This month’s issue of Exotics Keeper Magazine was an awesome opportunity to showcase some of the most marvelous frogs on Earth. The Theloderma genus contains some of the strangest-looking creatures on Earth. As these frogs rise in popularity, we’ve seized the opportunity to dive deep into their husbandry and natural history.
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MAGAZINE PUBLISHED BY Peregrine Livefoods Ltd Rolls Farm Barns Hastingwood Road Essex CM5 0EN
Print ISSN: 2634-4718
Digital ISSN: 2634-4689
EDITORIAL: Thomas Marriott
DESIGN: Scott Giarnese Amy Mather
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Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors. Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.
This month, Cindy-Anne Loveday, a Practical Instructor at West Suffolk College has also shared her experiences in Panama. After leading a trip for students to engage in zoological activities, Cindy produced an article that provides insights into herpetological education and some interesting facts about the country.
This month’s ‘Keeper Basics’ is slightly different, but I hope is universally helpful. Scientific names can be extremely complicated and very daunting to the new keeper. However, they are useful and the only truly accurate way to describe a species. If scientific names are something you have avoided, please check out this month’s Keeper Basics and let us know whether this article helped you.
Finally, I have enjoyed chatting about New Caledonia on a few podcasts lately. Be sure to check out The Gecko Exchange Podcast, ReptiChat and Animals at Home to hear more about EK, our New Caledonia Expedition and more field research observations.
Thank you,
Thomas Marriott Editor
The
Turning
Focus
This month we go behind the scences with Peregrine Livefoods.
Discover the natural history and captive care of the Theloderma genus.
The
EXOTICS NEWS
The latest from the world of exotic animals
Researchers use aversion tactics to save crocodiles from killer toads
For decades, invasive cane toads have wreaked havoc on Australia’s native wildlife population, wiping out huge numbers of reptiles, including freshwater crocodiles.
Smaller individuals of the apex predator are particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of the toads, with some populations declining by more than seventy percent due to consumption. To combat these devastating effects, scientists devised a system to deter the reptiles from preying on cane toads.
During the study, conducted in the Kimberley region of north-western Australia, 2,395 cane toad carcasses were stripped of their toxins and instead laced with a nausea-inducing chemical and distributed across four gorge systems. To assess the effectiveness of the experiment, chicken carcasses were place near the toads to gage the behaviour of the crocodiles.
The research found that the crocodiles quickly learned to avoid the toad bait but continued to eat the chicken carcasses in similar areas, showing their avoidance of only the food that made them ill. Conducted over a number of years, the baiting practice had a positive effect in ensuring increased crocodile populations.
The study shows that relatively simple measures can have significantly positive effects on declining populations affected by invasive species. While eradicating the widespread cane toad populations is now unlikely, these alternative measures bring new hope for native species, including other reptiles at risk of the devastating effects of cane toad consumption.
Positive relationships
between tarantulas and other species revealed Research by a team of international scientists has revealed the complex interactions between tarantulas and other species.
These interactions often point to a positive relationship that is mutually beneficial, in some cases even involving cohabitation.
Various reptiles and insects, including snake species, whip spiders and harvestmen spiders have been found to associate with tarantulas for the first time, with the research also revealing over 60 new cases of interaction
between tarantulas and amphibians from 10 different countries.
Alireza Zamani, a researcher from the University of Turku in Finland and an author on the study, said: “Apparently, the frogs and toads that live within the retreats of tarantulas benefit from the shelter and protection against their predators. In turn, they feed on insects that could be harmful to the spider, its eggs, and its juveniles. It seems that tarantulas might not be as scary and threatening as their reputation suggests.”
The study revealed more than just this remarkable cooperation between different species, proposing a new hypothesis on why tarantulas are often covered with hairs.
The researchers suggest that the hairs are a defence mechanism against predatory ants. The researchers observed that when ants entered the burrows of tarantulas, they gathered food and cleaned the area, a practice beneficial to the spiders, but only a few attempted to attack the tarantula.
As the ants are known for attacking other spiders, the absence of this aggressive behaviour is unusual, however the few ants that did attempt to attack were fended off by the stiff hairs on the tarantulas’ legs. This suggests that the hairs act as a defence mechanism and as a deterrent to the ants, allowing the mutually beneficial relationship to exist.
Zamani added: “This hypothesis is supported by findings that many burrowing New World tarantulas cover their eggs sacs with urticating hairs. Covering their egg sacs with these hairs, however, effectively hinders the movement of small injurious arthropods, such as ants, that might try to attack the eggs.”
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Chester Zoo reports success of fen raft spider breeding programme
In 2011 Chester Zoo began a breeding programme for fen raft spiders, carefully nurturing hundreds of the endangered species.
After much of its wetland habitat was destroyed by human development, the species was almost extinct, prompting Chester Zoo to hand-rear hundreds of baby fen raft spiders. Painstakingly feeding flies to the offspring with tweezers, the spiders were eventually big enough to be returned to their restored habitat.
Now, 15 years later, the RSPB has estimated that there are around 10,000 breeding females across the UK, with this year being their best on record.
While this may not seem like welcome news to arachnophobes, the palm-sized fen raft spiders are not only harmless, but also vital to the marsh ecosystems they inhabit. They are semi-aquatic hunters, capturing their prey by resting its front legs in water, detecting vibrations made by prey in the water with the hairs on its legs.
The change in outlook for this species previously threatened with extinction is a remarkable success story for conservation efforts.
Frogs’ ability to increase their tolerance to pesticides discovered
A team of researchers have conducted a study on the effects of pesticides on non-target species, revealing a remarkable evolutionary ability to develop tolerance.
While there has been extensive research undertaken on the effects of pesticides on target species, the study by researchers from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute has
focused on the impact on other wildlife.
Wood frogs were used in the study, representing wildlife that interacts with pesticides in small doses in their habitats. The researchers emulated this contact, exposing the frogs to small, non-lethal amounts of pesticides and monitoring their tolerance over time.
The findings, taken from fifteen populations of wood frog from Western Pennsylvania, and eastern New York, showed the effects of three common insecticides when administered at non-lethal levels, which were gradually increased to lethal levels.
When the levels were gradually increased over time, nearly half of the populations of frogs were observed to have attained a rapidly increased tolerance to the toxins.
Dr Rick Relyea, Professor of Biological Sciences, said: “If tolerance to a pesticide is first induced by a sublethal exposure, it helps protect the population over generations because that tolerance would be favoured genetically. Later generations would not need to be exposed to sublethal doses in order to exhibit increased tolerance.”
While the findings point towards increased protection for certain species from pesticides, the tolerance was also found to be limited.
While some non-target species have increased tolerance, they are not entirely impervious to the effects of pesticides and can still die in considerable numbers from their effects. The study sheds invaluable light on the ability, and limitations, of certain species to adapt to changes in their environment and assists with efforts to reduce the impact of toxins on non-target species.
Study reveals impact of global warming on venomous snake distribution
A group of international researchers headed by Pablo Ariel Martinez, biology professor at the Federal University of Sergipe in Brazil, has revealed the potential drastic effects of global warming on the global distribution of venomous snakes.
With higher temperatures becoming more widespread, venomous species are being found across significantly larger areas, bringing greater risk of bites to humans and an increased chance of environmental imbalance across ecosystems.
The study focused on the shifting distribution of the highly venomous West Africa Gaboon viper (Bitis rhinoceros), finding that its range could expand by 250% in coming years, presenting a significantly increased threat.
With impact on public health and biodiversity at the heart of the study, projections were made for 209 species until
ON THE WEB
2070, with Asia leading as the continent with the highest rates of growth in distribution.
The changes could see venomous species expanding not only into new areas throughout countries they currently occupy, but across borders into new countries, bringing previously unseen healthcare risks and increasing demand for antivenom.
The reappearance of Russell’s vipers (Daboia russelii) in Bangladesh, a country where the species was previously extinct since 2002, has caused an increase in bites and widespread panic in affected areas, showing the deadly impact of these changes.
With snakebite already responsible for tens of thousands of deaths each year globally, the study provides an alarming insight into the potential future impact of global warming, and the consequences that have already materialised across the world.
Written by Isabelle Thom
Websites | Social media | Published research
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THIS MONTH IT’S: FROGLIFE
Froglife is managed by a board of trustees with a wide variety of experience and a senior management team with varied professional backgrounds. A team of experienced staff deliver conservation and education projects across the UK, supported by the administration team.
www.froglife.org
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There are fewer than 200 Philippine crocodiles left in the wild. These small to medium-sized crocodilians pose little-to-no threat to humans and are some of the most beautifully patterned crocodiles. However, their numbers have declined drastically due to human activities. Although this tiny population of prehistoric reptiles is on the brink of extinction and exists in just a handful of waterways, educational outreach and ex-situ conservation and fundraising are having a positive impact on the species. We caught up with Colin Stevenson, Head of Education at Crocodiles of the World to learn more.
The Philippine Crocodile
The Philippine Crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) is a freshwater species that occupies lakes and rivers in Luzon and Mindanao. It reaches sexual maturity at around 1.5m in length and rarely exceeds 2.5m (maximum size recorded is 3.02m). Being a small species, it feeds on mostly fish, of which ailing specimens tend to be predated first, meaning the crocodiles actively manage fish populations in their native waterways. Despite their ecological significance and minimal threat to people, local communities have persecuted these animals for a long time.
“In the Philippines, a ‘crocodile’ or 'buwaya' is a term used to describe corrupt politicians and unsavoury people. It is a very negative word, which tells us a lot about public perception of crocodiles in the Philippines” explains Colin Stevenson. “The Philippines is home to two
species of crocodilian, the Philippine croc which is a small freshwater species and the potentially dangerous saltwater crocodile. The largest saltie in recent history came from the Philippines, so there is a very real reason why Filipino people mostly hold negative views on crocodiles.”
Historically, the Philippine and saltwater crocodile would have been sympatric across much of the Philippines. Today, Philippine crocodiles are restricted to inland rivers and lakes on the two largest islands in the Philippines. Saltwater crocodiles typically have a more coastal range and therefore, it is now only a handful of wetlands in Mindanao where both species can be found. “It is unlikely that someone could mistake the smaller Philippine crocodile for the man-eating ‘saltie,” added Colin. “However, both species are considered ‘dietary generalists’
Erika Kominkova/Shutterstock.com
and it is their habitat preference and morphology that distinguishes the two. Salties just grow very big!”
“Traditionally there has been a narrative from the guys in white lab coats to look at jaw shape and say, for example, ‘oh it’s a narrow-jawed species, it must be a fish-eater’. Rubbish! With the exception of the gharial, if it’s a crocodile it will eat just about anything that comes near it. Crocodiles spend a lot of time in water so they’re likely to eat a lot of fish. Smaller crocs will eat smaller prey and crocodiles that live in waterways where mammals come to drink, will eat more mammals than crocodiles that don’t.”
As with all crocodilians, hatchlings and young crocs feed mostly on aquatic invertebrates and young frogs, moving onto freshwater crustaceans, fish and progressively larger prey as they grow. Adult Philippine crocodiles will feed on wild pigs, civets, snakes, and also domestic animals, such as dogs and domestic pigs.
By the second year, young Philippine crocodiles tend
to aggressively maintain a territory against other small crocs. Young crocodiles will mainly be found in shallow wetlands, avoiding the strong current in rivers, especially during monsoon months. Adults have been observed in pairs. One radio-tracking project in Northern Luzon found that Philippine crocodiles have a home range of up to 6 km of river, and around 0.5 ha within lake habitat. The crocs tend to congregate in shallow ponds, creeks and smaller streams during the wet season and water levels are high. In the drier season, the crocodiles have individual sites along larger rivers when the water level is lower.
Philippine crocodiles are a mound-nesting species, although hole nests have been observed (usually this is a consequence of limited availability of suitable nesting materials or sites, both in captivity and in the wild). Nesting occurs mainly in the dry season, with egg-laying usually in April-May in Luzon. The average clutch size is up to 26 eggs, and incubation period is between 65-78 days. Both males and females have been recorded guarding nests.
Threats & Conservation
For a long time, people were unaware of how endangered the Philippine crocodile was, as it was considered a subspecies of the New Guinea crocodile until 1989. By the 1990’s the plight of the Philippine crocodile was already in full swing, and it took international efforts to turn the tide. A mix of habitat destruction, unsustainable fishing practices and human conflict decimated the population of Philippine crocodiles from most of the species’ former territory. It is thought that the Philippine crocodile was once found all over the northern islands of the Philippines including Palawan.
crocodiles must sign an agreement to financially support in-situ conservation programmes. Then, it was the Mubawaya Foundation in Luzon, now it’s Mubawaya and another charity in Mindanao. Of course, we’re more than happy to do that!”
As well as financially supporting in-situ efforts, Crocodiles of the World have hosted representatives of the Mubawaya Foundation to deliver talks about croc conservation to UK stakeholders.
Mubawaya Foundation hatches and rears Philippine crocodiles in what is known as a “headstarting” programme. This is when captive breeding projects
Philippine crocodile being grown on for release
Milan Vachal/Shutterstock.com
In Luzon where there are Philippine crocodiles, the people now see it as ‘their crocodile’. They actually have T-shirts and posters and they’re proud of their crocodile.”
“It’s fairly simple to explain to farmers that they need to give the crocodiles a margin of a few meters between the farmland and the lakes or rivers to prevent conflict (which the crocodiles lost every single time). So part of the education is learning to live with crocs, the other part is to inspire local communities to care for them and be proud of them. Once global initiatives told them ‘these crocs are precious and we’re losing them, so the world is watching’, it completely changed the relationship between people and crocodiles in that area. Now, local people will report on where nest locations are, they are trained and paid to collect eggs, there is a lot of support!”
Breeding
“Philippine crocodiles are notoriously difficult to pair in captivity” said Colin. “Zoos can often experience problems with animals fighting and therefore
need extra space to separate them if necessary. This, combined with the extra bureaucracy of Brexit making it harder to move animals, has meant there isn’t much demand for the species in European zoo collections.”
In the UK, London Zoo is the only collection to have bred the species, in Europe only a handful of zoos including Cologne Zoo and The Danish Crocodile Zoo have bred the species.
“Unfortunately, we have seen Philippine crocodiles enter the European pet trade” added Colin. “This defeats the point of the programme; to raise money for in-situ conservation work.”
Conserving crocs
Of the 28 species of crocodilian on Earth, seven are considered Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Three of these species are thought to have less wild individuals than the giant panda. “When I ask children to raise their hands if they like crocodiles, most primary school children will. By secondary school, there’s a few children who are perhaps too cool to raise their hands,
but most people will. However, when you ask adults and elderly people, very few do. In fact, elderly people will often raise their hands if I ask if they don’t like crocodiles” explained Colin. “It’s definitely a generational thing. Television stars such as Steve Irwin have done amazing things for inspiring people to love reptiles, even if his practices were a little controversial.”
While there are still several crocodilians on the brink of extinction, the IUCN reports of reasonably positive trends in crocodile conservation. Effective methods of conservation, combined with the sheer resilience and high reproductive rate of crocodilians has meant that population trends for most species are either stable or improving.
Crocodilians have inhabited our planet for 220 million years, far outdating anything even remotely human. With conservationists, researchers, institutions and educational facilities working tirelessly to preserve the world’s crocodilians, we may yet conserve the remaining species for future generations to experience these prehistoric marvels.
SPECIES SPOTLIGHT
The wonderful world of exotic animals
High-casqued chameleon (Trioceros hoehnelii)
The high-casqued or “Hoehnell’s” chameleon is a montane species from equatorial Africa. Found up to 3,000m in elevation in Kenya and adjacent Uganda, this species is extremely well adapted to drastic temperature changes making them well suited to the specialist keeper who understands their ecology.
Being a montane species, the high-casqued chameleon is separated into various populations on different mountains and slopes across Uganda and Kenya. Each population has a unique colouration. Certain populations are more locally abundant than others and some were more frequently exported and bred than others. Today, captive-bred T. hoehnelli are occasionally available in Europe and the USA, but slightly harder to come by in the UK.
Perhaps the most important aspect of high-casqued chameleon husbandry beyond usual chameleon care considerations, is a night-time temperature drop. Most keepers will maintain their T. hoehnelli at a cool 22℃ with access to UVB and a basking spot no warmer than 25℃. Young chameleons can die if they are kept any hotter than this. Furthermore, temperatures should drop below 15℃ at night (far cooler than a typical household). In the wild, temperatures can easily fall to 0℃ and the chameleons seek shelter to avoid frosts. Whilst it is not recommended to drop to this extreme in captivity, the chameleons should be housed outside, in a well-ventilated greenhouse, or in a garage to ensure the conditions drop below room temperature each night. It is also worth noting that hydration should come from a nightly humidity spike of 100% as well as daily morning and evening misting.
High-casqued chameleons will actively breed year-round and whilst they are not territorial, housing them in groups can lead to a constant supply of eggs and hatchlings that may prove a nuisance to the keeper and put strain on the breeding females. Instead, keeping the animals housed separately and introducing them during the summer months will lead to a far more manageable breeding project.
Hybrid glass/mesh enclosures are most appropriate for highcasqued chameleons and these should be densely planted with plenty of thin branches and stems for the chameleon to climb on. An insectivorous diet should be provided, with a variety of gutloaded feeder insects dusted in calcium and vitamin supplements.
NutriRep™ is a complete calcium, vitamin & mineral balancing supplement with D3. It can be dusted onto all food sources including insects, meats & vegetables. No other supplement is required.
INSIDE THE INDUSTRY PEREGRINE LIVEFOODS
With Daniel Sarkadi, Head of Sales at Peregrine
Livefoods
What is Peregrine Livefoods?
Peregrine Livefoods is Europe’s largest wholesaler of reptile supplies. We have been operating for over three decades now and began as an insect farm based in Essex, England. Our founders Dave Perry and Tim Green were some of the first people to breed crickets commercially for reptile foods back in the 1980s to support their passion for herpetoculture. Over the years, Peregrine Livefoods has helped facilitate the growth of the hobby in the UK and internationally by providing businesses with livefoods, supplies and legislative advice since the dawn of the exotic pet keeping hobby.
In 2017, Peregrine Livefoods became a Trust company, ensuring all employees benefit from the success of the company. Tim & Dave has since departed and the company is now run by Managing Director, Chris Jones.
Today, we supply over 1,500 pet stores, zoological institutions and agricultural colleges across the UK. Over 50,000 orders leave Peregrine HQ each month and the business holds an important position in the heart of the herpetoculture industry and community in the United Kingdom.
Do you breed animals at Peregrine Livefoods?
Our Animal Team has constantly evolved with best practices and ethical considerations at the forefront of our decisions. During the early years of herpetoculture, Peregrine Livefoods would frequently keep, breed and import a wide range of species in the hope they would become well-established in the hobby. However, we made some controversial decisions to curtail these, banning the sale of red-eared and yellow-bellied sliders several years before they were listed as invasive species and phasing out the sale of large constrictors.
“We supply over 1,500 pet stores, zoological institutions and agricultural colleges across the UK. Over 50,000 orders leave Peregrine HQ each month and the business holds an important position in the heart of the herpetoculture industry and community in the UK. ”
Where is Peregrine Livefoods?
Peregrine Livefoods is based in Essex, England. It’s site spans nearly 100,000 square foot that contains various warehouses, from dry goods to insect breeding rooms, as well as a state-of-the-art animal facility.
The business has seen numerous investments to support sustainability and efficiency including; implementing automated machinery to assist in producing pre-made tubs for the live insects, semi-automated substrate filling and packing line, to over 1,200 solar panels mounted across 45,000 square feet of roof space. Today, Peregrine Livefoods employs 170 members of staff and has a revenue of approximately £22m.
We also introduced UVB into all our enclosures very early. Being at the forefront of herpetoculture in Britain, we have strived to set an example to all keepers. We have implemented enrichment, mixed gut-loaded diets, UV/ IR and much more to ensure that every animal that is housed or passes through the facility is kept at optimal welfare standards (which is why we achieve a 5-star AAL license).
In 2022 we also introduced a points-based system to assess which animals were suitable to sell as “wild caught”. We are not against the concept of selling wildcaught animals but we do feel it needs a much stronger justification than captive-bred animals. This system halted our large-scale imports overnight but allowed our Animal Team to dedicate more time to working with breeders across the world to source healthy, sustainable, captivebred stock. It also allowed us to focus on breeding the most suitable species in larger volumes, helping to meet demand in the UK.
Today, we are downsizing our commercial breeding colony to free up much needed space for insect breeding expansion, along with more research and development space. We do still breed a selection of species for R&D purposes and all of those animals are kept in a fully
enriched, naturalistic enclosure that exceed AAL enclosure size guidelines. This improves our own welfare standards whilst giving dedicated breeders the opportunity to sell their animals without large-scale competition, which helps to support the entire hobby.
Why is Peregrine Livefoods not a household name?
As a wholesaler, we sell directly to the stores (both brick and mortar and websites) that supply customers across the United Kingdom. However, consumers may have heard of some of the brands we have developed…
ProRep is an extensive brand of reptile supplies that manufactures an array of products from the award-winning “Life” series of naturalistic substrates to an entire spectrum of interesting décor and vivarium accessories.
WhitePython is a premium brand of reptile accessories including LED lighting, ultra slim ceramic heaters with guards and reflectors. It also features a premium range of Incubators with more products set to launch later in 2024.
In 2022, Peregrine Livefoods acquired FishScience, marking the company’s greatest leap into the aquatic sector. Instead of using fish derivatives as the primary protein, FishScience uses insect protein, which offers a more natural diet for pet fish. Since the acquisition, Peregrine Livefoods has also extended the existing FishScience brand to incorporate blister packs of frozen foods.
Blue River Diets is Peregrine Livefoods’ latest venture. Officially launched in October 2023, the brand produces nutritionally complete crested gecko diets from natural ingredients. We recently launched the brand in the US and have conducted in-situ research missions in collaboration with Exotics Keeper Magazine.
We are also exclusive distributors of some of the nation’s most loved reptile brands too! These include ZooMed, Exo Terra, Reptile Systems, MistKing, Microclimate and more. Throughout 2025 you may see us representing these brands at various events across the UK and Europe.
What are the most popular live foods in the UK?
I doubt that it will surprise anyone when I say that extralarge locusts and medium/large brown crickets are our best-selling insects. Both demands very specific conditions to breed, and our supply line is carefully managed by a team of experts.
Recently, isopods have become extremely popular, and we have an entire room now dedicated to various species from the popular dairy cow and snow white isopods that are used as cleanup crew, to the more specialist “magic potion” and “zebra” isopods for hobbyists.
We are also very proud to offer unique feeder insects that are seen as unusual in the hobby, but that make up a huge portion of the prey items of wild animals. Snails, for example, are extremely popular with blue tongue skinks and some gecko species, silkworms (and silk moths) are a naturalistic feeder for chameleon species. Our calciworms are also extremely popular due to their remarkable calcium content.
A PANAMA-RAMIC VIEW
The scales and tales of Latin America
By Cindy-Anne Loveday
jacexplorista/Shutterstock.com
Whether you are just starting out in your herpetology journey or are a well-seasoned advocate of the ectothermic world, then Panama should be on your bucket list of places to visit. Panama is part of Latin America and is situated at the very end of Central America, bordering the continent of South America. It is a thirteen-hour flight from the UK where you will be met with the tropical climate that the country has to offer. Humidity at this time of year is around the 85-90% mark, with temperatures sitting close to 29℃. Unless you are a sun seeking reptile found in Ferguson Zone 4, don’t forget to pack your sunscreen as you will be met with a UV index of around 10-12 depending on the rainfall! The Panama trip was organised for our year 2 Animal Studies students to witness the different flora and fauna that Latin America has to offer. It was to gain insight into the diversity and population of animals in the wild, and to understand the involvement of the native people with wildlife in the area.
About the Author:
Cindy-Anne Loveday is a Practical Instructor in Exotic Animals at West Suffolk College. She teaches modules that cover the care, husbandry and legislation surrounding reptiles and amphibians within the animal industry. She holds a bachelor's degree in Zoology and has kept and bred a vast collection of reptiles and amphibians over the last 11 years.
The Perfect Parameters
For the avid exotics keepers reading this, you may be thinking that these parameters are excellent for tropical reptiles and amphibians, and you would be correct. Panama is home to 128 species of snakes, 81 species of lizards, 14 species of turtles and 2 types of crocodile (that’s without taking into consideration the sheer volume of amphibian life!) For reference, a whopping 205 species of amphibians have been recorded from all three orders
including Caecilians (Gymnophiona), Salamanders (Caudata) and Frogs and Toads (Anura). Sadly, the IUCN lists 25 Panamanian amphibian species as Critically Endangered (CR) and a further 16 as Endangered (EN).
The country is a biodiverse symphony of colours and sounds and the city is no exception. One may expect there to be a low biodiversity count within the streets of a busy
town or city centre. However, Panama City has a startling array of natural diversity present. Taking a short hour’s ride into the suburbs, it is common to see a variety of animals. Like a pigeon or a fox in the streets of a European town, you can expect to witness both large and small lizards, birds and a variety of what we keep as houseplants, lining the waterways that flow throughout the city. It is very common to see larger lizards basking in the midday heat. Brown basilisks (Basiliscus basiliscus) and green iguanas (Iguana iguana) were a favourite to spot amongst the foliage lining the water. Circling above were turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) looking for their next meal
A Feat of EngineeringThe Panama Canal
When visiting Panama City, a major attraction is the grandeur of The Panama Canal. This canal spans a whopping 51 miles and connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific and is completely man-made. The canal officially opened in 1914 and saw around 1,000 ships cross through it annually. Fast forward to the latest data from 2023, and the canal will have seen over 12,000 ships make the passage through. For anyone interested in engineering and construction this is a sight to behold with the gates
Cindy-Anne Loveday in Panama
Red eyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas) Harry Collins Photography/Shutterstock.com
Brown basilisk (Basiliscus vittatus) Imogen Warren/Shutterstock.com
Jose Mario Espinoza/Shutterstock.com
used in the lock system constructed from Leonardo da Vinci’s original drawings! A true display of human engineering and accomplishment!
To create the channel that makes up the Panama City canal, it required the removal of 250 million cubic yards of rock and soil, cutting through rainforest and ecosystems that spanned the length of the canal route. Discoveries were made with the removal of such a large expanse of earth. Fossils of hippo-like animals (Arretotherium merdionale), ancient camel (Aguascalietia panamaensis), three toed browsing horse (Anchitherium clarencei) and a giant bear dog from the order Amphicyon, were among the finds. As you can imagine, habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity came with the removal of such a large expanse of area.
The local Panama Canal Authority launched initiatives to re-forest areas surrounding the canal in an attempt to replace the ecosystems lost, as well as the plant and animal life that previously inhabited the historic rainforest. The damming of the Chagres River in 1913 created what is now known as Gatun Lake. This lake is essential for storing the thousands of litres of water needed to operate the canal but has also become a man-made marvel of a biodiverse ecosystem.
The previously mentioned soil and rock that was removed to create the Panama Canal, was used to create Barro Colorado Island. This island is home to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute where scientists carry out biological research surrounding the flora and fauna found on this man-made marvel. In 1923 the area was titled
a biological reserve and is home to over 1400 species of plant- believed to be more species than what were removed in the original digging of the Panama Canal. Now, Barro Colorado Island is one of the world’s most studied tropical ecosystems and hosts a whole range of mammals including spider monkeys, howler monkeys, capuchins, ocelots and puma.
The students embarking on this trip came from 3 different Animal Studies “routes”. These routes were made up of Science, Zoo and Animal Management. Each course as its title states, enables the student to hone their animal knowledge within a specific field. For each of the courses, spending time and experiencing life within a tropical ecosystem has many benefits to their studies. For the Science route, it enabled the students to experience life out on the field, counting species and noting how varying populations were abundant or perhaps less so in certain ecosystems. Knowing that if they wanted to, there was an option to further their studies in university to gain a place within the Smithsonian institute of Panama. For the Zoo route, understanding the tropical habitats of wild populations was something that the students could take away with them and apply in building naturalistic environments within zoological collections once they entered industry. For the Animal Management route, it helped them to understand the impact of humans against wild populations within the area. Understanding the vast amount of work that went into the movement of such large amounts of earth and surrounding land, and how techniques were devised by local government bodies to try and manage the effects against the surrounding biodiversity.
A World of Discovery
Leaving the hustle and bustle of city life will find you quickly immersed in the rainforests of Panama. A mere 40 minutes away, The Panama Rainforest Discovery Centre awaits. Vehicles cannot be taken to the centre, therefore must be left behind in the carpark at the start of the trail. A small 30-minute hike takes you into the depths of the trees, where you will be engulfed in sounds, smells, and the richness of the rainforest. The discovery centre is staffed entirely by local people, helping to support local communities with employment. Staff are trained on the biodiversity of the plant and animal species.
The discovery centre has 2km worth of trails weaving in and around the forest. One of these trails will take you to an observation deck where you can watch hummingbirds. These are a sight to behold and are beautiful, flashing their iridescent purples and greens as they land on the many feeders on the deck. Leading down from this observation deck, there is a 32-meter-tall observation tower showcasing the varying levels of the rainforest, finally emerging at the top of the canopy. At the very top of the tower, a bird’s eye view of the top of the rainforest stretches as far as the eye can see.
La India Dormida - The Sleeping Indian, El Valle de Anton
Hopping on a coach and travelling two and a half hours from the Rainforest Discovery Centre leads into El Valle de Anton. This town was founded in 1915 by a group of Swiss settlers and is home to approximately 7600 people. What makes this town unique is that it has been built within the crater of the inactive volcano; “El Valle”, which last erupted 300,000 years ago. Due to its high elevation, the town has its very own microclimate and is much cooler and wetter compared to the coastal regions of Panama.
Again, the biodiversity present in El Valle is phenomenal and is a great stop for ornithologists. With over 500 species of bird calling this volcanic crater home, it is a great place to witness the iconic Keel-billed Toucans (Rhamphastos sulfuratus) or unique hummingbirds such as the Rufous-Crested Coquette (Lophornis delattrei) Not to be beaten, the local plant life boasts colour and vibrancy throughout the streets and town. A short walk to the orchid conservation centre called APROVACA, and you will be met with a display of over 100 native local species of orchid.
El Valle de Anton Wirestock Creators/Shutterstock.com
Danny Ye/Shutterstock.com
A hike up La India Dormida (the sleeping Indian) will get the heart racing and the blood flowing. Expect to take around 3-4hours with breaks, to get yourself to the peak. At 900m above sea-level, you will get spectacular views of the crater that the town itself sits in, as well as being at the same altitude as circling predatory birds. Be sure to keep your eyes on the ground for any sunlight that breaks through the foliage as you climb. Central American Whiptail lizards (Holcosus festivus) can be found sunning themselves as well as small brown anoles (Anolis sagrei) which are quick to disappear if a tourist treds too heavy.
The community of El Valle are most welcoming and are not hesitant to wave or smile a hello to the tourists that flock to this area during peak season. Throughout the town you will bear witness to colourful and vibrant displays of art, featuring sloths and the famous Panama Golden Frog.
The Panamanian Golden Frog
The cooler wetter climate in El Valle makes this the perfect home for many different types of amphibians. The most famous in the local area as well as being endemic to the valley, is the Panama Golden Frog (Atelopus zeteki) This amphibian is currently classed as Critically Endangered but has been considered Extinct in the Wild since 2007. However, travelling to Proyecto Rana Dorada (Project Golden Frog), located in El Valle will allow tourists to catch a glimpse of some captive specimens on display within the small educational centre located there.
Project Golden Frog was established in 1998 by a group
of scientists studying the impact of amphibian Chytrid fungus, (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) in central Panama. Sadly, due to the resilient nature of chytrid fungus in the wild, the Panama Golden Frog is thought to have been made extinct in the surrounding area, bar the captive specimens kept within secure shipping containers on site.
The manager of the captive populations and in-country specialist, Heidi Ross is one of the scientists currently residing in El Valle and has been for the last 23 years. Heidi has made it her life’s work to educate visitors on the devastating effects of Chytrid fungus in the surrounding area. Multiple captive collections are kept on site in secure shipping containers where a breeding programme is currently being undertaken to protect the longevity of A. zeteki. Sadly, due to the continued presence of Chytrid in the surrounding area, these individuals may never be released into the wild within their lifetime. It is hopeful, however, that in the future there may be a solution found to help eradicate the deadly fungus. Therefore, the captive populations are crucial in ensuring the legacy of this species. If the fungus undergoes an eradication due to a breakthrough in science, then the individuals being housed within the safety of the project, will be able to be released into the wild to re-establish the species.
The main issue surrounding extinction within amphibian species is the loss of biodiversity within wild populations. Ongoing conservation efforts are being implemented worldwide but it is difficult to determine whether this is having a positive impact on wild numbers. Sadly, the most threatened of amphibian species is the Neotropical harlequin
toads (Atelopus sp.). Time has seen vast declines in their numbers since the 1980s, within several of them considered possibly extinct. In recent years, more than 30 different species have been rediscovered, which for scientists, has given some hope in reversing the trend seen in declining population numbers. Scientists use both present and past population data to determine whether the extinction crisis surrounding these amphibians is still in an emergency state. For the (Atelopus) genus, no species has managed to present with an improved population status, suggesting that recovery efforts have been unsuccessful. This data stands true as from 2004. When speaking with Heidi regarding the Project Golden Frog mission, she confirmed that there have been many attempts at releasing captive populations back into the surrounding valley but unfortunately none of these individuals have survived. The main cause of death being the pathogenic skin fungi Batrachochytrium causing the infectious disease chytridiomycosis. These fungi can lay dormant in soil, detritus and any other organic matter- practically impossible to eradicate in areas of the wild without significantly harming other native species within the area.
Project Golden Frog understands that although the current probability of releasing captive bred populations into the wild and them surviving currently, is pretty much zero. However, a poor prognosis does not mean that they are ceasing their efforts to conserve this fascinating and beautiful species. Their conservation efforts in maintaining strong, healthy, captive populations, means that when science allows a breakthrough in the treatment of BD within the wild, there will be breeding populations that can be reintroduced back into the wild. This flagship conservation
strategy is important in preventing the extinction of these beautiful frogs and enabling future generations to participate in the hopeful regeneration of wild populations.
A future in herpetology
There are many opportunities available to those who wish to pursue a career in herpetology. Educational courses are available which focus on animal health and husbandry of ectotherms which can lead to the study of Herpetology within a university setting. Remember there are many routes to a destination, and if university study is not accessible then local herpetological groups can be found on social media sites or advertised within local community centres.
Taking study abroad is also an option and a great opportunity to gain insight into field herpetology. Contacting volunteering projects are a great way to find any positions or opportunities available, and if anything in this article has interested you, then you can look up local charities within that country that align with your goals. Herpetology is for everyone and can be as simple as recording your own findings about your animals at home or being employed by a scientific society such as those on Project Golden Frog.
As a fellow herpetologist, I implore you to follow what ignites a fire within you. Volunteer at a local reptile and amphibian charity, travel if you can, and immerse yourself in all the natural world has to offer. It is this, that I believe will help nurture and continue to grow the passion we all share for the reptilian world, ensuring a solid foundation of education and growth in this sector for years to come.
Heidi Ross teaches students about Atelopus declines
VIPER RESEARCH RIGHT ON TRACK
Tracking Malabar Pit Vipers in the Western Ghats.
The Malabar pit viper ( Peltopelar malabaricus ) is a reasonably large, arboreal Viperid from the Western Ghats Mountain Range in India. Although it is endemic to this region, the Western Ghats stretch for around 1600km and cover 6% of India, making the Malabar pit viper a reasonably widespread species. Despite this, little is known about the spatial ecology of this cryptic reptile. Whilst they are often sighted during the monsoon seasons, they seemingly disappear with the rains. Researchers at the Kalinga Foundation helping to uncover this mystery by using radio telemetry devices to track these mysterious serpents.
The Malabar pit viper
The Malabar pit viper is a highly variable species that grows to around 100cm in length. Like most arboreal pit vipers, females are significantly larger than males. These snakes can be found in riparian, evergreen and deciduous forests from 600 to 200m above sea level. They will also inhabit forests close to plantations and on the edges of farmland. However, they are perhaps most commonly seen close to streams and torrents where they actively feed
on frogs, especially during monsoon season. They are ambush predators and if left undisturbed, can remain in ambush position for several days at a time.
Malabar pit vipers are perhaps best known for being incredibly variable. Within the same population, it is possible to find brown, bright yellow, green, orange and even blue individuals. Of these base colours, pattern combinations can lead to some animals having a purple
or brick-red appearance. Typically, females are brighter and bulkier than males. In fact, it is possible that all bright yellow and green Malabar pit vipers are female while the drabber brown or orange animals are male. Individual snakes often change their appearance as they mature too, with certain colours and patterns developing over time.
The Malabar pit viper has undergone various taxonomic revisions in recent years and was split into a species “complex” in 2023. It was originally broken into three species, but only one currently stands, P. anamallensis which is only found in the southern Western Ghats in the state of Kerala. Even the genus of Peltopelar malabaricus is regularly updated, making scientific names somewhat difficult to follow.
The Research
Priyanka Swamy has centred her PhD research around the Malabar pit viper for several years, actively tracking the snakes with radio telemetry devices since 2022.
“When you deploy a radio transmitter and track a snake over time, you learn their habitat usage, preferences and range” explains Priyanka. “This tells us how much humaninhabited space they are likely to be in and how often within a season they are likely to encounter a human.”
“Malabar pit vipers are a medically important species in India. Whilst everyone is focusing heavily on “the big four” responsible for most deaths, we wanted to look at the species responsible for the most snakebites in this region.”
India has the highest number of fatalities due to snakebites in the world. An estimated 58,000 people are killed by snake envenoming in India each year. The World Health Organization have called to halve snakebites around the world by 2030. They write: “We analyzed 2833 snakebite deaths from 611,483 verbal autopsies in the nationally representative Indian Million Death Study from 2001 to 2014 and conducted a systematic literature review from 2000 to 2019 covering 87,590 snakebites. We estimate that India had 1.2 million snakebite deaths (average 58,000/year) from 2000 to 2019. Nearly half occurred at ages 30–69 years and over a quarter in children < 15 years. Most occurred at home in the rural areas. About 70% occurred in eight higher burden states and half during the rainy season and at low altitude. The risk of an Indian dying from snakebite before age 70 is about 1 in 250, but notably higher in some areas. More crudely, we estimate 1.11–1.77 million bites in 2015, of which 70% showed symptoms of envenomation. Prevention and treatment strategies might substantially reduce snakebite mortality in India.”
Priyanka continued: “Of all the pit viper species in the Western Ghats, the Malabar pit viper has the largest range so more people encounter that species than any other pit viper. Because we are working in a heterogenous habitat it gives us a gradient of understanding pit vipers in forest habitat as well as close to human inhabitation. Eventually, we hope this will help in conflict mitigation. We can tell people ‘they prefer this habitat in this season, so be careful at this time of year.”
Priyanka’s research is also helping to understand more about the general conservation status of Malabar pit vipers. This sparked Priyanka’s curiosity as she embarked on a mission to understand more about the habitat usage and ecology of these vipers.
She continued: “Even though the Malabar pit viper is encountered the most of all the vipers of the Western Ghats, it is data-deficient from a conservation perspective. We have documented close to 200 pit vipers in a 4-acre area of rainforest here at the Kalinga Foundation field station. This
gives us a good idea of the population size in this location. However, across the Western Ghats, a lot of habitat destruction has occurred such as building dams, clearing forests for agricultural purpose or logging. If a small space can be occupied by such a strong population of this endemic species, just imagine what the entire Western Ghats holds. This model can be used in other places so that we can learn more about the entire population.”
How do you track a snake?
Priyanka and the team at the Kalinga Foundation monitor the movements of pit vipers each year using tracking equipment. Small transmitters are surgically implanted into snakes by a veterinarian during the dry season. The trackers/transmitters can then be located with a radio telemetry antenna and receiver device that tells the researchers how close the snake is.
Radio transmitters are inserted into the coelomic cavity and the antennae is run laterally between the subcutaneous tissue and the peritoneum. To ensure
all the surgeries are consistent and ethical, the team follow the methodology of Reinert and Cundall (1982) and Hardy and Greene (2000).
Snakes large enough to be implanted with BD-2 (1.4 g) and PD-2 (2.5 and 3 gm) radio transmitter will be selected for the study. Following surgery, we will keep the snakes under observation until they become fully responsive. Snakes are released back at the site of capture at night as pit vipers are nocturnal in nature (based on preliminary observations).
Priyanka explains: “When we think about snakes, we often consider a two-dimensional area of utilization. These vipers use vertical space as well. That makes it extra interesting for us.”
“We deploy the transmitters before monsoon season.
So, it was difficult in 2022 when we first started because we were not finding many pit vipers at all. Once the monsoons start, the females start to come down. We track them throughout the year, but after the monsoons stop they might not come down from the canopy for months. It is easy to lose a tracker if a snake doesn’t return for months, we’ve even tracked a Malabar pit viper that moved shockingly far through the forest and found that it had been eaten by a King Cobra.”
Already, the team at Kalinga Foundation KCRE are discovering interesting patterns in the habitat usage of Malabar pit vipers. Both male and female specimens are tracked throughout the year. By understanding the spatial ecology of each sex, Priyanka can theorise the environmental cues that prompt breeding behaviour, understand more about the species courtship and even pick apart potential differences in diet between the sexes.
Transmitters
However, with females being over double the size of males, different techniques are required.
“The maximum size transmitter we can deploy is 5g” added Priyanka. “This would be for the largest females that usually weigh 130g. These transmitters can last up to seven months. The smallest transmitter we deploy is about 1.7g which lasts about one and a half to two months. During summer time it’s quite easy to track them, but during monsoon seasons when your vision is compromised by heavy rains and you’re sharing space with leopards and gaur and other venomous snakes, it can be challenging to track them.”
Arboreal pit vipers are often considered sedentary reptiles. They can remain in the same ambush position for many weeks at a time if undisturbed. Some pit vipers in Latin America have been reported in the same position for over three months. Whilst these animals may have moved and returned with frequency to an exact location, the hunting practices of arboreal pit vipers naturally make them less mobile than elapids or colubrids that actively seek out prey. However, the KCRE team frequently record Malabar pit vipers moving up to 100ft a night.
Future Research
Radio telemetry research can provide scientists with huge amounts of valuable data. However, it is not without its challenges. “The method we are using is very well established in Southeast Asian countries, but in India it’s rarely used” added Priyanka. “Perhaps this is because of affordability. Tracking devices are extremely expensive. The medical procedure to install them must also be done by a veterinarian. All of this requires funding.”
The Kalinga Foundation field station Kalinga Centre for Rainforest Ecology is an important space for scientific research and broader education. The research stationturned-ecolodge is open to members of the public and ecotourists who can learn about native herpetofauna whilst being hosted. The funding from this then helps keep the station financially viable while researchers, students and local communities visit or study at the field station. The site, which was opened by world-renowned herpetologists Dr P Gowri Shankar and managed by Prashanth P in 2002 2013 also plays host to several snake rescuers, who will actively remove potentially dangerous snakes from local homes, helping to support the already positive cultural relationship between people and cobras in the Agumbe region.
SHOW ‘EM WHO’S MOSS
The Care and Keeping of Mossy Frogs
With many tree frogs spending almost all their lives on mossy branches, it makes sense that countless species across the world would evolve camouflage to mimic moss. The mutable rain frog (Pristimantis mutablis) of South America can change the texture of its skin to blend with specific mosses. The hollow-snouted shrub frog (Pseudophiliatus cavirostris) has uniquely warty skin to blend with the moss growing in tree hollows. Even terrestrial frogs, such as Scaphiophryne spinosa of Madagascar, have developed spiny appearances to blend with moss on the forest floor. However, no genus does moss mimicry quite like the “mossy frogs” of the genus Theloderma from South East Asia.
Theloderma
There are over 25 species of frogs in the genus Theloderma (which translates to ‘nipple skin’), with new species being described quite frequently and as recently as 2022. The diversity of these species is partly due to their wide distribution throughout Asia, from northeastern India through to South China and as far south as the Sunda Islands in Indonesia. Within this range, some species are also well adapted to high-elevation habitats, meaning certain populations will be isolated to mountain ranges. Other species within the genus are restricted to lowland habitats.
This wide spectrum of diversity, coupled with an ecological reliance on pristine habitats in hard-to-reach areas, means research into the natural history and behaviours
of mossy frogs is still somewhat limited. This sparked huge controversy around their placement in private herpetoculture, within the last decade. However, recent conservation assessments of the most popular species; T. corticale, T. asperum and t. bicolor lists all three species as “Least Concern” on the IUCN Red List. Unfortunately, all species population numbers are in decline and a high demand for mossy frogs may prompt unsustainable harvesting of other Theloderma species (either accidentally, or to expand collections). Today, the three most popular species are frequently bred in captivity and whilst they may still be slightly seasonal in their availability, countless hobbyists are breeding these charismatic frogs to reduce pressures on wild populations.
Kurit afshen/Shutterstock.com
Part of the reason hobbyists are so successful with breeding Theloderma is their rapid development cycle. Because mossy frogs are entirely arboreal and conspecific with various foam-nesting species, they have evolved a method of egg-laying that sees them utilise tree hollows. The tadpoles hatch into tiny pools of water within the trunk, which can quickly dry up if rain isn’t frequent or heavy enough to replenish them. They therefore grow fast without even feeding, until they emerge as young froglets. This is a similar breeding strategy to the cinnamon tree frogs (Nyctixalus) that are also now reasonably common in captivity. It is this breeding strategy that has allowed Theloderma to colonise a wide range of very wet habitats across Asia.
Theloderma corticale
The Vietnamese or ‘Tonkin’ mossy frog (Theloderma corticale) is perhaps the most well-known of the Theloderma species in captivity. It is also one of the most striking in appearance and it, alongside T. bicolor is the most “moss-like” of all the mossy frogs.
The Vietnamese mossy frog has a relatively wide distribution from Guangxi in southern China, into Laos and northern Vietnam. Here, it is found close to streams in tree hollows and root systems, as well as cave cavities. In captivity, many hobbyists report the species as
semi-aquatic and spending most of its time in water. Whilst this may also be true in the wild, the animals are possibly resting in tannen-rich temporary pools of water within logs and tree trunks, as opposed to beautiful clear streams or ponds. Either way, a paludarium-style setup is a great option for keeping these frogs and if it happens to be beautifully-constructed, even better.
A ”drip wall” water feature is encouraged for a paludarium setup. Within caves, consistent water flow creates moss that acts as the perfect refuge for these frogs. Simulating this in captivity is quite simple if the keeper installs a water filter that brings the reservoir of water from the bottom, up to a nozzle at the top, that drips down some décor. Artificial rock is a good surface, as is cork bark, although the keeper should expect the bark to rot after a few years and the entire terrarium may require re-building.
Vietnamese mossy frogs are found at medium altitudes from 470 – 1500m above sea level in a surprisingly temperate region of Asia. They prefer cool temperatures and do not tolerate extreme heat. This is the biggest challenge for most keepers, as the frogs should be kept 15 - 21℃. Anything higher than 25℃ is a cause for concern. Furthermore, northern Vietnam experience seasonality, with cool, dry(ish) periods and warmer wet seasons. The mossy frogs actively avoid these extremes by remaining close to water-rich areas and in highhumidity tree hollows year-round. Therefore, humidity should stay above 80% at all times and temperatures can fluctuate throughout the year within the species’
comfortable parameters. Mossy frogs are primarily nocturnal, so a Ferguson Zone 1 UVB Eco T5 is suitable for providing the small amount of UVI required to maintain circadian rhythms and operate naturally.
Joan Carles Juarez/Shutterstock.com
A misting system should be used for these frogs so they can be misted with cool water frequently. This will help reduce the temperature in the enclosure. On exceptionally hot days, freezing some R/O (or at least treated) water and adding some ice to the paludarium water can help reduce the temperature in the drip wall. Also, placing an ice pack in front of the vivarium and using a fan to blow cool air into the enclosure is a good last-minute strategy to reduce temperatures.
Bird poo mossy frog Theloderma asperum
The “Garden Hill”, “pied” or “bird poo” mossy frog is a much smaller, but equally as unique species of amphibian that is frequently available captive-bred in the UK. These frogs are more variable than the Vietnamese mossy frogs but begin life as tiny, smooth, tan-coloured tree frogs. As they age, their striking red eyes, contrasted patterns and warty limbs become more prominent. As the name suggests, their ivory dorsum is adapted to look like bird poo.
Theloderma asperum is one of the more widely distributed species. Official records have found the species in
Malaysia, Thailand, Bhutan and Bangladesh with the IUCN suggesting the species is also found in Nepal. Anecdotal reports from herpers also point towards populations in Vietnam where it is thought to inhabit the same forests as the Vietnamese mossy frog. However, its likeness to T. albopuntatum and T. baibungense casts speculation over this. There may also be populations in Indonesia and Cambodia. Of course, the excellent camouflage of this species combined with a general lack of information on the genus itself means its distribution is uncertain. Where T. asperum has been recorded, it inhabits tropical lowland and submontane rainforests from 0 – 1,500m above sea level. This makes it a far more heat-tolerant species than T. corticale or T. bicolor
Husbandry should be similar to that of other mossy frogs, although temperatures can reach 24℃ with no ill effects (anything higher than 27℃ can be fatal). There may also be an argument for not requiring a full paludarium setup for this species which is more versatile in its habitat usage than other species of mossy frogs. However, a pool of clean, filtered water is recommended and therefore, an attractive paludarium setup is usually the go-to for most keepers.
The bird poo mossy frog only grows to a few centimeters in length, making them amongst the smallest of the Theloderma species. Therefore, a small colony can be housed comfortably in a 45cm3 glass terrarium. They are possibly the most manageable of the mossy frogs from a captive husbandry perspective, but do have a reasonably loud call that new hobbyists should be considerate of.
Rumaisha Project/Shutterstock.com
Chapa mossy frog
Theloderma bicolor
The Chapa “bug-eyed” or “mossy” frog is one of the more controversial species within the trade. It occurs in submontane forests between 1400 and 1800m in elevation in northwestern Vietnam and China. It has a reasonably small distribution and relies on very specific habitats to thrive which, until 2022, meant conservationists considered this species to be Endangered. Surveys into habitats where it had been completely lost (possibly driven by the spread of Bd alongside deforestation) painted a bleak picture.
This meant that when many T. bicolor specimens started showing up in captivity alongside the already popular T. corticale, conservationists were considered that it was being harvested at a potentially unsustainable rate. Later surveys into remote areas of southern China found the expected distribution of the species to be larger than initially thought and whilst it has suffered severe declines in Vietnam, the population appears to be strong in China. Now, the Chapa mossy frog is listed as “Least Concern”. Furthermore, animals that were once exported from Vietnam are semifrequently bred in captivity and the species has also been reported to have been bred in Vietnam too. T. bicolor, whilst less abundant than T. corticale and T. asperum in the UK and Europe can be sourced and bred in captivity without impacting wild populations.
Their husbandry is like other Theloderma species; a suitably sized, well-maintained paludarium with cool temperatures and plenty of vegetation. However, being a specifically submontane species, they are less tolerant to climate fluctuations and perhaps more fragile than the other two species listed in this article. Keepers should try to keep Mossy Frogs Species and
temperatures between 16 - 20℃. The species also occurs in a range of habitats but is typically found on broad-leaved plants close to trees in evergreen forests. Therefore, a large densely-planted paludarium is required. Some species have also been found in limestone karsts, so an artificial rock wall with dripping water is also a good addition.
Diet, as with all species of Theloderma should consist of a wide variety of suitably-sized insects. Alternating supplements between calcium with D3, multivitamins, bee pollen and preformed Vit-A (with calcium being the most frequently used) is a good way to ensure a varied nutritional profile. Insect species offerings should be
equally as varied and comprise of crickets, locusts, calciworms, waxworms, silkworms, silk moths, black soldier flies, curly wing flies, snails and more.
Mossy frogs in captivity
Mossy frogs are undoubtedly more advanced than other tree frog species. They are more susceptible to overheating and even the concept of building a paludarium requires a slightly more advanced knowledge of terraristiks, as well as aquatics. However, this is a welcome challenge for many hobbyists eager to keep some of the most marvelous amphibians on Planet Earth.
Mossy Frogs Species
Kurit afshen/Shutterstock.com
The scientific names of animals are often very confusing, and many hobbyists can spend their entire lives without needing to know the scientific name of a species. However, a scientific name can tell us a lot about a species. Hobbyists that are planning to grow their collection or start a breeding project must know the scientific name of a species to avoid crossbreeding and to remain professional in international markets where English might not be so widely spoken. The following “Keeper Basics” will broadly cover scientific names and help the average keeper develop their professional knowledge.
Useful words and phrases
“ensis” is an adjectival suffix meaning “originating in”. For example: Phelsuma madagascariensis (Madagascar day gecko), Sanzinia madagascariensis (Madagascan tree boa) and Mantella madagascariensis (Malagasy painted Mantella) all come from Madagascar. This can be used to label more specific places, such as Atelopus mindoensis (Mindo harlequin frog) which is only found in the tiny village of Mindo, Ecuador.
If a species is named in honour of someone, the epithet is usually the person’s name with an i or ii suffix. There is a lot of confusion around the pronunciation of these scientific names as it is highly dependant on what precedes the suffix. However, generally “i” is pronounced “ee” and “ii” is pronounced “eye”.
What’s in a name?
The scientific name of a species is its only true name. For example, in Australia a “green tree frog” refers to Litoria caerulea (what we call a ‘whites’ tree frog), in Europe a “green tree frog” refers to Hyla arborea (the European green tree frog) and in the US a “green tree frog” refers to Hyla cinerea. In just about every country with tree frogs that are green, a local name for the species will
undoubtedly be “green tree frog” and therefore, there could be dozens of different species labelled “green tree frog” if we were to only use common names. The same applies to “vine snake”, “grass snake”, “river turtle”, “sand lizard” and many more colloquial terms. Whilst we may gage some understanding from context, the common name tells us very little about the species. In some cases, this can be life threatening.
Madagascar day gecko (Phelsuma madagascariensis)
Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock.com
If a herpetologist has experience with “vine snakes” in South East Asia, they are likely referring to the vine snakes of the genus Ahaetulla. If that herpetologist flies to South America, he will encounter the similar-looking vine snakes of the genus Oxybelis. However, if that same herpetologist handles a “vine snake” in Africa, it could kill them. The vine snakes in the genus Thelotornis have life-threatening hemotoxic venom that can and does kill people. All three groups of snakes look very similar, all are referred to as ‘vine snakes’, all are rear-fanged, but two are (pretty much) completely harmless, while one possesses a deadly venom for which there is no antivenom. While the field herpetologist should probably know better than to handle unidentified snakes, a hobbyist who has avoided scientific terminology and acquired a new “vine snake” could encounter problems.
How do scientific names work?
Simply, the scientific name is the “genus” followed by the “specific epithet”. That means, the group the species belongs to, followed by the species’ name. In some cases, a single species can contain several populations that show some level of distinction (usually genetic) from one another beyond appearances (morphology), these are called “subspecies” and the name of a subspecific
epithet comes after the specific epithet. An example of this could be the Parson’s chameleon (Calumma parsonii). Calumma is the name of the genus (a large group of chameleons native to Madagascar that share similar traits), parsonii is the species name (which was picked by Cuvier to honor the first person to document the species in the wild). There are two subspecies of Parson’s chameleon. Calumma parsonii cristifer is smaller with less patterns and inhabits denser, warmer forests. This means that the rest of the population is currently categorized as “Calumma parsonii parsonii”. Over time, herpetologists will likely describe different subspecies of Calumma parsonii s research into unique populations is completed. For example, there is a locality of Parsons chameleon that is strikingly blue. A herpetologist may begin scientific work to redescribe this population as a new subspecies and settle on the name Calumma parsonii azureus in reference to its blue colour. Until an official formal description of the species is peer-reviewed and published, it will be referred to as Calumma parsonii sp. nov. with “nov” meaning nova which is Latin for “new”.
In academic literature the name of the person who first described the species, as well as the year that it was published also follows a species name (usually only the first reference of a species within a publication).
Colours
Melas - Black
Leuco – White
Viridis (Latin) Prasinos (Greek) – Green
Azurea – Blue
Versi – variable
Concolor – one colour
bicolor – two colours
tricolor – three colours
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Deciphering names
A specific epithet can teach us a lot about a species. These are typically in either ancient Greek, ancient Latin, or a European derivative of either language. The following examples showcase how these words are used to create meaning:
Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius)
• Eu means good or “true” and blephar means “eyelid”.
• Macul means (small) spots and arius means “to have”.
• The genus Eublepharis contains the eyelid geckos, whilst the macularius species has spots.
Bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps)
• Pogon means “beard”
• Vitti means “ribbon” and ceps means “head”.
• The genus Pogona contains several bearded dragon species, whilst vitticeps presumably references the stripes on the Central bearded dragon’s head.
Royal python (Python regius)
• Python refers to a serpent name Pythius in Greek mythology.
• Regius means “royal”.
• Python regius is a like-for-like description for the common name (in the UK and Europe), but it is thought it received the name “royal” from reports that Queen Cleopatra would wear a snake crown and this species seemed to fit that legend.
Corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus)
• Panther means (quite simply) “panther” and ophis means snake.
• Guttatus means speckled or spotted.
Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni)
• Testudo was a military shelter made by holding shields in a formation that looks like a shell.
• Hermanni is in honour of Jean Herman who was a Professor of Natural History is Strasbourg, France.
• The Hermann’s tortoise is a good example of a species named in honour of someone.
Adjectives
• Linea means “lined”: Phelsuma lineata is the “lined day gecko”
• Quottor means “four” and oculus or ocellata means “eyed”: Phelsuma quodriocellata is the “fourspotted” or “peacock day gecko” named after the spots on its flanks.
• Latus means “broad”, cauda means “tail”: Phelsuma laticauda is the “broad tailed day gecko” sometimes called the “gold dust day gecko” in captivity.
• Modesta means “modest”: Phelsuma modesta is named after its inconspicuous drab brown colouration.
• Vitta means “stripe” or “band”: Phelsuma dorsivittata is the “striped day gecko” named after the stripe on its dorsum (back).
• Grandis means “giant”: Phelsuma grandis is the Madagascar giant day gecko
Ceps is short for capus which means “head”: breviceps means “short head”, megacephalus means “big head”, melanocephala means “black head”.
Cauda means “tail” so laticauda is “broad tail”, caudicinctus is “banded/belted tail” and caudolineatus means “striped tail.”
Derma means skin, Theloderma means “nipple skin”, Heloderma means “studded skin” and Diploderma means “double skin”
FASCINATING FACT
Side-stabbing snakes
The “mole vipers” of the Atractaspis genus can envenomate a person without opening their mouth. Their fangs are so large that they protrude outwards which allows the snake to envenomate a threat
by striking it with the side of its head, making them impossible to handle without protection.
Their venom is a potent anticoagulant that can cause appendages to rot and drop off.
