that from happening.
Species
Two different species of fruit fly are commonly available in the pet trade. Drysophilia hydei, which is the standard “flightless fruit fly” and Drysophilia melanogaster which is sometimes referred to as the “golden” fruit fly. The former is larger (around 2mm in length) and the latter is smaller, with a golden appearance and red eyes. Interestingly, D. hydei has the longest sperm of anything on Earth. It
measures 22mm in length and is over 10 times larger than an adult male fruit fly. It is a phenomenon in the animal kingdom caused by the species’ rapid breeding cycle. The sperm must be large enough to fertilise an egg without competition from other spermatozoa.
Flightless fruit flies have a genetic trait that means they cannot unfurl their wings and thus, are completely
Culturing Fruit Flies
flightless. This makes them perfect for use in the terrarium, particularly when feeding terrestrial amphibians. However, if a normal fruit fly can breed with a flightless fruit fly, the offspring will be able to fly. Therefore, it is important to keep cultures away from areas in the home that may have
populations of fruit flies. If, for whatever reason, the fruit flies escape it is possible to draw them all into one location with their greatest weakness, fruit. A few slices of overripe banana in a room or a terrarium should draw most of the free-roaming fruit flies to it.
A plastic jar full of Drosophila hydei flies Furiarossa/Shutterstock.com
The lifecycle of a fruit fly culture
Once a culture is bought, it generally has a few flies in it as well as some wood straw and some laying medium. Within a week, the flies should begin laying eggs and producing larvae. Looking very closely at the formula, it’s possible to see tiny white grubs wriggling around (these are the larvae). A few days later, the larvae will be moving up the sides of the pot and onto the wood straw to form a chrysalis. As these visibly darken, the flies develop. They will emerge roughly 2 weeks after the initial culture is made. The culture will then continue to produce a steady supply of live fruit flies for a further 2 weeks, often longer if kept in the right conditions. The life span of an adult fruit fly is well over one month, so depending on how frequently the keeper feeds their animals, it is possible to keep using a single culture for 6 weeks or longer.
D. hydei will take longer to reproduce than D. melanogaster. Generally, D. hydei will take between 3 – 4 weeks to complete a full life cycle, whereas D. melanogaster will take 3 weeks. Interestingly, some of the larger species of poison frogs are adapted to taking smaller-sized prey so D. melanogaster may be more appropriate for certain species, regardless of the benefits of the quicker development cycle. On the other hand, D. hydei are larger and thus, fewer flies will need to be used per feed. Both species typically produce flies for a similar amount of time.
The process can be sped up or slowed down by increasing or decreasing the temperature respectively. Usually, a
room temperature of 22 - 24℃ will see results as listed above. Increasing to 26℃will fast-track the production of flies by a few days, but it may also dry out the laying medium faster which can destroy the culture. Cooling the temperature to 18℃ will slow the process down but if the temperature drops drastically lower, it can also kill the eggs and crash the culture. It is unlikely that normal room temperatures (even on the coolest days of winter or the warmest days of summer) will ruin a fruit fly culture. However, choosing to keep the flies in a particularly cool or warm place in the home can leave them vulnerable to environmental changes.
Culturing your own
Whilst it is important to support local businesses in buying live foods, fruit flies can be so temperamental and require such planning that having a consistently producing population of fruit flies within the home is a good idea. Considering fruit flies as the supplementary “backup” and the far more nutritious micro crickets as a “staple” is probably best for both keeper, kept and business.
Unfortunately, there are not many commercially available laying mediums available in the UK. This is probably because most people will have their preference for creating it at home. This usually involves mixing water with sugar and dried mashed potato, then adding yeast and vinegar. Some people will add other ingredients to combat mites, odour and mould development and this information is widely available online. Of course, cultures
Eggs of common fruit fly or vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster Tomasz Klejdysz/Shutterstock.com
Culturing Fruit Flies
that have been commercially sourced will already have a perfect blend of laying medium and as they produce flies for over a month at a time, many keepers will never need to culture their own flies.
Cleaning out old pots, re-filling with a few inches of homemade medium, adding some wood straw and introducing 5 – 10 adult flies is all it takes to get another culture set up and ready to go. However, this messy job is perhaps reserved for keepers with large collections of frogs or those housing their animals in an outbuilding. With proper maintenance, the average pet keeper will only need to buy 8 – 10 fruit fly cultures a year. This makes them some of the most affordable foods available.
Variety
Although fruit flies are an excellent food source for a whole plethora of species and are the “go-to” for most poison frog keepers, they cannot be gut-loaded easily. This means, they emerge after metamorphosis without having fed on anything particularly nutritious and
therefore are not very nutritious themselves. Because of this, they must be coated with calcium, vitamins and minerals before being offered as prey.
Fruit flies are reasonably well-balanced in terms of moisture, protein, fat and ash, almost mimicking the qualities of a cricket. However, there will be some vitamins and minerals that are best absorbed through gut-loaded micro crickets rather than a fruit fly. As such, fruit flies should be fed as part of a varied diet.
Fruit flies have reasonably low fat and high fibre. Their larvae, on the other hand, are far fattier with very low fibre. Therefore, scraping a few larvae out if the culture is not producing quickly enough, can help a keeper get out of a pinch. These larvae will probably have some coating of the high sugar laying medium on them, so they should only be fed in an emergency. A far better option is to feed highly nutritious grubs such as calci-worms as part of a mixed diet. Some species of frogs will be unable to feed on even the smallest calci-worms, so some experimenting should be expected.
FASCINATING FACT
The World’s First Reptile
The earliest reptiles appeared around 350 million years ago. The “Eureptilia” group contains “Diapsida” which is the clade that contains all living reptiles and birds today.
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Members of Eureptilia looked very similar to todays lizards. In fact, one of the oldest known reptiles, Hylonomus, had a bone structure similar to a lizard, grew about 20cm long, had sharp-lizard like teeth and predated primarily on insects. It may have also had tiny scales and nested in tree stumps.
