Exotics Keeper Magazine October 2022

DON’T LOSE SLEEP OVER IT

How to fully prepare for tortoise hibernation.

TREATED LIKE ROYALTY

By turning to scientific papers, expert keepers make suggestions on best husbandry practices for Royal pythons.

REPTILES AND REGULATIONS

The trade in wild animals is a key consideration for all exotic pet keepers. What lies in the future of wild-caught animals in the pet trade?

MARK O’SHEA ON ANTIVENOM

Every year, up to 138,000 people die because of snake envenoming. We discuss the problem with Professor Mark O’Shea MBE.

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As I write this, the UK is mourning the death of Queen Elizabeth II, our longest reigning monarch. Her 70-year reign has spanned seismic changes to our planet. As the country adjusts, there is potential for a new focus on environmental issues under the rule of King Charles and Prince William who have both brought awareness to conservation for many years.

This month’s content spans a variety of notable topics for exotics enthusiasts. World-renowned herpetologist, Mark O’Shea (MBE) has given us some humbling insight into the devastating impact of snakebites in developing countries. This is an issue that affects hundreds of thousands of people each year and deserves far more exposure. I highly recommend readers to watch the documentary ‘Minutes to Die’ which can be found by visiting the website listed at the end of the feature. Tortoise expert, Eleanor Tirtasana-Chubb provides some brilliant advice for keepers in the run-up to hibernation time. We

us a much stronger platform to share new and unique news items, blog posts, exclusive interviews, videos and promotional offers. So far, it has been well received and we’re excited to see what new opportunities this platform can bring. The first of which is a special edition virtual issue that will be available on the website very soon! It will contain some highlights

Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors. Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.

Front cover: Hermann’s toirtoise (Testudo hermanni)

Right: Royal python (Python regius)

DRY FOODS, FORMULAS & SUPPLEMENTS

High

Ideal for species which, in the wild, consume a significant amount of fruits and seeds from oleaginous plants (genera Psittacus, Ara, Poicephalus).

02 06 16 02 EXOTICS NEWS The latest from the world of exotic pet keeping.

06 TREATED LIKE ROYALTY

The care and keeping of royal pythons in captivity.

14 SPECIES SPOTLIGHT Focus on the wonderful world of exotic pets. This month it’s the Senegal parrot (Poicephalus senegalus).

24 32 41

16 REPTILES, REGULATIONS AND RE-THINKS

Understanding CITES and the future of wild-caught animals in the pet trade..

24SNAKEBITE

Discussing antivenom with Professor Mark O’Shea MBE.

32

DON’T LOSE SLEEP OVER IT

How to fully prepare for tortoise hibernation.

40 KEEPER BASICS: The EK guide to marine aquariums.

45 FASCINATING FACTS Did you know...?

46 ENRICHMENT IDEAS

Monthly tips on how to enrich the life of your pet.

EXOTICS NEWS

The latest from the world of exotic animals

Avian Flu Hits Zoo

At the very end of August a case of avian flu was confirmed in a pelican at Paignton Zoo, shortly followed by another case in a free-range Indian peafowl. This tragic situation caused the immediate closure of the zoo to all visitors, and with the likelihood of more cases to come, all the birds from the lake area and all the peafowl were caught up and put into biosecure quarantine facilities whilst tests continue.

Monkey Valley Opens

The new Monkey Valley at ZSL London Zoo. Monkey Valley opened to the public on the 15th August. The Grade II listed former aviary is now enjoying a new lease of life where the troop of ten Kikuyu colobus monkeys have more than 800 metres of rope to swing on, in addition to platforms at various heights, 1,347 new plants and trees to leap amongst and a 30ft waterfall to enjoy. The project cost just over £7 million pound and it took 35,000 hours to complete - 37 of the original cables had to be replaced in the renovated structure.

A Big Birth Took Place

On Monday 22nd August, at around 7 am an Asian elephant calf was born to mum “Donna”, surrounded by the rest of the females in the herd, including her own mum “Kaylee” – who provided reassurance and support with gentle trunk nudges and murmurs to 13-yearold Donna as she delivered her calf. The birth was captured on hidden cameras in Whipsnade’s Centre for Elephant Care, footage shows the calf being encouraged onto her feet by her mum and grandmother soon after being born and taking her first wobbly steps. Identified as female by keepers, the new arrival is an important addition to the European breeding programme for the species – which in the wild are threatened by illegal wildlife trade, habitat fragmentation and climate change.

Whipsnade Zoo’s deputy team leader of elephants, Mark Howes said: “To say we’re delighted by the arrival of this calf is just a huge understatement – it’s a massive success for Donna, for the herd at Whipsnade Zoo, and for elephant conservation full stop. This little infant is a really important addition to the Europeanwide endangered species breeding programme for Asian elephants.

“We were able to watch the birth via our

hidden cameras, and it was amazing to see grandmother Kaylee step in to show Donna how to break the amniotic sac that the baby was born in and move the rest of the herd out of the way to allow the little one to stand up for the first time.

“The third in a matriarchal family line here at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, she’ll grow up being nurtured and learning from her mum Donna and grandmother Kaylee, as well as her ‘aunts’ and ‘cousins’ in the herd – and we’re so excited to see her personality develop as she grows.” Howes added: “Here at ZSL, the conservation charity which runs Whipsnade Zoo, we’re one of the few conservation organisations working around the world to protect all three species of elephants – Asian elephants, African elephants and African forest elephants. Our herd play an active role in our conservation work, from helping us to develop new technologies to educating our visitors - every visit to see our elephants really is an act of support for their conservation.”

New Roo

At Belfast Zoo a Goodfellow`s tree kangaroo, born in January, has now emerged from mother “Jaya`s” pouch - sired by male “Hasu Hasu”, this is the seventh joey to be born at the zoo. Zoo Curator Andrew Hope explained, “Belfast Zoo was the first zoo in the UK and Ireland to breed the endangered Goodfellow’s tree kangaroo. There are approximately 50 zoos across Australia, USA, Europe, and Asia caring for tree kangaroos and supporting tree kangaroo conservation efforts."

Elsewhere in the zoo a male Rothschild`s giraffe named “Ballyhenry” has been born to female “Casey”.

©ZSL

©ZSL

Rare Kittens Born

Two Pallas`s cats were born at Cotswolds Wildlife Park to parents “Tull” and “Penelope” – they are the first to be born at the park.

Stanley Arrives

At Chester Zoo a male Rothschild`s giraffe, named “Stanley”- after Mount Stanley in Uganda, has been born to 14 year-old female “Orla”. Another new arrival is a male Sumatran tiger named “Dash” who arrived from Fota Wildlife Park in Ireland.

Crocodiles of the World

Four more Galapagos giant tortoises have hatched at the zoo, bringing the total to six.

Agamas Hatch

At Marwell Zoo five starred agamas or painted dragons have hatched. The juveniles have now joined their parents in the Aridlands House.

Dan Garrick, Lead keeper for Herptiles, said: “We suspect the female laid the eggs around mid-April. She was showing signs of being gravid (carrying eggs) and looking to nest somewhere. “The juveniles are predominantly insectivorous. At Marwell they are being fed pea aphids, fruit flies, tropical woodlice, small crickets and similar. The adults are omnivorous, they eat flowers, leaves, fruit, and insects. As the juveniles grow, they will start to eat different foodstuffs also.” Starred agamas are listed as being of Least Concern on the IUCN red list, but populations in Egypt have recently been declining.

Rare 500,000-year-old elephant tusk uncovered in Israel

Israeli archaeologists have displayed a rare tusk half a million years old, from an enormous now-extinct elephant, which scholars see as testament to a social ritual by prehistoric humans. The 2.6-metre tusk, weighing approximately 150 kilos, was discovered by biologist Eitan Mor at an excavation site near Revadim, a village in southern Israel. The excavation was managed by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), which said the fossil tusk was the largest to be found in the Near East. Avi Levy, director of the excavation, said it was "fantastic" to find the "extremely preserved tusk". "The elephant is a straighttusked elephant, which became extinct from our area around 400,000 years ago," he said. Judging by the size of its tusk, the elephant would have stood up to five metres tall, significantly larger than today's African elephants.

"Next to the tusk were flint tools prehistoric man used to chop and skin the animals in the region, apparently the elephants too." But the identity of the prehistoric humans who inhabited the region - a land-bridge from Africa to Asia and Europe - was "a mystery" said Mr Levy. "Groups of hunter-gatherers in certain times would arrive at gathering places, in which they would trade women and information and reaffirm social ties that had weakened over the year and go on a hunt of an elephant, something symbolic," he said. And while the tusks could have been a key symbol, they would not necessarily move with the nomadic peoples, if only because of their bulk and weight. "They might have developed some sort of ritual around these tusks and at a certain time, they had to move, the families had to roam to find new living spaces," he said.

©Cotswolds Wildlife Park

©Marwell Zoo

Archaeologists work at the site near Revadim in Southern Israel

Following the excavations, which were carried out with academics from Tel Aviv and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, the tusk will be transferred to an IAA facility for further research.

Knepp Estate, plus the first successful wild breeding from another site, with one chick fledging at a partner site in East Sussex. The aim of the project is to have 50 pairs of White Storks breeding in south-east England by 2030.

Latest White Stork Release

As part of the rewilding “White Stork Project” a batch of 37 young European white storks - 33 of which were bred at the Cotswolds Wildlife Park, and four that were bred at Wildwood in Kent, have been released on the Knepp Estate in West Sussex, the home of the project. Seven of the birds were fitted with GPS tags to help monitor their progress. The project has enjoyed its most successful year to date, with 19 young fledging from eight nests on the

Scientists Plan to Recreate the Extinct Thylacine

A Dallas-based biotech firm and Melbourne University plan to recreate the extinct Thylacine or Tasmanian tiger. Colossal Biosciences, in cooperation with the university, hope to use a combination of living, genetically similar, marsupials, stem cell technology and gene-editing technology to recreate an embryo and implant it in a surrogate species such as a dunnart. The multi-million pound project aims to bring the formerly extinct thylacine back to life within around ten years, almost 100 years after it was wiped out. The last captive thylacine died in Hobart Zoo in 1936, and the species was officially declared extinct in the 1980s, after no authenticated sightings in the wild had occurred, despite many claimed sightings in recent years.

ON THE WEB

Websites | Social media | Published research

Each month we highlight a favourite website or social media page

THIS MONTH IT’S: MINUTES TO DIE

With its eye-opening account of snakebite in the developing world, Minutes to Die has relevance for public health, science and tech innovation, humanitarian aid, social justice, international relations, and more, as well as for those working in snakebite-afflicted regions in Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Oceania, or Central or South America. www.minutestodie.com

Collated and written by Paul Irven.

©Cotswolds Wildlife Park

TREATED LIKE ROYALTY

The care and keeping of royal pythons in captivity.

Royal python (Python regius)

Royal or ‘ball’ pythons are some of the most popular pet snakes on the planet. Their docile temperaments, straightforward care requirements and rich morph market have accelerated this growth. Unfortunately, controversy still shrouds the best practice guidelines for royal python husbandry which has led to binary perspectives on their care. Without breeders who prioritise practicality to produce captivebred snakes, the demand for royal pythons would outweigh their supply which could have slowed welfare advancements and impacted wild populations. Without progressive hobbyists ‘advancing’ the care and keeping of this species, our true understanding of royal python behaviour would be far more limited. The correct way to keep a royal python is a hotly debated topic. Few novices begin their hobby intending to breed vast numbers of snakes and therefore, the brand-new pet keeper should be targeting the highest standards possible.

Are royal pythons semi-arboreal?

Easily the most contentious subject regarding royal python care is their ‘semi-arboreal’ behaviours. Several papers dating from the late 90s and early 00s present empirical evidence that these animals will frequently climb trees, eat birds and rest in tree trunks. Observations by keepers who provide extra height in their enclosures will vouch that they at least climb. However, the same could be said for far more fossorial species, such as sand boas (Eryx spp.). Within a captive environment, male Kenyan sand boas (E. colubrinus) will frequently climb logs and branches at least two feet off the ground and eat birds. The extra space may not be fundamental to their basic needs, but it is utilised and appreciated. This point is even more important when we consider the morphology of a royal python.

Snake Biologist, Henry Astley stated: “Coming from my background (snake biomechanics), nothing about the ball python morphology is consistent with an animal which "spends all their time in a termite mound". Their skulls have no reinforcement or digging adaptations, their eyes aren't reduced, they have distinct "necks" (as opposed to the robust "train locomotive" morphology of most burrowers) and have no specialized digging rostral scales.”

Although royal pythons are unlikely to spend all their time in burrows and termite mounds, evidence suggests that they will spend a lot of the breeding season underground. From aestivation and pairing in November, through to eggs hatching in March, royal pythons could theoretically

spend half the year occupying burrows most frequently. This may be due to necessity rather than choice. Royal pythons exhibit remarkably dedicated paternal instincts when it comes to incubating their eggs. Fabien Aubret et al write: “Brooding weakly influenced incubation temperature but markedly decreased egg mass loss owing to water loss and associated yolk coagulation. Brooded eggs produced larger, more active, faster swimming and more rapidly developing neonates than did non-brooded eggs.” Finding a secure location with stable temperatures and humidity is therefore a major priority for nesting females and perhaps less important for more active males. This has been supported in several other research papers too which found that the parasitic load of males, differed

to that of females. Males typically hosted more arboreal tick species than females (and also ate more birds and bats than their counterparts).

Francis Cosquieri is an experienced snake keeper who explains: “termite mounds are also often refugia for all sorts of other snakes and lizards. I’ve personally observed monitor lizards, mambas, skinks, rock pythons, agamas and other species of reptiles using them. Others have mentioned cobras also make use of this habitat. Monitors and rock pythons have been well documented (including on film) using them as nesting sites. They make great places for any reptile that can get inside because they offer constant temperatures.”

A ‘normal’ royal python

The minimum enclosure size for an adult royal python, based on AAL standards is 4 x 2 x 2 feet. Even though logic dictates that an animal will have more opportunities to enact wild behaviours in a larger enclosure, more space does not directly translate to greater welfare. Many royal python keepers are brand new pet owners following care guides and advice from shops. Adding an extra 2 feet of height to an enclosure without upgrading spot bulbs or testing the efficacy of a UV tube can compromise welfare. If, for example, a spot bulb cannot penetrate the enclosure, the basking spot will be ineffective. It is therefore vitally important that keepers do thorough research before embarking on an ambitious enclosure build. With more people shopping online for their pet supplies, keepers should seriously consider visiting their local specialist shop or investing in a solar meter and reliable thermometer.

Aubrey continues: “Adult females [are] longer than males and reach a greater maximal body size (SVL 5 170 cm, BM 5 3224 g in females vs. 140 cm and 2460 g in males). When gravid females were deleted from analyses, the mean body condition was similar between adult males and females.” Although royal pythons are not enormous snakes, they are heavy and thus require a well-thought-out enclosure design particularly if climbing opportunities are to be provided. Even heavy branches may need to be secured in place with adhesives and sealants.

A royal feast

Diet is much less controversial. Stomach purges and faecal analyses have confirmed that royal pythons have a varied diet in the wild consisting of small mammals, birds, and bats. With only a handful of frozen foods available to feed here in the UK, a good diet should incorporate several different-sized rodents and the occasional chick. Note that chicks are very fatty and can cause loose bowels, which is not always nice for the keeper, but should still be offered as a method of enrichment feeding. This should also prevent any selective feeding behaviours, as royal pythons are notoriously fussy. A varied diet will offer other enrichment opportunities such as scent trails, nest-raiding and arboreal feeding which are all excellent ways to stretch the snake’s cognitive abilities and another argument for providing larger vivaria.

Herpetologist Mark Auliya et al recently conducted the first genetic assessment of wild and farmed royal pythons in Togo. He writes: “Despite the relatively large distances between sample locations, no significant genetic population structure was found, either in mtDNA sequence data or in the microsatellite data. Instead, our data indicate considerable gene flow among the locations. The absence of a distinct population subdivision may have resulted from an anthropogenic driven admixture of populations associated with commercial wildlife trade activity in recent

decades.” This suggests that any arguments pointing towards disparities between Nigerian, Ghanaian or Togolese populations are negligible. Therefore, the provision of enrichment opportunities is likely to be appreciated by all snakes. In captivity, no population or bloodline is likely to be more arboreal or have specific dietary needs when compared to others. Each snake will, however, have their unique preferences. This can only be fully understood within the context that the keeper provides. For example, one animal may feed more readily on larger-sized prey, or take food from an arboreal ambush position, but unless those provisions are granted, the keeper may never witness this behaviour.

One of these behaviours, which often leaves new pet owners in a panic is their tendency to be fussy eaters. This often comes down to unrealistic expectations of the snake. Over-feeding is a common problem for just about all captive snakes, but robust pythons are sometimes more susceptible to this. If an animal is overfed, it is more likely to fast throughout the dry season when food would typically become scarcer. Even a healthy royal python may go off their food for over 6 months (and might not experience any problems for up to a year without food). Keepers should only become alarmed if their snake is particularly young, appears unhealthy, or is exhibiting signs of stress.

Recent research suggests that royal pythons exhibit a better feeding response towards darker-coloured prey. Temperature also plays a major role in the snake’s ability to see and strike accurately and prey items should be warm

when they are fed. As a nocturnal species, hunting often happens after dark and therefore the snakes are more likely to feed a few hours after switching off the lights. New smells from new frozen food suppliers may also discourage them from feeding. A varied diet should help combat this. Young pythons should also be presented with a prey item only momentarily to encourage the notion that feeding is an opportunity rather than a luxury. If the snake understands from a young age that it must act quickly to feed, it will likely develop a better feeding response in older age.

Laying the groundworks

Substrate choice is an integral part of royal python husbandry and one which has advanced steadily over the years. In a recent film, Youtuber and royal python breeder Dav Kauffman showed the public the sort of terrain that these snakes inhabit. Although the controversial film sparked endless debates on numerous topics, it provided a visual insight into part of their habitat. He recorded humidity upwards of 90% in burrows. However, these were surrounded by dry soil with thick layers of dead grasses and leaf litter. Ambient humidity in Ghana remains around 75% for most of the year, rising to 85% during the rainy season (which usually runs from May to September). It might be shocking to consider a royal python should theoretically be kept at the same humidity as many tropical Amazonian species, but even though large parts of West Africa have been converted to farmland they do maintain a semi-tropical climate. In captivity, however, royal pythons are extremely susceptible to respiratory infections if they

do not receive enough air flow or are housed in poorly ventilated enclosures. Many keepers opt for a lower humidity of around 60% and stay vigilant for any excessive moisture. However, a far more naturalistic method would be to maintain a higher humidity and utilise a ventilation fan to ensure constant air movement.

Royal pythons are a widespread species that inhabit a vast range of environmental conditions so the keeper must also ensure the animal can thermoregulate and hydroregulate by moving between microclimates. For the novice keeper, it sounds relatively complex, but it doesn’t have to be. Constructing warm and cool ends, adding a ‘humid’ hide and choosing an appropriate substrate (or several different substrates across a larger enclosure) should create various microclimates. These environmental conditions should be achievable even in the most basic setups. However, the inclusion of live plants can seriously benefit the keeper and the kept. Broad-leaved plants will capture moisture as it evaporates from the substrate and thus forms unique spots of humidity, particularly if they grow against the corners of the enclosure. Creeping plants can add unique textures and ground cover can give young pythons a sense of additional security. Although the animal will likely destroy all but the sturdiest of live plants, it is worth experimenting by fixing potted plants into different areas of the enclosure.

Core substrate choice is a little more complicated. Aspen bedding and lignocel will generally get too wet for a royal python and struggle to hold the correct humidity. Some breeders will still use this substrate as they are often quick to replace anything too damp and can quickly identify issues of scale rot (a broad term used to refer to numerous bacterial diseases and infections associated with damp living conditions). For the new keeper, however, cypress mulch, bark chips, eco-earth, Tortoise Life Bio or a combination of these products is ideal. The composition of ProRep’s Tortoise Life Bio replicates crumbly soil, aimed towards digging tortoises which is perfect for semi-fossorial snakes. Additional moss or coir can be added to one side of the enclosure to retain humidity a little longer, whilst bark chips can be added to areas that are designed to dry out a little quicker. The deeper the substrate, the easier it is to hold steady humidity levels. This allows the

Heating and lighting

There is some debate regarding the heating and lighting elements of royal python husbandry – primarily, the provision of UV. Interestingly, studies (and a rich history of anecdotal evidence) suggest that royal pythons do not require UV lighting to synthesise vitamin D3 effectively. The justification for denying such UV lighting generally boils down to the species’ nocturnal and semi-fossorial behaviours. A paper by Hedley and Eatwell in The Veterinary Record found “no association between exposure to UV-b radiation and plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and ionised calcium concentrations in the female ball pythons in [the] study.” However, all animals, including nocturnal animals, will have some sort of relationship with the sun and mimicking this within a snake’s enclosure is only natural (if not entirely necessary). Where possible, new keepers should aim to provide UVB lighting as well as appropriate overhead heating. Emerging research is beginning to discover links between UV-B lighting and reptile vision that suggests that UV may have myriad applications beyond the effective synthesis of D3.

Installing a T5 unit and Infrared heat projector into an appropriately sized vivarium is extremely straightforward and will provide a patch of ‘sun’ complete with visible light, UVA, UVB, IR-A and IR-B – several of the primary components of natural sunlight. Even those who opt for the most basic enclosure setups will often still provide UV lighting, even if it is just to help support their animals’ circadian rhythms and initiate breeding cycles. Despite heat mats being gradually phased out of herpetoculture on a whole, many royal python keepers still rely on them. They can provide an excellent backup or supporting heat source, but as they do not provide the deep-penetrating heat of IR-A they are not going to be as effective as other methods of heating. This being said, hundreds of thousands of royal pythons have been kept and bred successfully in rack systems for decades now and there is some justification that there are relatively few reports of ill health directly attributed to the use of heat mats. The heat that can penetrate the epidermis such as infrared-A is proven to aid in the digestion and overall health of most diurnal species. Whilst this may be less effective in nocturnal species, royal pythons can be

Piebald royal python

between 8am and 6pm. Clearly, the sun presents some necessary opportunities for this otherwise nocturnal predator. Our current understanding of reptile physiology suggests these opportunities are likely linked to thermoregulation and the absorption of UV radiation.

Honesty and transparency

Royal python care is one of the most hotly contested topics in herpetoculture. The two polarising perspectives on the ‘correct’ way to care for royal pythons have created a minefield for new keepers. Whilst some breeders choose to maintain their animals in rack systems and reasonably basic setups for practicality, it would be wrong to encourage new keepers to follow a similar trend. In the wild, royal pythons inhabit regions that will flood for two months of the year, become intensely hot and dry for other months and where anthropogenic change is shifting the availability of foodstuffs each year. Royal pythons have adapted to make use of burrows, swim across flood plains and climb trees in search of parrot chicks. Few captive reptiles exhibit such diverse behavioural repertoire and it is important that all keepers remember this when sourcing their first royal python. Yet, without breeders producing enough animals to meet the national and international demand for royal pythons, other advances in herpetoculture would also stall. Morph breeding (particularly that of royal pythons) generates the greatest amount of revenue within the industry. Rightly or wrongly, the success of rack breeders directly supports the industry that is responsible for the technological advancements and information outlets to improve animal welfare overall. This becomes problematic when the rhetoric around ‘successful’ keeping is miscommunicated to new keepers. A novice herpetoculturist should get more enjoyment from creating an impressive enclosure that they can be proud of, and their animal can thrive in. Basic setups may encourage new keepers into the hobby, but a ‘rose-tinted’ approach can be detrimental to the entire herpetoculture discipline. Royal pythons are currently dominating the discourse from activist groups who oppose the keeping of pets. Any information that lowers the bar on their captive needs should be treated as a threat to all reptile and amphibian keepers and utilising science to advance husbandry methods might just be our best defence.

A royal python expressing climbing behaviour

Species

SPECIES SPOTLIGHT

The wonderful world of exotic animals

Senegal Parrot (Poicephalus senegalus)

The Senegal parrot is a relatively small Psittacine bird from West Africa. They (and their two subspecies) are gregarious birds that will flock in large numbers and inhabit a vast array of habitats from forests to farmlands. They are also considered a pest to many farmers as they are granivorous and will feed on maize as well as fruits and blossoms. Senegal parrots are abundant across their native distribution. Despite this, they were added to CITES Appendix II in 1981 alongside other parrot species. Luckily, they are routinely bred in captivity and make an excellent alternative to the larger, more demanding Psittcus species of Africa.

In the wild, Senegal parrots can live up to 30 years and even longer in captivity with the correct care and nutrition. This is a huge commitment for any keeper, but their gregarious nature makes them particularly good companion birds. This, of course, takes time and training. Although Senegal parrots are not as talkative as other parrots, they can be taught to say a few words and will communicate with whistles.

Senegal parrots require a reasonably high-fat diet and should be socialised early, to allow them to have plenty of free time outside of the cage to compensate for this. Research by Texas State University found that their diet was comprised of “77% fruit, with figs (Ficus sp.), African grapes (Lannea microcarpa), and shea fruits (Vitellaria paradoxa) being the most commonly eaten. Seeds made up about 22% of the diet, and the remaining 1% consisted of flowers”. Their omnivorous needs make them best suited to a pelleted diet in captivity, supplemented with fruits and vegetables.

A good-sized cage is required for these birds. Provided they are given plenty of toys to keep themselves entertained and given regular flying time, most keepers will find them to be unproblematic. Senegal parrots have got a slight reputation for being a “oneperson bird”, so all members of the household must spend time with the parrot to ensure that they maintain a good relationship. A rough perch is also necessary to ensure that they can groom themselves to some degree.

REPTILES, REGULATIONS AND RE-THINKS

The regulation of the trade in wild animals is a key consideration for all exotic pet keepers. Even the most popular pet species, which are captive bred in large numbers, have at some point been imported from the wild and subject to regulation. Many of these regulations are made by governing bodies that must navigate information from various lobbying groups to implement new measures. Most of this is overseen by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES), sometimes referred to as the “Washington Convention”. This multilateral treaty was signed in 1973 and has afforded varying degrees of protection to over 38,000 species. It has been widely celebrated internationally, but some believe the convention is flawed.

REPTA, Regulation and WC/CB

Chris Newman and David Perry founded the Reptile and Exotic Pet Trade Association alongside other members in 2005 to help feed important data back to government. REPTA inform DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) on issues that concern keepers and businesses. These include topics such as invasive species lists, AAL guidelines and the impact of Brexit on the exotic pet industry. By establishing the National Centre for Reptile Welfare in 2018, Chris is also hoping to gather even more data to better inform national and international regulations around reptile keeping. Chris explained: “Years ago, green iguanas (Iguana iguana) were a major problem because we were importing about 20,000 iguanas a year and they were pretty much sold throughout the pet trade as juveniles at 6 inches long. They’re not so manageable when they reach 6 feet long. There was clearly an issue in the 00s

that the rehoming centres were filled with green iguanas. So, REPTA fed that back into the trade, not to say, ‘don’t sell green iguanas’ but to say, ‘let’s improve the information we provide at the point of sale’. That has now shifted greatly and there are far fewer green iguanas available in the UK.”

By gathering data on the trade of exotic animals, REPTA can feed information back to CITES. While ecological surveys and trafficking statistics amongst other information are used to inform whether a species requires additional protection, the data that REPTA collates can provide insight into the drive for the demand of these species and in many cases, the benefits of having regulated trade. The reptile-keeping industry will have impacted the wild populations of different species in different ways. In some cases, it has been detrimental and protection

is fundamental to a species’ survival. In others, captivebreeding efforts have produced large populations of endangered species, driven international demand down and informed conservationists on how to establish in-situ breeding programmes.

CITES

CITES awards tiered protection to each species. At its most basic level, there are three “appendices” in which to categorise animals. Appendix I is designed to protect species which without strong protection, could be endangered by being overexploited by international trade in wild-taken specimens. Appendix II is for species which are vulnerable to overexploitation. Appendix III is a monitoring programme to help authorities gain a better

understanding of whether a species could potentially be overexploited in the future. At its most basic level, CITES appears very simple. However, there are multiple other factors that can be added to the CITES listing to prevent certain aspects of trade. For example, a species can be listed in Appendix II, but also have a negative export quota. This will provide stronger protection than just an Appendix I listing that still permits export for scientific research etc.

On top of this, there are also EU Wildlife Trade Regulations which are often referred to as “EU CITES” for ease. As things stand, the UK has the EU Regulations since they formed part of Retained Legislation post-Brexit. Although, it is anticipated that UK-specific CITES legislation will be enacted in the next 1-2 years. “EU CITES” add annexes

Green iguanas are invasive in many parts of the world and frequently exported for the pet trade.

to the mix. In principle an Appendix I animal should fall under Annex A, an Appendix II under Annex B and an Appendix III under Annex C or D (Annex D being another ‘monitoring’ categorisation unique to the EU and UK). However, these can be uplifted in listing at the behest of the EU’s Scientific Review Group. The very popular Hermann’s (Testudo hermanni) tortoise is listed as CITES Appendix II. However, the EU has listed them as Annex A because they occur within the boundaries of the EU and it was felt that they needed a bit of extra protection. This means that whilst they can be bred and sold, they also need to be microchipped and have an article 10 certificate which follows the animal for its entire life. Many people will remember when these species were imported from the wild at very low cost. Now, they are sold for almost 100 times more than what they were in the 1980s. The CITES listing certainly has a role to play in this. In this respect, the model was successful and it achieved its goal of protecting wild animals, whilst also incentivising breeders to produce more captive-bred tortoises.

There are 183 signatories to CITES. For a species to get listed, up-listed or down-listed requires a two-thirds (66.6%) majority. As with any democratic political system, some lobbyists believe this has allowed voting blocks to establish. For example, East African countries may support one another, or European countries may support one another. In the case of the EU, 27 votes could have a large impact on the result. “CITES, in principle, is a very good piece of legislation that really aims to protect wildlife. However, in recent years, it has got itself in a bit of a pickle” explains Chris.

“A good example of this is Indian star tortoises (Geochelene elegans) were on Appendix II of CITES and at the last CoP, were uplifted to Appendix I. In the UK, we had one of the largest breeding programmes of star tortoises in the world

and that listing destroyed that. Even though the programme was theoretically viable to keep breeding these tortoises, commercially it wasn’t. An Appendix I listing requires a new article 10 certificate to be supplied at each point of sale. Hermann’s tortoises are also Annex A, the same as star tortoises. However, for reasons that are unclear, the UK CITES management authority will not issue Specimen Specific Certificates (SSC’s) as they have for Hermann’s tortoises. Even though the animals are microchipped they will only issue Transaction Specific Certificates (TSC’s) so each time the animal is sold it requires a new certificate which is expensive and time consuming. Appendix I animals are microchipped and issued with a lifetime certificate as soon as they reach 10cm in length, star tortoises are not. They would need a new A10 once the breeder sells to a wholesaler, another when the animal reaches the shop and another when the animal reaches its first keeper. The keeper then cannot move the animal into another breeding project without, again, issuing another certificate. So, it put an immediate halt to the largest captive breeding project of Indian star tortoises in the world.” As many breeders also cannot prove the origin of their adult, breeding animals, it prevents them from obtaining the necessary paperwork. This, in turn, stops all offspring from receiving correct paperwork and thus halts any small-scale breeding projects of the species also.

There are many potential avenues for legislation to change in the future. Many lobbyists believe that The Rio Convention on Biodiversity may play a central role in the exotic pet industry further down the line. This convention looks at natural resources being the property of the country of origin. Essentially, it is legal to buy a natural resource, but not to reproduce it unless the country of origin has authorised a particular institution to do so. This is currently being used in the pharmaceutical industry and is already a widely celebrated method. Whether it can be

Captive bred royal pythons in temporary housing to be sold into the trade.

applied to live animals is an entirely different debate.

Sustainable farming is another route that protects wild populations of animals. For example, Tesoros be Colombia produces large quantities of endangered poison frogs to be shipped across the world. They are based in Eastern Colombia, in the native range of Oophaga lehmanni and Oophaga histrionica and have been granted government permission to source these protected species for in-situ breeding. Not only does this ensure that the offspring are from genetically viable parents, but a much smaller fraction of wild-caught animals needs to be harvested. Without the risks associated with harvesting and shipping delicate frogs, the institution’s breeding success rates are exceptionally high.

CoP19

Every third year, CITES holds a ‘Conference of the Parties’ where proposals are put forward by different countries to award extra protection to certain species. Documents outlining their reasoning are made public via the CITES website, but officials will debate the subject at the conference and thus make any amendments or new additions during this time. The 19th Conference of Parties (CoP19) will be held in Panama from the 14th-25th November. Proposals for new amendments have recently been published and there are some commonly-kept species which might see a change in their availability.

Chinese water dragons (Physignathus cocincinus) are proposed by the European Union and Vietnam, to be added to Appendix II. Although the import of Appendix II species is permitted, restrictive quotas in the source countries could be introduced which could greatly affect the availability of the species. Water Dragons have been a commonly traded species for many years. Historically, they have been inexpensive, which has been more of a driving force for their popularity than their suitability as a pet. If the species is listed under Appendix II, this will change. The

cost will almost certainly increase, and the supply may well decrease or stop altogether, meaning that purchasers are more likely to be individuals who understand the needs of this species. Hopefully, this will generate a greater emphasis on captive breeding in the UK and breeders will be able to set prices that more accurately reflect the work required to produce the young.

David Perry of REPTA added: “Restricting international trade is unlikely to result in a significant improvement in the population status of Chinese water dragons in the wild, with local pressures such as hunting for food and habitat destruction having a greater impact on population decline. However, there probably is a justification to be made for restricting international trade to help provide the species with the status it deserves.”

Both the USA and Mexico have put forward proposals to list horned lizards (Phrynosoma spp.) at species and genus levels. This would restrict trade in some capacity and would probably be accompanied by quite small quotas or additional EU/UK measures. Although they are not commonly kept in the UK, they have appeared periodically in recent years. Improvements in husbandry have seen some success in captive breeding of these species but a reduced availability might impact these advances.

Proposals to add two turtle genera, Kinosternon and Sternotherus spp. to Appendix II have also been put forward. Since the removal of species such as red-eared sliders due to the Invasive Alien Species regulations turtle keepers in the UK have been encouraged to keep smaller, more manageable species. This is most commonly the common musk turtle (S. odoratus). David continued: “While there are some Stenotherus species that are vulnerable to both collecting and habitat loss or destruction, the use of a block listing means that common and widespread species will be included by default. Indeed, the proposal itself emphasises the status of S. odoratus, and the fact that it is also captive-farmed. The

Deforestation poses a much larger threat to wild populations than legal harvesting.

listing of these species on Appendix II has the potential to remove the majority of turtle species from the UK market, resulting in either a switch to more unsuitable species or encouraging illegal trade.”

Several other proposals have been put forward that might affect exotics keeping to some degree. These include glass frogs and snapping turtles which are sometimes kept by hobbyists, but rarely in UK collections.

REPTA (The Reptile and Exotic Pet Trade Association) regularly attend meetings with the EU CITES team to put evidence-based ideas forward from an exotics keeping perspective.

Self-regulation within the industry

Peregrine Livefoods, the largest reptile wholesaler in the UK, recently published their new stance on wildcaught animals as well as a ‘species selection process’ designed to limit which animals they sell. Being an industry giant for over two decades, the company is responsible for producing a large percentage of the most popular pet species available in the UK. As well as this, they historically imported an

eclectic mix of wild-caught animals to diversify the species that are kept in the UK. Last year, the business decided to stop large-scale imports and instead turn its attention towards ensuring the highest welfare standards for the most appropriate pet species.

Chris Jones, Managing Director of Peregrine Livefoods said: “Following a successful transition away from largescale WC shipments, we needed to solidify our stance on ‘wild-caught’. We do not believe that sourcing animals from the wild is inherently bad and recognise the many benefits to the hobby, conservation and local populations of people that wild-caught animals can provide. We do, however, believe that as a wholesaler, we must be responsible for the types of animals we sell, assessing all the pros and cons to reach a balanced decision. We believe it would be irresponsible to continue to import some species of animals when there may be other more suitable alternatives, of a CB supply.”

The business will now be assessing all wild-caught animals on the following criteria:

• Population: Is this species considered threatened according to the IUCN?

• Sustainability: Has the collection and trade of this species shown to be sustainable or beneficial to the local population of animals and humans?

• Invasive: Is this species considered ‘non-native’ from the country of export?

• Stress and hardiness: Does this species show high tolerance for shipping and being placed into captive care?

• CB availability: Is this species already available as captive-bred in reasonable quantities?

• Reproduction: Do historic records demonstrate this species is likely to be reproduced in captivity?

• Breeding programme: Is this species being imported specifically for re-sale to experienced breeders on the basis that new bloodlines will assist in the growth of captivebred animals?

The points-based system will create an assessment process that only permits the most suitable animals to be imported. With most imports relying on a specific quota to be filled, Peregrine Livefoods believes that their large-scale imports will be completely unviable going forward. This is welcomed by the business, who have not had a ‘wildcaught’ shipment since the criteria

Glass frogs may join CITES Appendix II

was put in place. The business is targeting future animal sales to be comprised of just 7% wild-caught specimens in 2023. This is less than half the percentage they imported in 2021.Whilst this self-regulation is designed to protect the longevity of the hobby, some people believe that by narrowing the species available to hobbyists, there may be repercussions in the future. “If we stop the wild-caught trade that could be detrimental to conservation” explained Chris Newman. “We should have had a fairtrade policy a long time ago, whereby more money goes back into the pockets of people harvesting animals. Madagascar is a good example. Something like 80% of the island is under threat of deforestation. Without an incentive to protect the remaining 20% why would local people choose to save that area? If there is no money coming in, they may as well chop it down or eat it.”

Unfortunately, mortality rates for some imported species are exceptionally high. Although nowadays things are beginning to change, importing large numbers of fragile species can lead to disaster scenarios. This used to be reasonably common in the 1990s. “ A good example are red-headed agamas (Agama agama)” added Chris Newman . “We didn’t know how to keep them alive in those days and 99% probably did die in the first year. Now we do know how to keep them alive, there is a serious argument for bringing them in. Specialist keepers lead the discussions on best husbandry practices for the entire hobby. If we stop specialists from doing that, we could be in a rather dire situation. This is where we need to distinguish between a specialist animal and a pet.”

Peregrine Livefoods has decided to invest the additional time and resources that would previously be spent on

catering for imported animals, in improving welfare standards and captive breeding projects at their facility.

“We must be honest with our place in the industry” added Chris Jones, Managing Director of Peregrine Livefoods “Most of our customers are pet shops which will be primarily supplying pet keepers. They have the choice to bring in more unusual species from elsewhere, but we feel that it is not our place to supply them. Each year there is a shortage of the most popular pet species. These animals are often best suited to captivity. We feel there is sincere merit in producing animals which can thrive with the majority of our customers and will continue to work with our vast network of breeders to supply interesting and unique animals of captive-bred supply. Our species list is just as eclectic as ever, without the need to impact wild populations at all.”

Individual responsibility

Responsible pet keeping is best achieved by remaining honest about the reasons that someone chooses to keep an animal. Most pet owners keep animals purely for the joy of it. In most cases, domestic pet keepers prioritise captive-bred animals that are well-suited to a captive environment and exotics keeping should be no different. Equally, expert breeders who could have a significant impact in developing scientific understanding of a particular species, may be more equipped to choose a wild-caught specimen. In this case, extra measures to ensure the sustainability of the source, or the reputability of the supplier might also prove beneficial. Ultimately, questioning the long-term goals of keeping an animal can ensure self-regulation at the very foundations of the hobby.

SNAKEBITE: A NEGLECTED DISEASE OF THE POOR

Discussing

antivenom with Professor Mark O’Shea MBE. Great Lakes bush viper (Atheris nitschei

Snakebite: A Neglected Disease of the Poor

Every year, up to 138,000 people die and a further 400,000 are permanently disabled because of snake envenoming. Whilst it’s easy to adopt a romanticised love of snakes from the comfortable position of a developed country with an effective healthcare system, those at risk of snakebite mortality must face a very different reality. Professor Mark O’Shea has been involved in snakebite research since the 1990s. Over that time, advancements in antivenom production have seen treatments become far more successful. Yet, there is still a majority population across the globe that cannot access these life-saving resources. Exotics Keeper Magazine caught up with Mark to discuss the problem.

Antivenom explained

Antivenom was first developed in the late 19th Century. It is sometimes referred to as ‘antivenin’ or ‘venom antiserum’ and is composed of various antibodies that are designed to treat the effects of envenoming. Antivenoms bind to and neutralise the venom to halt further damage, which in some cases allows the body to recover. Although it should only be used in the most serious cases, antivenom remains the primary method of treating snake and spider bites, as well as fish and scorpion stings.

Professor Mark O’Shea has been working with venomous snakes for over forty years, catching and milking a plethora of species across the world to support the work of Oxford University, the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the Australian Venom Research Unit at the University of Melbourne, and the University of Adelaide, most recently in Myanmar. The bulk of this research was based in Papua New Guinea (PNG) – a region where snake envenoming is likely to lead to death. Mark is also a Professor of Herpetology at the University of Wolverhampton and teaches students about reptile and amphibian behaviour

and conservation. “There are two different ways of looking at snake antivenom” explained Mark. “First, is it liquid or is it lyophalized antivenom (freeze-dried)? In the case of freeze-dried, you need to add sterile water for injection, to bring it back to a liquid. Freeze-dried is a bit more stable temperature-wise, but both need to be kept cool in a process called the ‘cold chain’. If the antivenom becomes warmer than 8°C, the chain is broken, and it shouldn’t be used. However, the powder is more useful in tropical countries.”

“The other way you divide antivenom is monovalent or polyvalent. Polyvalent antivenom is made from the antibodies of horses inoculated against all snakes in a particular area. The Australian polyvalent antivenom is produced at the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL) in Melbourne. The horses are inoculated against taipans (Oxyuranus spp. ) , blacksnakes (Pseudechis spp. ) , brownsnakes (Pseudonaja spp. ) , death adders (Acanthophis spp. ) and tigersnake (Notechis scutatus) . You end up with a BIG vial. That’s going to be more expensive for a start, but you’re also giving the patient

a lot that they don’t need. They have only been bitten by one of those species. Having a greater volume of antivenom administered increases the chance of an adverse reaction. However, it should treat the envenoming and is therefore a better choice if the species of snake responsible is unknown.”

It isn’t just the likelihood of an allergic reaction preventing the widespread use of polyvalent antivenoms. These types of antivenom can be extremely expensive. For example, the Australian polyvalent antivenom, which is frequently shipped to PNG (a country which shares some of the biodiversity of Australia), costs around $2,500 for one treatment. In Papua New Guinea patients do not have to pay for their

Snakebite: A Neglected Disease of the Poor

treatment, but the sheer cost of the antivenom means PNG can afford less and less antivenom each year.

Mark continued: “A monovalent is produced for only one specific snake species. The Australian CSL also produce monovalent taipan, monovalent death adder, monovalent blacksnake, etc. In most cases, they’re much smaller vials of antivenom (except the taipan monovalent which is quite large). If you know what the patient has been bitten by it is a better idea to avoid the higher risk of negative reactions and economise by giving them the antivenom of the snake they have been bitten by. That’s if they are available and licensed to be used in that country – which is not always the case in Papua New Guinea.”

“An example of this are tigersnakes, which do not occur in New Guinea but the CSL tigersnake monovalent antivenom has been proven to work against the venom of the New Guinea small-eyed snake (Micropechis ikaheka). However, it is not licensed for use to treat bites from that species so CSL Polyvalent must be used.”

As the highly expensive polyvalent is the only choice in Papua New Guinea, there is a severe shortage of treatments. This has led to situations where doctors have felt obliged to share a single vial of antivenom (used to treat one snakebite), between three people because they could not face having to choose a single patient to treat, but now none of the three will receive a therapeutic dose.

Snakebite: A Neglected Disease of the Poor

Identifying species

In Australia, members of the public are often advised not to attempt to identify the snake if it means compromising their first aid response or risking another bite. As venom moves through the tissues, blood and lymphatics, the entire limb should be immobilised with a bandage, and the person should avoid unnecessary movement. This is a technique referred to as the “Aussie bandage” and is effective against Australo-Papuan snakebites in that it slows the spread of the venom and enables the victim to get to hospital. In other parts of the world, some venoms cause swelling (such as vipers) the “Aussie bandage” could quickly become a torniquet, which would completely prevent blood circulation and could cause the victim to lose a limb to gangrene. It should only be

used when there is a certainty that the snake responsible was an elapid that does not cause swelling. CSL in Australia produces Snake Venom Detection Kits (SVDKs), which allow doctors to use monovalent antivenoms successfully. The kit contains a series of troughs that react by turning blue in reaction to the presence of death adder, brownsnake, blacksnake, tigersnake or taipan venom via a process known as enzyme-linked immunobsorbent assay (ELISA). This is a marvellous method to determine the snake species responsible and target the venom precisely with a monovalent antivenom. Unfortunately, this particular SVDK is only applicable for Australian and Papuan elapids.

With high costs associated with producing antivenom, few developing

countries even have fully-fledged antivenom programmes. Whilst affluent countries can implement testing procedures, airborne hospital transfers and free healthcare, other countries may not even have access to a single vial of antivenom or the means to keep it cool. This, combined with the fact that every region will have entirely different hazardous animals, means that antivenom research and production are moving at different paces across the world.

Mark explained: “In Africa, things are very variable. South African Vaccine Producers (SAVP) produce a polyvalent that will treat bites from all elapids and viperids in southern Africa, and they also produce two monovalents - one is for boomslang (Dispholidus typus), the other is for carpet vipers (Echis) in North

Saw scaled viper (Echis)

Africa. Boomslang is not in the polyvalent and last I heard, there was only one horse inoculated with boomslang venom. It is extremely scarce, and I don’t think its available outside South Africa so captive keepers of boomslang beware. But all the southern African adders, cobras, mambas etc, they’re all covered by the polyvalent. One thing keepers may not be aware of – there is no antivenom for twigsnakes (Thelotornis) or bush vipers (Atheris). Boomslang antivenom does not work for twigsnakes and Atheris is not included in the SAVR polyvalent.”

Of course, people do not have to be snake experts to correctly identify the species. Whilst a photograph, or a vague visual description might help assist in correctly identifying the animal, medical professionals can help narrow down the options. “In many cases, you can determine which species is responsible for the bite from the symptoms” added Mark. “If someone is continually bleeding, you know they’ve had either an anticoagulant or a procoagulant venom. In the case of procoagulant, the venom causes lots of microclots that are broken down, until there is no clotting factor left and the venom becomes incoagulable. There are also different types of neurotoxins i.e. pre- and postsynaptic, depending on where the venom attacks the nerve synapse (the junction where two nerves meet).

“Post and pre-synaptic neurotoxins kill through respiratory paralysis but in subtly different ways. You can reverse post-synaptic neurotoxins from a cobra quite late on.

I’ve been bitten by an Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) and antivenom alleviated it very quickly and I sat up in bed with a crossword that evening. If you’ve been bitten by something with a pre-synaptic neurotoxin, like a taipan, once paralysis sets in, you’re down. You’re down for 3–5 days. If someone is in paralysis with pre-synaptic neurotoxin, a bucket full of antivenom is not going to get them breathing again, they need to go on a ventilator. Here is how they differ. Post-synaptic neurotoxins block the receptor sites on the downstream side of the synapse so the message ‘breathe’ does not get across the synaptic gap. However, appropriate antivenom will swiftly clear the blockage and normal service is resumed. Presynaptic neurotoxins act more like cytotoxins, they destroy the transmitter sites on the upstream side of the synapse so the message ‘breathe’ never gets sent, and because this is physical damage the message will not be sent until the transmitter sites have been regenerated, and that takes time. Antivenom will prevent further damage, but it cannot undo damage already done. This is why certain snakes with presynaptic neurotoxins, i.e. black mambas and taipans are so dangerous, they even have their own presynaptic neurotoxins named after them ‘dendrotoxin’ and ‘taipoxin’.”

The economics of snake bite

The high cost of antivenom mean that there are a whole host of social and economic tightropes to navigate to ensure that antivenom is available for those who are bitten. Sadly, those in developing countries are at a much higher risk than those in developed countries. Despite Australia hosting many of the world’s most venomous snakes, only around 2-3 people are killed by snakebites each year.

In countries such as India, where people are generally much more exposed to snakebite and may not receive appropriate treatment, the story is tragically different.

“Snakebite is a disease” added Mark. “When I call it a disease, it is because it has a cure. Now, it is listed officially as one of the Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) of the World Health Organisation (WHO). Hopefully, it’ll stay there because that means it is getting some funding. It is a disease of the poor voiceless people in developing countries, it is not a disease of people in developed countries. Yes, zookeepers get bitten, yes private keepers get bitten, but in very small numbers by comparison. When I used to tell people the figures for deaths and disabilities from snakebite every year they were shocked, but we’ve just had a COVID epidemic that has killed millions, so it’s very difficult to shock people now and it will be for some time. Anywhere between 98,000 and 138,000 people die of snake bites every year around the world. Most of those people are in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar, Mali, Nigeria, Togo, Benin, Senegal, the Gambia and New Guinea. Notice how none of those are Latin American countries. That’s because they have very good antivenom programmes which help alleviate the problem.”

“5000 people die a year in all of Latin America, 20,000 in Africa, 100,000 in Asia – and that’s just the deaths. A lot of snake venoms from snakes like puff adders (Bitis arietans) and spitting cobras (Naja spp.), the bites of which might not kill, cause tissue destruction and people lose parts of their bodies. Similarly, lanceheads (Bothrops) in South America causes limb loss, disfigurations, effects on central nervous systems and even on people’s cognitive abilities. It is estimated that 400,000 people are permanently disabled by snake bites, many more than are maimed by land mines. These people are often the breadwinners of the family or the children. The family inevitably must spend money to get the loved one to the hospital or pay for treatment. This means selling all their goats and everything they have. Even then, it’s like putting your house on a lottery ticket. It

Mark O’Shea milking Eastern Asian Russell’s viper (Daboia siamensis) in Myanmar

might work but it might not. People could end up with their family member dying or becoming permanently disabled with no social security AND now have lost their livelihoods. It pushes people into poverty beyond that which anyone in the West could imagine.”

Despite the horrific repercussions of snake bites in developing countries, social and political discourse has placed snakebite on the fringe of global aid priorities. Snakebite is not infectious and therefore it holds much less fear in the West than other tropical diseases. Someone cannot ‘catch’ snakebite and transmit it to other people. Ebola, on the other hand, was much better funded based largely on its threat to developed countries. Despite the immense number of snakebite victims and mortalities across the world, antivenom research gets

just a fraction of the funding that malaria research does, though malaria still kills upwards of 600,000 per year, people can catch it and have it treated by their country’s healthcare system upon returning home. “There are heroes in antivenom” Mark stated. “They are the Costa Ricans that work in the Instituto Clodomiro Picado at the Universidad de Costa Rica in San José. They’re not a big bio-pharma company, but they are doing amazing work to help provide antivenom to the most impoverished countries. They started producing antivenom for the snakes in Costa Rica, then in Latin America, and now they produce antivenom for taipans in New Guinea, Russell’s vipers in Sri Lanka and various African antivenoms too. Their taipan product was just as efficacious as the CSL but because they are not a bio-pharma company, instead of $2,500 their antivenom was $250.”

Snakebite: A Neglected Disease of the Poor

Milking Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni) in Papua New Guinea, with Papuan colleague Owen Paiva

The future of antivenom research

Over recent decades, the availability of antivenoms has shifted the way we look at the most dangerous species of snakes. Moreover, the most dangerous are not always the most venomous. Species which are widespread or inhabit urban environments in developing countries are often far more dangerous than Australia’s highly venomous taipans because humans encounter them on a much more regular basis. Arguably, at the top of the list of dangerous snakes causing large numbers of bites are the Russell’s vipers (Daboia russelii, D. siamensis) and the North African carpet vipers (Echis ocellatus, E. jogeri, E. romani), whereas the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), often trumpeted as the world’s most dangerous snake, has not yet caused a single fatality.

Mark explained: “Both Russell's vipers and three West African Echis species are particularly dangerous. Sometimes they can be thick on the ground and people collecting firewood get bitten. Although Daboia russelii in Sri Lanka is considered the same species as Daboia russelii in India, its venom is different. This is because snake venom is adapted to the prey. If you’ve got snakes that feed on different prey in different areas, over a fairly short time the venom will begin to adapt, it is a predatorprey arms race. When you’ve got juvenile snakes feeding on lizards and adults eating mammals, again, they go through an ontogenetic change as they get older. This has been proven in puff adders (Bitis arietans) and in Western diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox).”

There is still much to learn about the way venom works. Whilst protecting the hundreds of thousands of lives affected by snake bites each year would be a

very commendable aim, many of the countries able to finance this kind of project are far removed from the devastating reality of snakebite. However, other (slightly more selfish) motivations are continuing to push venom research in a positive direction. “Snake venoms are such amazing compounds, there’s a lot of hidden uses” added Mark. “The things that snake venom can do to you can be beneficial. There has been some work in the past to see if neurotoxic venoms can be used therapeutically for MS. A venom that can cause prolonged bleeding could be used in a drug to prevent blood clot forming, this would be really useful to someone that, for example, has recently had heart surgery. There used to be a drug (Arvin) produced from Malayan pit vipers (Calloselasma rhodostoma) for that purpose. After all, a lot of the excellent medicines we use today came from nature.”

Venom research is a broad and fascinating subject. Nowadays, the success rate of antivenom treatments is extremely high. Not only does venom research save lives but ongoing research is likely to uncover myriad applications to treat health defects and improve the health of citizens in the most affluent countries. However, with over 100,000 preventable deaths occurring in impoverished areas across the world each year, we are still a very long way away from medical equality.

More information on the World Health Organisation’s ‘Road to 2030’ strategy and regular reports on snakebite envenoming can be found on their website: www.who.int.

A powerful film on the issue of snakebite in impoverished countries can be watched by visiting: https://minutestodie.com

DON’T LOSE SLEEP OVER IT

How to fully prepare for tortoise hibernation.

Tortoises have evolved for millions of years to deal with seasonal fluctuations and thrive in periods with less food availability and lower temperatures. These changes in climate naturally slow metabolism in ectotherms and thus hibernation or a ‘winter period’ is an integral influence on tortoise physiology. Although hibernation was a risky process several decades ago, keepers today are much more aware of the potential problems involved in hibernation. Combine this with more reliable fridges, insulated homes and affordable thermometers and the benefits of a dormant period massively outweigh the associated risks. Although it can be a scary prospect, keepers should understand as much as possible about the hibernation process to ensure optimal success.

Which species should be hibernated?

Some of the most popular species of pet tortoises have reached their status because of their tolerance to the UK climate. Many of these come from areas across southern Europe and North Africa and fair extremely well outdoors through most of the year. These are the Hermanns (Testudo hermanni), Horsfield (Testudo horsfieldii), spur-thighed (Testudo graeca) and marginated tortoises (Testudo marginata). All four of these species should be hibernated or at least experience a dormant period. Tropical species such as red-footed (Chelonoidis carbonarius) and yellow-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis denticulatus) will not experience such drastic temperature drops and therefore should not be hibernated. The

same applies to popular desert species such as sulcata (Centrochelys sulcata), leopard (Stigmochelys pardalis) and pancake tortoises (Malacochersus torneiri).

Typically, Hermann’s, Spur Thigh "dark-shelled" Ibera and Horsfield tortoises will hibernate extremely well. If they are healthy, they are very hardy species and hibernation is considered beneficial, if not essential for their wellbeing. This would typically happen when temperatures drop below 10°C, with optimal conditions being around 5°C. Eleanor continued: “Horsfield tortoises are some of the most northernly ranging tortoises and therefore require a slightly cooler temperature to hibernate. Anything much

higher than about 6°C and the keeper may find that they will scratch away in the box and not go to sleep straight away. In the case of Horsfields', the keeper should aim for 3°C – 5°C. They are also extremely intolerant to dampness, so be mindful that the box must not be damp.”

“Marginated tortoises are not very popular in the UK as they were not imported for very long. However, there are still some out there. Although they inhabit warmer climates than Hermann’s and Horsfield tortoises, they will hibernate. They are also prone to a natural pinkness when they are cooled down. Unfortunately, many marginated tortoises end up on antibiotics unnecessarily as an inexperienced

owner or vet may think they have sepsis.”

Pale-shelled spur-thighed tortoises are the most delicate of the popular species. Coming from North Africa, they should only have a period of cooling and not a full sleep. This can apply to Tunisian spur thighs and Western dwarf Hermann's (T. hermanni hermanni) also. There are several other, less popular subspecies which may be more or less tolerant to cooler temperatures and thus require slightly different hibernation periods. If a keeper is unsure of what species they are keeping, it should be a priority that they get absolute clarification before deciding on the length of hibernation, or whether to just offer a cooler winter period.

“All tortoise keepers should seriously consider providing a cooler period for their tortoises and there are a lot of reasons for this” explains Chelonia Specialist, Eleanor TirtasanaChubb. “A big problem in captivity is that young tortoises are growing too quickly, which can be problematic and cause health issues. Tortoises can also be reluctant to feed, as they expect to hibernate. Giving them a short, controlled hibernation can help re-set their body clock and encourage them to feed better and reduce their stress.”

Health is wealth

Although each species and subspecies will experience different seasonal fluctuations, in captivity a rough estimate on timings can be made. For the three most hardy species (which will be referred to most frequently throughout the feature), Hermann’s, Horsfield and Spur thigh Ibera, hibernation can last anywhere from eight to twelve weeks. Eleanor continued: “At the end of the day, the final decision lies with the keeper. Very elderly and young tortoises should hibernate for a shorter period. This is around two to six weeks. If the tortoise is less than a year old or has never hibernated, the keeper may want to just provide a short one-to-two-week hibernation. This will allow both the tortoise and the keeper to get used to the process. A healthy adult tortoise should be hibernated for anywhere from eight to twelve weeks. I sometimes hear of people who think tortoises should be hibernated for six months and this is not true. They only require a short rest during the coldest months of the year.”

The length of time that a tortoise needs to be hibernated will also vary based on other factors, namely their health. A change in environment or an unclear medical history can produce stress or underline health conditions which may cause problems during hibernation. If a tortoise has recently been de-wormed, it is also worth waiting a while for the gut flora to regenerate before putting them into hibernation.

Ultimately, the keeper must be able to make an informed

decision on how long they wish to hibernate their tortoise, based on the animals’ health, breed and age. This will require a good understanding of the tortoise and therefore regular weight checks and health inspections are necessary. “The tortoise should have nice bright eyes, a pink tongue, no sores around its tail or swollen joints” explains Eleanor. “It might sound weird, but the keeper should smell their tortoise and make sure there are no foul smells which would indicate a problem. A healthy tortoise should have clear nostrils and eyes. If someone spends plenty of time getting to know their tortoise, they will have a much better understanding of how to hibernate it.”

Keepers can also do a ‘Bone Density Formula’ which can be applied to Hermann’s, Spurthighs and Horsfield tortoises. This involves taking the weight (in grams) of the tortoise and dividing it by the length (in centimetres cubed). If the bone density ratio is in the range of .20 and .25, the tortoise is a healthy size and possibly ready to be hibernated. Shell deformities can skew this slightly. Eleanor continued: “The bone density formula is a great indicator, but certainly not the deciding factor. I have heard people choose not to hibernate their animals because the formula suggest they are underweight, even though they are healthy and fed well. In this case, it might be a better idea to just hibernate for a slightly shorter period. If the tortoise is really heavy, make sure there is no egg retention. If it is really light, maybe it’s worth a consultation with a vet. But that shouldn’t become an instant reason not to hibernate.”

Spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca)

When?

Choosing when to hibernate a tortoise can be confusing. The weather in the UK can naturally become cooler as early as September, but just because it reaches 8°C in the UK does not mean that it will be reaching these temperatures in Southern Europe and Western Asia. Keepers should try to keep their tortoise awake for as long as possible with artificial heating and lighting indoors once the UK climate falls below 10°C at night and becomes too cold for full-time outdoor keeping. Many keepers aim to keep their tortoises awake until late November. This time frame means it’s usually easier to find natural plants right up until the tortoise needs to hibernate and they can also be greeted with warmer Spring temperatures and lots of fresh weeds when they awaken.

In September/November when the weather starts to cool down a tortoise should be given an indoor enclosure. As this is only temporary, this can be made of a whole host of materials or tortoise tables, vivariums (with the glass removed) and large tubs work great. A basking lamp that provides UVB such as a metal halide or incandescent flood will be necessary to provide heat and light. It is important that the keeper checks their bulbs, or replaces old bulbs at this time. A bulb that has not been used all summer may appear bright, but its UV and IR output may have diminished. Once the tortoise has been brought inside and housed in its new temporary enclosure, it should be maintained at a comfortable 16°C ambient temperature at night and a 30°C basking area for daytime should slowly be reduced. Daylight cycles should also be gradually reduced. For example, if the bulb is on for 12 hours once the tortoise has been brought inside, the keeper should reduce this by a few hours every couple of days

TOP TIPS

down to 6 hours a day. The final few days can be no daytime lighting at all.

The tortoise should be contained during this period, to allow the keeper to monitor the animal and supplementary calcium and vitamins are essential. Gradually changing the tortoise's diet to more fibrous dried flowers and grasses will ensure that they have less nutritious, high-fibre food in their system. Avoid feeding treats or “junk food” options such as veg, fruit or a lot of salad in the month before hibernation fasting. Richer foods are more likely to rot and cause infection if any remains in the gut during hibernation. It can take up to four weeks of fasting for a tortoise to have an empty gut. During this time, ambient and basking heat is essential for the tortoise to clear its gut and good quality heating/light bulbs are a necessity. Extra fluids should also be provided. “Frequent baths are a really important part of the hibernation preparation process” explains Eleanor. “Extra fluids will help clear their gut and detox them. They should be soaked every 2-3 days for about 15-20 minutes in warm water at around 36°C. Although the keeper can just provide more water, bathing allows them to take on more liquids and the warmth of the water will also encourage them to go to the toilet as well.”

“A few days before hibernation, a more thorough clean with an antibacterial and fungal iodine-based soap is advised. This will reduce the chance of the tortoise picking up an eye infection, skin infection or developing shell rot during hibernation. Giving them a once over with Tamodine and using a soft toothbrush to get the entire shell, tail and limbs is great. Tamodine is also worth just keeping in the cupboard year-round. It can be used as a soap or as first aid if the tortoise gets any grazes or cuts.”

• Know exactly what species/subspecies is being kept.

• Take regular weights and measurements throughout the year to help you make a more informed decision and monitor progress.

• Identify how long you wish to hibernate your animal as soon as possible, then prepare accordingly.

• Make sure the tortoise has fasted effectively and has an empty stomach before hibernating.

• Ensure the animal is safe, secure and receiving adequate oxygen throughout the hibernation process.

• Keep some Reptoboost available for when the tortoise awakes, in case they are slow to begin feeding again.

From left to right; Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni), Indian star tortoise (Geochelone elegans), sulcata tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata)

Where to hibernate?

There are a few methods of hibernating tortoises with the most popular being the ‘fridge method’. Modern housing is typically very well-insulated, so finding a location in the home with a steady 5°C temperature can be challenging. A fridge, on the other hand, can be a more predictable option if it is in good condition. The most important thing to consider when choosing a location to hibernate a tortoise is ensuring a steady, consistent temperature. A fridge that has a freezer compartment is extremely risky as a damaged fridge may lead to part of the fridge freezing. Eleanor explains: “There are a few things that keepers must consider if they choose to use the fridge method. Firstly, remember to open the door every few days to make sure that there is always enough oxygen. Secondly, check the temperatures several times in the run-up to hibernation to ensure that the temperature is steady. Finally, the addition of a few large bottles of water will add mass, which should then support the stability of the temperature.” The tortoise should be placed in a plastic container, with a deep layer of soil-based substrate to allow it to dig into a comfortable position (leaflitter can also be added for extra security) and placed into the fridge. Soil should not be soggy and should be able to crumble and fall off the keeper’s hand. Alternatively, the keeper could place the tortoise on a towel with dried leaves or shredded paper on top. If this method is chosen, a bowl of water should be added to the fridge to allow some ambient humidity.

Historically, many keepers opted for the ‘box’ method.

This sees the animal placed inside a box with some newspaper shredding and placed in the coolest room in the house. Hay/straw should be avoided as it can bind around the tortoise’s joints. The addition of more mass will help stabilise temperatures, therefore having a box within another box is going to be much more reliable. A temperature probe should be inserted into the inner box, housing the tortoise. The box should also be labelled clearly and placed somewhere secure. Eleanor continued: “The tortoise may rustle around, so make sure the box isn’t anywhere up high. It should also be away from any potential predators. Lofts, conservatories and wooden sheds will also experience major temperature shifts. Unless someone is lucky enough to have a brick shed, the box method is not a great option.”

In mainland Europe, many keepers will opt for the ‘natural method’. This involves creating a brick-lined pit in the garden for the tortoise to hibernate in at their leisure. It is not advisable to do this in the UK due to a much wetter climate. The keeper also has less control and if the hibernation pit is damaged or poorly constructed, one frost could cause the animal to perish. Some UK keepers are extremely successful at keeping European species outdoors year-round by producing impressive hibernacula, but for the average pet owner, this can be tricky to navigate. For all methods, the keeper must ensure that the box is secure and predator-proof. This applies not just to cats and foxes, but to rats and mice which can also attack a hibernating tortoise.

Peace of mind

Leaving a beloved pet to their own devices, asleep in the fridge, can be a daunting prospect for any keeper. They shouldn't be disturbed too much during this period, but there are a few ways that a keeper can check up on their animal. Firstly, a data log of minimum and maximum temperatures is an excellent tool to monitor the conditions of the tortoise, whilst also providing some peace of mind for the keeper. Tortoises will typically sleep with their legs spread out. If the keeper touches the animal's leg, it should move slightly which is a good indicator that the tortoise is still alive, without disturbing its hibernation entirely.

“It is perfectly normal for the tortoise to move around in its box for up to 10 days after being hibernated" Eleanor added. "It might seem odd to the keeper, but a bit of movement is normal. If the tortoise urinates in the early stages of hibernation, there’s nothing to worry about. If it defecates, the keeper may need to remove the tortoise and fast it for a little longer before trying hibernation once again. If it happens at a later stage, this would be a cause to cut hibernation short. Once hibernation ensues, the number one most important thing is to keep the temperature steady. The steadier the temperature, the less stress on the animal and the less chance of it losing excessive weight.”

After the hibernation process, the tortoises can be warmed up to room temperature gradually over 48 hours. Eventually, they can be reintroduced to their indoor enclosure and placed under a basking light which will kickstart their feeding behaviour. If the tortoise does not feed within a week of waking from hibernation the keeper should offer tempting favourite foods, hand feeding opportunities and daily soaks. If these do not work, the tortoise may need to be force-fed with the support of a knowledgeable vet or expert. A slow starter can sometimes benefit from Reptoboost soaks posthibernation. This is designed to replenish electrolytes, vitamins and probiotics.

In the wild, tortoises will often awake to find plenty of fresh spring shoots to feed on. In this case, feeding crunchy moisture-filled salads such as crunchy romaine, baby gem lettuce, rocket and even some cucumber is great. However, Eleanor warns that “cucumber is mostly filled with water. It is great for a drink, so it is really useful after waking the tortoise up, but it is not very nutritious. Keepers should

Don’t Lose Sleep Over It

be aiming to move their tortoises onto more fibrous foods as soon as possible, so going out to collect as many weeds as possible is important. These can be kept in sealable sandwich bags in the fridge. It’s a good idea to ask friends and family with pesticide-free allotments and wild gardens to collect these for you as often as possible. It’s free and they have much more trace elements and nutritional value than store-bought salads.”

Calcium and vitamin supplements are also incredibly important at this time of year. Even the very best natural weeds will have less nutritional content in spring and autumn than they will in summer. Therefore, high-quality calcium and vitamin supplements are essential. These can also expire and lose potency over time, particularly if they have been left open for a long period so keepers should aim to pick up fresh tubs of supplements ready for when the tortoise emerges from hibernation. Eleanor continued: “Most tortoises don’t like the taste of vitamins and they will try to hard-ball the owner. Persevere! Even if that means hiding small amounts in certain foods.”

Extra resources

There are plenty of resources available online to help tortoise keepers do right by their animals. Tortoise keeping has shifted greatly in recent decades. Not only do experts know much more about their wild behaviours, but keepers can now access a whole host of accessible information based on herpetological studies to ensure their animals are receiving the very best care. Eleanor’s YouTube channel @tortoisematters has exceptional advice on many issues relating to tortoise husbandry. Norfolk Tortoise Club (website and social media channels) are also very useful for asking direct questions about tortoise health and welfare.

Eleanor Tirtisana-Chubb is a leading expert in Chelonia welfare. As well as lecturing at various educational institutes across the country, Eleanor also runs a tortoise-rehoming facility in Norfolk. She has founded Tortoise Matters, Norfolk Tortoise Club and is a European Lead at the Turtle Survival Alliance.

Horsfield’s tortoise (Testudo horsfieldii)

‘Best Aquarium Fish Food’

As voted by readers of Practical Fishkeeping magazine

Aquarium Fish Foods with Insect Meal

Uses cultured insect meal to recreate the natural insect based diet that most fish eat in the wild.

Easily digested and processed by the fish resulting in less waste.

Environmentally friendly and sustainable.

KEEPER BASICS: MARINE AQUARIUMS

Clownfish in an anemone

Marine aquariums can offer an exciting yet intimidating project for new hobbyists. They demand greater environmental control and require a myriad of equipment to maintain good-quality, temperature-stablility, moving water. This, combined with the additional challenge of growing delicate corals and live rocks, means that marine aquaria are often presented as the crème-de-la-crème of fishkeeping. Aquarists devote their lives and careers to understanding the delicate nuances of marine life and only uncover a drop in the ocean. However, understanding the following basic principles will give beginner hobbyists the strongest start.

Salts and salinity

There are two ways of sourcing saltwater for your marine tank. Firstly, many aquatic shops will sell premixed salt water for around 25-30p a litre. This might be a straightforward immediate solution, but it is also the costliest. Another option is to buy a bucket of salt, of which there are many different brands and add this to R/O (reverse osmosis) water. R/O water has essentially been treated to turn tap water into 95-99% pure water. There are several ways to do this but a R/O filter can be an excellent investment. Even the average keeper, with just one fish tank, will consistently have to replenish their tank with both R/O and saltwater. For a keeper who has multiple fish tanks, a limitless supply of R/O water will be especially beneficial.

Another benefit of mixing your own saltwater is that the keeper has complete control of the salinity of the water. Across the world, the ocean’s salinity varies (sometimes quite drastically). In open seas with a high water exchange,

the salinity is likely to be much lower than in enclosed seas, such as the famous dead sea. In tropical areas with lots of rainfall, such as the Philippines, the salinity is likely to be even lower.

Although most fish will be acclimatised to an average ambient salinity once they reach the shop, some species are extremely susceptible to salinity shock. Shrimps, for example, may die if they are introduced to a tank with different salinity. The more control that the keeper can have over the environmental parameters of the water, the more successful they are likely to be.

Some salts such as ‘Reef Crystals ‘ will also dissolve in less than 6 minutes. A kilogram of this salt should be enough for 30 litres of water. For most keepers, it is quicker to mix, test and add saltwater themselves than to visit their local shop and transport the water home.

Heat and movement

Marine tanks require heating. This heat, much like the filtration system, is a life-support machine for all the aquarium's inhabitants. Although some species are hardier than others, slight fluctuations in this temperature can cause fish and corals to die relatively quickly. It is, therefore, a good idea to invest in two heaters. Having two 200watt heaters rather than one 400watt heater will provide backup should anything go wrong.

The best quality heaters are generally made of quartz instead of glass. They are much hardier and usually have better guarantees. If the keeper only has one heater and it goes wrong during the winter, or while the keeper is on holiday, it can spell doom for the entire tank. It is therefore advisable that regardless of the experience level of the keeper or the value of the fish, the keeper buys a good quality heater.

Water clarity, filtration and skimmers

Most tanks have a ‘top tank’ and a sump - a hidden body of water containing fitration. This area might also have a skimmer, heater and reactor but it is essentially the mechanical aspect of the tank. If the sump is too small, it may run dry, and the tank will stop circulating.

Some open-top tanks can lose 10-20 litres of water a day through evaporation. Obviously the warmer it is, the more water will evaporate and even the movement of the water can speed up the evaporation process. In this scenario, if the keeper has a 50litre sump, they only have five days before the sump runs dry. This can be combatted by using an ‘Auto Top-Up’. These are external tanks, filled with R/O water, that will continue to top up the tank over time. Not only does this provide a bigger body of water to support the tank and the sump, but it also balances the salinity level. As an aquarium loses water, it does not lose salt content, thus the salinity increases. So, the automatic addition of more freshwater ensures that the levels are kept constant. Most experienced aquarists would say that an auto top-up is an essential aid in maintaining a successful marine tank.

Even with an auto top-up, keepers should be doing regular saltwater changes. This is to replace the minor trace elements that can be found in all water. It would be impossible to add 0.00001ppm of most trace elements. They exist in such small quantities that unless more water is added to the tank, they will be lost over time, especially if there are corals in the tank. These include strontium, iodine, molybdenum, etc. There are 82 trace elements in seawater. Some do not exist in commercial bottles and will not show on a normal testing kit – such as boron, arsenic and even gold. Therefore, the addition of new salt water is the only way to replenish these naturally occurring trace elements.

Calcium, Magnesium and Alkalinity are also important aspects of maintaining a healthy tank and will support the growth of living rocks and corals. They are absorbed by the rocks (often very quickly at first) which will deplete the natural elements in the water. These should be replaced

using Reef Evolution products or other quality buffers and should stabilise over time. Every aquarium will be slightly different so frequent testing is required to fully understand the process.

Detritus and algae build-up

Any living ecosystem will produce some amount of waste. While the nitrogen cycle should break down the most harmful aspects, unsightly detritus and algae build-up is going to occur no matter how well-kept the aquarium is. There are a few helpful tips to reduce this visible waste, beyond having an excellent high-capacity filter.

Firstly, be considerate when feeding frozen foods. Some keepers with multiple tanks will defrost several blocks of brineshrimp or mysis and leave the bag to get warm throughout the day. This process will naturally break down the food and lose the nutritional benefits of the food and add unnecessary detritus to the tank. A more efficient way would be to just drop the block straight into the water and allow the fish to pick at the freshly defrosted whole larvae/ shrimps/worms.

Secondly, there are various fish which are excellent at cleaning up unwanted algae. Species such as the algae blenny (Salarius fasciatus) will feed ravenously on any algae build-up, even on the surface of the glass. They have a docile temperament and are readily available in most aquatic shops. Bicolor blennies (Ecsenius bicolor), Kole tangs (Ctenochaetus strigosus) and Chevron tangs (Ctenochaetus hawaiiensis) are also great at cleaning glass and rocks. Orange-spot gobies (Valenciennea puellaris) and blue-cheeked gobies (Valenciennea strigata) will also clean algae build-up from the substrate. They take sand in through their mouth and filter it through their gills.

Thirdly, try to install a second wavemaker closer to the substrate, or position the wavemaker towards the substrate. Algae will build up and detritus will often fall to the floor of the aquarium and without any water movement to re-position it, both will settle (and it’s not always easy to rectify once the tank is established).

Nitrates and phosphates

Algae need nitrates and phosphates to grow. The Zooxanthellae and corals need these algae to feed on, so the keeper should aim to maintain a low level of nitrates and phosphates. Without some nitrates and phosphates in the tank, the coral will lose its colour. Most keepers would suggest nitrate levels of around 15-10ppm (parts per million), though anything up to 20ppm is still safe. Phosphate levels vary between keepers but less than 0.02ppm is the most common standard. Certain corals will demand slightly higher levels of nitrate and phosphate and each keeper is likely to run their aquarium slightly differently. For the beginner aquarist, keeping levels as low as possible (but not 0) will help prevent algae build-up and make it easier to achieve an all-around healthy tank. Keepers can also provide specific coral foods to ensure their corals are receiving plenty of nutrients, without the risk of increasing nitrate and phosphate levels.

There are products which help to reduce the amount of nitrate or phosphate in the water. A good-quality protein skimmer can do an excellent job of keeping these levels down. A protein skimmer works by bringing bubbles up towards the surface through a cone, collecting detritus along the way. The bubbles then break, and waste is collected in a basin that surrounds the cone. It is paramount that these are kept clean to allow the bubbles to break at exactly the right level to spit detritus out into the cup.

Testing procedures:

Nitrate and phosphate:

Twice weekly (until they are stable), weekly thereafter.

Calcium, magnesium and alkalinity:

Twice weekly (until stable), monthly thereafter.

Top tip:

Feeding marine fish garlic is a great way to boost their immune system. It can be found in some existing products as well as live foods such as brine shrimp, but raw garlic is an excellent way to support fish health.

A good water change will also help to temporarily fix high levels of nitrate and phosphate. The most important thing is that the keeper diagnoses the root of the problem as quickly as possible. Too higher nitrate levels are often due to overfeeding, overstocking, dirty filters, or decaying plant matter.

It is extremely important to test your water often. If, when establishing a tank, the keeper is doing weekly water changes and feeding the fish twice a day, testing should be happening every other day.

Nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle was previously considered a complex aspect of marine fish keeping. It requires the keeper to prompt the growth of beneficial bacteria by gradually adding a small amount of detritus, or by adding (and feeding) a single fish to produce waste. The small number of bacteria then turn this toxic ammonia into less toxic nitrite and then again into even less toxic nitrate which can be easily removed with a skimmer or water change.

Of course, if an aquarium is fully stocked without enough bacteria to break down the ammonia, the fish will quickly succumb to illness. In the past, this was a delicate process and could take over a month before a suitable number of bacteria had built up to maintain the ammonia levels effectively. Nowadays, Dr Tim’s ‘One and Only’ provides all the necessary bacteria in a single bottle. Whilst new hobbyists should familiarise themselves with the nitrogen cycle, most aquarists will use the bottle formula for ease. Some living rock or substrate should be added to help the bacteria multiply over time, but the quicker the bacteria is introduced to the water, the sooner the hobbyist can begin adding fish. These should be added gradually (perhaps a new addition each week).

Stocking the aquarium

There is a whole spectrum of options available when it comes to stocking the aquarium. It is the responsibility of the keeper to do thorough investigative research into every species that enters the tank – including rocks and corals. Like all fishkeeping, not all marine animals will get along, nor thrive under the same conditions as the next.

One tip that may assist new marine keepers, is to avoid anemones. They are very susceptible to changing water quality, will often hide during the early days and if they do die and dissolve, can produce an awful smell that affects the entire tank. Furthermore, anemones produce stinging spores which are released into the water and can be extremely stressful to most fish species. The same is true for some species of long-tentacled corals (LPS – meaning large-polyp stony).

New keepers should ascertain whether they hope to enter the hobby at an entry-level, by stocking hardier fish and softer corals or at an advanced level with hard corals such as acropora, millepora or macropora. Although things can change over time, the SPS (short-polyp stony) corals are much more expensive and will require better lighting.

FASCINATING FACT

Is nature turning everything into crabs?

The term ‘carcinisation’ was first coined in 1916 by Zoologist, Lancelot Alexander Borradaile. It describes the process in which non-crab-like forms have, over time, evolved into crab-like forms. Borradaile explains that it is “one of the many attempts by Nature to evolve a crab.”

Currently, the best example of this is within the infraorder Anomura. These include hermit crabs (Coenobita), coconut crabs (Birgus spp.), king crabs (Paralithodes spp.) and porcelain crabs (Porcellanidae) – none of which are true crabs or are even closely related to crabs (Brachyura). Some are much closer related to lobsters and hermit ‘crabs’ and the internal anatomy of all these crab-like species are entirely different to true crabs. However, convergent evolution over time has meant that all these crustaceans are becoming more and more crab-like by the day.

Although ‘carcinisation’ only received an official term in the early 20th Century, the field of study had been running for over 100 years prior. This is largely why we still use common names that falsely term crab-like animals as ‘crabs’. Cases of convergent evolution are common within the animal kingdom. For example, the poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) of South America and the Mantella spp. of Madagascar. Other examples include the horned lizards (Phrynosoma spp.) of North America and the Thorny devil (Moloch horridus) of Australia. However, ‘carcinisation’ already appears to have affected a huge number of crustacean species and will undoubtedly produce more crab-like species over time.

What’s next?

Strawberry hermit crab (Coenobita perlatus)

ENRICHMENT IDEAS

Fish Décor

Enrichment is a key component of animal welfare. While the term is broad, it allows animals not only to stretch their cognitive abilities but to also enact complex behaviours that they would typically exhibit in the wild. Exotics keepers often associate ‘enrichment’ with elaborate exercises such as scent trails for snakes, or interesting puzzles for parrots. However, the effective use of décor can have just as important effects, especially in aquatic environments where keeper interactions are limited.

Hanging plants

Hanging plants, whether artificial or real, can provide some extremely important enrichment opportunities to a myriad of fish species. Some skittish species such as discus will rely on cover to feel more comfortable in their surroundings. Simply adding an artificial hanging plant that drapes into the water and breaks up the immediate lighting from above will prevent mortalities and promote more vibrant colouration in the fish. Some nest-building fishes such as the popular Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) require shelter to enact natural breeding behaviours. Broad-leaved artificial plants provide this shelter perfectly and inexpensively. For a more naturalistic set-up, a pot of Pothos can be secured to the top of the tank to trail into the water. This is particularly effective in turtle enclosures, where there is plenty of room for the plant to grow, but the same principle can be applied to more traditional fish tanks. If live foods are fed to the fish, having overhanging leaves for the insects to grasp onto can also lead to some interesting hunting behaviours from obscure fish species such as archer fish.

Naturalistic rock formations

Artificial aquarium décor has improved drastically in recent years. Now, keepers can construct rock formations successfully with a resin fixture and some fine-grain crushed coral. By covering the décor in a substrate, the aquarist can build areas within the environment for Cichlids to claim individual territories, build sand nests and interact with one another in a very natural way. Other species such as ram cichlids will need an area that they can claim before breeding. The addition of a flat rock will prompt the male to guard his patch and pair up with a female. This is a simple way to encourage fishes with specific requirements to breed within a community tank. Breeding is usually a good indicator that the animals are happy and secure even if the novice aquarist is not aiming to breed their animals. Furthermore, rock formations can help create visual barriers that allow all fish to feel more secure than if they are exposed to other individuals.

Live plants

Live plants play a major role in any advanced freshwater set-up. Not only do they look excellent, but they play important functions for almost all species. Angelfish, for example, will require long-stemmed plants to hide amongst and feel secure. Their unusual slender bodies have evolved to camouflage amongst long-stemmed plants and therefore denying them this component can lead to significant stress. The most used are the Vallisneria spp. Even much smaller fish such as tetra will require these plants to lay their eggs and thus, they play an important biological function. Plants with horizontal leaf structures such as Anubias will provide valuable hiding opportunities for small crustaceans and create visual barriers between bottom-feeding and surface-feeding fish which can lead to a more harmonious community tank.

Caves and refuge holes

There are a lot of different products out there from natural rocks to resin novelty items that utilise a cave structure to provide some important shelter. In some cases, including lots of tiny caves, filled with substrate and gravel can prompt some very interesting behaviours. For example, kribensis cichlids need a suitable nesting site before they show any signs of breeding. This usually involves a cave area that they can excavate as a pair and begin laying their eggs. Once the fry hatch, the new homeowners exhibit remarkable parenting skills that are only possible with the inclusion of a cave.