Exotics Keeper Magazine - February 2024 by exoticskeeper

NEWS • PHOTO COMPETITION • KEEPER BASICS • NORTHERN KNOB-TAILED GECKO • ANTIVENOM www.exoticskeeper.com • february 2024 • £3.99

ONCE IN A PURPLE MOON The peculiar breeding habits of Nasikabatrachus

SIZE DOESN'T MATTER

Viper geckos are becoming increasingly popular in captivity and for good reason. Learn how to keep them successfully.

BLOODTHIRSTY CRABS

Did you know crabs can make excellent pets? This article looks at the basic requirements of the beautifully-coloured vampire crab.

WILD: GOLDEN MANTELLA

Golden mantella are Critically Endangered. We journey to Madagascar to find out how they live to refine our captive care.

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About us MAGAZINE PUBLISHED BY Peregrine Livefoods Ltd Rolls Farm Barns Hastingwood Road Essex CM5 0EN Print ISSN: 2634-4710 Digital ISSN: 2634-4689

EDITORIAL: Thomas Marriott DESIGN: Scott Giarnese Amy Mather .........................

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n the time between me writing this introduction and you receiving this magazine, we will have transitioned into a new year. To anyone whose resolutions are still going strong, congratulations! To anyone else, there’s always next year! Part of the reason that I am writing this introduction so early, is that I am about to embark on some new travelling adventures and this time, with even more emphasis on sharing my journey with you. Throughout 2023, I covered a handful of stories from South America. However, this next trip will see me venture to the Pacific, including a little island called New Caledonia (perhaps the crestie keepers out there will have heard of it?) Along the way, I hope to share my observations on social media, in articles and through interviews. I’ve always seen the value in a tangible, printed magazine but hopefully, a new multimedia approach will let us explore the wild behaviours of popular pet species in even more depth! A small taster of the sort of content I hope to produce can be found in this issue, covering the wild habitats of golden mantella (Mantella aurantiaca). Of course, there will still be plenty of content

on captive management and conservation too! Finally, I would like to say a massive thank you to anyone who submitted an image to the photo competition. Picking a winner wasn’t easy, but as a pilot scheme for future competitions, this was very successful! All being well, we should have some interesting content beginning to hit our social media channels in the coming days and weeks, so keep your eyes peeled and give us a like to let us know if you’re enjoying it. Best wishes, Thomas Marriott Editor

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......................... Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors. Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.

Front cover: Purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) © Sandeep Das Right: Vampire Crab (Geosesarma dennerle) Dan Olsen/Shutterstock.com

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EXOTICS NEWS

The latest from the world of exotic pet keeping.

LITTLE LIZARDS, LARGE OPPORTUNITIES

The viper gecko in captivity.

FLASHBACK FEATURE: SNAKEBITE: A NEGLECTED DISEASE OF THE POOR

Discussing antivenom with Professor Mark O’Shea MBE.

SPECIES SPOTLIGHT

Focus on the wonderful world of exotic pets. This month it’s the Northern knob-tailed gecko (Nephrurus cinctus).

IN THE WILD: THE GOLDEN MANTELLA A bi-monthly feature, taking an in-situ look at some popular pet species.

ONCE IN A PURPLE MOON

The peculiar breeding habits of Nasikabatrachus.

THE BLOODTHIRSTY: CAPTIVE CARE AND BREEDING OF VAMPIRE CRABS

Did you know crabs can make excellent pets?

KEEPER BASICS:

Seasonal Diets for Fish.

PHOTO COMPETITION And the winner is...

Exotics News

EXOTICS NEWS The latest from the world of exotic animals

“For now, however, we continue to keep them safe where we can closely monitor their health and growth,” added Mr McHugh.

Karel Bartik/Shutterstock.com

Jiri Stoklaska/Shutterstock.com

Rare leucistic alligator hatched at reptile park

Major moment for rare parrot species

An incredibly rare leucistic alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) has hatched at a reptile park in Florida.

Two parrot chicks have hatched at Chester Zoo, signalling what conservationists have hailed as a “pivotal moment” for the Endangered species.

Widely recognised as the rarest variation of the American alligator, leucistic hatchlings have little pigment in their skin, presenting a pale or white complexion. The female alligator hatched at Gatorland Orlando and is a descendent of a nest of leucistic alligators found in the swamps of Louisiana in 1987. The newborn is even more rare, however, due to it being entirely white. Unlike albino alligators, leucistic individuals do not have pink eyes and do possess some pigment. The newest addition to the leucistic population has blue eyes and measures 49cm in length.

The zoo’s breeding programme, which will be boosted by the two new arrivals, aims to aid essential conservation efforts to save the embattled Mitchell’s lorikeet (Trichoglossus forsteni mitchellii) species. Several European zoos have similar breeding programmes, countering the devastating effects of illegal hunting and trapping that has caused numbers of the birds to drop drastically. They aim to create a ‘safety-net’ population to safeguard the species if wild populations are wiped out entirely.

Mark McHugh, head of Gatorland, said: “This is beyond rare. It is absolutely extraordinary.”

Only seven Mitchell’s lorikeets were found in the wild in Bali in 2020, and the bird is now listed as Endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and BirdLife International.

Visitors are not yet able to view the new arrival, nor her male sibling, for some time, while the park keeps them under close observation.

Zoe Sweetman, parrot team manager at Chester Zoo, said: “The hatching of two Mitchell’s lorikeet chicks is a pivotal moment for the species,

especially as its future on the planet hangs in the balance. “Given how precious the chicks are, we’ve been monitoring them very closely and weighing the duo regularly to give them every chance of fledging the nest and reaching adulthood.”

all the more remarkable.

The snakes that were released within 13 kilometres of their home returned, giving researchers a clearer picture of their habits. One individual took 11 months to return after being released 13 kilometres away.

“In spite of losing his sense of smell and being virtually blind from cataracts, his appetite remains keen,” said Mr Hollins. “He is still being hand-fed once a week with a fortified helping of fruit and vegetables by a small, dedicated team. This not only supplements his calories but provides those essential drivers of his metabolism: vitamins, minerals and trace elements.”

Joe Hollins, Jonathan’s long-time vet, told the Guinness World Records that the reptile shows “no signs of slowing down.”

The research is an important step in protecting the species, which is classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

Agus Gatam/Shutterstock.com

Indian rock pythons’ homing instincts

Snapper Nick/Shutterstock.com

Sakis Lazarides/Shutterstock.com

Research by teams from the Wildlife Institute of India and the University of Stirling has revealed the scale of the ranges of Indian rock pythons (Python molurus), one of the largest species of snake in the world, and the factors that determine them.

World’s oldest tortoise turns 191

Study shows sex of turtle hatchlings may be determined by contaminants

Indian rock pythons are constricting snakes that are found across India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Bhutan, with an average length of almost 10 feet.

Jonathan is an Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea) who is estimated to have hatched in 1832, predating the invention of the telephone and the lightbulb. His exact age is a mystery as he was discovered in 1882 and taken to St. Helena from the Aldabra Atoll, made up of four large coral islands, off the Seychelles.

The team captured 14 individuals and released them far away from their home ranges, in the Moyar River between the Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves in Tamil Nadu, India. They were relocated to environments similar to where they were found, and the researchers studied their ability to find their way home. The results revealed that their home range spans 1.4 hectares to 8.1km, with an average of 4.2km.

What did the lizard say to his crush? 2

Radio tags were used to track the snakes’ movements over a two-year period. The collected data revealed that female pythons had a smaller range, but that the size of the snakes did not correlate to the size of their range, with larger individuals not having larger ranges.

Jonathan, the world’s oldest tortoise, has recently celebrated his 191st birthday in a huge milestone for the species.

While researchers have been unable to identify the exact contaminant that may be influencing the sex off the turtles’ offspring, the imbalanced ratios of male to female hatchlings points to an external causal factor.

The species has seen a decline across the islands of the Indian Ocean, disappearing from Madagascar, the Reunion Islands and Mauritius after being hunted for meat. Charles Darwin famously intervened in the species’ plight in 1900 by requesting that they were removed from Aldabra before they were wiped out by a planned timber project and relocated to Mauritius. Now protected from humans, the atoll retains a population of around 152,000 giant tortoises, which typically live for around 150 years, making Jonathan’s impressive lifespan

Iguana be your valentine! FEBRUARY 2024

A new study has shown that heavy metals ingested by female green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) may affect the number of female hatchlings produced.

Aside from being the oldest tortoise, he is also the oldest known land animal, and lives on St. Helena Island off the coast of Namibia and Angola.

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The clutches included in the study produced significantly more female offspring than male, following a pattern observed across other species including zebrafish, snapping turtles, pond sliders and pejeery fish. The data shows a heavy trend toward feminisation. Green turtle clutches studied on Raine Island off the coast of Australia have produced up to 99 percent female hatchlings over the last 20 years. The researchers suspect that the contaminants causing the imbalance is ingested by female green sea turtles via the sea grass and algae that makes up a significant portion of their diet.

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Exotics News

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Researchers believe existing drugs may offer snakebite cure

Ongoing studies suggest that existing drugs may offer a transformative way of treating snakebite. Current methods involve administering antivenom via an IV drip, meaning a patient must be transferred to a hospital before treatment can begin, significantly lessening the chances of survival for those bitten in remote areas. Existing cancer treatments containing molecule toxin inhibitors are being trialled as an antidote for snakebite. They can be administered as tablets, topical creams and injections, making them portable and easy to administer immediately after a bite. The hope is that the new drug could offer a communitybased alternative to existing treatments that are more affordable, as well as more accessible.

It is hoped that communities in rural areas with high numbers of snakebite incidences, such as subSaharan Africa and southeast Asia, can benefit from the new research. Professor Nicholas Casewell, head of the Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions at Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, said: “Our findings are exciting because they show that combinations of drugs that have already been shown to be safe in human clinical trials can prevent local tissue damage caused by different snake species.” “This is important because cytotoxic snake venoms cause hundreds of thousands of cases of morbidity each year across the world. Identifying new, affordable, and safer treatments for snakebite is a priority to mitigate the devastating impact caused by this neglected tropical disease.” Written by Isabelle Thom

ON THE WEB

Websites | Social media | Published research

Each month we highlight a favourite website or social media page THIS MONTH IT’S: EDGE OF EXISTENCE One of the most effective ways in which the EDGE of Existence programme is working to secure the future of EDGE species is by helping to build conservation capacity in regions in which they occur. This is achieved through awarding two-year Fellowships to future conservation leaders (EDGE Fellows) working on poorly-known EDGE species. www.edgeofexistence.org/edge-fellows/

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LITTLE LIZARDS,

LARGE OPPORTUNITIES

The viper gecko in captivity.

reptiles4all/Shutterstock.com

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Little Lizards, Large Opportunities

he viper gecko (Hemidactylus imbricatus) is quickly becoming a popular and highly desirable species. Growing no more than 10cm long and living amicably in small groups, these tiny charismatic lizards are well suited to naturalistic terrariums and have gained significant recognition alongside the “bioactive boom”. This article explores their natural history, captive management and position within herpetolculture.

Milan Zygmunt/Shutterstock.com captive environment and have been kept successfully by private keepers for many years.

Natural history and ecology

The viper gecko, sometimes called the “carrottailed” or “flat-tailed” gecko is a member of the enormous Hemidactylus genus. There are almost 200 members of the Hemidactylus genus that can be found across the tropics on most continents. These are often referred to as the “house geckos", which is why for a long time, the predominantly terrestrial viper gecko occupied the “Teratolepis” genus before being recategorized by Aaron Bauer et al in 2008.

Viper geckos can be found primarily in Pakistan, with some populations extending into Iran. There are also some dubious reports of populations in central India. The first recorded collection of wild specimens took place in 1962 when scientists moved 200 individuals from the Indus Delta Plain into terrariums for study. On the same expedition, the herpetologists found leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius), fringe-fingered lizards (Acanthodactylus cantoris) and ground agamas (Agama agilis). These species are reasonably well-studied in a FEBRUARY 2024

The name “imbricatus” refers to the overlapping (imbricated) scales that are especially pronounced on the lizard’s tail. This morphological feature is a great visual indicator and has been used to coin several reptile and amphibian species' scientific names.

The enclosure

Being small-bodied lizards occupying harsh terrains, viper geckos are predated upon by a whole spectrum of animals. Because of this, they spend most of the day hiding beneath rocks and branches and venture out to feed once the sun sets. The captive enclosure should mirror this, as a busy, three-dimensional environment. FEBRUARY 2024

Details on a collection site (a dilapidated graveyard in Pakistan) by Jer and Anderson read: “The soil is loose grey sand and silt. The area is affected by salinity. The dominant vegetation is desert scrub, particularly Salsola foetida and grasses…. Loose bricks measuring around 200mm square and 30mm thick lie scattered all over the ground intermixed with larger stone slabs.” The report also claims there are two lakes nearby, a 5m high wall of dislodged bricks and many holes created by small mammals and other fossorial species throughout the site. Creating a perfect viper gecko terrarium is an achievable task. Products such as ProRep’s Leo Life or Desert Life offer naturalistic substrate, whilst sheets of cork bark, live grasses and concrete slabs can be layered to create an excellent replica of the wild.

Little Lizards, Large Opportunities Little Lizards, Large Opportunities

for and can be easily achieved with timer plugs. Of course, it is important to still use a thermostat for the heating aspects, to ensure that the enclosure does not overheat.

Food and water

Water is scarce in the desert, but not impossible to find. Whilst spraying the enclosure with R/O water every other morning is the most natural way of providing water, there is no reason why the keeper should not also provide a shallow dish of water.

Sebastian Janicki/Shutterstock.com The weather in Karachi remains hot and dry year-round. Whilst there will be some seasonal flooding between July and September, temperatures generally persist at 28 – 35°C. However, nighttime temperatures drop significantly in December, January and February with average lows of 13°C. Luckily, this coincides with winter in the northern hemisphere and so keepers may even be providing seasonal temperature fluctuations without knowing it. However, if a keeper lives in a warm house, it might be worth considering moving the viper geckos to the room with the coolest ambient heat. Seasonal temperature drops affect all animals differently, but many depend on them to develop sperm cells, regulate metabolism and maintain good health. Therefore, it is important that keepers of viper geckos also try to provide some cooler months.

Lighting and heating

Contrast is key when housing arid species. It is much easier to provide temperature gradients if the enclosure is in a cool room but sports a powerful and reliable heat source than if the enclosure is in a consistently warm room with a weak heat source. Furthermore, as viper geckos are so small, one powerful spot bulb alongside an Eco-T5 Unit should provide a wide enough spread of infrared heat to cover the animals' entire body. Of course, a colony of viper geckos would require a much larger warm area, so an additional Ceramic Heat Emitter might also be necessary. The keeper should provide a hotspot of around 36°C. Beneath the hotspot should be some décor that the

gecko(s) can hide beneath. This will allow them to warm their body to an appropriate temperature, without being unnaturally exposed. This will also emit IR-C heat gradually, once the electrical components have been switched off. Viper geckos are “crepuscular”, a term that describes a species as most active at dusk or dawn. This word should, however, be treated with some level of suspicion. Most arid species will wait until the coolest part of the day to exert their energy, so the keeper must aim to provide the climatic variables that the viper gecko may encounter in the wild, including UVB lighting. A Zone 1 Eco-T5 should be adequate, but if the keeper wishes to use a taller vivarium or install their lighting above the mesh top, a Zone 2 may be more appropriate. LED lighting should also be installed to try to create the brightest enclosure possible. Although these geckos would typically hide from bright sunlight, they would encounter it as part of their natural day/night cycle. Furthermore, any plants in the enclosure will require additional LED lighting to grow. Staggered lighting can add the final touch to an awesome enclosure. By switching the LED lighting on first, followed by the UVB lighting an hour later and the spot bulb an hour later than that (and switching them off in reverse), it is possible to mimic sunrise. Of course, this also reduces the amount of time that the most expensive components run

Like many geckos, these lizards are ravenous feeders and although they only require very small prey, they will eat a lot of it. At present, there is currently no published gut content analysis of this species. But, because they only eat insects, it is important to provide a wide spectrum of commercially available, gut-loaded, supplement-dusted feeder insects. Prey should be fed lots of fresh greens, including carrots, beetroots and peppers and ProRep Bug Grub and Bug Gel. They should then be dusted in a calcium supplement with a moderate level of vitamin D3. Some keepers choose to alternate between Vetark’s Nutrobal (with D3) and Reptile Systems’ Vit-A-Min (without D3) to provide a good balance. Live food options should be as varied as possible. As the geckos grow they will be able to take on more prey items. Micro crickets, flightless fruit flies, bean weevils, curly wing flies, small waxworms, small locusts, young dubia roaches, extra small silkworms, small mealworms and the occasional medium-sized insect will make a well-rounded diet.

Breeding

It is very easy to breed viper geckos in captivity, which adds to their charm. It’s stopping them from breeding that becomes the problem! Females should be separated from males for certain periods throughout the year to reduce the impact of constantly producing and laying eggs. Being Hemidactylus, the same genus as some of the most notoriously invasive of all geckos, these lizards are highly prolific, laying a pair of eggs every few weeks. Those not wishing to breed their geckos (and genetic bottlenecking with this species is rife, so they should only be bred by those intending to breed unrelated

pairs) are probably better off keeping males and females separately. Once the pair are introduced, within a few weeks she will find a lay site. This is usually a patch of deeper substrate in the enclosure which can be artificially built so the keeper can locate the eggs quickly. The eggs should be removed quickly and incubated at a steady 26°C which usually results in the young hatching after about 60 days. All breeders have their preferred incubation medium, but allowing the eggs to be kept in a humid environment without getting damp for an elongated period is usually the goal for the incubation period. Once hatched, the young geckos will require similar husbandry to the adults but on a minuscule scale. They need tiny water bowls, tiny foods and tiny doses of supplements. Most keepers will use bottle caps for water and calcium. Food should also be dusted in a multivitamin powder. Suitable foods for hatchling viper geckos include melanogaster (golden) fruit flies, springtails and dwarf white isopods. The hatchlings will need` feeding around 24 hours after they emerge and then every day after that until they reach a size where they can take small insects. Viper geckos reach adulthood at around one year old.

Are they right for you?

Viper geckos, whilst somewhat straightforward to care for, do not tolerate handling very well. It is perhaps for this reason that they are not more popular. Whilst the keeper is unlikely to cause serious harm by handling these tiny lizards, they should only be manipulated when completely necessary. For the right keeper looking to study a smaller-bodied lizard and perhaps embark on a manageable breeding project, viper geckos can offer an exciting “next step” into herpetoculture. It must be stressed that the prospective breeder should not take this on lightly, however, as particular importance must be placed on the genetic diversity of this species in captivity if future generations are to enjoy the humble viper gecko for many years to come.

serg_bimbirekov/Shutterstock.com

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Species Spotlight

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SPECIES SPOTLIGHT

NutriRep™ is a complete calcium, vitamin & mineral balancing supplement with D3. It can be dusted onto all food sources including insects, meats & vegetables. No other supplement is required.

The wonderful world of exotic animals

Northern knob-tailed gecko (Nephrurus cinctus) Nephrurus cinctus is one of almost a dozen distinct species of “knob-tailed” geckos found across arid Australia. Once thought to be a subspecies of N. wheeleri this species from the northern half of Western Australia occupies predominantly arid deserts, that are prone to occasional cyclones and heavy rainfall. The knob-tailed geckos can be broadly split into “smooth” and “rough” varieties and perhaps unsurprisingly, the smooth varieties occupy loose sand environments whereas the rough-scaled species have a preference for stony soil around granite outcrops. The name cinctus comes from “cinctum” meaning ‘wearing a belt’ which alludes to the species’ banded pattern.

A 60x45x45 glass terrarium is suitable for a single animal, although a 90x45x45 display exhibit makes for a rewarding build. Naturalistic substrates such as ProRep Beardie Life alongside red gravel, slate and driftwood can make a visually appealing enclosure. Although these animals are nocturnal, they hail from a region that receives immense levels of UV throughout the day. Therefore, UV should be provided to help regulate circadian rhythm. A hotspot of +/- 30℃, with a gradient that leaves a “cool end” of 23℃ is perfect for these animals. All electronics should be switched off at night to create a significant drop to around 18℃ As with most species, the more variety in the live food the better and Nephrurus cinctus will feed on almost all appropriately-sized feeder insects.

Once rare in captivity, these geckos are becoming more frequently captive-bred. Keepers should provide a sizeable enclosure for these highly active nocturnal geckos. Whilst they don’t typically move fast, these animals can cover a good amount of ground in search of prey and therefore, require a good amount of space.

fivespots/Shutterstock.com

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SEPTEMBER 2023 FEBRUARY 2024

Title

DISEASE OF THE POOR

Discussing antivenom with Professor Mark O’Shea MBE.

Great Lakes bush viper (Atheris nitschei) 14

FEBRUARY OCTOBER 2022 2024

FLASHBACK FEATURE

SNAKEBITE: A NEGLECTED Title

FEBRUARY 2024

Snakebite: A Neglected Disease of the Poor

very year, up to 138,000 people die and a further 400,000 are permanently disabled because of snake envenoming. Whilst it’s easy to adopt a romanticised love of snakes from the comfortable position of a developed country with an effective healthcare system, those at risk of snakebite mortality must face a very different reality. Professor Mark O’Shea has been involved in snakebite research since the 1990s. Over that time, advancements in antivenom production have seen treatments become far more successful. Yet, there is still a majority population across the globe that cannot access these life-saving resources. Exotics Keeper Magazine caught up with Mark to discuss the problem.

Antivenom explained

Antivenom was first developed in the late 19th Century. It is sometimes referred to as ‘antivenin’ or ‘venom antiserum’ and is composed of various antibodies that are designed to treat the effects of envenoming. Antivenoms bind to and neutralise the venom to halt further damage, which in some cases allows the body to recover. Although it should only be used in the most serious cases, antivenom remains the primary method of treating snake and spider bites, as well as fish and scorpion stings.

and conservation. “There are two different ways of looking at snake antivenom” explained Mark. “First, is it liquid or is it lyophalized antivenom (freeze-dried)? In the case of freeze-dried, you need to add sterile water for injection, to bring it back to a liquid. Freeze-dried is a bit more stable temperature-wise, but both need to be kept cool in a process called the ‘cold chain’. If the antivenom becomes warmer than 8°C, the chain is broken, and it shouldn’t be used. However, the powder is more useful in tropical countries.”

a lot that they don’t need. They have only been bitten by one of those species. Having a greater volume of antivenom administered increases the chance of an adverse reaction. However, it should treat the envenoming and is therefore a better choice if the species of snake responsible is unknown.”

Professor Mark O’Shea has been working with venomous snakes for over forty years, catching and milking a plethora of species across the world to support the work of Oxford University, the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the Australian Venom Research Unit at the University of Melbourne, and the University of Adelaide, most recently in Myanmar. The bulk of this research was based in Papua New Guinea (PNG) – a region where snake envenoming is likely to lead to death. Mark is also a Professor of Herpetology at the University of Wolverhampton and teaches students about reptile and amphibian behaviour

“The other way you divide antivenom is monovalent or polyvalent. Polyvalent antivenom is made from the antibodies of horses inoculated against all snakes in a particular area. The Australian polyvalent antivenom is produced at the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL) in Melbourne. The horses are inoculated against taipans (Oxyuranus spp.), blacksnakes (Pseudechis spp.), brownsnakes (Pseudonaja spp.), death adders (Acanthophis spp.) and tigersnake (Notechis scutatus). You end up with a BIG vial. That’s going to be more expensive for a start, but you’re also giving the patient

It isn’t just the likelihood of an allergic reaction preventing the widespread use of polyvalent antivenoms. These types of antivenom can be extremely expensive. For example, the Australian polyvalent antivenom, which is frequently shipped to PNG (a country which shares some of the biodiversity of Australia), costs around $2,500 for one treatment. In Papua New Guinea patients do not have to pay for their

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treatment, but the sheer cost of the antivenom means PNG can afford less and less antivenom each year. Mark continued: “A monovalent is produced for only one specific snake species. The Australian CSL also produce monovalent taipan, monovalent death adder, monovalent blacksnake, etc. In most cases, they’re much smaller vials of antivenom (except the taipan monovalent which is quite large). If you know what the patient has been bitten by it is a better idea to avoid the higher risk of negative reactions and economise by giving them the antivenom of the snake they have been bitten by. That’s if they are available and licensed to be used in that country – which is not always the case in Papua New Guinea.”

“An example of this are tigersnakes, which do not occur in New Guinea but the CSL tigersnake monovalent antivenom has been proven to work against the venom of the New Guinea small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). However, it is not licensed for use to treat bites from that species so CSL Polyvalent must be used.” As the highly expensive polyvalent is the only choice in Papua New Guinea, there is a severe shortage of treatments. This has led to situations where doctors have felt obliged to share a single vial of antivenom (used to treat one snakebite), between three people because they could not face having to choose a single patient to treat, but now none of the three will receive a therapeutic dose.

Snakebite: A Neglected Disease of the Poor

Africa. Boomslang is not in the polyvalent and last I heard, there was only one horse inoculated with boomslang venom. It is extremely scarce, and I don’t think its available outside South Africa so captive keepers of boomslang beware. But all the southern African adders, cobras, mambas etc, they’re all covered by the polyvalent. One thing keepers may not be aware of – there is no antivenom for twigsnakes (Thelotornis) or bush vipers (Atheris). Boomslang antivenom does not work for twigsnakes and Atheris is not included in the SAVR polyvalent.” Of course, people do not have to be snake experts to correctly identify the species. Whilst a photograph, or a vague visual description might help assist in correctly identifying the animal, medical professionals can help narrow down the options. “In many cases, you can determine which species is responsible for the bite from the symptoms” added Mark. “If someone is continually bleeding, you know they’ve had either an anticoagulant or a procoagulant venom. In the case of procoagulant, the venom causes lots of microclots that are broken down, until there is no clotting factor left and the venom becomes incoagulable. There are also different types of neurotoxins i.e. pre- and postsynaptic, depending on where the venom attacks the nerve synapse (the junction where two nerves meet).

Saw scaled viper (Echis)

Identifying species

In Australia, members of the public are often advised not to attempt to identify the snake if it means compromising their first aid response or risking another bite. As venom moves through the tissues, blood and lymphatics, the entire limb should be immobilised with a bandage, and the person should avoid unnecessary movement. This is a technique referred to as the “Aussie bandage” and is effective against Australo-Papuan snakebites in that it slows the spread of the venom and enables the victim to get to hospital. In other parts of the world, some venoms cause swelling (such as vipers) the “Aussie bandage” could quickly become a torniquet, which would completely prevent blood circulation and could cause the victim to lose a limb to gangrene. It should only be

used when there is a certainty that the snake responsible was an elapid that does not cause swelling. CSL in Australia produces Snake Venom Detection Kits (SVDKs), which allow doctors to use monovalent antivenoms successfully. The kit contains a series of troughs that react by turning blue in reaction to the presence of death adder, brownsnake, blacksnake, tigersnake or taipan venom via a process known as enzyme-linked immunobsorbent assay (ELISA). This is a marvellous method to determine the snake species responsible and target the venom precisely with a monovalent antivenom. Unfortunately, this particular SVDK is only applicable for Australian and Papuan elapids. With high costs associated with producing antivenom, few developing

countries even have fully-fledged antivenom programmes. Whilst affluent countries can implement testing procedures, airborne hospital transfers and free healthcare, other countries may not even have access to a single vial of antivenom or the means to keep it cool. This, combined with the fact that every region will have entirely different hazardous animals, means that antivenom research and production are moving at different paces across the world. Mark explained: “In Africa, things are very variable. South African Vaccine Producers (SAVP) produce a polyvalent that will treat bites from all elapids and viperids in southern Africa, and they also produce two monovalents - one is for boomslang (Dispholidus typus), the other is for carpet vipers (Echis) in North FEBRUARY 2024

“Post and pre-synaptic neurotoxins kill through respiratory paralysis but in subtly different ways. You can reverse post-synaptic neurotoxins from a cobra quite late on. I’ve been bitten by an Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) and antivenom alleviated it very quickly and I sat up in bed with a crossword that evening. If you’ve been bitten by something with a pre-synaptic neurotoxin, like a taipan, once paralysis sets in, you’re down. You’re down for 3–5 days. If someone is in paralysis with pre-synaptic neurotoxin, a bucket full of antivenom is not going to get them breathing again, they need to go on a ventilator. Here is how they differ. Post-synaptic neurotoxins block the receptor sites on the downstream side of the synapse so the message ‘breathe’ does not get across the synaptic gap. However, appropriate antivenom will swiftly clear the blockage and normal service is resumed. Presynaptic neurotoxins act more like cytotoxins, they destroy the transmitter sites on the upstream side of the synapse so the message ‘breathe’ never gets sent, and because this is physical damage the message will not be sent until the transmitter sites have been regenerated, and that takes time. Antivenom will prevent further damage, but it cannot undo damage already done. This is why certain snakes with presynaptic neurotoxins, i.e. black mambas and taipans are so dangerous, they even have their own presynaptic neurotoxins named after them ‘dendrotoxin’ and ‘taipoxin’.”

The economics of snake bite

The high cost of antivenom mean that there are a whole host of social and economic tightropes to navigate to ensure that antivenom is available for those who are bitten. Sadly, those in developing countries are at a much higher risk than those in developed countries. Despite Australia hosting many of the world’s most venomous snakes, only around 2-3 people are killed by snakebites each year. FEBRUARY 2024

Mark O’Shea milking Eastern Asian Russell’s viper (Daboia siamensis) in Myanmar

Snakes and Adders Title

In countries such as India, where people are generally much more exposed to snakebite and may not receive appropriate treatment, the story is tragically different. “Snakebite is a disease” added Mark. “When I call it a disease, it is because it has a cure. Now, it is listed officially as one of the Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) of the World Health Organisation (WHO). Hopefully, it’ll stay there because that means it is getting some funding. It is a disease of the poor voiceless people in developing countries, it is not a disease of people in developed countries. Yes, zookeepers get bitten, yes private keepers get bitten, but in very small numbers by comparison. When I used to tell people the figures for deaths and disabilities from snakebite every year they were shocked, but we’ve just had a COVID epidemic that has killed millions, so it’s very difficult to shock people now and it will be for some time. Anywhere between 98,000 and 138,000 people die of snake bites every year around the world. Most of those people are in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar, Mali, Nigeria, Togo, Benin, Senegal, the Gambia and New Guinea. Notice how none of those are Latin American countries. That’s because they have very good antivenom programmes which help alleviate the problem.” “5000 people die a year in all of Latin America, 20,000 in Africa, 100,000 in Asia – and that’s just the deaths. A lot of snake venoms from snakes like puff adders (Bitis arietans) and spitting cobras (Naja spp.), the bites of which might not kill, cause tissue destruction and people lose parts of their bodies. Similarly, lanceheads (Bothrops) in South America causes limb loss, disfigurations, effects on central nervous systems and even on people’s cognitive abilities. It is estimated that 400,000 people are permanently disabled by snake bites, many more than are maimed by land mines. These people are often the breadwinners of the family or the children. The family inevitably must spend money to get the loved one to the hospital or pay for treatment. This means selling all their goats and everything they have. Even then, it’s like putting your house on a lottery ticket. It

Snakebite: A Neglected Disease of the Poor

The future of antivenom research

Over recent decades, the availability of antivenoms has shifted the way we look at the most dangerous species of snakes. Moreover, the most dangerous are not always the most venomous. Species which are widespread or inhabit urban environments in developing countries are often far more dangerous than Australia’s highly venomous taipans because humans encounter them on a much more regular basis. Arguably, at the top of the list of dangerous snakes causing large numbers of bites are the Russell’s vipers (Daboia russelii, D. siamensis) and the North African carpet vipers (Echis ocellatus, E. jogeri, E. romani), whereas the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), often trumpeted as the world’s most dangerous snake, has not yet caused a single fatality. Milking Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni) in Papua New Guinea, with Papuan colleague Owen Paiva might work but it might not. People could end up with their family member dying or becoming permanently disabled with no social security AND now have lost their livelihoods. It pushes people into poverty beyond that which anyone in the West could imagine.” Despite the horrific repercussions of snake bites in developing countries, social and political discourse has placed snakebite on the fringe of global aid priorities. Snakebite is not infectious and therefore it holds much less fear in the West than other tropical diseases. Someone cannot ‘catch’ snakebite and transmit it to other people. Ebola, on the other hand, was much better funded based largely on its threat to developed countries. Despite the immense number of snakebite victims and mortalities across the world, antivenom research gets

just a fraction of the funding that malaria research does, though malaria still kills upwards of 600,000 per year, people can catch it and have it treated by their country’s healthcare system upon returning home. “There are heroes in antivenom” Mark stated. “They are the Costa Ricans that work in the Instituto Clodomiro Picado at the Universidad de Costa Rica in San José. They’re not a big bio-pharma company, but they are doing amazing work to help provide antivenom to the most impoverished countries. They started producing antivenom for the snakes in Costa Rica, then in Latin America, and now they produce antivenom for taipans in New Guinea, Russell’s vipers in Sri Lanka and various African antivenoms too. Their taipan product was just as efficacious as the CSL but because they are not a bio-pharma company, instead of $2,500 their antivenom was $250.” FEBRUARY 2024

Mark explained: “Both Russell's vipers and three West African Echis species are particularly dangerous. Sometimes they can be thick on the ground and people collecting firewood get bitten. Although Daboia russelii in Sri Lanka is considered the same species as Daboia russelii in India, its venom is different. This is because snake venom is adapted to the prey. If you’ve got snakes that feed on different prey in different areas, over a fairly short time the venom will begin to adapt, it is a predator-prey arms race. When you’ve got juvenile snakes feeding on lizards and adults eating mammals, again, they go through an ontogenetic change as they get older. This has been proven in puff adders (Bitis arietans) and in Western diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox).”

There is still much to learn about the way venom works. Whilst protecting the hundreds of thousands of lives affected by snake bites each year would be a very commendable aim, many of the countries able to finance this kind of project are far removed from the devastating reality of snakebite. However, other (slightly more selfish) motivations are continuing to push venom research in a positive direction. “Snake venoms are such amazing compounds, there’s a lot of hidden uses” added Mark. “The things that snake venom can do to you can be beneficial. There has been some work in the past to see if neurotoxic venoms can be used therapeutically for MS. A venom that can cause prolonged bleeding could be used in a drug to prevent blood clot forming, this would be really useful to someone that, for example, has recently had heart surgery. There used to be a drug (Arvin) produced from Malayan pit vipers (Calloselasma rhodostoma) for that purpose. After all, a lot of the excellent medicines we use today came from nature.” Venom research is a broad and fascinating subject. Nowadays, the success rate of antivenom treatments is extremely high. Not only does venom research save lives but ongoing research is likely to uncover myriad applications to treat health defects and improve the health of citizens in the most affluent countries. However, with over 100,000 preventable deaths occurring in impoverished areas across the world each year, we are still a very long way away from medical equality.

More information on the World Health Organisation’s ‘Road to 2030’ strategy and regular reports on snakebite envenoming can be found on their website: www.who.int. A powerful film on the issue of snakebite in impoverished countries can be watched by visiting: https://minutestodie.com

FEBRUARY 2024

IN THE WILD:

THE GOLDEN MANTELLA Title

Title

Andrea Izzotti/Shutterstock.com

FEBRUARY 2024

In The Wild: The Golden Mantella

he golden mantella (Mantella aurantiaca) is a Critically Endangered frog from Madagascar. Known to occupy just a handful of locations amassing no more than 10km2 this species is on the brink of extinction. Whilst some populations supposedly occur in protected areas, the rampant slash-and-burn farming happening in east Madagascar poses a major threat to biodiversity. In 2022, I visited one of the last remaining Mantella aurantiaca populations to understand a little bit more about how these frogs live in the wild.

“In the Wild” is a bi-monthly recurring feature from Thomas Marriott that focuses on in-situ observations of popular pet species and discusses the recreation of their habitats in a captive setting. It is important to note that these are snapshot observations designed to inspire husbandry, rather than direct it.

Finding the frogs

Where golden mantella occur, they occur in good numbers. Like their convergently evolved cousins, the poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) of South America, golden mantella are brightly coloured, highly active, diurnal frogs that bounce around the leaflitter, making them highly visible. Should their inhabitable range be extended and protected, one could be mistaken for thinking they are common. Sadly, habitat fragmentation is happening on both micro and macro scales. Our local correspondent informed us that the original site that he would guide photographers

to had burnt down the year prior and the population of Mantella had been exterminated. Instead, we ventured East of Andasibe to find a tiny patch of waterlogged forest, surrounded by agriculture. It was probably this boggy oasis that saved this particular population of Mantella as it was unsuitable for farming. Yet, irrigation channels had already been dug to direct water away from the forest and into the fields, effectively stranding the frogs in the forested island. Relict signs, battered by harsh tropical storms still displayed ghostly images of golden mantella in and FEBRUARY 2024

© Thomas Marriott around the villages that surround Andasibe-Mantadia National Park. They serve as a harsh reminder that the conservation benefits of eco-tourism remain somewhat reserved for affluent countries when placing food on the table is a daily struggle.

Habitat

We visited in November, which is around the end of the dry season, going into the wet season (rains truly pick up in December). Wild golden mantella become more active during the breeding season in January when they will try to find a mate and a reliable temporary pool to deposit their eggs amongst the leaflitter. However, we managed to find several healthy individuals tucked amongst the leaves. FEBRUARY 2024

The forests that Mantella aurantiaca occupy are not thick or dense. They are considered “pandanus” forests and characterized by the tall, palm-like pandanus trees interspersed amongst more low-lying vegetation. Although we visited in the dry season, “dry forest” seems a far more appropriate name than “rainforest”. The canopy is sparse, there are no large bromeliads, running water, or creeping plants that one might associate with the habitat of poison frogs or other popular species of tropical frogs. As such, when a tree falls, there is no desperate fight among flora for the open canopy, leaving large sunny patches. The mantella seemed to stake territories around the edges of these patches. One can assume these areas become important arenas of communication during the breeding season.

In The Wild: The Golden Mantella

The hot Malagasy sun penetrates patches of dry woodland and produces areas of high UVI. Our readings reached 4.2 with surface temperatures of 35°C. Although this is just a tiny snapshot of their environment and should not be used to inform captive care over an elongated period, it is clear that these diurnal amphibians are far more tolerant of UV than other tropical amphibians. Of course, the specimens we found were nestled into a thick layer of leaflitter in shaded areas where the UVI averaged 1.2 and the surface temperature of the leaves was around 24°C. The frogs seemed to have established small territories at the base of young palms. They mostly inhabited the lower leaflitter that had retained its moisture, as opposed to the dry leaflitter on the surface. Thick layers of an unusual species of subtropical moss colonised some shaded, decaying logs. However, it was not nearly as ubiquitous as the mosses found in rainforests, cloud forests, or many of the display vivariums designed to house these golden frogs in an aesthetically pleasing way.

Creating the perfect terrarium

We only observed these frogs momentarily, but we did not record any climbing behaviours. Unlike tree frogs or poison frogs that may find reservoirs of water in leaf axles, it would make sense that golden mantella rely solely on the microclimate within the leaflitter for security and moisture. As such, floor space is the primary consideration for picking a golden mantella enclosure. Some height could be utilised, especially for installing additional layers of logs and leaflitter and to allow palms to grow in the enclosure to intersperse powerful UVI. A 90x45x45 glass terrarium could make a fantastic home for a small colony of these interesting frogs. As mentioned, there is no need for building intricate backgrounds, shrouded in climbing plants and epiphytes. Instead, I would recommend using spider plants, ferns and tropical grasses. Cork bark should be stacked up to make full use of the enclosure and allow the frogs to occupy open spaces with high UVB. The lowest levels should FEBRUARY 2024

Andrea Izzotti/Shutterstock.com also be semi-buried to create subterranean refugia and surrounded by at least three inches of leaflitter. In the case of bioactive setups, instead of installing a permanent water body, it may be more appropriate to build the layers in such a way that a floodable area is created. This can be easily achieved by using a goodquality divider such as HydroFleece and separating the substrate from the flooded area with bark, then filling the flooded area with stones (to hide the HydroFleece). Unusually for amphibians, golden mantella are considered Ferguson Zone 2 animals. This should be upheld in the terrarium by ensuring that the animals are receiving an area with access to 3.0 UVI exposure. This may mean building the décor higher, placing the lighting beneath the mesh top of the terrarium, or using a stronger bulb through the mesh top. FEBRUARY 2024

As these frogs inhabit comparatively bright locations, an LED bar should be used to increase the brightness and support plant growth. All lighting, including UVB should be provided for a solid 10-12 hours a day, throughout summer and only drop slightly to around 8 hours a day in winter. Although temperatures can reach 35°C+ in the wild, a more moderate 22 – 28°C is more suitable in captivity. Adding additional heating to create a hot spot in a frog terrarium is not usually advised. Even a lowwattage bulb could increase ambient temperatures to a dangerous level. If the golden mantella are kept in a particularly cold room, using a spot bulb could create an artificial sunny patch, but the keeper must be sure to check environmental parameters consistently. Some zoos use this method to create mixed exhibits housing Mantella, Phelsuma and Heterixalus species with success.

In The Wild: The Golden Mantella

Deforestation encroaching on golden mantella habitat © Thomas Marriott

Conservation and herpetolculture

Once far more widespread across the eastern forests of Madagascar, the golden mantella is featured on billboards and signposts around the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park. Its cousin, the Baron’s mantella (Mantella baroni) even features on the 100 ariary note (£0.017) – the country’s smallest currency that is still frequently traded. Around 70% of people in Madagascar live under the poverty line and the average income is less than £2 a day. It is estimated that less than half of Madagascar’s population has access to clean drinking water and only 15% have access to suitable sanitary systems. This means that sacrifices must be made to keep food on the table.

resources are also limited and generally supplied by NGOs. This means that children may learn about wildlife in school, but it is most likely from a European or African textbook and will never cover the local fauna in the area. Furthermore, progressive topics such as environmentalism and sustainable farming practices are at the bottom of the pile when it comes to government-funded education. Not

The next major challenge which perhaps impacts Madagascar’s biodiversity most is the lack of education. Around 35% of the country is entirely illiterate. Educational

slowmotiongli/Shutterstock.com Eric Isselee/Shutterstock.com

FEBRUARY 2024

In The Wild: The Golden Mantella

Pandanus forests are not particularly dense © Thomas Marriott

only is infrastructure too sparse (only 11% of roads are sealed), but farmers who must tend their crops cannot afford to take a day off or travel to some form of educational facility to be taught how to do this differently, after learning from the generations that raised them. Sadly, this means that unsustainable and destructive methods such as "slash-and-burn" are still the most popular farming techniques. The golden mantella represents a complicated yet positive case within herpetoculture. Whilst animals were legally exported from Madagascar to the pet trade for many years, regulated collection aimed to ensure populations were not overexploited. The same stringent measures could not be implemented on those living alongside the frogs and habitat destruction has almost wiped out the entire species. Fortunately, the frogs that entered the hobby in the 1980s and 90s were bred very successfully.

Foliage types more commonly associated with arid environments are found in golden mantella habitat © Thomas Marriott

Today, golden mantella are bred so frequently that they are consistently available in the UK, Europe and USA and their sale price is low enough to abolish the demand generated for illegally smuggled animals. Zoologists have been conducting ongoing research into the viability of releasing golden mantella frogs that are several generations removed from their wild counterparts. Currently, it seems that we are a long way from this happening and genetic bottlenecking means private collections may never be suitable for wild release. However, in keeping and breeding this species,

Avoid: Large bromeliads Water features Dense vegetation Semi-aquatic mosses

private breeders, zookeepers and conservationists have managed to build an enormous captive population for behavioural and developmental studies. Millions of people have been introduced to the species in zoological and private settings and the tiny golden frog has flown the flag for amphibian conservation for many years, inspiring others to support initiatives in far-away parts of the world. This may have awarded the golden mantella a bit more time, whilst the socioeconomic pressures that impact wild populations are addressed in a compassionate and resourceful way.

Add Palms, grasses and ferns Several layers of leaflitter Moderate levels of UV Open space

FEBRUARY 2024

Title

ONCE IN A

PURPLE MOON The peculiar breeding habits of Nasikabatrachus.

Aravind Ram/Shutterstock.com

FEBRUARY 2024

Once in a Purple Moon

he purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) is one of the world’s weirdest amphibians. Found only in the Western Ghats of India, this unusual fossorial frog is active for just one day a year. This may explain why scientists only discovered this ancient lineage of frogs in 2003. For such a bizzare creature, the purple frog may be one of the most intriguing species on Earth. Exotics Keeper Magazine caught up with Dr Ashish Thomas, Assistant Professor at the University of Delhi to learn more about this fascinating frog.

Nasikabatrachus

The Nasikabatrachus genus is the sole representative of the Nasikabatrachidae family. There are two species of Nasikabatrachus. N. sahyadrensis is found on the western slopes of the Western Ghats, while N. bhupathi (Bhupathy’s purple frog) is found on the eastern slopes. Both species are closely related, but as the latter was only described in 2017, herpetologists currently know very little about the species. There have been more studies into N. sahyadrensis than N. bhupathi as the Zoological Society of London labelled the purple frog as “Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered” (EDGE) and appointed Dr Thomas as the first amphibian EDGE Fellow to receive funding for his research.

“In Sanskrit, Nasika means ‘the nose’ and batrachus means ‘amphibian” said Ashish. “It is named after its peculiar snout. The name sahyadrensis comes from ‘Sahyadri’ which is the local name for the Western Ghats mountain range. That is why scientists SD Biju and Franky Bossuyt accorded the newly discovered amphibian this name.” The purple frog’s unusual shape and bulky hind legs makes it adept at burrowing. As this species burrows backwards, it is thought that the animals’ iconic snout also creates a more dynamic shape for burrowing. However, the famous “pig-snout” that gives the frog one of its many colloquial names, “the purple pig-snouted frog”, has many other uses. FEBRUARY 2024

Mountainous habitat of Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis in southern Western Ghats © Ashish Thomas

A perennial stream habitat where breeding and larval development of Purple frog takes place © Sandeep Das “The snout is very sensitive to touch.” explains Ashish. “For example, as soon as an insect touches the snout, they will protrude their tongue and catch the insect. Since their eyes are quite small unlike other frogs, they have very poor vision. So, we believe that this touch sensation would be very helpful for the frogs to feed. “They are very clumsy frogs. They struggle to walk and cannot hop. However, once they are in the burrow, they are very active. I have seen tribal people try to catch the FEBRUARY 2024

frog. Very slowly, they try to locate the area where the frog is calling from. Then, they approach the area and start digging with a sharp wooden tool. The frogs can inhabit burrows 10m deep, so they need to dig fast!” The fossorial lifestyle of the purple frog makes it extremely difficult to study for elongated periods. However, researchers in India have made some startling discoveries about the developmental process of this species by studying tadpoles in remote, temporary streams in the southern Western Ghats.

Terrific Tarantulas and How to Keep Them

Once in a Purple Moon

Example of pre moult alopecia in Brachypelma hamorii tarantula ©Benjamin Kennedy

Purple frog in a typical stream habitat during the breeding season © Sandeep Das

The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats is a mountainous region of India. Encompassing lots of different elevations and climates, the area is a renowned treasure trove for biologists and a focal point for herpetologists across the world. “The Western Ghats are a hotspot for biodiversity,” Ashish added. “It’s around 1600km long and runs from the state of Gujarat up the western coast through six different states. The Ghats play a very significant role in the ‘monsoon phenomena’ of the Indian subcontinent, both as a source of moisture and as a barrier for rain laden winds coming in from the Arabian sea.” “The Western Ghats has a steady slope to the West but there is a much steeper slope to the east. The western slope gets most of its monsoons from June to September, whereas the eastern slope gets monsoons from October to December. This rainfall allows the tropical evergreen forests to thrive in the Western Ghats, but it also creates a difference in breeding activity between the two Nasikabatrachus species.”

Here, they remain active, presumably feeding on ants, termites and other small insects in almost total darkness for most of their lives. During the pre-monsoon rains in May, the male purple frogs become active. They leave their underground tunnels and station themselves at the entrance of their burrow and vocalise to females. “Those calls can be heard from quite a distance,” said Ashish. “It may be because of the effects of the burrow, that give the frogs’ calls their resonating effects. We can follow the call of the frog and locate the burrow, or at least know that the species is present in an area, which has allowed us to identify new populations.”

Bizarre Breeding

Nasikabatrachidae is one of the oldest lineages of frogs alive today. This entire Family remained undiscovered for a surprisingly long time, given the extent of its uniqueness. However, this is perhaps less surprising when one analyses the natural history and behaviour of the two species in this group. The purple frog spends around 364 days a year underground, in burrows around two to 10 meters deep.

FEBRUARY 2024

Once in a Purple Moon

Some Issues Are More Than Skin Deep

Purple frog amplexus pair in search of an oviposition (egg laying site) © Ashish Thomas Once the rains become more intense and the perennial streams start to flow, the females will also become more active and search for a possible partner. Although Ashish and the team have not observed pairs going into amplexus, they have found amplexus pairs seeking out the streams as an oviposition site. This usually takes place at night. Ashish continued: “Egg laying takes around one to two hours. Eggs are laid in natural holes, cavities or depressions in the stream where there is a slow but steady flow of water. We’ve recorded the egg laying process lasting anywhere from 30 – 100 minutes. Once the eggs are laid, amplexus may break at the oviposition site, or they may leave the stream before it breaks. But after this, they return to their burrows, not to be seen again until the following year.” “Studying adults is very difficult because you only have a small window to find them. We are in the streams surveying every night from 8 PM till 4 AM during the premonsoons. It is down to luck whether we find an amplexus pair. There are certain areas where the numbers are high, so there is a high probability of encountering them, but locating breeding pairs is down to luck. The tadpoles on the other hand can be found in the streams in good numbers for a duration of 70-90 days, so that is when we can conduct ecological studies on them.”

Terrific Tadpoles

Once the Nasikabatrachus eggs hatch and develop into tadpoles, they make their way to the main channel of the stream. The tadpoles have suctorial mouthparts that act as suction cups and allow them to grasp surfaces within their environment. This has allowed them to colonise streams that are unfavourable to other species, meaning the purple frog tadpoles are the only larvae in the area, preventing competition with other species. Ashish continued: “We wanted to make sense of where the tadpoles are distributed in the stream. To do this, we took four parameters of the stream. These were; the velocity of the water, the slope of the substrate, the depth of water and the temperature. What we found was that the most important factor for the tadpoles is the velocity of the water. The second most important factor was the slope of the water, followed by the depth. The temperature had very little effect on where the tadpoles would congregate.” “It was quite obvious that velocity becomes higher as the steepness of the slope increases. Deep areas of slow water harboured fewer tadpoles. We found that as you enter steeper, faster-moving water, the number of tadpoles present in those areas would increase. That made sense.” FEBRUARY 2024

100% NATURAL PEST CONTROL TAURRUS® is a living organism (predatory mite) that is a natural enemy of the snake mite (Ophionyssus natricis). TAURRUS® mite predators are very small, measuring less than 1mm as adults. They are able to live for several weeks and reproduce in the areas where they find their prey. Despite its small size, the TAURRUS® predator acts aggressively and is able to attack and kill preys 3 to 4 times larger than itself. Once released, the microscopic predators will actively seek and consume parasites. Once eliminated, the predators disappear naturally. The mode of action requires several days. After introduction of TAURRUS®, pest populations should be monitored: at first it will stabilize, and then gradually decline. In heavy infestations, several releases may be needed to eradicate all parasites. FEBRUARY 2024

Once in a Purple Moon

A typical suctorial tadpole of Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis © Sandeep Das A front-on view of the amplexus pair © Sandeep Das The tadpoles are primarily predated upon by crabs and snakes, meaning the fast-moving water awards them some level of protection. Furthermore, these slopes are exposed to more sunshine, leading to more algal growth. This is a primary food for the tadpoles. “We call these adaptations, selection forces,” said Ashish. “These tadpoles have evolved to occupy a space where they can get ample food and be safe from predators. It may have been that the tadpoles lived alongside other species and over time, have moved further away and developed stronger mouth parts to avoid competition and survive in these areas.” There is another species found in the Western Ghats that has evolved similar suctorial mouthparts called Ghatophryne ornata. These tadpoles live at much higher elevations than Nasikabatrachus and have weaker mouth parts, because they occupy areas of less velocity, being further up the mountain. Both Nasikabatrachus species breed similarly but at different times of the year. Their appearance is also very similar, besides their different geographic ranges, it is only through molecular study that one could differentiate the two species.

Conservation

When Nasikabatrachus was first described, the authors did molecular studies into its DNA. They unearthed several discoveries that amplified the profile of the research. They discovered Nasikabatrachus is a primitive lineage among extant anurans and coined the term Nasikabatrachidae to name this family of amphibians. Secondly, they found that the purple frog had evolved without any diversification. With these pieces in place, their final discovery would startle people across the world; the nearest relative (or sister taxon) to Nasikabatrachidae is Sooglossidae, a family of frogs only found on the Seychelles. This provided biological evidence that India was once linked to the Seychelles, which we already know was once linked to Madagascar. This caught the attention of biologists, geographers and the general public and fast-tracked conservation efforts to protect the humble purple frog. “It is not every day you discover a new family of frogs” added Ashish. “It was termed by some scientists as a flagship for Indian amphibian conservation.” With the tadpoles being so exposed, they have faced some persecution from people including harvesting for FEBRUARY 2024

A typical suctorial tadpole of Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis © Sandeep Das food. Furthermore, adults are considered a traditional medicine, meaning some harvesting is also taking place. In 2015 Ashish documented indigenous people eating the tadpoles. Indigenous people believe that eating adult frogs can provide a cure for asthma. They also believe that the fat of adult female frogs can be used as a remedy against burns. They will remove the fatty tissues and apply them to burnt skin. “We tried to change those beliefs,” said FEBRUARY 2024

Ashish. “Maybe the rare appearance of the frog adds to how precious they are and that by not seeing them every day, a miraculous belief is attached to them.” “We have seen a change in attitudes and behaviour from the villagers that we visited. I remain in contact with them and I’ve heard that many adults and older generations have now stopped catching and eating the tadpoles.”

Once in a Purple Moon

You Little Ripper!

Conducting a Purple frog roadkill awareness drive in Nelliyampathy, Kerala © Ashish Thomas Now, Nasikabatrachus is in Schedule 1 of The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2022 in India. This awards the species with legal protection within protected areas. The purple frog is also on the Zoological Society of London’s EDGE List. This means the species is “Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered” and there are studies aimed at the conservation of the species. Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis also occurs in protected areas and is therefore considered Near Threatened by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources). However, the fact that only two species represent the entire family makes this species extremely valuable to science. Ashish is also now working closely with Sandeep Das, who is working on his own EDGE Fellowship for Nasikabatrachus. Together, the pair, along with a wider network of researchers and conservation partners is focusing their efforts on practical conservation methods.” “A lot of what we are doing is centred around awareness activities. This involves local people, the forest department and the Kerala State government. At a local level, we try to go to schools and meet local people and communities. We identify threats to the species and address these with indigenous communities. For example, roadkill, especially during monsoons and in particular areas of the forest, poses a major threat. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to agricultural activities is also a threat and so is pollution of the stream.

site in captivity would remain a major challenge. Similarly, institutions such as zoos that might have the resources to conduct such a program are unlikely to find educational benefits in exhibiting the frogs as part of a collection. This means that developmental and behavioural studies of this species rely heavily on the dedication and in-situ efforts of scientists and local communities. Whilst international organisations can provide much-needed resources, it is those willing to trek through jungles in pre-monsoon rains that ultimately drive our ability to protect unique species. Recently, the purple frog was suggested to become the Official Kerala State Animal. Unfortunately, it was beaten by the highly charismatic Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus). Yet, for such a bizarre frog that only emerges once a year to contend against elephants for public approval is a great achievement. Furthermore, Ashish and other researchers in India are continuing to identify new populations of the bizarre purple frog, an amphibian that bridges the gap between ancient fauna and modern science.

Captivity and the future

Currently, scientists have yet to breed the purple frog in captivity. Ashish claims it is easy to maintain the frogs in a captive environment but encouraging them to breed is, at present, not possible. Replicating the environmental queues, as well as a very complex and delicate oviposition

FEBRUARY 2024

THE BLOODTHIRSTY: Title

CAPTIVE CARE AND BREEDING OF VAMPIRE CRABS By Alistair Gamblin

Dan Olsen/Shutterstock.com

FEBRUARY 2024

The Bloodthirsty: Captive Care and Breeding of Vampire Crabs

he Vampire Crab has become something of an icon in the world of exotics. Their rich purple or flame-orange colouration and mysterious yellow eyes sparked immense interest from hobbyists as soon as they entered the trade. Naturally found across the islands of Southeast Asia, there are more than 50 known Geosesarma species, commonly referred to as the “Vampire Crabs”.

Alistair Gamblin is a Zookeeper and Student from the UK. He has been working with exotics for eight years and is currently maintaining over 30 species in his private collection. He is now sharing his experience on his online platform Ali’s Menagerie.

Natural history

These primarily terrestrial crabs live a simple existence, concealing themselves within burrows, crevices, and plants, surfacing each evening to feed and continue their nocturnal antics. They scavenge mostly for detritus, using their freakish purple claws to pick through matter as they graze. They are found alongside shallow, slow-moving bodies of water surrounded by dense vegetation and forest, which offers food and security. These crabs also use water to moult, a regular process which allows them to grow, but also renders them vulnerable to predation and other crabs until their new exoskeleton fully hardens.

History in the trade

It is no wonder that there is a sustained high demand for these colourful and easy-to-care-for crabs. Unfortunately, this demand is almost entirely fulfilled with wild-caught imports and many individuals arrive laden with disease and in poor health, with their age and history unknown. For some of the Geosesarma species, the pet trade may spell bad news, both legal capture and illegal overcollection could be impacting wild populations. More sustainable methods of sourcing rely on the captive breeding of these crabs, yet few efforts are being made to fulfil this demand. This is perhaps not surprising, as the species has been in FEBRUARY 2024

Dan Olsen/Shutterstock.com the trade for a comparatively brief time, leading to a great deal of misinformation on their husbandry requirements. In this article, I hope to straighten out a few of these common misconceptions.

The captive environment

One of the reasons Geosesarma are so popular is their relative ease of care and habitat requirements. Once set up and mature, a tank for these crabs can be almost selfsufficient! If, like me, you are fond of large, naturalistic, or bioactive display tanks, vampire crabs make the perfect inhabitant. Whilst these crustaceans are unlikely to exceed 5cm (2 inches) in size, they can be quite active, especially as the evening closes in, and must be provided with a FEBRUARY 2024

habitat of at least 60 x 30cm for a group of 4. However, I have personally chosen to build a meter-long display enclosure to house my group. Converted aquariums are my favourite method for housing Geosesarma. Whilst front-opening terrariums offer easier access, an aquarium provides an uninterrupted view of your tropical world and allows a deeper base for water and substrate. Vampire Crabs are well-known escape artists, so be sure you have a secure yet ventilated lid if you are converting an aquarium. These crabs perfectly suit a paludarium-style setup. Approximately 20% of the available space should be water, while the remaining 80% should form the land area.

The Bloodthirsty: Captive Care and Breeding of Vampire Crabs

M-Production/Shutterstock.com This tends to be where keepers go wrong. New hobbyists often provide far too much water and leave little space for terrestrial activities. Vampire crabs tend to seek water only for a few select behaviours, such as feeding and moulting and are unable to thrive in a setup with a primarily aquatic focus. The terrestrial portion of the paludarium is the most important to get right- it is here the crabs will spend much of their time resting and feeding. The keeper should aim to provide security to these shy crabs, who, given the chance, will back themselves into the tightest of gaps for safety. I use plenty of wood and seed pods which offer natural refuges for the crabs and my bioactive cleanup crew. I also use plenty of Asian plants such as Ficus pumila and Epipremnum aureum to create an enveloping canopy. To increase the useable floorspace in my tank I have created a large, sloping bank of bioactive substrate, ranging in depth from 5cm at the water’s edge to 20cm in the tallest area. This helps to increase humidity by creating boggy areas and supports the growth of my plants. These small crabs need easy access into and out of their water area; I use a sloping bank of sand, rocks, and overhanging features such as wood to provide these safe passageways. To mimic the limited flow of natural water

Lauren Suryanata/Shutterstock.com bodies, I employ a small, low-flow filter which provides a small amount of disturbance to the water whilst keeping it clean and free from debris. Water areas should also be heated, and for this, a small submersible heater is used, set to maintain a constant temperature of 26°C. Additionally, the water should have a pH of between 7 and 8. With a natural habitat situated just south of the equator, there is little change in the temperature and photoperiod experienced by wild crabs throughout the year. Java’s historic weather data shows an average daytime high of 29°C and nighttime low of 21°C, with a day length of around 8 hours. The best way to offer supplementary heat to Geosesarma species is through a heat mat, which prevents the tank from drying out too quickly, however many keepers- including myself- have seen crabs thrive at room temperature and choose to only heat the water area. These crabs have no specific lighting requirements, although emerging research into the benefits of UVB for invertebrates may lead some keepers to provide Zone 1 lighting for their crabs. I like to use an aquarium LED to provide a natural day and night cycle. This also supports the growth of live plants, which is one of the ways I can maintain the high humidity levels of at least 75% that these crabs require. FEBRUARY 2024

Feeding

Breeding in captivity

Cohabitating vampire crabs with other animals such as small fish and shrimp is common practice. However, this is something I have decided to avoid. Whilst the adult crabs are unlikely to be predated on by fish, they may not be so compassionate in return. Newly hatched crabs could, however, be under great threat from even the smallest of fish.

It is thought that most Geosesarma species reach full size and maturity at around 6 months of age. At this point, the individual is ready to breed. Following successful fertilisation by a male crab (usually distinguished by their larger body and claw size) the female crab will carry eggs for about a month, which hatch out into fully formed crabs. Soon after, the offspring will leave the safety of the parent as precocial, yet tiny, crabs. Due to the high offspring mortality rate, up to 80 offspring can be produced at a time.

Going bioactive is ideal for these crabs: not only does it look natural and maintain humidity, but a fully bioactive setup will also provide a natural and constant source of food from the plants and custodians, which most commonly include springtails and dwarf tropical isopods.

There are a few ways breeding can be encouraged in captivity. The first of these is to get the correct sex ratio: males are highly territorial and are only likely to avoid conflict in large tanks with plenty of hiding places. For every male, there should be at least 3 females. I purchase

Vampire crabs are omnivorous and feed opportunistically on a variety of foods, including invertebrates and plant detritus. In captivity, they will often take anything they are provided with. I feed a vast range of foods typically including locusts, crickets, mealworms, bloodworms, brine shrimp and fish flakes. They also feed off decaying plant matter from within the environment. I often enhance the herbivorous aspects of their diet with vegetables such as cucumber or broccoli, which provide plenty of calcium without the need for supplementation.

FEBRUARY 2024

There is still relatively little understood about vampire crabs, and effective captive breeding methods are yet to be documented. Despite this, hobbyists often have success in breeding crabs when they get the conditions exactly right. For many keepers, their first indication of successful breeding is the movement of tiny crabs within their tank as the animals’ secretive night-time habits are shielded from the nosy keeper.

The Bloodthirsty: Captive Care and Breeding of Vampire Crabs

my specimens in person wherever possible to ensure I obtain the correct ratios (and the healthiest individuals). A high humidity is also important for vampire crabs and anecdotal evidence from keepers suggests that a spike in humidity can increase the success of breeding. In the wild, humidity levels rarely fall below 70%, and commonly sit as high as 98%, which can be difficult to replicate consistently. I use regular misting and live plants to maintain high humidity, which I trap in the tank by covering much of the top with acrylic (ensuring that there is still enough airflow). A final way I encourage breeding is through a high-protein diet. Alongside live feeds, I also provide dried fish and shrimp and have seen crabs eating- and actively seeking- these items.

The Bloodthirsty: Captive Care and Breeding of Vampire Crabs

Once breeding had occurred successfully, I found myself left with the task of caring for offspring. Whilst these crabs are precocial and able to feed on an adult diet for themselves, there are still ways we can increase the rate of survival. Adult crabs are known to be cannibalistic, consuming their offspring. To prevent this, many recommend removing the young. I decided to leave them in my main setup due to the sheer size and complexity of the tank. I made sure that there was always plenty of food

available to mitigate any cannibalism. To date, I have seen no evidence to suggest that I have lost offspring to the parents, yet it is important to bear in mind that this method may not work in all setups.

Conclusion

Vampire Crabs are a delight to keep, and whilst they may not make great pets for handling, their setups can be built

in such a way as to enchant anyone fortunate enough to look. Furthermore, the feeling of delight when I discovered my most recent crabs had bred makes the weeks without seeing a crab very much worth it! I’ll leave you with a vital tip, taught to me through my 8 years of exotic animal care. I certainly couldn’t recite to you everything there is to know about the care and breeding of these crabs, but really, who can? I have learnt that nothing is ever truly ‘comprehensive,’ you will always be learning, as exotics keepers we will always be learning, and for some species, their future in both the wild and captivity is dependent on that. Never stop trying to learn!

Lauren Suryanata/Shutterstock.com

FEBRUARY 2024

SERI E

OREP

Title

KEEPER BASICS:

SEASONAL DIETS FOR FISH

FEBRUARY 2024

Jat306/Shutterstock.com FEBRUARY 2024

Seasonal Diets for Fish

id you know, that it’s not just reptiles and amphibians that can benefit from having their diets adjusted throughout the year? We know that in the wild, most species will adapt their diets to capitalise on an abundance of a particular food. Whether it be crested geckos eating more fruit in the summer, or tortoises eating more shoots in the spring, the keeper should consider adapting their animals' diets to consider their wild behaviours. Whilst this may not be essential for the wellbeing of all species, for some it is a core aspect of their physiology. In this “Keeper Basics” Dr David Pool discusses the ways fish keepers can provide seasonality in their animals’ diets.

ridersuperone/Shutterstock.com

Winter feeding

The nutritional requirements of koi vary considerably throughout the year, hence the need for different diets. For example, protein is necessary for growth, but can only be used at warm water temperatures (over 15°C). Therefore, in summer, we feed a high-protein food because the koi can use the protein to grow. Whereas, in winter, a lower protein food is sufficient because the koi are less active and not increasing in size. Feeding protein-rich foods at low temperatures can even harm koi. Below approximately 10°C, few if any of the proteins will be used for growth. Some may be used inefficiently to produce energy for movement etc, but the

majority will pass straight through the fish. The resultant protein-rich waste can have adverse effects on the water quality as it decomposes. In addition, the digestion of proteins into amino acids starts at the front of the intestine where the enzyme Pepsin gets to work. Pepsin works best in acidic conditions where the pH is 1.5 to 2. If a koi consumes a diet rich in protein and then the water temperature drops, the acidic stomach conditions, together with raised levels of Pepsin, can remain in the early intestine for a prolonged period. This can expose the koi to the risk of stomach ulceration and future infection. FEBRUARY 2024

To avoid these two problems, many koi keepers simply stop feeding their fish when the water temperature falls below 10°C. The theory is that the fish can obtain what little nutrition they require from within the pond and from their stored food reserves. Whilst this may be a possibility in a natural, planted pond, there is unlikely to be sufficient food in a koi pond. The fish would therefore have to rely on stored reserves in the form of fat and muscle tissue. Not feeding over a 3 – 4 month winter period would lead to the koi being thinner and weaker in the spring, and consequently more susceptible to disease attack later in the year. FEBRUARY 2024

Do koi feed at low temperatures?

The behaviour of koi is greatly affected by the temperature of the water they are swimming in. The colder the water, the less active they are and the less inclined they will be to feed. However, they can acclimate to low temperatures. Even at temperatures of 5 – 6°C, koi can be seen to rise to the water surface to feed. However, their activities are greatly influenced by changes in the water temperature. If the water temperature quickly falls from 12°C to 10°C, the koi will stop feeding for a while whilst their bodies get used to the lower temperature. By contrast, if the water temperature rises from 5°C to 7°C the koi may feed quite actively.

BJ.Photo/Shutterstock.com

The important aspect of winter feeding is that you should feed very sparingly. As much as the fish will eat in 2 – 3 minutes is sufficient. The keeper must remember that they are not feeding to encourage growth or enhance colouration, but simply to maintain the health of the koi.

Spring feeding

During the spring, the days will begin to lengthen and the water temperature in your pond will start to rise. At water temperatures above 8°C your fish will become noticeably more active and will begin searching for food. Initially, just feed them once a day on a few floating food sticks or flakes. Don’t be tempted to feed too much too quickly. The first warm days are usually followed by cold conditions. In late spring they will be feeding ravenously to build up their strength after the rigours of winter and to develop reproductive tissues. At this time, they can be fed 1 – 2 times a day, but only on as much food as they will consume in about 5 minutes. In the winter, and particularly in shallower ponds, the temperature changes described can occur every day, with an increase during the day and a fall at night. It makes sense, therefore, not to feed your koi too late in the day as it is likely that the water temperature will start to fall before the fish have had a chance to digest the food. Good quality wheat germ foods are formed largely from plant ingredients and are characterised by a higher roughage content. The digestible component of the food is quickly absorbed by the fish, but importantly, the remaining ingredients pass more quickly through the intestine. The higher plant content will also reduce the amount of Pepsin produced in the front of the intestine and result in less acidic conditions. Feeding such a diet to your koi throughout the winter will support the condition of the fish, but will have no impact on their growth. The carbohydrates contained within the food are an important energy source for the fish and prevent them from having to use their reserves. As for the wheat germ – it will allow better utilization of the other ingredients in the food as well as being a valuable food source in itself.

Winter-feeding impact on spring health Providing koi with suitable food during the winter will have a beneficial effect on the health of the fish in the spring. If the fish have not had to use up their stored food reserves, they will be in better physical condition. However, there is also evidence that the amino acids in wheat germ can strengthen the immune system of the fish and ensure they can counter disease organisms which can cause problems as the water temperatures rise in spring. In extreme cases, not feeding koi through a long winter can lead to vitamin and mineral deficiencies. This can manifest itself in many ways, including lethargy, lack of condition, susceptibility to disease etc. Providing suitable food in small quantities can help combat these issues.

The pump and filter should be restarted 1 – 2 weeks before you start regularly feeding your fish. Gradually increase the amount of food that you give to ensure that the filter bacteria can increase sufficiently to cope with the resultant increases in waste. As temperatures increase, the pump can be positioned in the deepest part of the pond. Pumps that have been running throughout the winter can be turned up and lowered to the pond bottom. Waterfalls and fountains can be switched back on in mid to late spring when water temperatures are consistently above 8°C.

Disease

When the fish awaken from their ‘semi-hibernation’ they will be very weak and susceptible to infection by parasites. Watch out for signs of fungus, gasping, scratching against underwater objects or a grey slimy coating to the skin. You may also notice one or more fish being very lethargic, keeping away from the other fish and remaining still on the pond bottom or near the water surface – sometimes close to the filter or waterfall inflow. Treating the pond with a general external parasite remedy is advisable, although the worst affected individuals should be removed to a separate treatment container. Some pond keepers add a preventative treatment to their ponds in April to kill any parasites before they adversely affect their fish. The spring is an ideal time to introduce new plants into your pond. The safest and most convenient way to plant your pond is by using the plastic baskets available from most stores. These come in a range of convenient sizes and permit the easy re-arrangement of the plants at a later date. The baskets are best filled with good quality nutrient poor soil or a special pond planting media. Large gravel should be added to the top of the basket to prevent the fish from disturbing the soil and clouding the water. FEBRUARY 2024

FEBRUARY 2024

Photo Competition

Title

PHOTO COMPETITION And the winner is...

hank you to everyone who entered our photography competition on Facebook and Instagram. We had some truly incredible submissions! It was extremely difficult to select a winner, but here are your finalists for the 2023 EK Photography Competition….

WINNER: Jimmy Reid – Isopod Macro

RUNNER UP: Rachel Charles – Garlic the Gargoyle Gecko

We love how striking this extreme close up is. Garlic is a very pretty gecko and Rachel, you’ve done them proud! We would like to send you six issues of your choice of Exotics Keeper Magazine.

A leopard can't change its spots. But you could change its cover!

The creativity and colour choice used in this image caught our attention immediately. Jimmy’s ability to create an image that could catch the eye of anyone who may have never considered the beauty of an isopod is a fantastic achievement. We’ll be in touch with your annual subscription details.

RUNNER UP: John Wilkie – Regal Jumping Spider Eating a Mealworm

Looking into the eyes of a jumping spider is a real treat for anyone. Documenting their feeding behaviour is even more interesting. For this reason, we would like to give you three issues (of your choice) of Exotics Keeper Magazine.

Thanks to everyone that entered the competition. Here are some other photos that we thought were particularly interesting. Left to right: Branden Robertson - Green Tree Python, Cand Perkins - Forest the Iguana, Norbert Kaszycki - Rhabdophis siamensis, Ryan Osborne - Crested Gecko at Christmas, Shannon Wallace - Goblin the Henkel's Leaf-Tailed Gecko.

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*10% discount on two or more pets from any species we cover within our pet insurance product range. British Pet Insurance Services is a trading name FEBRUARY of Petcover EU Limited who is registered in England and Wales under number 10001319. Petcover EU Limited is authorised and regulated 2024 59 by the Financial Conduct Authority under reference number 747757.