Exotics Keeper Magazine June 2023

SOMETHING TO GET BIG-HEADED ABOUT

How keepers at London Zoo successfully bred Platysternon megacephalum

EMERGENCY HERPETOCULTURE

the

symptoms

The harrowing story of Nelli Kuzmenko, a woman living on the frontlines of war with 1000 reptiles to feed.

main causes and

of respiratory problems in snakes.

The Java sparrow is naturally found on the islands of Central Indonesia. Paul Irven explains how he keeps and breeds the species.

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With a successful launch of our survey campaign, we felt it was extra important to cover the right topics this month. A good split of professional keeper and veterinary advice alongside some conservation-led zoo news. Having heard that our fiends at London Zoo successfully hatched some Critically Endangered turtles last year and being fortunate enough to see the youngsters on our last visit, we thought it was the right time to cover this story in more detail. Kimberley and the team at London Zoo are gearing up for another attempt at breeding big-headed turtles and you can read about all the intricate husbandry practices and relationship with private keepers in our full feature.

Dr Michaela Betts has provided another phenomenal veterinary piece, this time covering snake respiratory diseases. It is important that all keepers get seriously stuck into their animals’ biology to better

to sharing more of their important content going forward.

Throughout summer there are multiple shows, conferences, AGMs and more. Local NGOs are constantly looking for volunteers for herpetological surveying or habitat maintenance and restoration and now is the perfect time to approach a club, society or organisation and get signed up. In my experience, the very best way to fuel a passion is to mix with like-minded people. Not only do clubs and societies provide excellent networking and educational opportunities, but when life starts to get a little busier than usual, they can be a great tool to reconnect with what you love.

Find your local group today and don’t hesitate to ask us for advice!

Thomas Marriott Editor

Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors. Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.

Front cover: Big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum

Right: Java sparrows (Padda oryzivora)

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02 06 16 02 EXOTICS NEWS

The latest from the world of exotic pet keeping.

06 SOMETHING TO GET BIG-HEADED ABOUT How keepers at London Zoo successfully bred Platysternon megacephalum

14 SPECIES SPOTLIGHT

Focus on the wonderful world of exotic pets. This month it’s the Golfodulcean poison frog (Phyllobates vittatus).

24 32 39

16 THE TEMPLE BIRDS OF JAVA

An introduction to The Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora) or “temple bird”, as they are sometimes called.

24RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS IN SNAKES

We address some of the main causes of respiratory problems in snakes.

32EMERGENCY HERPETOCULTURE: Eighty-day occupation with one thousand reptiles.

39 KEEPER BASICS: Pond Fish.

45 REPTILES AND RESEARCH

A scientific approach to animal husbandry.

46 REHOME ZONE

Can you help these exotic pets find a new home?

EXOTICS NEWS

The latest from the world of exotic animals

New studies show the T-Rex probably had lips

A new study has indicated that dinosaurs, such as the Tyrannosaurus rex, did not have exposed teeth, as popularly depicted in TV and cinema, but instead had scaly, lizard-like lips.

This suggestion debunks the dinosaurs’ appearance widely circulated in both science and popular culture, with an international team of researchers now suggesting a small but impactful change of image for theropod dinosaurs.

Theropods were two-legged dinosaurs, characterised by hollow bones and three toes and claws on each foot. Some of the better-known examples of the subgroup include the T. rex and Velociraptors, with the new findings potentially altering the appearance of some of the most recognisable dinosaurs.

Instead of the fearsome bared teeth we currently associate with these species, research into their jaw and tooth structure suggests that they would have had immobile lips, like that of a lizard, or the tuatara, a survivor of an order of reptiles from the dinosaur age.

Derek Larson, co-author of the study and Collections Manager and Researcher of Palaeontology at the Royal BC Museum said: “It’s quite remarkable how similar theropod teeth are to monitor lizards. From the smallest dwarf monitor to the Komodo dragon, the teeth function in much the same way.

“So, monitors can be compared quite favourably with extinct animals like theropod dinosaurs based on this similarity of function, even though they are not closely related.”

Modelling of mouth closures conducted during the study showed that, with the currently accepted exposed tooth structure, the lower jaw would have had to either crush the surrounding bones or disarticulate the jaw joint to fully close the mouth.

These demonstrations suggests that the previous school of thought that some theropod teeth were too large to have been sealed by lips is incorrect, and that lips would have actually been necessary for the dinosaurs to survive.

New human antibody for snake venom

An international team of researchers have developed a new prototype treatment for snakebite that effectively counteracts the venom of African and Asian Elapid snakes.

Effective against some cobra, mamba and krait species, the new discovery is entirely devised from antibodies of human origin. Traditionally, snakebite antivenom depends on antibodies from immunised animal blood, but these treatments can cause severe reactions, making the discovery of a new way to treat snakebite imperative.

As reported in our article on the devastating effects of snakebite in our October 2022 issue, this development brings a much-needed potential counter to the 5.4 million cases of snakebite worldwide every year, with between 81,000 and 138,000 of them resulting in death.

The new discovery also outstrips

What game do baby parrots play?

A juvenile Edmontosaurus disappears into the enormous, lipped mouth of Tyrannosaurus ©Dr Mark Witton

Professor Andreas Hougaard Laustsen-Kiel. ©DTU

existing treatments in that it has the potential to neutralise the toxins of a broad range of species, even from different continents, instead of targeting those of just one type of venom.

While the treatment is still being developed and its capabilities established, the team hope to broaden the scope of their antivenom testing, while also investigating its potential in neutralising toxins from other animals, diseases and even in developing cancer treatments.

Human fist-sized bladder stone removed from 80-year-old tortoise

A bladder stone the size of a human fist has been removed from 80-year-old California desert tortoise, Tortie.

The 12-pound reptile went to live with Cal Dalrymple and his wife, Michelle, after Cal’s parents recently passed away. After doing some research into tortoise care, they decided to arrange a wellness check for Tortie before his winter hibernation.

Rare Giant Otter triplets born at Yorkshire Wildlife Park

Yorkshire Wildlife Park (YWP) has welcomed a second litter of Giant Otter pups in the space of eighteen months, bringing the total number of the species at the park to nine.

This is believed to be the highest number of Giant Otters in a single zoo or wildlife park in Europe, a significant achievement for YWP considering Giant Otter breeding in zoos is not always successful.

The new arrivals are also a boost for global numbers of Giant Otters which have been classified as endangered. Found primarily in the Amazon basin in South America, they are poached for their fur, valued for its waterproof properties, and meat, but are also under threat from deforestation and gold mining in their habitats.

Aquatics Team Leader, Kelsie Wood gave an update on the progress of the growing family: “Mum Alexandra is very relaxed this time- you can see she is an experienced mother. She will keep a careful eye on the pups as they start exploring. At the moment, they are mainly staying indoors.

“This second litter, which is the third time Alex has given birth, is testament to our commitment to the conservation of endangered species, and we believe these pups will inspire our visitors to learn more about these incredible animals.”

During the check-up, an x-ray revealed the sizeable mass in Tortie’s bladder, resulting in a referral to exotic animal specialists at UC Davis veterinary hospital.

While the stone could have been accessed through an incision in the bottom of the shell, Dr David Guzman, chief of the Companion Exotic Animal Medicine and Surgery Service, and resident Dr Mariana Sosa Higareda, decided to try a less invasive procedure, instead entering through an area in front of the back leg, known as the prefemoral fossa. The stone was then broken up and removed from the same area.

Had the stone been left to grow any bigger, it would have caused further damage to Tortie’s vital organs, making the success of the procedure even more essential. For Dr Guzman, Totie’s case demonstrates the importance of annual wellness examinations.

“Thankfully, his owners decided to get a hibernation consultation, but the stone could have been identified even earlier with annual examination, and that smaller stone could have been removed much easier,” he said.

After three hours of surgery, Tortie made a full recovery, waking up after 24 hours. This long recovery period is typical of reptiles post-surgery due to their slower metabolism and Tortie was monitored closely and fitted with a feeding tube to ensure he received the proper nourishment and hydration after his ordeal.

©ZSL Whipsnade Zoo

©Yorkshire Wildlife Park

Tortie ©UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine

©Philip Smith, National Aquarium

Rare Mexican giant leaf frogs successfully bred in UK

Cotswold Wildlife Park (CWP) has successfully bred rare giant Mexican leaf frogs (Agalychnis dacnicolor) in what’s thought to be only the second successful attempt by a zoological institution of its kind.

Describing the challenges of the metamorphosing stages of the breeding process, curator Jamie Craig said: “[It] can be very tricky and we are delighted to have had success with our Mexican leaf frogs.”

Breeding the frogs is made more difficult by their remarkably specific breeding habits. Due to the extreme nature of the conditions in their natural habitat, the dry forests of Mexico, they have evolved to breed during only a few hours each year.

The team of keepers at CWP were able to successfully recreate these conditions, resulting in the first successful breeding attempt at the park.

Stolen alligator is returned to Texas zoo after almost 20 years

An 8-foot-long alligator named Tewa has been returned to the Animal World and Snake Farm Zoo after being discovered at a nearby home.

The homeowner did not have the necessary permit to keep alligator and has since been issued with two citations.

It is thought that Tewa was stolen from the zoo near Austin, Texas twenty years ago as an egg or hatchling by a volunteer and kept in a backyard for many years.

The zoo has stated that Tewa will live out the rest of her days there, where she is being introduced to other alligators and adjusting well to her new environment.

In a statement, the Texas Game Warden Agency which retrieved Tewa said: “Alligators don’t make good pets, y’all.”

Written by Isabelle Thom.

ON THE WEB

Websites | Social media | Published research

THIS MONTH IT’S: THE EK SURVEY

This is a really important initiative we are running to gather empirical data on the breadth of species kept in the UK to fight misinformation and problematic legislations. Please fill in our survey today for a last chance to win £1,000 UK store credit before the end of June.

www.survey.exoticskeeper.com

Each month we highlight a favourite website or social media page

SOMETHING TO GET BIG-HEADED ABOUT

How keepers at London Zoo successfully bred Platysternon megacephalum.

The big-headed turtle (P. megacephalum) is a Critically Endangered species of freshwater turtle from East and Southeast Asia. Although there are three distinct subspecies of big-headed turtle, the ancient, monotypic genus Platysternon dates back some 75 million years, making it a remarkably unique species of turtle. Because of this, it is ranked number 19 on the ZSL EDGE list as it is “Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered” and the species remains on the edge of existence. In 2022, keepers at London Zoo became the first in Europe to breed the species, marking the first step in a potentially monumental captive-breeding programme.

In-turt-duction

Big-headed turtles are freshwater, semi-aquatic turtles from China, Vietnam and northern Thailand (as well as a small distribution in Cambodia and Myanmar). They can be found at elevations up to 800m and in a variety of tropical and subtropical climates. Adults are typically very drab in colouration, with menacingly powerful jaws and flat carapaces. They are also solitary and reasonably territorial turtles that will occupy individual sections of rivers or streams. Being predominantly aquatic and growing to an impressive size of around 40cm, they are frequently targeted by poachers for meat. In some parts of their range, they are also smuggled into the illegal pet trade.

Back across the pond

The four big-headed turtles at London Zoo arrived with keepers in the winter of 2018, after being seized from smugglers who had exported them as “children’s toys”. They are thought to have originated in China but were destined for Canada before being intercepted at customs and held temporarily at Toronto Zoo.

“When they came in, they were in a bit of a rough way” explained Kimberley Carter, Reptiles Keeper at London Zoo. “They couldn’t shed that well, so they had a lot of retained scutes and because of that, they had shell lesions. It’s been an ongoing process trying to get them back into a

healthy state as each time they would shed, it would reveal a new lesion. Thankfully, we’re pretty much sorted with that now and they’re all looking amazing.”

The team at London Zoo did a genetic analysis on the turtles and found that they are of the subspecies megacephalum megacephalum. “Because animals are often harvested from different areas, it is really difficult to tell exactly where they’re from” adds Kimberley. “They all came in as adults, so they’re also of unknown ages. The big male was probably fully-grown, but the smallest female is likely to be a sub-adult. She’s grown a lot since 2018.”

As well as being harvested for meat, big-headed turtles are also prized by poachers due to demand from the illegal pet trade, potentially fuelled by their unique appearance. Although they may look very similar to some of the snapping turtles of North America, they are of a completely different lineage. Kimberley continued: “They are extremely unique. For a start, they can’t retract their heads into their skull. Because of this, they have evolved really strong armour and really strong jaws. This is partly because of the prey they eat, but also as a defence. Big-headed turtles are mostly recorded in rocky montane streams so they use their flat carapaces to wedge into hiding places. Surprisingly, they are also fantastic climbers!

Zoo keeper Kimberley Carter counts Big-headed turtles at London Zoo's 2023 stock take © ZSL

In the wild, they climb over rocks and up streams but they are capable of climbing almost vertical surfaces – I’ve had this problem a few times! Normally it’s the one big male who will climb during the breeding season, but I have also had it happen with the juveniles too!”

The big-headed turtles are housed in large semi-aquatic enclosures that incorporate a water section with significant movement and several hides, as well as a land area with loose substrate and a drainage layer. Although only one individual is on show at the zoo’s Reptile House, husbandry remains the same for both adults and juveniles, across all enclosures. They are provided with a basking spot of around 26-30°C and a UVI of 4. “Their basking spot is perhaps a little cooler than you would provide other turtles” added Kimberley. “They do bask fairly frequently, but they are a predominantly aquatic species.”

Big-headed turtles spend much of their time submerged in fast-flowing, cool water. At London Zoo the water is run through a biological filter, water chiller and is also treated with a UV steriliser as well as being changed three times a week to prevent bacterial growth that could encourage shell lesions.

Kimberley continued: “Where they come from, it’s really high quality, fast flowing water, so it’s important that we replicate that in our care. You can quickly notice if the water is not perfect as big-headed turtles will soon show signs of superficial health problems. Treating the shell lesions was a bit of a problem. We had to ensure that the water was perfect, but then we tried various ways to treat them. We started dry docking and using topical treatments but soon found that a hands-off approach seemed to be more effective. We added salt to the water also, which seemed to really help. Three parts per thousand of aquarium salt creates a bad environment for bacteria to grow without harming the turtle. It helps to fight bacterial problems.”

A shell-thy lifestyle

Keepers at London Zoo used information collected in big-headed turtle habitat by our colleagues from the Asian Turtle Program of Indo-Myanmar Conservation, to provide seasonality within their husbandry practices. Not only did the replication of wild seasons in a captive environment encourage the development of healthier animals but it was also crucial to the breeding process. “We used a whole mix of knowledge to breed the big-headed turtles” explains Kimberley. “We have used information from Prospect Zoo, as well as private keepers, but we also have a strong relationship with conservationists in the field. This helped us fine-tune our husbandry. For example, initially, they were just fed shellfish, fish and other high-protein foods. However, looking into their wild diets, they actually eat a lot of plant material. About 50% of their diet is made up of plants. The main plant they are known to consume in Hong Kong is a round fruit that looks almost like a conker/ avocado mix (Machilus spp.). It has a small outer fruit that is really tough. They are actually very good seed dispersers for this particular species of plant. There is also some seasonality in their diet. In the wet season they will eat more fish, whereas, in the dry season, they will go for more plant materials. Males also tend to eat more mammals and other reptiles too, whereas juveniles will eat a greater amount of plant matter. I didn’t expect them to be so omnivorous!”

Kimberley and the team at London Zoo produce a special “turtle jelly” that contains varying amounts of nutritionally dense plant matter. “They’re not very good at eating their vegetables” added Kimberley. The turtle jelly is a mix of shrimp, pumpkin, carrots and additional dietary supplements such as Nutrobal and Aquavits. This allows the team to provide more nutrients for the females in the run-up to breeding season.

After the animals have been conditioned to hibernate, the keepers must carefully induce a winter “cool” period. By using a chiller, the water temperature is gradually lowered

Big headed turtle hatchling on scales © ZSL

from a summertime average of 25°C to a frigid 8°C. “Part of the way to encourage breeding is to hibernate them” added Kimberley. “This helps with sperm production, but it also helps the females regulate their follicles. Then, the breeding is super quick but super exciting! They’re very territorial and because of their really big jaws, they can cause a lot of damage. So, we clear out all the furnishings in their tank, then introduce the male to the female. The male will do a little head bob and circle the female. She will waggle her tail if she’s receptive. Then, the male will jump on her and flip them both on their side. During this time, she normally tries to bite him a lot so he will stretch his head out of reach but occasionally bite too. Then, every time we’ve done it, it’s taken them about 8 minutes, so it’s really quick! The big male is always straight on it, but the smaller male is a bit more hesitant. I try every combination that I can, but the smallest female has been a little too small so we’ll probably try that combination this year. I repeat until there are signs that she is not receptive. Anecdotally, a bit of aggression from the female is a good sign that she is no longer receptive and the breeding was probably successful.”

Soon after breeding, the female will begin to search for a location to lay her eggs. In the wild, big-headed turtles will rarely venture more than one meter from the water's edge and therefore, they have adopted a method of burying their eggs remarkably shallowly. This may be because of the high-drainage soil that surrounds the stream. By burying the clutch in shallow soil, they are less likely to become damaged by excess moisture in the nesting medium. “Clutches seem to be size-dependent” added Kimberley. “So, bigger females tend to lay more eggs and they can have anywhere from one to nine eggs in a clutch. Our female has had 3-4 eggs each time, which, based on her size, seems about right.”

Un-be-leaf-able youngsters

Adult big-headed turtles can reach sizes of up to 40cm in length, although most of this is head and tail. Adults are robust, drab creatures whereas juveniles are shockingly ornate. They typically exhibit bright colouration, with distinct carapace patterns. The youngsters still have a proportionately enormous head, but this is adorned with two post-ocular stripes, dividing their olive skin from their peach-coloured underside. Both adults and juveniles have remarkably flat shells, but this is perhaps more noticeable in the hatchlings. Interestingly, Kimberley has noticed several behavioural differences that may tell us more about the species’ natural history.

Kimberley told us: “The juveniles are quite similar to the adults, but there are a few differences… Initially, they would cling to the rock faces and sort of dangle in the stream but at a certain point, they become more like adults and walk along the bottom. I am hoping to do some research into this with our next offspring, to track exactly when this change happens. When the babies first hatch, they’re so brightly coloured and they tend to dangle from rocks, which I expect is them mimicking leaves. Then, after a certain point, they lose their bright green and start walking on the bottom a lot more. Perhaps that’s to look more like a rock?”

A world of turt

The big-headed turtle used to be common in certain parts of its distribution, but it is now rare throughout its range. It is assessed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List and has been included on CITES Appendix 1 for over a decade. They are consumed by people in China and are regularly harvested for food as well as for the

©ZSL

international pet trade. Populations in Thailand and Hong Kong are presumed stable, but the species is undergoing rapid declines in population sizes across other parts of its distribution. It is suspected that the population of bigheaded turtles has been reduced by over 90% in the past three generations (90 years).

A site comparison study in 2009 – 2011 of freshwater lakes, rivers and streams in Hong Kong (Sung et al. 2013) found that big-headed turtles Platysternon megacephalum grew larger in a stream inside a fenced, patrolled, protected area without turtle harvesting compared to turtles in four national park sites where illegal harvesting is believed to take place. The study also found that the growth rates were consistent across both males and females. This suggests that harvesting may be impacting turtles other than just causing population to declines. Individuals in exploited populations

are on average, smaller than non-exploited populations and this may be detrimental to these populations.

London Zoo also works with the Asian Turtle Program of Indo-Myanmar Conservation, an NGO that has invested a lot of time and resources in understanding the threats facing big-headed turtles. ZSL’s Curator of Reptiles and Amphibians, Dr. Benjamin Tapley, explained: “The Asian Turtle Program of Indo-Myanmar Conservation help to rehabilitate the hundreds of big-headed turtles seized by local authorities and housed at the Turtle Conservation Center in Cuc Phuong National Park, Vietnam. This collaborative project, implemented by the Asian Turtle Program has implemented a vital health and genetic screening protocol at the centre, helping to safeguard wildlife at reintroduction sites from the spread of any pathogens that may be carried by the rescued reptiles

when they are released - this has resulted in more than 350 rescued turtles having been safely released into protected areas over the past three years. Our international team is also working with local communities to help them understand that it is illegal to hunt and collect them, how vitally important these amazing animals are, and that together we can bring them back from the brink.”

The turtles that were hatched at London Zoo have been named after three colleagues from the Asian Turtle Program in Vietnam, in recognition of the collaborative efforts taking place

to save this unique species: Thuy Thu Nguyen, Tim McCormack and Ha Hoang. Ha is a ZSL EDGE Fellow who led on the translocation of rescued Bigheaded turtles in Vietnam said: “Having these turtles hatch at the Zoo not only adds to the global numbers of this unique species but allows us to learn more about them and their breeding habits. This is vital information shared between colleagues that informs the turtles’ rescue and rehabilitation.”

Pooling resources

Perhaps surprisingly, a lot of what zoologists know about the captive management of big-headed turtles comes from the private trade. Although they are a target for unscrupulous smugglers, Platysternon megacephalum was only listed under appendix 1 of CITES in 2013, suggesting that there could be many breeding adults already within the trade that were legally imported decades ago. “There are some fantastic keepers that have done it properly, especially in the United States” Kimberley explained. “I have actually spoken to a lot of them who have really helped in what we’re doing here, but sadly the illegal pet trade is still a thing. If we can create a good captive population in zoos and the really good private keepers can produce a captive population for the trade, then I think that’s a good way of driving down demand.”

Although the species has been bred in several North American institutions and in large numbers at rehabilitation centres in Asia, the successful hatching of three turtles in an EU zoo marks an important development for their captive care. The team at ZSL may have reached an important milestone in establishing a healthy genetically diverse captive population in the UK, but they are excited for what is to come. Kimberley concluded: “I absolutely love these turtles and now I kind of feel like a bit of a pioneer! It’s really early days but eventually, I hope we can create a good breeding population of these animals in UK zoos. One of our animals from last year has gone to Newquay. We have three more that are going to Whipsnade and next year we will probably export and import animals to keep a good genetic variety. It’s exciting to be the first ones in Europe to push it!”

DID YOU KNOW

Big-headed turtles have the longest tail relative to body size of any turtle, with tail length being more than half of the carapace length.

Big-headed turtles’ heads are so big, they are unable to retract them into their shell.

The name Platysternon megacephalum comes from the Greek “platus” meaning “flat” and “sternon” meaning chest and “megas” meaning “big” and “kephale” meaning “head”.

What is EDGE?

The EDGE of Existence Programme is the only global conservation initiative to focus specifically on threatened species that represent a significant amount of unique evolutionary history. EDGE species have few close relatives on the tree of life and are often extremely unusual in the way they look, live and behave, as well as in their genetic make-up. They represent a unique and irreplaceable part of the world’s natural heritage, yet an alarming proportion are on the verge of extinction.

©ZSL

SPECIES SPOTLIGHT

The wonderful world of exotic animals

Golfodulcean poison frog (Phyllobates vittatus)

The Golfodulcean poison frog (Phyllobates vittatus) is a small species of Central American Dendrobatid. Its name is derived from its natural range of the Golfo Dulce (and wider Puntarenas) region of Southwest Costa Rica. Although reasonably abundant in the wild, its restricted range and threats of deforestation across that region of Costa Rica have led the species to be labelled “Vulnerable” by the IUCN. Although the species has been bred in captivity for many years, it is only now becoming frequently available in the UK as captive-bred individuals are now imported from Europe in large numbers. Being a Phyllobates species, it belongs to a genus of the most toxic animals on Planet Earth, however, in captivity, this species loses its toxins. In the wild, vittatus is far less toxic than other members of the genus. It was also split from being considered synonymous with the Lovely poison frog (Phyllobates lugubris) that inhabits the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica but has a similar appearance with less defined patterns.

The Golfodulcean poison frog is small, rarely exceeding 3cm in length. Both males and females possess striking colours of blue legs and flanks, with strong orange or yellow dorsal stripes. They can make excellent pets

providing they are given an appropriate setup. A large 60x45x60 glass terrarium can house a trio of adults, but it must be heavily planted to create visual barriers for the frogs. In the wild, Golfodulcean poison frogs inhabit moist and wet forests at low elevations. In some cases, these regions will become waterlogged and thick layers of leaf litter provide safe passage between plants. Whilst it’s unadvisable to flood a captive terrarium, a solid inch of leaf litter should be provided. Whilst all Dendrobatids will benefit from organic leaflitter in their terrarium, P. vittatus is especially fond of rotten logs, decaying leaf litter and seasonal floods.

Like many Dendrobatids, this species should be maintained at 20°C – 24°C. Much higher than 26°C can become dangerous and Phllobates species are notoriously sensitive to higher temperatures. Despite this, they are a reasonably straightforward species to care for and will readily breed in captivity, making them excellent beginner “dart” frogs. They should be fed golden fruit flies, Hydei fruit flies and pinhead crickets dusted with appropriate supplementation. These frogs are also diurnal and despite occupying densely vegetated forest floors, will be exposed to some UVB and is categorised as a Ferguson Zone 1 animal.

Disease in your captive tadpoles?

Have you seen any disease, noticed unusual symptoms, or had unexpected deaths in your tadpoles?

www.pro-rep.co.uk

Are your tadpoles bloated – maybe with pink or yellow discolouration around the abdomen?

the Tadpole Doctor

Disease in your captive tadpoles?

Have you seen any disease, noticed unusual symptoms, or had unexpected deaths in your tadpoles?

Are your tadpoles bloated – maybe with pink or yellow discolouration around the abdomen?

Have you observed any change in their behaviour, such as: sudden and erratic movements, swimming in circles, loss of equilibrium, sluggishness, floating at the surface or death?

Have you observed any change in their behaviour, such as: sudden and erratic movements, swimming in circles, loss of equilibrium, sluggishness, floating at the surface or death?

Researchers at the University of Oxford need your help. They are trying to track the spread of a newly identified disease of tadpoles. If you suspect that your tadpoles are showing signs of the disease symptoms mentioned above, please make contact at http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk.

Researchers at the University of Oxford need your help. They are trying to track the spread of a newly identified disease of tadpoles.

If you suspect that your tadpoles are showing signs of the disease symptoms mentioned above, please make contact at http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk

http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk

THE TEMPLE BIRDS OF JAVA

By Paul Irven

Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora)

The Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora), “temple bird” or “rice bird” as they are sometimes called, is naturally found on the islands of Java, Bali, Sumatra and Borneo. Its range also covers Thailand, Taiwan, Myanmar, St. Helena and the Philippines where they frequent areas of open country such as lowland grasslands, open woodlands with grass or cultivated land such as rice, maize and cane fields. In this article, Paul Irven discusses the care and keeping of these exotic finches.

Outside of the breeding season, flocks of java sparrows gather together in search of food, gathering in cultivated rice fields. They feed on the ground or in growing vegetation on grass seeds, fruit, rice, maize, and small insects.

Attempts to introduce the species to several countries have occurred with varying levels of success. Java sparrows have now been introduced to Sri Lanka and parts of America. They are also well-established on the Hawaiian Islands and have been introduced into Puerto Rico in the Caribbean where they are considered an invasive species. Sightings of this species across the Caribbean stretch as far as Jamaica. Java sparrows have also been introduced to Christmas Island off the coast of Western Australia.

In parts of Asia, the Java sparrow has been commonly hand-reared by their keepers, so they become very tame and attached to their human carers. These birds are often kept in small cages but let out for exercise inside a house. For centuries the Java sparrow has been a popular cage bird in Asia, and from the late 1960’s to the early 1970’s the Java sparrow was the most popular cage bird in America, until its import was banned, due to the concerns of escaped birds causing crop destruction. Today it remains illegal to possess Java sparrows in California because of a perceived threat to agriculture, yet rice-dependent Asian countries like China, Taiwan and Japan have not regulated the bird at all which seems rather odd.

Originally, the Java sparrow was a well-established species in the wild. They are a highly social species that had an expanding population in their native lands. However, due to persecution, Java sparrows were regarded as an agricultural pest species after they destroyed the paddy rice fields. Their scientific name translates to “eater of rice in paddy fields”. Over-collecting for the pet trade has also accelerated population declines. In the wild, they often flock together with other finches such as the "spice bird" or nutmeg finch (Lonchura punctulata).

The current IUCN conservation status of the Java sparrow is "Endangered" and they are listed under CITES Appendix 2, with less than 10,000 birds left in the wild. As a result, the species is now widely kept in zoos where efforts to maintain genetically viable flocks of their natural colour are important. It is particularly difficult to find naturally coloured birds these days, when so many colour mutations have been bred into the captive population for several generations. Where possible, breeders now make every effort to only breed from those of the natural “wild”

colouration, swiftly removing the unnatural colour morph mutations. Of course, there are large numbers that are also still kept and bred privately in cages and aviaries. I know of multiple private keepers who have kept large breeding colonies of grey Java sparrows successfully, but generally, the larger flocks are held in zoos and bird gardens.

The natural wild colour of Java sparrows is a smart, slate grey upper body with a black head and white cheek patch. The lower chest and underbody are a pale pink, with pink legs and a red bill. The sexes are visually alike but in breeding condition, the males develop a more swollen and redder bill and will sing with a bubbling call. The males will stretch themselves up when doing this and sometimes both birds of a bonded pair will rub their bills together before mating. Occasionally some birds have white under the beak as well, and this may or may not be linked to the possible genetic presence of underlying colour mutations, of which there are several variations in captivity ranging from pied to cream, opal, fawn, pastel, agate, white, and silver.

The Temple Birds of Java

Aviaries

Without any doubt, the best way to keep Java sparrows (and indeed Timor sparrows) is in an aviary on a colony basis. This can be achieved slowly by having one or two pairs and growing the colony gradually or by housing several birds, ideally aged between 1 to 4 years old, together which will then allow for natural pair selection. Generally, pairs do naturally squabble with each other, but it is never serious, it is usually just some vocalisations of discontent and minor chasing. Java sparrows are quite hardy and do not particularly require heat however their aviary should provide a dry and draught-proof shelter away from strong winds and frosts at night. A partly covered roof is also desirable and aviaries should always have a double access door for safety. There should be more nest boxes than pairs of birds available and these should be positioned fairly high up but still allowing for a gap between the roof and the tops of the boxes as they tend to like sitting on top of the boxes to roost. Interestingly Java sparrows also like sitting near or under dove`s wings or bodies for warmth presumably at night. The boxes should not be positioned too close to each other to avoid pairs fighting too much over territory. The size of the aviary will dictate the numbers that can potentially be kept, whilst using common sense to avoid overcrowding and reduce any welfare issues arising. Java sparrows are quite long-lived compared to many smaller finches, living up to ten years.

Birds of a feather

Pairs of Java sparrows will breed in a cage or aviary, and I have kept and bred them in both. However, the consensus is to keep them best in a flock within an aviary. They are social birds that seem to like the visual and auditory stimulus of others in a group to stimulate breeding and provide social enrichment. It is said that only the most dominant pairs in a colony will breed and generally a mated pair will establish a good bond but not always remain with the same partner. Some pairs will be quite prolific producing several successive broods of chicks. Initially, the male will carry a piece of plant material in his beak as an offering to his potential partner whilst performing the courtship display, this takes the form of a bobbing up and down display and a bubbling song. Though some males may not sing during the courtship display. Receptive females bow and occasionally hop a few times before soliciting copulation with a crouched posture and quivering tail. Copulation usually takes place on a branch often followed by a little “beak fencing” after mating takes place.

Java sparrows often prefer the standard “budgie nest box” to raise their chicks in, if you leave the wooden concave in the box it will help to prevent the eggs from rolling out of place. This type of nest box also provides plenty of room if the brood is large. The nest itself is constructed from a wide variety of plant materials and can include many other

items, almost anything available will be used. Both sexes will incubate the eggs which usually number between 4 and 6, but occasionally there may be as many as eight eggs, these are oval and white in colour, and fairly small for a large finch. Both birds take turns incubating the eggs by day but only the female will incubate during the night, and the incubation period is typically 14 days, though it can be as short as 13 days or perhaps slightly longer than 14 days. The chicks are quite small initially. During this time plenty of green food, egg food and soaked seeds should be offered, that said Java sparrows can rear the chicks on a much blander diet of just seed, although this may result in less rearing success. Leg rings, if required, should be applied at around six days of age and they should be of the correct size for the species. The chicks should fledge the nest between 21 to 30 days of age and will be weaned onto hard seed by the age of 50 days, they will return to the nest box at night to roost until they are weaned. The young bird`s first moult is normally around the age of three months old. Sometimes older chicks from a pair will help to feed a second younger brood in a related group. If colony breeding, keep an eye out for overly-aggressive individuals who may need to be removed from the breeding enclosure to avoid disruption of the other pairs. Breeding pairs should be limited to only three broods per year and it is best to avoid any breeding during the winter months. Removing or covering the nest boxes may be required as long as good shelter from the weather is also

provided. I used to either remove the boxes, or fix a small piece of wood over the entrance hole, and by doing this the birds can still sit on top of the box at night if they wish.

In the wild, Java sparrows usually breed after the rainy season ends and will nest in tree cavities or bushes. If they are near human habitations, they will even nest under the eaves of buildings.

Given the right conditions and a lack of a more suitable mate of the same species, it is said that Java sparrows can potentially interbreed with; Zebra Finches (Taeniopygia guttata), Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata), African Silverbills (L. cantans), Scaly-breasted Munias (L. punctulata), Diamond Firetails (Stagonopleura guttata), Cut-throat finches (Amadina fasciata) and Red-headed Finches (A. erythrocephala) so care is required not to allow hybridisation to occur.

Adult Java sparrows have historically been fed on a good quality finch seed mixture with various millets, canary seed, hemp, niger, groats, and rape seeds, occasional millet sprays should be offered, but not too often as they can be fattening, and various green foods such as chickweed and lettuce, cucumber, cress, and apple seems to be relished too. Soaked and sprouted seeds are particularly valuable when the adults are feeding chicks. Complete pelleted diets are also now available that encompass the

full nutritional profile required by the birds, including optimal levels of Vitamin A. Although pelleted diets are becoming the popular choice for parrot nutrition, more and more keepers are beginning to feed their finches on a “complete” pellet too. In my experience, live foods such as mealworms are often ignored.

Of course, in the wild they tend to feed almost exclusively on paddy rice and I have offered raw paddy rice to mine and they completely refused it. I also tried a little cooked long-grain rice and although they showed some interest, they did not eat it. Java sparrows adore bathing so fresh clean water should always be provided in a shallow bowl.

Java sparrows, like many other birds, can contract intestinal parasites including coccidia and should be regularly wormed. They are also prone to air-sac mites, which is something which has badly affected wild populations too. A pale-coloured beak (sometimes of a flaky texture) and a pale eye-ring can be signs of illness or vitamin deficiency. A healthy beak is glossy and rich in colour.

Personal experience.

I have kept and bred Java sparrows at various times from 1987 to date. They generally settle fairly quickly in both cages and aviaries, and I have kept them on their own and as part of a mixed bird collection and they do equally well in both situations. However, if you want to build up

a good-sized colony they are far better to be kept as the only species in an aviary.

The first grey pair I had started breeding after five months and they proved to be very reliable breeders and reared several broods of chicks. It is important to move on some offspring as well as introduce new stock from time to time to avoid in-breeding and keep genetic diversity.

I have also kept the white and fawn colour mutations, separately from the natural greys, and I found to some degree colour mutations can be even more prolific breeders than the greys probably due to the degree of domestication they have endured over time. Though I much prefer the natural grey Java sparrows.

The Timor Sparrow

A close relative of the Java sparrow is the slightly smaller but similarly patterned Timor sparrow (Padda fuscata) or Timor dusky sparrow. This species, found on Timor Island and Roti Island located north of Australia, is categorized as Near Threatened with a declining wild population of between 6,000 -15,000 birds in the wild.

In all aspects of captive management the Timor sparrow is very much like the Java sparrow.

But the Timor sparrow has never been kept in as large

The Temple Birds of Java

numbers as the Java sparrow either in private aviaries or in zoos and is much harder to breed successfully and sustain good numbers in captivity. It is a very inconsistent breeder, with some years where no chicks are produced at all, compared to the more prolific Java sparrow. This may be due in part to the fact the Java sparrow has been somewhat domesticated in captivity over decades compared to the much “wilder” Timor sparrow which has not.

In the past only two U.K. public collections have ever kept this species previously that I know of, they are; Leeds Castle Aviaries in 1998 (the bird collection has since closed), and from 2006 to 2021 Chester Zoo kept a small breeding colony in the “Realm of the Red Ape” exhibit. During 2007/2008 Chester`s group bred twice taking numbers up to 21 birds, but since then, numbers have

slowly dwindled from 16 to 12 birds in 2012, then down to 9 birds in 2018, and there were none left by 2020.

Currently, there is only one public collection in Europe, and none in the U.K., keeping the Timor sparrow. This is the Aqua Terra Zoo in Austria which has kept them since 2020.

A group of private keepers based in Wales got together and founded the “Java Sparrow Society” in 2003 to promote and encourage the keeping of Java sparrows and Timor sparrows. They did originally have some success in importing a small number of birds (15) to the U.K., but I don’t believe this group is still functioning anymore. So the outlook for the Timor sparrow in captivity seems quite bleak without a concerted effort to build up a sustainable captive population in the U.K. and beyond.

Timor sparrow (Padda fuscata)

RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS IN SNAKES

By Dr Michaela Betts

Respiratory problems are a commonly reported health concern in captive snake species. A study of 744 snake owners, surveyed worldwide in 2019, found 5.6% of participants reported signs of respiratory issues in at least one of their snakes. Suboptimal temperatures and humidity, recent movement, parasitism, malnutrition, and inappropriate ventilation are all identified stressors that can predispose to the development of respiratory disease. The following article will address some of the main causes and symptoms of respiratory problems in snakes, for expert and beginner keepers alike.

Anatomy & Physiology

Snake species have a unique respiratory system compromising of nares, rhinarium, choana, larynx, trachea, bronchus/bronchi, and vascular and saccular lungs. They have no diaphragm and are unable to cough, so have no active way to remove airway mucus on a large scale. Their respiratory epithelium also has relatively few cilia compared to other species, so snakes also have a reduced ability to remove foreign material from the respiratory tract and clear mucous or inflammatory debris.

All snakes have a right lung which is divided into a cranial thick-walled vascular respiratory portion, and a caudal avascular thin-walled non-respiratory portion making an air sac or “saccular lung”. This non-respiratory portion is

usually three to four times larger than the respiratory part and may act as an oxygen reservoir for periods of apnoea, or as a buoyancy aid in aquatic snake species. Boidae have a vestigial but functional left lung. Despite this, whilst respiratory disease is a common presentation in snakes, the larger, more sedentary Boids seem to experience issues more commonly than colubrid species.

Inspiration occurs through muscle groups expanding the ribs and lowering the intrapulmonary pressure, allowing a passive expiration as these muscles then relax. Whilst mammals are stimulated to breathe by high partial pressures of carbon dioxide, snakes are stimulated to breathe by low partial pressures of oxygen.

Clinical Signs

Respiratory infection may be seen as a sole issue, or in association with stomatitis (inflammation and/ or infection of the oral mucous membranes). Reptiles can withstand prolonged periods of hypoxia (low levels of oxygen within the blood), and even anoxia (an absence of oxygen), and seem able to function in a somewhat normal physiological state even when in pulmonary compromise.

Clinical signs include audible wheezing or clicking noises when breathing, bubbles or discharge from the mouth or nares, openmouth breathing, blue-tinged or pale

About the author: Michaela is an exotic animal veterinarian who graduated from the Royal Veterinary College in 2018. After working in increasingly exotic animal practices and volunteering at a wildlife hospital, she joined Suffolk Exotic Vets in 2021 where she works with an array of avian, reptile, small mammal, amphibian, and aquatic species. Alongside her clinical work, Michaela is an educational speaker for Just Exotics, providing further education to veterinary professionals on exotic animal species, and is involved with the British Veterinary Zoological Society and Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinarians. She is currently completing her RCVS Certificate of Advanced Practitioner in Zoological Medicine.

gums, difficulty breathing, increased respiratory rate, yawning, and the snake resting in a more stretched-out position, or with their head and neck elevated. However, in some cases, especially Boids, the signs can be vaguer, and may just be lethargy and anorexia. There may also be a change in temperature preference noted, where the snake will suddenly start to favour the cooler areas of their set-up. This is because this will help to lower their metabolic rate and therefore enable them to better cope with the lower circulating oxygen levels.

Whilst it may be due to problems of the respiratory tract, it’s important to

remember that difficulty breathing can also be seen in any disease process that is affecting a snake’s ability to expand its lungs, or that is compromising how well the lungs can function. For example, a spaceoccupying lesion within the coelom, such as an abscess or tumour, could impact lung expansion. Fluid build-up within the lungs, secondary to heart or liver disease, could also present as breathing difficulty. Therefore, whilst respiratory disease can be heavily suspected based on clinical signs, it is important to seek veterinary assistance from a snake-savvy vet to confirm the diagnosis and receive appropriate treatment.

Types of Respiratory Disease

Bacterial infection is a common cause of pneumonia in snakes and may be primary, or may be secondary to stomatitis, haematogenous spread, or infection of another organ in direct or close association, such as the liver. Infection may be focal, multifocal, diffuse, unilateral, or, in Boids, bilateral (focused on one spot, many spots, occurring down the side of the body or both sides of the body). Many types of pneumonia involve commensal bacteria of the respiratory tract, or environmental organisms that become pathogenic due to immunocompromise.

Compared to healthy snakes, affected snakes seem to have heavy growths of aerobic gram-negative bacilli on culture and sensitivity such as Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, and Escherichia coli. However, some atypical bacterial infections can occur, such as mycobacteriosis, and these should be considered in persistent and recurring cases.

Fungal infection is a rare cause of pneumonia and is typically only seen in severely immunocompromised individuals or following prolonged systemic antibiosis. There are very few clinical cases reported in the literature, but multiple agents have been identified in both the skin and respiratory systems of snakes such

Viral respiratory pathogens can be a primary cause of clinical and subclinical pneumonia in snakes, or appear as part of a mixed infection. A positive result does not necessarily mean they are a causative agent but could be contributing to overall immunosuppression. As such, viral infections should also be considered if recurrent or persistent outbreaks occur. Ophidian paramyxovirus has been a reported cause of pneumonia in many snake species, particularly in Viperids and Boids, with characteristic oedema and haemorrhage within the respiratory tract in some cases. The incurable arenavirus that causes Inclusion Body Disease in Boids has also been identified as a cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia. Other viruses to be aware of concerning respiratory disease are nidovirus in Boids, and reovirus and adenovirus, which are more commonly seen in Colubrids.

Parasitic infections affecting the respiratory system are reasonably common in snakes. Some parasites, such as Rhabdius, complete their lifecycle within the lungs. Others, such as Pentastomids, have larvae that migrate from ingested food into the lung, which then mature into adults there. These adults then reproduce within the lungs, and the larvae migrate up the trachea into the oral cavity where they are then swallowed

and passed through the digestive system. There are also parasites, such as Ochetosomatidae, that inhabit the oral cavity and the adult parasites then migrate down the trachea to the lungs and air sacs. All parasites predispose their host to secondary bacterial pneumonia and migrating parasites can be associated with focal lesions within the lungs. Snake mites (Ophionyssus natricis), though ectoparasites, can also be a vector for some infectious causes of pneumonia, such as aeromoniasis.

Non-infectious causes of respiratory disease are uncommon but include trauma, particularly from penetrating injuries, neoplasia, and exposure to irritant gases or aerosols. Foreign bodies are incredibly rare, although inhalation of mucus or pus in cases of stomatitis, or occlusion of the airway from mucus plugs in dehydrated snakes, have been reported.

Predisposing Factors

Factors contributing to the development of respiratory disease in snakes include inappropriate humidity, inadequate temperature ranges, poor ventilation, stress and consequent immunosuppression, enclosure size, physiologic ecdysis, individual species characteristics, and habitat hygiene.

Inappropriately high or low humidity can affect ventilation and contribute

as Aspergillus sp. and Candida sp.

to expediated bacterial and fungal growth in the environment, increasing the exposure for the snake and predisposing it to pneumonia. Equally, poor environmental hygiene can increase the bacterial and fungal exposure of a reptile over time, and lead to immunosuppression and opportunistic infection. Ectoparasites such as snake mites (Ophionyssus natricis) have also been linked to poor environmental hygiene.

Preventative Measures

Prevention of respiratory disease involves good husbandry and quarantine measures, as well as prophylactic veterinary care.

Temperature & Humidity

Enclosure size is an important consideration for both thermoregulation and for enabling stretching out of the body. Many snakes develop clinical or subclinical bacterial pneumonias as a result of persistent suboptimal core body temperatures and consequent immunocompromise. Enclosures should be appropriately sized to provide the snake with the optimum temperature and humidity range for the species. As large as possible an appropriate temperature gradient is preferred to allow the snake to regulate its core temperature more effectively. Temperature and humidity should be monitored both where the heat is focused, and in the coolest region of the set-up as a minimum. A separate hygrometer should be used in each “microclimate” provided within the enclosure. Digital minimum-maximum thermometers are particularly useful as they will identify the highest and lowest temperatures reached in that area, not just display the current temperature.

Appropriate humidity is vital to thermoregulation and should not be overlooked, particularly in the larger tropical snake species. Less humid enclosures trap less heat and so are more at risk of significant fluctuations in temperature,

particularly overnight. The viscosity of respiratory secretions is also increased in more dry environments, making them more likely to accumulate within the respiratory system if inappropriately dry. Conversely, inappropriately high humidity can impact the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract and make affected individuals more susceptible to developing a bacterial infection. Ventilation is key to helping avoid inappropriate rises in humidity and poor air quality.

Enclosure Sizing

Issues with thermoregulation can arise particularly in enclosures that are too small: heat sources can elevate the temperature throughout the set-up so that the snake is unable to cool down appropriately and more at risk of chronic dehydration. This dehydration is exacerbated by more rapid evaporation in warmer, smaller environments. There is also the potential for a relative increase in bacterial and/or fungal environmental contamination due to the smaller surface area of the set-up comparatively. Conversely, larger set-ups are more at risk of having inappropriately low temperatures. A combination of heat emitters and room temperature are usually employed for larger enclosures, and both air and surface temperatures within need to be monitored closely. Underheating should be avoided as it has been linked to reduced movement and therefore reduced clearing of discharges. It is also important to remember that heating underneath set-ups is not usually adequate for larger snakes. Heat burns are a real risk due to their weight and how snakes can remain on conductive heated surfaces for inappropriately long periods of time.

Set-ups should also, as a minimum, be large enough in design to allow a snake to stretch out its body completely. This reduces compression of the lungs and allows both the lung and air sac to fill and empty completely in a single respiratory cycle. Ideally, the set-up should also be large enough for appropriate exercise. Vertical space and

the ability to climb are also important factors in arboreal and semiarboreal snake species, as gravity facilitates the drainage of exudative material through the glottis. This also better enables them to express normal behaviour.

Enclosure Cleaning

Appropriate hygiene and cleaning of set-ups is another important factor in preventing disease of any kind in captive snakes. Health issues most commonly arise in animals kept in enclosures that are difficult to clean, such as painted plywood, and where there is a high snaketo-cage size ratio so the snake is more likely to be in direct contact with its excrement. Frequent and thorough cleaning of the enclosure is necessary for all species, but the exact frequency required will depend on these factors. Substrates should always be replaced when soiled. Extra bowls and enrichment items are also recommended to allow rotation through the cleaning process with minimal stress to the animal. However, it is worth noting that porous items such as wood or cork may be impossible to appropriately disinfect, and it may be preferable to discard rather than rotate these items.

Few disinfectants are effective in the presence of organic

matter such as excrement, so an appropriate cleaning regime should include the thorough cleaning of all surfaces and in-contact items with a mild detergent cleansing agent, such as warm soapy water, followed by a thorough rinse in hot water and then adequate drying, before application of an appropriate disinfectant. Disinfectants should be mixed and applied for the appropriate contact time according to the manufacturer’s instructions and should be selected for the type of enclosure being cleaned. Commonly used disinfectants include F10 disinfectant spray and 1:50 diluted bleach. The type of disinfectant used will also dictate if it should be rinsed off or not for optimum effect or to prevent toxicity. Good hand hygiene, such as using disposable gloves or alcohol-based hand rubs, to help prevent the spread of potential issues, should not be overlooked during the cleaning process.

Quarantine

Any new snake entering a collection should be quarantined upon arrival, regardless of source. This helps prevent the introduction of infectious agents into an established collection. Ideally, quarantined animals would be kept in a separate building and air-handling system from any other reptiles. However, where this

is not possible, then a quarantine area should be as far away from the rest of the collection as possible. Quarantined animals should have separate tools and supplies that are not used for the rest of the collection. Their enclosure should be easy to disinfect with minimal substrate, ideally of easily disposable material like newspaper, but needs to meet the animal’s needs in terms of size, thermal gradient, humidity, and appropriate hides and climbing options. Porous items and surfaces should not be used in quarantine set-ups due to the difficulties of completely disinfecting them. Food items used on quarantine animals should be discarded if uneaten and not offered to any other animals, even those also in quarantine.

A 3-month minimum quarantine period, longer for wild-caught snakes or those with an unknown history (or known disease or parasitic infestation), is recommended to reduce the risk of a preventable outbreak within a collection. Animals should be weighed at regular intervals during this time, and their behaviour, demeanour, appetite, and overall condition noted. Ectoparasites should also be regularly checked for and treated accordingly if found. For snakes, some recommend they should eat for at least three feeds

JARGON BUSTER

in a row before being considered well enough to leave quarantine, even if not displaying any clinical signs during their quarantine period.

At least two faecal samples throughout the quarantine should be screened for parasites. Viral screening with appropriate PCR and/or serological testing for the type of snake acquired is advised depending on the individual species’ susceptibility to certain viruses. It is recommended that new Boidae and Viperidae should be screened serologically for paramyxovirus, and Boidae also be screened for arenavirus, for instance. Depending on the known history of the snake, its source, and if they are displaying any clinical signs of disease, further investigations such as bloodwork or culture and sensitivity testing may be additionally indicated.

Summary

Respiratory disease in snakes is often multifactorial, with a large proportion of infections caused by commensal bacteria due to an individual being immunocompromised. Good husbandry, biosecurity, and quarantine measures are all contributing factors that help limit and prevent the spread and development of not only respiratory problems but other potential disease processes.

Epithelium – the thin tissue forming the outer layer of a body's surface and lining the alimentary canal (the whole passage of food from mouth to anus) and other hollow structures.

Cilia – Microscopic hair-like structures that vibrate to move fluid or provide propulsion.

Apnoaea – A temporary cessation of breathing (especially during sleep).

Boidae/Boids – Referring to the “boas” and “pythons” of the Boidae family.

Coelom – A fluid-filled body cavity that contains the organs, such as the lungs or heart.

Aerobic – Able to grow in the air.

Bacili – A type of bacterium.

Antibiosis – An antagonistic relationship between two organisms where one is harmed (the opposite of symbiosis).

Prophylactic – Intended to prevent disease.

EMERGENCY HERPETOCULTURE:

Eighty-day occupation with one thousand reptiles.

By Nelli Kuzmenko

From the first day of the Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24th February 2022, the Reptiles Breeding Centre, owned by Sergei Prokopiev and Nelli Kuzmenko, was in the front shelling zone. Nelli lived that nightmare for 80 days; she refused to leave through the green corridor, a safe escape route for civilians, so as not to leave the animals she was caring for. Sergei, her husband, returned to Kharkiv from abroad on the first day of the war, but could not reach their home due to daily shelling. Martial law and a curfew were also established in this area and, sadly, the Reptiles Breeding Centre building was eventually destroyed completely.

Fortunately, many of the people and a considerable number of animals inside survived, and in addition to commercial, conservational, and scientific herpetoculture, a new direction emerged: emergency herpetoculture.

Nelli’s story

My name is Nelli Kuzmenko. I spent 80 days in occupation, alone with a dog and 1,000 reptiles. I know that many of you empathised and worried about our fate. Thank you all for your kind words! Today I am going to tell you my story. How it was, how we saved the animals and what happened to them next.

Everyone was talking about the possibility of war, however we continued not to believe it until we saw it for ourselves. On the night of 24th February, I woke up to a terrible roar. The war had begun.

Our village, Russkii Tishki, is located only 30 km away from the Russian border. I wanted to turn on the light but there

was no electricity. My daughter Olia and I rushed around the dark rooms packing clothes, money, and documents. In the morning, it became clear that it was an occupation. There were Russian soldiers, tanks, and military equipment all around. They set up their terrible guns near our house, shelling the city of Kharkiv day and night. Stands with terrariums were shaking and the windows were shaking in their frames.

My husband Sergei Prokopiev has been engaged in herpetoculture for more than 30 years, mostly in largescale keeping and breeding of lizards. At the beginning of the war, he was in Turkey on business. Our employees, of course, were not able to come to work. The responsibility

for thousands of small creatures’ lives fell on my shoulders. This was not supposed to happen!

There was no electricity, heating, or water. The house cooled down quickly and I was panicked and confused. Fortunately, there was some gas in two of the six rooms where the animals were kept, so we had gas stoves for cooking. When I turned them on, the temperature started to rise. From that moment, they were burning around the clock.

We had to act quickly. All animals were transferred into those two rooms, which was difficult as there wasn't enough space. We moved terrariums from other laboratories and filled every possible location, placing them on the floor and in the aisles. In some places it was necessary to squeeze sideways to get through the room. Animals that had lived individually had to be placed together. Meanwhile, there was constant firing of bombs, shells, mines and rockets. One evening, my daughter and I were walking down the stairs when we heard a deafening explosion and saw a bright flash right outside the window. The house shook. In horror, we ran to the basement, huddled in a corner and prayed. It was a bomb and it had fallen on our site. In the morning, a few meters from our house, we found a huge crater about six meters in diameter and about 3 meters deep. The bomb tore out several trees and the whole house was covered with soil. Shrapnel pierced our roof and our neighbour’s house was burnt down.

26th February 2022

We pulled the mattress and all the blankets we had down to the basement. We spent the night there, hiding from the intense shelling. Shells and mines destroyed the fence, filled the iron gates full of holes, and damaged the roof. Shrapnel knocked out most of the windows. I prayed all the time that the windows in the rooms where the animals were kept wouldn’t be damaged. Suddenly I remembered that we had a gasoline generator! My happiness knew no bounds but the generator turned out to be underpowered. It was only able to provide a small amount of heat and light for the animals. I had to make a schedule and switch on the terrariums in turn for very short periods of time. Also, there was very little gas and nowhere to get more. First, I turned on the generator for 4 hours a day, then for 3 hours, for two, for one... In the end, I had to turn it on once every few days to get water and charge the phone.

I spent a significant amount of time heating water, pouring it into different plastic and glass bottles and containers (Fig. 4). I put them in the terrariums so that the animals could get warmth from sitting on the bottles, as they would on warm stones. This allowed many of them to survive, including agamids, skinks, geckos, lacertids, but it failed with chameleons, for no obvious reason. No matter how hard I tried, the animals died. There was not enough space, warmth, food, or enough of my time for all the animals. The number of insects had dropped dramatically. I had to choose which of the animals to give warmth or food to. These were terrible choices to have to make. I was running all day like a hamster in a wheel, but still there was not enough time. Daylight hours were very short, with the onset of night-time and Russian soldiers forbade even turning on flashlights. I sent every animal possible to brumation.

About the author: Nelli Kuzmenko is a private breeder of reptiles and amphibians from Ukraine. During the occupation, she risked her life every day to care for her animals. This is her story.

Breeding in a warzone

After a while, many babies began to be born, including skinks, bearded dragons, crested geckos and chameleons. In the beginning, I allowed everyone to be born. I didn't know what was going to happen or when this madness would be over. I felt that I had to save everyone. This turned out to be a mistake.

Babies were dying and it was painful to watch. Every day I collected dozens of small corpses. Now, I had to choose who was born and who was not. It was a little easier with animals that, in addition to insects, could eat other food. I gave them berries and fruit and made purees for the geckos from cherries, currants, apricots and apples.

In the spring, when the grass began to grow, I picked up dandelions, nettles, and clovers. A woman used to live on the street next to us who had three cows. I visited her to get some milk to make cottage cheese and milk porridge for the skinks. One morning I visited her but a shell had hit her house and she had died. Her cows were gone too. The next day she was laid to rest and I wept all day. I still could not believe what had happened. Thank God my grandparents didn't live to see this!

When the war began, Sergei had immediately returned to Kharkiv but we couldn’t reach each other. Mobile connection was very poor and there was no internet. I

managed to get some signal and called Sergei and asked him what the latest news was on the war. Every time Sergei insisted on my departure but I couldn't leave the animals

After 2 weeks of this nightmare, I decided that my daughter had to leave. She had really helped me a lot, worked all day along with me but now she is in Germany and is doing well.

Additional challenges

Day and night, there was a terrible roaring. Our dog was terrified and I had to look after another injured dog whose owners had gone.

The food was almost gone. I cooked the same porridge for myself, the dogs and the skinks, but the porridge was running out too and it was impossible to buy anything anywhere. All shops were looted on the first days of the war. We only survived thanks to other people.

When the war started, yesterday’s strangers became family. They shared what they could equally, but no one knew how long this madness would last.

One day, I went to the centre of the village. An unfamiliar man was walking towards me, carrying a sack of grain. At that time, I had nothing to feed the crickets and asked if I

could buy some grain. He said he didn't need money and gave me his bag. He asked if I had a safe shelter to hide and showed me a house with a secure basement where he and his neighbours spend the night and hide during shelling. He said: “If you come to us, there will be a place for everyone!”

At this time, I always carried a knife on my belt and was glad that I had a big dog because I felt safer. There were only 4 people left on our street, and one was my neighbour who mended the generator that kept breaking down. He saw that I was caring for the animals all day, and I ate almost nothing. He began to prepare food for the two of us and for my dog. When windows blew out from the explosions, he covered them and repaired the roof, all surrounded by incessant shelling.

One day, I was caring for the animals, as usual, when we heard the volley of a mortar. Me and the dog ran to hide in the basement and, after the explosion, I went back up to see that a bomb had

exploded right in front of our fence. Everything outside was destroyed and all the windows blown out. Just a few minutes before I had been taking out the rubbish. The glass rattled; the windows swung open from the blast. After waiting a few minutes, I went out to see what had happened. A mine had exploded right in front of our fence. There was no fence anymore, the iron gates looked like a colander, almost all the windows were blown out on this side of the building. A few minutes later Sasha came running, he always ran after shelling to check whether I was alive.

2nd May 2022

At this point, our gas line was destroyed by a shell, and I could no longer maintain the ambient temperature in the lab or warm the bottles for animal. I couldn’t feed them because without warming up they would not be able to digest food. I couldn't even cook food for myself and the dogs. As it got colder outside, the animals were forced into wintering. Then I found a wood-burning

stove and firewood in a neighbour's barn firewood

The shelling intensified and it was very dangerous to go outside. Every day, shells flew into our street and we spent most of our time in the basement.

Then a miracle happened! We were released and Sergei arrived.

We quickly grabbed the dog and as many animals as we could fit into the car and left for Kharkiv. Most of the animals and all our things remained in our house as we would need three more trips there to pick up everything. When we went to the checkpoint the next day, they didn't let us through as the situation had escalated and it was dangerous there. “Try it in a couple of days” they said. This was the case for more than two weeks. We didn't know if our house was intact or whether any of the animals were left to save. We tried to negotiate with the military and volunteers. They shrugged helplessly and sympathized.

Finally, we were given the contact of the Ukrainian military who agreed to go back for the animals, but we weren’t allowed to go with them.

They left the same day, 30th May, and brought the animals out. When they realised that there were still many hibernating animals in the house, they returned the next day and brought back all the animals that were alive. They came under fire during the evacuation and risked their lives to save the animals.

On 20th June, the centre was razed to the ground. We were alive and had hundreds of animals with us, which urgently need to be warmed, fed and watered. We had no premises, equipment, or terrariums, or even personal belongings! Without hesitation, we were taken in at Kyiv by our close friend and partner of over 30 years - Dmitri Tkachev.

Our animals were hosted in the BION Terrarium Center and we were living in Dmitri's apartment, but still faced difficulties. We still can’t accommodate all the animals properly and we have had to temporarily place 80 skinks in small plastic boxes. The animals were uncomfortable and cramped and there was no heating. In addition, we were faced with the task of restoring the number of chameleons. Since the beginning of the war, BION has been fighting for survival and continues to care for thousands of animals and their employees. We continue rescuing animals every day.

Support international herpetoculture

Nelli and Sergei were lucky to survive and evacuate the animals that survived during the occupation. The evacuation of reptiles was possible due to the assistance of brave soldiers of the Ukrainian army, who are ready to save not only the lives of humans, but animals as well. To learn more about the struggles faced in Ukraine and the dedication of herpetoculturists around the globe, please support the Responsible Herpetoculture Project by visiting www.responsibleherpetoculture.com.ua.

KEEPER BASICS: POND FISH

An introduction to the perfect pond fish

At this time of year, most of us will be spending much more time outside in our gardens. For some, this will mean cleaning the patio, watering the plants or giving the garden shed a much-needed lick of paint. For those with garden ponds, or ambitions to build a pond, more considerations are likely to be made about which fish they can keep and how to best care for their existing fish. In this feature, we break down some of the most popular pond fish and the specialist diets required to care for them.

Golden Rudd

Scardinius erythrophthalmus

The golden rudd, sometimes referred to as a ‘rosette’ is a silver fish with vibrant red fins. They are excellent pond fish as they are extremely hardy, interesting to watch and live well in small shoals of 10 to 15 fish. Larger groups can be maintained, but it’s important to remember these fish can grow to a reasonable size (up to 40cm) and will breed readily. They also co-habit well and will often shoal with larger fish such as Orfe. They are surface feeders and with their vibrant fins and communal feeding behaviours, can make for great observational animals. In the wild, they would typically feed on midges, damsel nymphs and other aquatic invertebrates. In captivity, an insect-based pond food such as the FishScience ‘variety pond food’ will provide an excellent food for this species.

Tench

Tinca tinca

Tench are a native species, which work extremely well in a garden pond. In the wild, they are typically found at the bottom of muddy rivers and lakes, feeding on molluscs on the riverbed. In an ornamental garden pond, this natural behaviour can be utilised to help clean the water. As they stir up sediment while they feed, the filtration system can catch any dislodged detritus and prevent build-up on the base of the pond. Two varieties are frequently available in the UK, the small, orange ‘golden tench’ and the slightly larger, iridescent ‘green tench’. Both varieties are very affordable and can add some diversity to even the most basic of goldfish ponds. Tench should be introduced in small groups and can grow over 35cm in length. Tench prefer sinking foods, but over time they will begin to

surface-feed alongside goldfish and koi. Flakes, pellets, sticks and live/frozen food are all readily accepted.

Gudgeons

Gobio gobio

Gudgeons (Gobio gobio) are a much smaller alternative to tench. They are another native fish that is highly sociable, feed on the bottom of the pond (and assist filtration in the process) and can be acquired at a very low cost. Rarely growing more than 12cm, the gudgeon can be found in various freshwater habitats across Europe and Asia. Maintaining a group of gudgeons

can be beneficial not just to ornamental ponds, but to wildlife ponds also. In fact, gudgeons make up almost 45% of the common kingfisher’s (Alcedo atthis) diet and over 50% of the Eurasian otter’s (Lutra lutra) diet. Although most pond fish will negatively impact native amphibians (particularly during spawning times), the gudgeon may attract grass snakes (Natrix natrix) which will frequently feed on young fish.

In a healthy pond with a rock bottom, gudgeons will actively breed throughout summer. Like tench, gudgeons prefer sinking foods but will eventually learn to take floating flakes and pellets.

Keeper Basics: Pond Fish

Golden Rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus)

Tench (Tinca tinca)

Gudgeons (Gobio gobio)

Keeper Basics: Pond Fish

Orfe/Ide

Leuciscus idus

Orfe are the domesticated relatives of the European Ide. Coming from large waterways across Eastern Europe, they are some of the hardiest fish available and are capable of tolerating temperatures as low as 4°C. This being said, they do require very large bodies of water, so only the largest ornamental ponds should house these fish. Their popularity has dwindled as koi carp have taken over, but orfe can still be ideal for ponds with large surface areas but are too shallow for koi.

The water should be cool and well oxygenated (ideally with a water feature to ensure high oxygen levels overnight). Orfe also have insatiable appetites, making them unsuitable for cohabitation with smaller fish or fry. Young orfe will feed on a variety of insect larvae and therefore a well-formulated insect-based diet is extremely important for this species. The FishScience ‘variety pond food’ is comprised of two separate pellets. One of these contains high levels of carotenoids to maintain the colour of the fish, the other contains wheat germ and additional insect meal to support the fish's overall health. Combined, they offer the ideal diet for a hungry Orfe. There are several varieties of Orfe. The most widely available is the ’golden’ form, but a more recently produced ‘blue’ form and a wild-type ‘silver’ form are also available from many stockists.

Goldfish

Carassius auratus auratus

Canary yellow, comet and shubunkin goldfish make excellent additions to any ornamental pond. They are vibrant, easy to care for, widely available and will live comfortably in various-sized ponds. Goldfish can also be kept in mixed groups, meaning the keeper can have a lot of choices when it comes to introducing new inhabitants to the pond. Goldfish do prefer hard water and a deep pond will help protect them from the harshest seasonal conditions.

Goldfish produce very little waste when they are kept in a large pond (the same cannot be said for small aquariums) so they are a perfect introduction to pond fish. Even the most basic of ponds, providing it is well-maintained and built to a suitable size, will happily accommodate a group of goldfish. There are only a handful of things to consider for most hardy goldfish varieties. Firstly, females must outnumber the males as they will be chased during the summer months when breeding begins. Secondly, goldfish will breed (and interbreed) readily so the keeper must check that the pond does not become overstocked.

Koi

Cyprinus carpio

The king of all pond fishes, the koi carp is an iconic fish linked to luxury and Japanese culture. They are becoming increasingly more available and although some koi can fetch several million dollars at auction, fish keepers can obtain stunningly beautiful specimens for a similar price to many goldfish. Koi do, however, have slightly more specialist requirements. For example, they will need a much larger pond, with excellent filtration and well aerated

Orfe/Ide (Leuciscus idus)

Goldfish (Carassius auratus auratus)

Koi (Cyprinus carpio)

water. Although this is not particularly difficult to achieve, it will cost more financially.

Koi are typically very hardy and will survive the UK winters easily, but should be switched onto a ‘cold weather pond food’ to aid in digestion. There are some other considerations to ensure the koi look as healthy as possible and this falls mostly down to food choice.

In general, koi cannot make their own colour pigment so they have to consume it in their diet. In the wild, these pigments would originate from eating algae, shrimps, snails etc. In the confines of an aquarium or pond, there is not enough algae or other natural supplies of pigment, so it must be included in the food that is provided. As with all foods, colour-enhancing food should be high quality to ensure that the pigments are in a form that the koi can absorb into its body. If foods containing colour enhancers are not given, the chromatophores may not be filled with pigment and the koi may look pale or poorly coloured. The colour-enhancing ingredients in fish food can either be

natural or artificial, but all are a source of these pigments.

Natural ingredients which are rich in colour pigments that can be utilised by our fish include krill, spinach, spirulina algae and carrot. The addition of garlic, Beta-glucans and omega oils will also help maintain the health and vitality of koi fish, which is essential for larger high-value koi.

Overwintering

All of the fish mentioned in this feature are extremely hardy and can be kept outdoors without additional heat all year. However, they should be transitioned onto ‘cold weather pond food’ once temperatures fall below 10°C. Although this might seem like a far stretch from the weather we are currently experiencing, picking up a tub of this specialist food in preparation for winter is encouraged. Once temperatures start to fall, fish may encounter digestion problems and therefore a softer, more easily-digestible pellet with a higher protein content is recommended.

REPTILES AND RESEARCH

The Science Behind Why Spider Ball Pythons Wobble, What’s Really Going On?

By Ellie Hills, Reptiles and Research

The “spider” gene in ball pythons has experienced much controversy over the years. It was first discovered and worked with in 1999 by N.E.R.D. It is a co-dominant gene which means it will express phenotypically if inherited but will also express other genes at the same time. This is why you get spider combinations, such as “banana spiders”. The spider gene becomes fatal if an individual inherits two copies (homozygous) which is why it is not common practice to pair two snakes with the spider gene. This aims to ensure all offspring will only ever be heterozygous (carrying one copy). All individuals who inherit the gene have what is known as “wobbly syndrome”.

What is wobble syndrome?

The wobble syndrome is considered a neurological issue which affects every royal python with the spider gene. Although, it is not exclusive to the gene and can also be found in others such as champagne and HGW (hidden gene woma).

The severity of the issue varies greatly. Some individuals will have a slight head tilt while others will be unable to detect whether they are upside down. Many spider ball pythons are unable to move in a straight line, exhibiting unorthodox movements, twisting of the head, corkscrewing, thrashing and being unable to hold their heads steady or feed independently (Starck et al., 2022). The severity an individual will suffer when inheriting the gene is not easy to predict, one individual with a head tilt may produce off-spring that cannot right themselves. This makes breeding the gene a lottery gamble for how well individuals will thrive from a slight title to no motor control.

What causes the wobble?

Until recently, what causes the wobble has been a mystery and the wobble is something that has been attempted to be separated from the gene with no success. Scientists carried out a study in 2022 setting out to discover the cause of the neurological issues linked to the gene. The sample size was small (wildtype N=5, spider N=4), this

was linked to the ethical board and access to materials; Due to the small sample size the study excluded all other morphs except a direct comparison to wild royal pythons as a baseline (expected normal structure) and spider royal pythons. A previous study on royal python ear structures was published and the 3D scanning data was consistent with the wildtype royals within the Starck data set (Christensen et al., 2012).

There was a distinct morphological difference when comparing healthy ear structures between normal type and spider pythons. The spider morph cross sectional diameter of the semi-circular canal is wider, both the ampullae and the crus communis are inflated in size. The inter- and intraindividual variabilities appear higher in

the spider morph snakes. The sacculus within the spider snakes is also distinctly smaller, deformed and locks a coherent macula. Both the sacculus and ampulla are organs involved in equilibrium there is no doubt or surprise that the morphological differences linked to the gene is causing issues with functioning in terms of head tilts, tremors, cork screwing, reduced striking accuracy and righting reflex (Rose and Williams, 2014; Schrenk et al., 2022).

Controversy

The IHS (International Herpetological Society) banned the sale of spider gene royal pythons at the shows in 2018. This was met with shock and anger throughout the hobby within the UK. This brought about large uproar and backlash within the world of snake keeping. This was noticed by outsiders of the hobby. It brought negativity as members of the public who did not work with the gene or snakes in general, were appalled that breeders where defending the morph. One that causes suffering and neurological issues with such severe impacts.

What was meant to be a step forward in the community just further highlighted and spotlighted the public issues the hobby faces from within. It doesn’t take much to find articles online that are written looking on morph

breeding in a negative light “Spider and albino pythons alike, represent an abuse of breeding power” (Nam et al., 2021). Its viewed as animal abuse.

Final thoughts

As a hobby who faces government intervention and negative outsider viewpoints. We must make sure that we are able to self regulate and put our best step forward. Now we are able to provide that the spider gene mutation has negative internal morphological deformities. We must act accordingly and stop breeding these individuals. Welfare should be at the forefront of decisions.

We should have never continued to produce off-spring from individuals who presented wobbles in the first place. As people who are guardians for the lives of all the snakes we keep and produce, what is more important? The vanity aspect of how the snake looks, or its ability to function and thrive? What level of suffering are we going to allow for a snake to have a certain pattern or colour?

Reptiles and Research was originally founded in 2020 by Liam Sinclair in the form of a YouTube channel. Now joined by Ellie Hills, both academics use scientific literature to address topics around animal husbandry and present peer-reviewed information in an accessible format. Their podcast is part of the Animals at Home Network and they regularly speak at and assist in organising public events to improve animal welfare standards. Their no-nonsense approach has sparked progressive debates within the international exotics keeping community and shines a light on potentially problematic practices.

REHOME ZONE

Can you help these exotic pets find a new home?

Reticulated Python

An incredibly placid yearling Reticulated Python. He has been with us for a few months and has not had any issues whilst here. He is a gentle feeder and sheds well. Although being a retic still has plenty of growing to do!

Leopard Gecko

This Leopard Gecko is another lovely animal. With us due to the owner moving to university. She feeds well on a variety of live foods and is very easy to interact with.

Corn Snake

Adult Corn Snake, male. Friendly and in good health. He has had no issues in his time with us and has passed quarantine without any concerns.

Boa Constrictor

An older Boa and a gentle giant. Typical Boa when it comes to feeding but is wonderfully calm when out and being handled. However, a very powerful snake, so a bit of experience, would be preferred.

Leopard Gecko

Age unknown. Feeds well on a variety of live foods and is very comfortable being held. Ready for its new home and will be an excellent pet for someone.

Contact: Matthew Payne

Walpole 'Codicote' Reptiles

Based in Walpole St Peter, Norfolk

Bearded Dragon

Will be ready for rehome early May, this Dragon is flying through quarantine with no concerns. Happily eats bugs, but it is more of a picker when it comes to vegetation. Active in its enclosure but docile when out.

Facebook: Walpole 'Codicote' Reptiles

Email: codicotereptiles@gmail.com

Whatsapp: 07802581118