This month’s issue has been a pleasure to create. I have been keeping a close eye on feedback and comments on social media and thought it was time to share my thoughts on gargoyle gecko husbandry from a visit to New Caledonia earlier this year. The reels I created for Instagram showcase the stark contrast between crested gecko and gargoyle gecko habitats and have had an incredible response. I would urge anyone who reads the article to quickly check out our Instagram and Facebook pages for footage of the gargoyles’ unique habitat.
This issue is a special one. We have managed to squeeze in more original content than ever before and would love to keep this up in the future. This way you get more value without wasting unnecessary paper. I am a firm believer that easy-to-digest, concise articles are far more enjoyable to read so I have implemented more stringent editorial processes to ensure every piece is a joy to read from start to finish.
We’ve also included a nice chunk of “invert” content to sink your fangs into. Kelly Stephenson introduces us to the process of breeding her favourite tarantulas and Nick Wadham has contributed a startling (and slightly scary) feature on deadly caterpillars.
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Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors. Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.
Front cover: Gargoyle gecko
(Rhacodactylus auriculatus)
Fiona Miller/Shutterstock.com
Right: Java tree tiger
(Phormingochilus sp. rufus )
Tobias Hauke/Shutterstock.com
With that said, this issue focuses unapologetically on improving animal husbandry. We know that many Yemen chameleons do not live out their full life expectancy in captivity, and this month’s “Keeper Basics” faces that topic head-on. We also know that sulcata tortoises are extremely demanding in time, space and resources. Using data from the National Centre for Reptile Welfare we discuss key considerations for new keepers.
As a final bonus, we explore the husbandry requirements of just an all-round awesome reptile; the frilled lizard. Enjoy!
Thank you,
Thomas Marriott Editor
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The
Breeding Phormingochilus tarantulas with Kelly Stephenson.
Frilled dragon care and keeping.
Focus on the wonderful world of exotic pets. This month it’s the West Indian leopard gecko (Eublepharis fuscus) 14 TIGERS OF THE TREES
A STONE’S THROW FROM SUCCESS Gargoyle gecko husbandry.
Trials and tribulations of Sulcata tortoise husbandry. 38CATERPILLAR, KING OF STINGS By Nick Wadham.
KEEPER BASICS: The perfect Chameleon setup
FASCINATING FACT Did you know...?
EXOTICS NEWS
The latest from the world of exotic animals
Rare case of rainbow boa parthenogenesis
A Brazilian rainbow boa at the City of Portsmouth College has birthed 14 offspring without male fertilisation.
The snake, known as Ronaldo, had previously thought to have been male and had not been exposed to another snake in nine years. The 13-year-old boa was able to reproduce due to parthenogenesis, a process by which female individuals can grow and birth young without any exposure to a male of their species.
The phenomena has been recorded in a number of reptile species, including crocodiles, Komodo dragons and Burmese pythons. Mourning geckos breed almost solely through parthenogenesis, yet it remains rare in other taxa.
Ronaldo’s clutch of eggs was discovered by a student during a routine check of the vivariums.
Peter Quinlan, reptile expert at the college, said: “I’ve been breeding snakes for 50 years and I’ve never known this happen before. effectively the babies are clones of their mother although their markings are all slightly different. Ronaldo had been looking slightly fatter than usual, like he’d eaten
a big meal, but we never thought for a moment that he, or should we say she, was pregnant.”
The birth is the third known case of parthenogenesis in Brazilian rainbow boas, named for the colours reflected by their scales. They’re one of the most widely kept boa species, reaching up to 7 feet in length.
The sex of the new arrivals is currently being determined and they will be kept at the college until they are rehomed.
Pit viper species discovered in China
A new species of mountain pit viper has been discovered by Chinese researchers.
Ovophis jenkinsi, is named after Robert William Garfield Jenkins, a herpetologist who died in 2023 and specialised in Asian pit vipers.
The newly described species ranges in colour from orange and brown to dark brown and grey with a distinct neck pattern.
The prototype was found Yunnan province in southern China and inhabits tropical mountain rainforest. It is nocturnal, conducting most of its activity at night during light rain and high humidity.
The researchers reported that the snakes inflate their bodies and can strike quickly when threatened. Little is currently known about their feeding habits in the wild, with captive observations forming much of the scientists’ knowledge.
A Western Pacific leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) has broken the world record for the deepest turtle dive while migrating from her nesting grounds in the Solomon Islands.
A tracking monitor showed her diving 4,409 feet, deeper than a navy submarine which has reached depths of 2,950 feet. The previous record for a turtle dive was held by another leatherback, reaching 4,199 feet in 2006.
Leatherbacks are known to dive to great depth in search of jellyfish to prey on. Unlike their hard-shelled peers,
leatherbacks don’t have a rigid breastbone, allowing them to dive deeper. Their shell also absorbs nitrogen, allowing them to avoid decompression issues when diving and rising.
They spend most of their life out in deep waters, rarely returning to the shores or even to the shallows. They can hold their breath for up to 90 minutes at a time, allowing them to reach incredible depths. Their nesting and feeding habits make gathering information on their behaviour challenging, particularly with only an estimated 1,400 breeding adults of the Critically Endangered species remaining.
The new record will only be verified by the Guinness World Records once a paper has been published and peer reviewed on the finding.
Two dwarf gecko species discovered
Two species of gecko from the Cnemaspis genus have been discovered in the northern Western Ghats region of India.
The species were located on the far northern peaks of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra.
They are morphologically distinct from other species in the girii clade due to differences in body size and other visual factors and are the most northerly species of the clade. Both species measure up to 43 millimetres in length but differ from one another by the number of mid central scales across the belly. They are a pale colour with dark brown markings.
The newly described species join the large Cnemaspis genus which currently includes more than 100 species. They are found within 10 to 25 kilometres of one another which, according to the paper published by the research team, is “an example of extreme micro-ending in the Northern Western Ghats.”
Striking new snake species described in Saudi Arabia
A new species of snake (Rhynchocalamus hejazicus sp. nov.) has been discovered in Saudi Arabia, with a striking appearance that makes it hard to forget.
The new member of the Rhynchocalamus genus has a bright orange colouration with a black head and thick black band around the neck. It inhabits sand and stone based soils and has been seen near human habitations. It is seemingly nocturnal and is described in the paper as a “small secretive snake”.
ON THE WEB
A team of researchers from the Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos (CIBIO) in Portugal and Charles University in the Czech Republic has described the new species, which is found in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia. This area was previously described by scientists as a biogeographic gap for the genus, stretching between the Levant and the coastal areas of Oman and Yemen, which has now been filled by the hard-to-miss new addition.
Fortunately, the researchers plan to classify the newly described species as ‘of Least Concern’, indicating that the previously unknown to science species is thriving.
Written by Isabelle Thom
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THIS
MONTH
IT’S: THE DGHT
The DGHT (Deutsche Gesselschaft fur Herpetologie und Terrarienkunde) translates to The German Society for Herpetology and Terrarium Science. This world-leading organization straddles the line between private herpetoculture and academic herpetology perfectly to encourage conservation through the keeping of reptiles and amphibians. They have over 5,000 members from 30 countries and set an excellent example to herpetology groups across the globe.
The frilled dragon (Chlamydosaurus kingii) is an iconic species of reptile that is famed for its likeness to the Jurassic Park superstar Dilophosaurus. Separated by 186 million years, both species are fearsome reptiles and whilst there is no conclusive evidence that Dilophosaurus ever had frills, Chlamydosaurus certainly does. The frilled dragon or “Australian frilled lizard” is the sole member of its genus and can be found across northern Australia and southern New Guinea. It is extensively farmed in Indonesia and frequently captive-bred in Europe and the US, however, there are some stark differences between Indonesian and Australian variants and perhaps some care considerations too.
Understanding the species
Whilst the frilled dragon is a single species, there are some remarkable differences between the Australian and Indonesian/Papuan localities. Morphologically, the Australian frilled dragons grow much larger than their New Guinea cousins. They also usually have white cheeks, which is not the case for New Guinea frillies.
Dragons from New Guinea will typically experience higher
rainfall, denser canopy cover and less seasonal fluctuations in temperature and humidity when compared to those of the Northern Territory or Western Australia. However, the species has a wide range stretching into the tropical forests of the Cape York Peninsula and whilst they are still more present in eucalypt forests rather than tropical rainforests, the canopy density here will undoubtedly be thicker than that found in the Kimberleys. These environmental conditions are worth considering when
creating a captive environment for a frilled dragon, so having a good understanding of the locality of an animal before sourcing it is important. This will help the new keeper refine their husbandry practices and also highlight anything suspicious about an animal/seller.
Australia has never permitted the exportation of any reptiles and amphibians. Whilst frilled dragons are commonly legally exported from Indonesia and Australian variants are widely bred in captivity (reducing the demand for poached animals), sellers advertising specific localities with no breeding history may be worth avoiding. As New Guinea specimens are bred in their country of origin and shipped across the world, the chances of a new keeper obtaining an Indonesian
specimen are higher than an Australian specimen. However, Australian “frillies” have been bred for decades by breeders who will specifically work with the larger, more impressive Aussie variants. Of course, some mixing of bloodlines has also likely occurred in the decades that hobbyists have maintained the species.
Male frilled dragons grow considerably larger than females. They also usually have more vibrant and contrasted colouration, particularly on their frills. Some “fired up” males are known to show almost entirely black bodies with bright orange or yellow frills. Australian variants will have more distinct speckled patterns, brighter colours in their frill and are typically lighter and browner than the grey Indonesian animals.
Large, male Australian frilled lizard Matt Cornish/Shutterstock.com
Without the Frills
Enclosure
The largest hurdle when keeping any large lizard (let alone the second largest Agamid on Earth) is finding a large enough vivarium. In the case of the frilled dragon, commercially available vivariums just won’t cut it. This species ideally needs a 5 x 3 x 5ft vivarium to have ample space to climb and explore. Whilst they may be reasonably static while basking, frilled dragons are very three dimensional in their movements and will climb, hide and perch in all available space. One big mistake keepers make is purchasing a “starter” viv for their juvenile frilly with the plan to build a full-size setup when the animal reaches adult size at around 1 – 2 years of age. As time progresses, they may realise they do not have space for a wardrobe-sized vivarium in their home or the time or money to build it.
In the wild, frilled dragons are typically spotted perching on fence posts, Eucalypt trees or termite mounds during the early hours of the morning or late evening. They are most commonly seen during dry season where they have reduced activity levels and perch on large trees. However, their general activity levels increase during the wet season when they move between perches more often and will favour shorter trees with thinner branches.
Basking spots
In the Northern Territory and Western Australia, the forests are reasonably sparse and trees are separated by long grasses and thick layers of eucalyptus leaf litter. These “tropical savannah forests” are a favoured habitat of the frilled dragon. However, they also occur in the Daintree rainforest and down the east coast of Queensland, where forests are more tropical and slightly denser. In New Guinea, the increased rainfall will produce even thicker forests. The frilled dragons here will likely experience far less sunlight and perhaps need to climb to higher perches to receive adequate sunlight for thermoregulation and UVB absorption.
As a general rule of thumb, ambient temperature should be kept at around 28℃ for most of the year, dropping by around 5℃in the cooler months. A basking spot of around 42℃ with high UVB exposure (Ferguson Zone 3) should be created at the top of the enclosure. Establishing this contrast of a reasonable ambient temperature with a large, hot, basking spot will be extremely difficult in a smaller vivarium. This is extra reason to provide frilled lizards with enormous custom made enclosures and ensure that the environmental contrasts and gradients are achieved.
Husbandry
Indonesian frilled lizard
I Wayan Sumatika/Shutterstock.com
Furthermore, décor should be positioned to allow the animal to move into and away from the UVB. Some keepers report an active aversion to intense UVB, which is unusual given the species’ home range. The best way to combat this is to use a variety of perches and arboreal hides throughout the enclosure. Many keepers with large enclosures report success with mercury vapour bulbs but those using wooden vivariums must position their lighting effectively to form a basking spot with a full spectrum of lighting that is large enough to cover the animals’ entire body and is guarded, so the animal does not burn itself on the lighting. Frilled lizards are particularly susceptible to burning their fragile frills, so some distance needs to be provided between the basking spot and the light. Where heat guards are used, it is important to remember that some amount of UV will be lost. The manufacturer or salesperson should be able to advise on the output of a lamp before selling it.
Humidity
Humidity can be tailored to meet the seasons. In Australia, the wet season runs from November to April and the dry season from May to October. In Europe, it may be easier to swap this around so the “wet” season coincides with our summer instead. This is because Australia’s “wet” season is
also its warmest months. The increased ambient heat should be coupled with increased misting (at least twice a day) to achieve a 70% humidity with frequent spikes to 100%. In the winter, misting can be reduced slightly and the natural drop in temperature will likely bring the ambient temperature in the terrarium down by an appropriate 3 – 5℃. During these months, it’s fine to let humidity drop to around 50% as long as there are daily spikes up to 80%. Doing this during the morning or evening is most appropriate to replicate wild humidity fluctuations and morning dew.
Some keepers report problems with their frilled lizards drinking still water. Instead of offering sparkling, the keeper should install a dripper or make sure there is enough moisture in the terrarium for the frilled dragonto drink moving droplets from leaves (or spray the lizard directly to ensure they have drunk). Offering water-rich greens can also help with hydration. Although frilled lizards are primarily insectivorous, they will also feed opportunistically on a range of plants.
The frill of it
The paradox that keeps the frilled dragonon the fringes of Herpetoculture is that their most impressive trait is a defensive manoeuvre that should be actively discouraged and avoided in
captivity. The responsible reptile keeper should, ideally, never see their animal “frill up” and certainly not evoke it.
Frilled lizards rely on both their frill and their long whip-like tails for defence. Once a frilled dragonbecomes accustomed to a keeper cleaning their enclosure or bringing food, it should be reasonably docile. This is the goal that every keeper should aim for. Sourcing a frilled dragon with the intent of seeing it use its frill is essentially buying an animal and hoping it experiences severe stress. Whilst the lizard will likely utilise its defence techniques occasionally as it settles into a new home, this action should not be encouraged.
On the other hand, frilled lizards are Agamids with complex social dynamics and use their frill, alongside head bobbing, press ups and other signaling methods to stake their territory. Keepers with two enclosures (males should not be housed together) can witness interesting uses of the frill between rival males across the room. Alternatively, the species is listed “Least Concern” by the IUCN and is reasonably common in parts of their range so observing them in the wild is reasonably straightforward and arguably more affordable than building an enclosure, sourcing an animal and providing high levels of heat and light for 30+ years. CYK
SPECIES SPOTLIGHT
The wonderful world of exotic animals
West Indian leopard gecko (Eublepharis fuscus)
The West Indian leopard gecko is a species of leopard gecko occasionally and in recent years, more frequently found in the hobby. Inhabiting a more southernly range than the popular Eublepharis macularius, this species requires much higher humidity with a scrub forest biotope.
The West Indian leopard gecko has a velvety skin with more distinct banding. Spots are less clearly defined and overall colour is duller than the common leopard gecko. This is where the species gets its epithet “fuscus” which means ‘dark’ or ‘dusky’.
This species should be maintained similarly to a common leopard gecko, but naturalistic substrate that incorporates
coir is recommended so that humidity can be kept more than 60% with night-time spikes up to 85%. During the summer months, a steady humidity of 75% should be maintained with a hotspot of 35℃. In winter, temperatures should drop to around 20℃ and humidity should also fall slightly. Ferguson Zone 1 UV should be provided yearround, with 14 hours of daylight in summer, dropping gradually to around 8 hours of daylight in winter.
The West Indian leopard gecko is also broadly considered to be hardier than the common leopard gecko by breeders. This may be because the species has been bred mostly by experts and professional facilities that have taken careful consideration to preserve genetic diversity where possible.
NutriRep™ is a complete calcium, vitamin & mineral balancing supplement with D3. It can be dusted onto all food sources including insects, meats & vegetables. No other supplement is required.
TIGERS OF THE TREES
Breeding Phormingochilus tarantulas with Kelly Stephenson.
Sutat Pavilairut/Shutterstock.com
Phormingochilus is a genus of tarantulas found in Indonesia and Malaysia. Currently, around five species have been described from Borneo and one from Java. The group was originally described, like most Asian tarantulas, by Reginald Pocock in the late 19th Century. Today, one of these species (Phormingochilus sp. rufus) known as the “Java tree tiger” or “peach Earth tiger” is frequently bred in captivity. Although it is not nearly as common or popular as other species, tarantula breeder Kelly Stephenson of “Just Tarantulas” believes it perhaps should be. We caught up with Kelly to discuss her breeding efforts for this alternative invertebrate.
The Java Tree Tiger
Being an arboreal, “Old World” (referring to countries in Europe, Asia and Africa) species, the Java tree tiger is a fast-moving tarantula that spends most of its time in tree hollows instead of burrows. It will leave the refuge of a tree to hunt for insects at night, where its true splendour can be observed. Like many species of spider, the Java tree tiger is constantly subject to taxonomic revisions and the epithet “sp” in its name, is an indicator that the true published account of this species is still in the works. Kelly is working alongside other taxonomists and collectors to help distinguish and identify a range of tarantula species, alongside her hobby of breeding them.
“The Java tree tiger has a striking vibrant orange colouration” explains Kelly. “However, it is sexually dimorphic and only females have this colouration along with the "tiger" markings which adorn the abdomen. Mature males are rather dull in comparison with a beige colouration and extremely fluffy legs that resemble pipe cleaners. The sexual dimorphism becomes more contrasted as they mature into adults.”
“Adult females will grow to have around a 5-6 inch diagonal leg span and the average lifespan of a female from spiderling onwards is 12 -15 years. Adult males are smaller and grow to have a diagonal leg span of around
3 - 4 inches. As with any male tarantula, once they have matured they are on a limited life span. In our experience, the males rarely live more than a few months after their final moult. The average lifespan of a male from the spiderling stage until full maturity is around 2 - 3 years.
“Across all tarantula species, females typically live longer than males. There are several hypotheses for this. Firstly,
it is usually the male that seeks out the female during the breeding season, They must leave the safety of a burrow or tree hollow to cross jungles or deserts to find their partner, adding to the stress, increasing their metabolic rate and demanding more hunting (which, in turn, wears them down). There is also a pattern of smaller tarantula species living shorter lives, so the males being smaller may also have some physiological influence on their lifespan.”
Tigers
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Once released, the microscopic predators will actively seek and consume parasites. Once eliminated, the predators disappear naturally. The mode of action requires several days. After introduction of TAURRUS®, pest populations should be monitored: at first it will stabilize, and then gradually decline. In heavy infestations, several releases may be needed to eradicate all parasites.
Care and Keeping
Typically, “Old World” tarantulas are considered more advanced animals to care for, simply because they move much quicker and are generally more defensive than “New World” tarantulas. Some of the more popular New World tarantulas, such as the Chilean rose (Grammostola rosea), Mexican red knee (Brachypelma smithii) and Honduran curly hair (Tliltocatl albopilosus) rely on urticating hairs as a primary defence mechanism. This means they are more reluctant to bite than species that don’t have urticating hairs and must protect themselves with a bite. Furthermore, arboreal tarantulas must be capable of taking down a range of prey items and thus typically have more potent venom. Phormingochilus species are considered to have “medically important” venom in Malaysia and whilst this term doesn’t necessarily mean they are dangerous or life-threatening, a bite is best avoided. This being said, for the hobbyist looking to enter the wonderful world of keeping Asian tarantulas, Kelly considers the Java tree tiger an excellent first species.
She explains: “The Java tree tiger is actually very easy to keep, but there are some things the hobbyist should remember. For example, this particular species is reasonably fast-growing, attaining full adult size in as little as 2 -3 years. We have always provided our spiderlings with a deep substrate in a 150ml pot because until they grow to juvenile size they tend to be more fossorial (underground) in their behaviour, where they have a burrow and feel safe and secure and only appear at night to hunt.”
“They thrive on a diet of mealworms, crickets and dubia roaches. As they grow they can be housed in a bigger enclosure with a cork bark hide and plants as they appreciate a more natural environment. We've always kept ours at a mid-range temperature (2024℃) with success, but a little warmer would also suit them. They also appreciate moist soil, so I flood the enclosure occasionally and allow it to dry out a bit before dampening it down again.”
Chilean rose (Grammostola rosea) Audrey Snider-Bell/Shutterstock.com
Mexican red knee (Brachypelma smithii) Milan Zygmunt/Shutterstock.com
Honduran curly hair (Tliltocatl albopilosus) Linn Currie/Shutterstock.com
Moulting
Like all Arthropods, tarantulas must moult when they outgrow their exoskeleton. It is during this time that they are most vulnerable, as they escape their hardened exoskeleton, and they must wait for the new, softer outer layer to harden. At this stage, the tarantula is not only vulnerable to predators, but even prey items and other insects can exploit this food source. As such, tarantulas typically find somewhere safe and secure to hide in the run-up to moulting and may even avoid feeding during this time.
“There are many signs a tarantula may be coming up to a moult” Kelly added. “One of them is the refusal of food. Others could be a dulling of the colouration of the tarantula, or that the animal is showing a large, dark abdomen which can even be visually shiny, or even just a broader change in behaviour. This period is what we refer to as pre-moult.”
“If you believe this to be the case it is important that water is still available, but the tarantula is not disturbed. Pre-moult can be a lengthy period, or it could be so fast that you didn’t even know that a moult was going to happen. Adults typically moult every few months, whereas spiderlings can moult just days after a big feed.”
“When the moulting process is imminent you may find the tarantula lays down a ‘moulting mat’. This is a thin layer of webbing which it will use to separate itself from the substrate during moulting. It will then flip itself over, so its legs are in the air. At this point it is vital that the enclosure is not moved,
and the tarantula is not disturbed. It is a myth that spiders die upside down but moving or disturbing a tarantula that is in this position can prove fatal for the tarantula.”
The keeper must be very careful whilst the tarantula is in its sensitive state. However, it is possible to observe the moulting process if the keeper is lucky. “It’s fascinating” said Kelly. “Once upside down, the tarantula will remove its carapace by applying pressure to the underside of it and then begin to pulsate its legs to shuffle the old skin off. This can take a few minutes for a spiderling but up to a few days for an adult.”
After the moulting, the tarantula will require some time to recover. As mentioned, they are extremely vulnerable and it can take over a week for the new exoskeleton to harden to a point where the tarantula is back to its “normal” state. During this time, the tarantula should not be fed and the keeper should keep disturbances to a minimum. Water should still be available.
Kelly continued: “A very good indicator of the tarantula’s recovery is the colour of its fangs. After a moult they will be white. They are very soft and completely useless in this state. As time goes on and a few days pass you may notice the fangs turning from white to red, they are still relatively soft but more capable of being used now if needed. We, however, still do not offer any food. As we approach a week or so after the moult the fangs have now returned to being completely black and as far as we are aware, fully hardened. To be on the safe side we still wait a few more days until we offer food to the tarantula.”
Breeding
Although people have bred for a while now, they are not particularly well established in the hobby. In the case of the species has not even been formally described yet. Therefore, breeding efforts for these species are important not only to teach arachnologists around the world about the behaviours of a species but also to reduce pressure from collection of wild specimens.
“From my past experiences of breeding sp.rufus, it is one of the easier species to try with if someone is looking to get into breeding old-world species of tarantula for the first time” added Kelly. “It really helps if a pairing attempt is done within a couple of months of the female moulting as this will give the best chance for success.”
“Introduce the male into the female's enclosure and you'll observe him tapping to attract her attention. She will drum back to him in response to show her interest, this can go on for quite some time before they meet. Once they do meet it’s usually a swift affair and once insertion is over, the male will make a hasty retreat. Sometimes a female will kill a male after they have paired although in our experience that is very unusual in this particular species. Once paired, continue to feed the female well and also ensure her substrate is kept slightly moist at all times and you can expect to find an egg sac anytime from a month onwards after the pairing.”
Breeding tarantulas can be a tricky affair. Spiders can produce huge amounts of tiny offspring, which for the brandnew breeder can be a daunting prospect. However, there is lots of advice and a strong network of invert enthusiasts available to support new keepers. It is worth attending events and building a network of potential new homes for the offspring before embarking on a breeding project.
However, keepers must be very vigilant in tracking the development of the young spiders so that they can be separated when they become spiderlings. As, at this stage, the young spiders can become cannibalistic. This is a common occurrence for arachnids with lots of offspring as it helps the strongest to survive and get a head start in life, but it should be prevented in captivity.”
Kelly concluded: “Once individually potted up, the spiderlings are strong and hardy and will grow well.
Kelly continued: “If you are successful in getting an egg sac produced then you can expect to see spiderlings fully developed and emerging at around 60 days from when the egg sac was made. However, this is temperature dependent.”
Interestingly, some tarantula species exhibit remarkable parental behaviours, guarding their eggs for long periods and even protecting the young until a certain age.
“Potting Up”
The term "potting up" is used to describe the process of separating spiderlings into individual housing. With very few exceptions, tarantulas are solitary creatures and encounters between individuals can lead to conflict and even cannibalism. Therefore, young spiderlings should be separated as soon as possible.
Kelly explains: “A typical spiderling enclosure is normally a 25ml plastic vial. These are approximately 55mm high and 30mm wide. They are an ideal size to keep check on your tiny spiderlings. The smaller size is also beneficial if you were to do your own breeding as egg sacs can contain large quantities of spiderlings and having a smaller universal sized housing is more practical for storage. However, our preferred housing for the Java t tiger is a 150ml tamper proof pot, approximately 70mm tall and 60mm wide. These pots provide more space for the arboreal, active spiderling.”
Tobias Hauke/Shutterstock.com
“We like to half-fill the pot with a substrate and provide a small piece of cork bark in a vertical orientation as well as a small clump of sphagnum moss. It is important that the substrate you use is free from chemicals and any artificial additives as these can be toxic to invertebrates.
outgrows the 150ml pots we like to move them into a 520ml tamper proof pot (approx. 115mm high and 85mm wide). They can be set up the same as the smaller pots. At this stage you can add a small water dish to provide a more consistent source of water. The cheapest and most readily available is a drinks bottle top - just give it a quick wash and it’s good to go.”
DID YOU KNOW
For this reason, we like to use Irish peat moss or just plain topsoil. Coco fiber is a common substrate used within the hobby but isn’t ideal for a species that is more moisture dependent, and we personally do not like to use it.
“Sphagnum moss is a great way to maintain moisture levels inside the enclosure and also provides a source of water for the spiderlings to drink from. With this set up it is much easier to maintain the moisture levels required and you will find the spiderling will likely dig a burrow behind the cork bark to use as a hide.”
The Java tree tiger is a fast-growing species and like all tarantulas, will require fairly consistent enclosure upgrades until they reach their final adult size. This means the new keeper should have everything they need prepared and on hand before they source their spiderling or embark on a new breeding project.
Kelly continued: “Once the tarantula
“As the tarantula is getting larger and outgrowing its 520ml pot you may want to look at getting it a forever home. An enclosure that is more aesthetically pleasing and a permanent home for your tarantula to live in. For this species we like to use either an Exo Terra Nano tall (20x20x30cm) or a Custom Aquaria glass enclosure of similar dimensions. There are great acrylic alternatives available, but these are the two we find ourselves always going back to. The setup is much the same but on a largfer scale. You may want to add multiple pieces of large cork bark to add depth to the enclosure. Plants can also be added as you now have the space, either plastic or real. Just be aware that these additions do not provide any benefit to your tarantula, but it is nicer to look at for us as keepers.”
Whilst the Java tree tiger may be a slightly more obscure species of tarantula in captivity, there is a group of dedicated hobbyists in the UK continuing to keep and breed them. An excellent place for new hobbyists to start is at “Invert Shows UK” a touring showcase of invertebrate hobbyists, businesses and educational institutions that connect invert enthusiasts across the nation. New keepers are encouraged to visit this year’s shows and join the ever-growing community of keepers.
Kelly concluded: “I highly recommend the Java tree tiger due to the ease of care but they are very affordable compared with others in the genus. They are beautiful, colourful and easy to care for - what’s not to like? Every tarantula collection needs one of these amazing creatures.”
The scientific name Phormingochilus sp. rufus is the best way to refer to this tarantula (despite it not being formally recognized) as it also has dozens of common names including “Java tree tiger”, “peach earth tiger”, “Java blonde” and “red earth tiger”.
The Java tree tiger tarantula is sexually dimorphic, meaning the males and females look different.
Phormingochilus sp. rufus is an old-world species. These tarantulas are typically faster with more potent venom, requiring keepers to be more vigilant.
Females can live for up to 12-15 years whereas males can live for up to 3 -4 years.
They are a “heavy webbing” species and will decorate every inch of their enclosure with webbing.
Gargoyle gecko husbandry.
The gargoyle gecko is the second most popular Diplodactylid in captivity to the crested gecko.
Despite a somewhat similar appearance, these two species occupy different ecological niches in the limited space where they both occur and entirely different habitats across most of their range. So, why do people keep them the same? The following feature addresses the stark differences in the natural history and habitat of gargoyle and crested geckos with suggestions to improve our gargoyle gecko husbandry practices…
Rhacodactylus auriculatus
The gargoyle or “knob-headed” gecko, gets its name from its large, bumpy cranium. Unlike the crested gecko, this species is reasonably variable in the wild. Wild colouration usually mimics moss and bark, so animals are typically various shades of green, brown and grey. However, some individuals will have specs of red and orange as well as distinct dorsal and lateral stripes amongst the mossy banding that is presented by wild-type geckos. Most of the species’ bright colouration lies around the animal's
head or in dorsal and lateral stripes that provide a great indicator of this species’ natural habitat.
The gargoyle gecko is one of the most widespread geckos in New Caledonia. However, they are most frequently found in maquis shrubland and forest edges. Their stripes help them seamlessly blend into thin branches, as well as tree bark. Gargoyle geckos can also be found in small bushes and isolated trees and are
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often spotted crossing the road and exhibiting terrestrial behaviours. The maquis' habitats occupied by gargoyle geckos are very different to the forest understory occupied by crested geckos. Both species have evolved to inhabit completely different ecological niches to avoid conspecific competition. Although in some regions such as the Blue River Provincial Park, the two species can be found relatively close to one another, the habitat that they occupy is strikingly different.
Creating the right habitat
Creating the perfect gargoyle gecko habitat is perhaps more achievable than most captive gecko species enclosures. Because “gargs” occupy low-lying shrubs a large 90x90x45cm enclosure could host an excellent slice of the wild. This is because there will be floor space and substrate to explore as well as enough height to mimic low-lying shrubs and enough space to move throughout the environment and seek specific microhabitats. Of
course, most keepers will opt for something slightly smaller, such as a 60x45x45 which may also be suitable.
Starting from the bottom, gargoyle geckos spend enough time on the ground to warrant being provided a naturalistic substrate that is more than just practical. In the central point of their distribution, the ground is comprised mostly of red clay and rocks. Therefore, a combination of moisture-retaining substrate (such as coir or BioLife Forest) and red sand/ desert substrate is probably most appropriate. If the keeper can retain high humidity in their terrarium, something more akin to the substrates used in bearded dragon enclosures would be more similar to gargoyle gecko habitat than those used in crested gecko enclosures. Large red rocks and gravel should also be provided to capture and hold heat at different rates in the enclosure.
Perch height plays an important role in the ecology of New Caledonia’s geckos. Our research pointed out that certain species typically occupy different heights within the forest,
possibly to avoid predation from larger species. However, it appears that this occurs even within the gargoyle gecko species itself. Bauer et al researched the behaviour of gargoyle geckos in Blue River Provincial Park in 2004. His team discovered that “humid forest specimens were found on much larger-diameter perches but at the same height as in the maquis. This suggests that R. auriculatus may select perches primarily based on height rather than perch diameter and is consistent with our findings that perch height, but not diameter, is significantly related to size and sex in this species. Our results that heavier individuals were more likely to be found on higher perches than lighter individuals parallels Seipp & Henkel’s (2000) observations that young R. leachianus occupied much lower perches than did adults and is consistent with the hypothesis that perch segregation serves to reduce aggressive interactions among conspecifics (Pounds 1988, Irschick et al. 2005).”
Therefore, having a range of perches within the enclosure that gradually get more robust at higher points, may be beneficial in making a young gargoyle
gecko feel more comfortable within a larger enclosure.
Many gargoyle gecko enclosures utilise cork bark tubes as perches. Instead, much thinner branches and décor should be used. Whilst cork bark may be aesthetically pleasing and a few tubes may make excellent hides, having a good selection of mature Schefflera, Dracaena and thin, complex branches or bamboo poles is more appropriate. Active gargoyle geckos do not look comfortable as they traverse their environment. A broad sheet of cork bark or a netted hammock is not the best way to utilise space. Instead, the geckos should be moving methodically around thin branches that they can grasp onto and hold their body upright.
Environmental conditions
One thing we learnt from our trip to New Caledonia with Blue River Diets is that the rain during the rainy season is intense and long-lasting. The environmental conditions recorded in the same area point towards cool and dry winters. This
means the environmental fluctuations throughout the year are drastic. Furthermore, gargoyle geckos inhabit elevations between 0 and 1,000m above sea level. This, in the context of a subtropical island, means they are exposed to enormous variations in climate across each population. However, a few aspects are reasonably standardized.
Firstly, gargoyle geckos inhabit foliage without any significant canopy. This means that they are exposed to the elements and although our readings in dense forest rarely exceeded 0.5 UVI, readings on a clear day can easily reach 11 UVI. This is a consideration for lighting. Although the species is considered a “Zone 1” animal and this is a safe bet for new keepers, using an additional spot bulb or increasing to Zone 2 for a few months a year may be an interesting concept to explore.
Typically, keepers of New Caledonian geckos tend to maintain them at a basic “room temperature”. Our expedition to New Caledonia found that whilst temperatures did remain reasonably steady throughout the day and night on the Isle of Pines, there was a different picture on the mainland where gargoyle geckos live. Temperature and humidity would change drastically according to the weather. Whilst the high-altitude regions in the centre of R. auriculatusrange remain incredibly humid throughout the summer months due to intense rainfall, more coastal regions (where gargoyle geckos can also be found) could frequently drop to 50% humidity. Likewise, temperatures at higher altitudes were
consistently cooler, whilst on the coast we recorded highs of 31℃ and lows of 20℃. Weather reports suggest temperatures frequently drop much lower than this at night during the winter (sometimes lower than 15℃). Therefore, instead of keeping gargoyle geckos in warm rooms year-round, having the enclosure in the coldest room in the house with a spot bulb switched on for a few hours a day is likely to provide more variation, whilst also emitting valuable infrared radiation for the geckos to utilise as they require.
Diet
The gargoyle gecko has one of the most diverse diets of any gecko. Encompassing fruits, flowers, plants, molluscs, insects, small skinks and other geckos, this species is a true omnivore. Therefore, it is important that the keeper not only supplies a wide variety of insects but also chooses a fruit diet with a wide spectrum of ingredients including bee pollen, insect meal, natural fruits and other diverse components like honey,
In the wild, gargoyle geckos are most active between 1 to 4 hours after sunset. This coincides with our results on crested geckos, suggesting both species are nocturnal and potentially only active for a few hours each night. This makes sense given that New Caledonia can be reasonably cool at night, particularly in winter. Despite being the smallest member of the Rhacodactylusgenus, the gargoyle is reasonably large for a gecko. They possibly restrict their activity hours to the time when insects are most abundant.
In the Wild: Red-Eyed Tree Frogs
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Crystal red caridina - VladiMil/Shutterstock.com
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Therefore, insects should be added to the captive gecko's enclosure just before sunset and lights switched off shortly after. Fruit provisions are far less time-sensitive and adding small amounts of Blue River Diets prepared formulas in different areas across the enclosure each day will prompt natural foraging behaviours.
Sap also plays a key part in the diet of gargoyle geckos. These sweet and fragrant secretions can hold a wide variety of nutrients. Whilst tree saps are not commercially available as gecko food, a sweet and fragrant formula containing honey may be a good alternative.
Just about any commercially available feeder insect can be given to a gargoyle gecko (and should). Variety is paramount and species that occupy low-lying shrubs will have access to a wide range of arthropods to predate on. As well as flying insects, gargoyle geckos will eat beetles, larvae, snails and more. As they cross between plants on the ground, even terrestrial prey may be on the
menu. However, whilst there is no harm in attempting to replicate the invertebrate diversity that these reptiles eat, giving them small mammals as an alternative to the geckos in their diet may be problematic. Pinkie mice are far fattier than a Bavayia orCaledoniscincus spp. Therefore, vertebrates should be fed very sparingly.
Conclusion
Grouping two species based purely on their aesthetics and distribution is a hugely problematic practice that occurs too often in herpetoculture. Whilst exotics keepers will always find a happy medium in terms of environmental controls to ensure their animals’ needs are met, generalisations can be problematic. In the wild, conspecific species must adapt to different ecological niches to avoid competition. This is the case with the gargoyle and crested gecko. With more research and habitat photography being shared in the public sphere, greater distinctions between the husbandry of each species can be achieved.
The African spurred or “Sulcata” tortoise is a large species of Chelonian from sub-Saharan Africa.
Despite being the third largest tortoise on Earth with an appetite and space requirements to match, it remains popular with hobbyists and pet keepers. While these animals are beautifully natured and undeniably impressive, their husbandry is far from simple. Not only do they require a paddock, an enormous basking spot and some indoor accommodation to escape the heat, but even basic tasks such as transporting and feeding a Sulcata tortoise can prove a challenge. That said, the Sulcata tortoise is the fifth most popular pet tortoise in the UK and our survey alone recorded over 130 individuals kept by private keepers. Therefore, understanding their husbandry is paramount to welfare.
Natural History
Also named the African “spurred” tortoise because of the spurs on each of the species' legs, the name “sulcata” comes from sulcus which is Latin for “furrow”. These tortoises can reach over 100kg in weight, with males typically growing larger than females.
They occupy grasslands, savannahs and flood plains, particularly in regions where tall grasses grow. These areas can be seasonal and the Sulcata tortoise has evolved a habit of burrowing to escape the harsh sun and predation. Some
of these burrows can be over 10m deep. Some studies even reference the increased growth of grasses and foliage at the burrow's entrance due to the excess moisture that is exposed. This (perhaps accidental) symbiosis provides food for the tortoise and could be likened to farming.
The Sulcata tortoise is an Endangered species once found from Mauritania to Yemen. Now, it occupies less than 20% of its former range of sub-Saharan Africa as populations are extremely fragmented. Two primary driving forces are to blame for these declines; agricultural growth resulting in
competition for resources from livestock and over-collection for the pet trade. Now, the Sulcata tortoise is listed under CITES Appendix II with a “0 export quota” meaning that animals cannot be legally removed from their country of origin. Some countries such as Djibouti, Togo and Somalia may have extirpated the species entirely.
In a strange turn of events, the widespread herpetoculture and now, captive breeding of Sulcata tortoises is leading to successful reintroduction campaigns in parts of their former range. Notes from the IUCN have seen survival
rates of 80% in reintroduced Sulcata tortoises in Ferlo, Senegal. Conservationists worked with local people to protect a 600ha reserve from livestock farming in the species’ former range, then introduced captive-bred tortoises that previously hatched at “Tortoise Village” in Dakar. Despite the animals being reared in the far more humid Dakar region, they adapted extremely well to the dry conditions of Ferlo. This is a testament to how strong these tortoises are and perhaps an indicator as to why they became so well established in private Herpetoculture in the 80s and 90s.
Caring for a hatchling Sulcata tortoise is reasonably straightforward and mirrors the husbandry practices of other popular smaller tortoises, albeit hotter with fewer humidity spikes and a deeper natural substrate. A tortoise table or a large vivarium with the glass removed and a wooden panel added to prevent escapes is suitable. However, this all changes once the tortoise reaches about 5 years of age and completely outgrows any commercially available enclosure. With a growth rate of around 7cm a year, a hatchling Sulcata tortoise will double its size in the first year and add about 10% more weight every 12 months. Typically, this growth rate slows down after around 10 years but for a species that will likely outlive its owner, at least 85% of the animals’ required husbandry is more aligned with small holding maintenance than vivarium practices.
In the wild, Sulcata tortoises can experience highs of +40℃ and nighttime lows below freezing. Their burrowing behaviours help them escape these extremities. However, they are very resilient to a wide range of temperatures which compliments their success in a captive setting.
A single adult Sulcata tortoise requires an outdoor pen of at least 10m2 with an insulated and heated indoor shed measuring 4 x 2m. Whilst wild tortoises will burrow to escape extreme temperature drops, captive tortoises will be exposed within their shed. Therefore, the temperature within the indoor enclosure must never drop below 20℃. UVB lighting should be provided 12 hours a day and a hotspot of +35℃ for at least 8 hours. This may require the keeper to mount the lighting fixtures on a platform that can be raised and lowered so that the ground-dwelling tortoises receive the appropriate amount of UV (Ferguson Zone 3 – 2.9 – 7.4) Whilst daylight hours can be reduced slightly in the winter, Sulcata tortoises do not hibernate so temperatures and lighting provisions should be maintained year-round.
Perhaps some of the Sulcata tortoise’s popularity in the UK is inherited from the US. Sulcata tortoises are reasonably low-maintenance pets if the keeper has an arid garden with hot temperatures year-round. Herpetoculturists had a lot of success in keeping and breeding Sulcata tortoises and their stoic disposition indicated that they may be just as well suited to European farmyards. The species’ stoic disposition gave the illusion of tolerating the cooler temperatures, whilst a lack of understanding of UV prompted mass cases of “pyramiding” and shell
deformities. Today, we understand far more about how to keep Sulcata tortoises in artificially controlled environments and keepers now realise the enormous electricity provisions needed to keep the species. Unfortunately, data from the National Centre for Reptile Welfare points towards an increased number of rehoming cases during the cost of living crisis, perhaps dictated by increased electricity costs. Unfortunately, of the 48 Sulcata tortoises that went through the centre in the last three years, none had even reached half their lifespan which highlights the possibility of "experiencing the unexpected" when keeping long-lived animals.
Diet
Sulcata tortoises are grassland species and have evolved to absorb and hold water extremely well. In some regions, wild sulcata tortoises will not experience a drop of rain for several months of the year. Instead, they get the majority of their hydration from the food they eat (although a bathing pond is recommended to allow the tortoises to hydrate if necessary).
Sulcata tortoises are well adapted to harsh environments and thus absorb nutrients from seemingly nutrient-poor grasses and weeds in the wild. Whilst this makes feeding them relatively simple, it does mean that fruits and highsugar items that most tortoises can eat as “treats” could be extremely detrimental to a Sulcata. Meadow grasses, dandelion, sow thistle, plantain and clover should be provided. Using hay during the winter months is also beneficial. The main rule for sulcata diets is "high fibre, low protein, low sugar."
Food should be dusted in a calcium supplement and big tortoises need big amounts of calcium. Dusting foods with Nutrobal and other calcium/vitamin supplements is essential but providing chunks of calcium can also be beneficial. Hatchling and young sulcata tortoises are particularly partial to ProRep calcium blocks.
Is a Sulcata tortoise right for you?
The appeal of large-bodied tortoises is understandable and the popularity of the Sulcata tortoise in captivity is perhaps to be expected. They are robust, hardy, visible reptiles with excellent temperaments and reasonably simple dietary requirements. However, their space requirements and longevity make them a commitment far beyond that of other species of tortoises.
When a keeper obtains a baby tortoise, that tortoise (if well looked after) will have two keepers. All being well, the animal will outlive its first keeper. Many families may be delighted at the prospect of caring for their beloved family pet but sulcata tortoises pose a bigger problem.
The new keeper must have the space, time and resources available to build an outdoor pen with an insulated shed and run expensive heating all day, every day, for the rest of that animal’s life (which could be many decades!) Doing this, whilst grieving the loss of a loved one is a serious challenge for any person to deal with.
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NCRW STATISTICS
CATERPILLAR, KING OF STINGS
By Nick Wadham.
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*Images for this article were selected by Exotics Keeper Magazine, not supplied by the author
Human beings learn to recognise danger from an early age- but looks can be deceiving, as mother nature proves. Lepidoptera, the second largest group of insects, span the world with stunning colours, designed to bedazzle, warn, or hide creatures away from potential predators. These tactics are passed on to their larvae- the ever popular caterpillar! Make no mistake, a caterpillar is nothing more than a big bag of juicy protein, and they need to hide away to protect themselves at all costs. Some caterpillars take camouflage to the extreme, with some even making themselves look like feces. Some are bristling with sharp spines, some are coated with dense coats of fur, some stand out a mile away, and, well, some caterpillars look like they come from another planet! But can a caterpillar actually kill you?
Caterpillars in the UK
Here in the UK, there is very little threat from caterpillars. The worst you can expect to endure is a nasty rash and, as a worst case scenario, some breathing complications. Here we only have five really seriously urticating species. I mention them here in order of what I judge to be the severity of their effects. The drinker moth is a fair sized caterpillar of roughly two inches in length, adorned with brightly coloured hairs to warn of its itch. It has, however, little in the way of stinging hairs, as seen from the small regularly placed black clutches along the sides of its body.
The rest of the hairs are harmless, but those little tufts of black can set your skin tingling, in some cases for hours.
The small eggar moth is a rare and relatively unknown species. You can often see their larval silk tents, which sometimes reach the size of a football, in mid-summer along hedgerows. In small eggars, the patches of hair are larger and an auburn colour. At roughly an inch and a half long, the caterpillar is not particularly remarkable. It’s pretty without a doubt, but their potency comes in numbers, with nests containing many individuals,
Caterpillar, King of Stings
sometimes up to two hundred at a time. By shedding, growing and weaving irritant hairs into the nest they are well protected, but the resultant rash is not much worse than that caused by the drinker moth.
The oak eggar and the fox moth are a little more potentthey carry a lot more of the irritating fur than drinker moths and small eggars, and they both pack a bit more of a punch. From personal experience of the hairs of these latter two, I can safely say they are on a par with each other. It doesn’t take long for the effects to be felt. The initial tingling itch soon becomes a burning painful welt. With all of that in mind, could there really be a worse species native to the UK? In short, yes. The brown tail moth is the most potent
of the native UK species, and is a nuisance for a number of reasons, the first of which is that it has the most irritating hairs of all of the UK species, and it is spreading rapidly from the south upwards. The adult moth is quite pretty and is not dangerous to us. Flying in mid-summer it seeks out an egg laying site, usually not far from its larval colony where it lays 150 to 400 eggs in a neat cluster and covers them with the hairs at the end of its abdomen. The caterpillars are very prettily marked with red, white and auburn hairs, set against a dull background of grey to black skin. It is a beauty that belies their potency. Their effect is serious, sometimes severe. To make things worse, you don’t even need to have touched them in areas of high population density. Through the process of moulting, their hairs shed and can lie loose
Eggar moth Noppe Herlinde/Shutterstock.com
in the hedges and shrubs around their habitats. These hairs can remain irritant for up to three years meaning a person can develop a sudden mystery rash just by walking past their colonies. If you manage to breathe in the hairs, you can get nasty respiratory complications which are worse if you are asthmatic. If your dog tries to eat one or disturbs a nest of them, the consequences can be fatal. So it is no big surprise when we say, handling them is not recommended. The hairs are known to contain a number of enzymes which are haemolytic (de Jong et al, 1976) and they can persist for weeks. The secret to their success lies in two areas. Firstly, due to the effects of their hairs, they have few predators in the wild. Only a few birds will attempt to eat the larvae, with the main bulk of predators being parasitic wasps and flies and micro-organisms such as fungi and viruses. Their second advantage is that they are highly polyphagous, meaning they have a broad palette for leaf fodder and can eat over twenty species of deciduous trees and shrubs. They are at their most vulnerable as adults when, without their defensive larval hairs, they are easy pickings for native insectivorous birds. That being said, the moths can still sport some leftover hairs from their recently vacated cocoonstheir larvae very cleverly break off and weave their hairs into the silk as they spin them prior to pupation.
The best way to control them is by destroying their winter nests, when they are at their smallest and least harmful. Until recently, the brown tail was the undisputed owner of the UK crown of pain, however there is now a usurper to the title. Meet the oak processionary moth. Accidentally introduced to London from Norway in 2000, these nefarious interlopers have done a good job of settling in. They are spreading rapidly through the South East of the UK and are a priority focus for the Forestry Commission. The symptoms of their hairs are arguably more severe than even the brown tail. Reported symptoms include the typical rash, but there is a higher prevalence of breathing difficulties, dizziness and nausea. They live almost exclusively in oak trees, hence their name, but can adapt to other trees such as beech. With little in the way of natural predators, they quickly defoliate entire trees, weakening them and making them prone to secondary infection. As with brown tails, the oak processionary moth larval tents are easy to spot. Clinging tightly to branches and the trunks of the trees, they spin a thick silk tent, sometimes dome shaped, sometimes round, and sometimes stretched between twigs. Their name comes from their larval habit of moving in a long procession en masse when they are on the hunt for new food sources. They may look cute and fluffy, but those dark mounds of hair you can see on their skin really do their job.
Drinker moth
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The resounding message from the medical profession and local authorities is do not attempt to destroy the nests yourself. Report the position of the nest to The Forestry Commission via their web-based app and they will organise a properly equipped pest controller to remove the nest safely. Yet still, we are nowhere near the ultimate king of caterpillar sting!
To look at the next level of severity, we need to cross to the USA where we will find our next worthy contenders. The first of which comes in the form of the saddleback moth. When it comes to standing out, these guys really have got it aced. In the UK, the nearest equivalent is the native puss moth - not to be confused with the US puss moth, who we are going to come to very soon.
The puss moth has a startling red face and vivid body markings, like the saddleback, but the worst experience you can expect is to be presented with a couple of red threads waving at you from the end of its abdomen and, if you provoke it enough, a squirt of formic acid in your eye from a fake mouth visible under its mandibles.
The spines of the saddleback, however, are loaded with a potent venom that delivers a very painful sting as well as further symptoms including severe rashes, migraines, stomach upset, asthma, haemorrhaging around the area of envenomation and, if you are particularly sensitive to venom, anaphylactic shock. Saddlebacks are widespread across most of the southern states of the US and down into Brazil and the Amazon.
Puss moth Lukas Jonaitis/Shutterstock.com
Unlike normal caterpillar physiology, these have vastly reduced legs and belong to a group of lepidoptera known as slug caterpillars (Limacodidae), named for the fact that they move on a layer of slime and suckers instead of the usual pseudo legs we are familiar with. But the really big hitter from the US is known as a flannel moth, or more locally, puss moths - owing to their cat like hairs. The moths vary in colour from orange, brown, white and yellow.
By comparison, the adult moth is completely harmless (this seems to be a bit of a running theme) it is quite pretty too. Make no mistake, the caterpillar must not be underestimated. Each one of those hairs you see are bristling with tiny barbs, laced with some of the most painful stings out there. All that is needed is the slightest brush against your skin and they inject their venom. Pain is instantaneous and excruciating. Adult flannel moth stings result in rapid welts, localised rash, dizziness, nausea, migraine and constant throbbing pain. Chest pain is often reported as well as swelling, radiating pain from the wound and haemorrhaging that remains under the skin for weeks. The usual recommendation tends to be try to remove the hairs as best you can using sticky tape, then apply hydrocortisone creams and take antihistamines. If symptoms persist or worsen, seek medical advice.
The True King of Stings
The thing is, it’s all well and good being bright and colourful, or covered in irritating hairs, but that “doesn’t not” make you King! Real impact comes from those armed with spines - more importantly venom loaded spines. We find spiny caterpillars all over the world. Here in the UK the only spiny larvae we have are from the likes of the tortoise shell, peacock, red admiral
and comma butterflies and on rare occasions, the Camberwell beauty, beyond these harmless individuals, we have nothing more. We have already seen the potent saddleback caterpillar, with its prickle-adorned fleshy tufts capable of rendering excruciating pain, but We find spiny caterpillars all over the world but nothing comes close to South America’s silk moth. On the whole, silk moths are completely harmless - like the Chinese oak silk moth for example, which are a very popular pet for young entomologists. Some however, are available to keep as a pet in the hobby like Automerisio, which do have a mild sting somewhat stronger than a nettle rash mixed with a jolt of electricity - it really does make you jump! It will leave a large white welt on your skin for a few hours afterwards, too. In the rainforests of South America, though, the environment is “bristling” with them. With potent effects ranging from a tingle to debilitation, you have got to be extremely careful about where you put your hands! You must similarly, always check your shoes and boots before you put them on - there might be something deadly in there, like Lonomia obliqua. Just one touch from one of those spines is enough to seriously incapacitate or kill a person. The caterpillar is very well camouflaged, and not easy to spot if you are not on the lookout for it. To make matters worse, they are often found to be gregarious, and move around in groups. In these instances, humans may inadvertently brush against a number of these and urgently require prompt and knowledgeable medical intervention. There are a number of cases every year in Brazil, which increase at certain times due to population explosions of L. obliqua, increasing the chances of human contact.Thankfully, due to increasing knowledge, fatalities are not common. And in keeping with the running theme of dangerous caterpillars, the adult moth, is completely harmless.
Saddleback moth
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We’re trying something a little different with this month’s Keeper Basics. Instead of looking at a broad topic and discussing it at surface level, we are exploring some of the more basic yet often overlooked aspects of chameleon husbandry. Whilst this may not apply to all keepers, there is sure to be something useful or worth considering for keepers of a range of species.
Branch thickness
Most chameleon species prefer surprisingly thin perches in the wild. This certainly applies to the most popular species in captivity. Although their zygodactyl feet may be capable of grasping thick branches, wild chameleons are usually found resting on robust yet very thin branches. It is important to offer a range of branches less than 1 inch thick in diameter for the chameleon to grasp onto. Using
plants with robust stems and branches, as well as artificial perches is best to achieve this.
Unfortunately, when a species is common in captivity or as photogenic as a chameleon, finding real in-situ images of the species in the wild becomes a task. Instead of following the status quo of terrarium décor, reach out to scientists, reference academic papers and utilise
iNaturalist to make educated decisions on habitat décor. Neither yemen nor panther chameleons occupy the “jungle” instead they live on forest edges and scrubland and therefore an elaborate tropical enclosure is far less important than correct branch thickness and wellpositioned foliage.
Nighttime fog
Chameleons receive most of their water through the food they eat. In fact, wild chameleons almost never drink (or there are certainly very few observations of this behaviour). They are also very often subject to entire months where not a single raindrop falls from
Panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) ambushing a preying mantis lisdiyanto suhardjo/Shutterstock.com
the sky. They can survive these periods by the spikes in humidity caused by fog in their wild habitats. Captive chameleons will often drink and some experts believe this is because they are simply being denied adequate hydration at night. Whilst the daytime conditions in Madagascar, Yemen or Central Africa may be harsh, nighttime fogs creates the perfect conditions to prevent water desiccation at night. This safety net (and basic environmental factor) should be implemented in captivity.
Understanding body language
Contrary to popular belief, the chameleon’s primary reason for drastic colour changes is to reflect mood, not to camouflage with its environment. When a chameleon is feeling territorial it will express this (usually) with increased contrast in colour and a defense posture such as gaping its mouth. If the same chameleon encounters a female, it may become more vibrant and change its colour completely. Such behaviours are marvelous to watch in the wild and most people can make an educated guess how the chameleon is responding to a certain situation by its colouration.
When a chameleon becomes stressed it will darken. Sometimes this may look spectacular as certain patterns will appear as pigments darken at different rates, however, this is still a stress response. Chameleons should be considered “hands off” pets. They are delicate and sensitive and any attempt to “make” a chameleon change its colour is irresponsible.
Whilst some species, such as the yemen and panther chameleon can become reasonably tame, it is extremely important to play close attention to their stress response if handling is absolutely necessary. This is even more important for juvenile animals as young chameleons can become so overwhelmed that they become brown and feign death. This is a last-ditch attempt to avoid predation when the chameleon feels that its life is endangered. In some cases, such as transportation, this may be unavoidable. However, if the chameleon elicits this response from the intentional actions of the keeper, a mistake has been made.
Varied diet
Most chameleons (certainly the popular species) eat a strictly insectivorous diet consisting mostly of flying insects. They occupy bushes and shrubs, only very rarely leaving their chosen plants, so the food must come to them. Whilst hand-feeding dubia roaches and locusts can be a rewarding and exciting way of engaging with the animal, it is important that a range of insects are released into the enclosure. Many chameleon keepers will breed their own butterflies or bees, but black soldier flies, silk moths and flying locusts can also be added. Of course, more staple insects such as crickets and roaches can also be included. If this is the case, they should be dusted with bee pollen to mimic the essential vitamins and minerals carried by pollinating insects in the wild. This (alongside a standard calcium and multivitamin supplement for usual feeding) will provide a more naturalistic diet.
The Perfect Chameleon Setup
Ventilation
Most people use mesh enclosures for their chameleons and with good reason. Not only do yemen chameleons require reasonably cool temperatures (sometimes cooler than typical “room” temperature) and panther chameleons can happily tolerate temperature drops, but aeration is extremely important to chameleons. Unfortunately, this can come at the expense of important night time humidity spikes which is why many people use “hybrid” enclosures. Either way, the wooden vivarium enclosures
that are usually used by pet shops should only ever be considered temporary housing. A fully enclosed enclosure (glass or wood) will not provide the appropriate amount of ventilation for the chameleon. Moisture buildup can lead to a whole host of health problems including respiratory and fungal issues. Humidity should also spike to 100% at night but drop below 50% during the day. This may be difficult to replicate in any enclosure, but a hybrid terrarium stands the best chance.
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FASCINATING FACT
Crocodile pressure snesors
Crocodilians have dermal pressure sensors on their snouts that they use to detect changes in water pressure. The skin over these receptors is very thin so they can accurately locate movement in the water. It is thought that this is a primary form of prey detection, which is why a crocodile can launch a ferocious attack from beneath the water without actively seeing their prey. It is also why animals are at most risk of crocodile attacks when they visit the same location repeatedly. Humans that visit the same spot to fish each day, or animals that visit the same spot to drink each day are at higher risk.
