The Quill - Edition One

A COLLECTION OF ACADEMIC ESSAYS FROM YEARS 9-12 | EDITION ONE

CONTENTS

3 Introduction

4 Can time travel ever be possible? - Comet P

6 Is it ok to clone a human being? - Chloe W

8 Should we fear super intelligent machines?Jasper S

10 Could a country disappear? - Harry M

13 In a growing world, how will we manage to feed a growing population? - Margo C

16 What is nanotechnology and how important is its application in medicine? - Elsie T

19 Evaluate the economic impact of the Labour Party’s proposal to put VAT on private school fees. - Daniel F

22 To what extent has exposure to microplastics had an impact on human health: does plastic make us sick? - Esme B

29 The effect of nature on improving the mental health of students - Ella B

36 Could a country disappear? - Zac H

38 Is it ok to clone a human being? - Thomas M

40 Is waste generation inevitable, or is human kind failing to see opportunity in what we consider ‘waste’? - Toby R

47 Could a country disappear? - Zoravar R

50 How will AI generated art affect the future of the concept art industry within the games industry? - Tristan C

BE GREEN, LOOK AT IT ON THE SCREEN

As part of our continued commitment to the environment, The Quill is available to read in digital format. Please scan this QR code to view online.

(NOT PICTURED: HARRY M)

INTRODUCTION

Huw Jones

Senior School deputy head academic

There are so many critical questions facing society and civilisation in the modern world today, from environmental sustainability to the pressures of conflict and terrorism. In this inaugural edition of The Quill pupils and students from across the school have attempted to offer views, arguments, and evidence in response to some of the most testing academic issues facing us all. The result is an exciting range of carefully written and persuasively argued essays and articles that not only showcase our pupils’ and students’ significant powers of reason, rhetoric, and investigation but also their commitment to the development and progress of society more broadly. In an age of social media, AI and ChatGPT it is so exciting to see that there are still students who are willing to commit to the patient but critical work of reading for research, crafting a nuanced argument and who are willing to assess the credibility of their resources. I hope all the pupils and students featured in this edition are quite rightly very proud of the excellent work they have crafted.

Aimee Coombs

Head of the Joyce Grenfell programme

The contents of this booklet show that our students and pupils are full of curiosity about the world, presenting creative, independent ideas in response to the big, challenging questions of our time. As you read the essays, I hope you are struck, as I have been, by the range of topics chosen, the quality of the research that has been conducted, and the clear sense of passionate young people expressing ideas of their own. I hope that everyone who reads this booklet, whether you are a student, pupil or parent, or are visiting Claremont to find out more about the school, catches the vision of our essayists. If any of the pieces provoke thought, debate, or perhaps even a new passion in one of our readers, then we have fulfilled our aims. You may also want to have a look at the broader Joyce Grenfell academic enrichment programme, of which this booklet forms part of. Whether you are interested in the enrichment trips and events we run, the speakers we invite into school, or the many further opportunities we provide for pupils to develop their own interests, there really is something for everyone.

At Claremont, we are embracing the future of Artificial Intelligence. As you will see, throughout this booklet, we used the innovative capabilities of Adobe Firefly, a cutting-edge generative AI tool, to craft the supplied artwork. Leveraging the advanced algorithms and creative potential of Firefly, we seamlessly generated visually striking elements that flow well with each pupils essay.

CAN TIME TRAVEL EVER BE POSSIBLE?

By Comet P - Year 9

Doctor Who and the TARDIS, Back To The Future’s Car, Hermione Granger with her time-turner, these are all examples of time travel in pop culture. However, the big question on everyone’s mind is “Could this ever be possible in real life?” In this essay, I will be answering this question using the theories of Albert Einstein, Stephen Hawking, and Nathan Rosen.

In 1905 Albert Einstein published his theory of special relativity which was the debut of his famous equation E = mc^2. This equation states how the speed of light defines the relationship between mass and energy, and how large amounts of energy can be interchangeable with small amounts of mass. E = mc^2 directly translates to “energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared”. This means that energy and mass are just different forms of the same thing. However, it’s not that easy to turn mass to energy and vice versa as the speed of light is already massive and as we are required to square that massive number you can see how very little mass is equal to huge amounts of energy. If you could manage to turn all of the atoms in a paperclip into pure energy, then that paper clip would contain the equivalent energy to the bomb that destroyed Hiroshima in 1945. This theory is called “special” for a reason as it is mainly used when discussing ultra-fast speeds, giant quantities of energy and astronomical distances without including the complications of gravity. (a subject which Einstein added to his theories in 1915 with his paper on general relativity.)

As an object reaches the speed of light, the object’s mass becomes infinite and therefore so does the quantity of energy required to move said object. This means that it is impossible for any matter to travel faster than the speed of light, creating a universal speed limit.

One of the implications of Einstein’s theory is that time is relative to the observer. This expresses that when an object is in motion it experiences time slower than when at rest, although, in order to just lose a second, the object would have to be traveling at 100 times the speed of a bullet for 4 days. This is called time dilation.

A number of experiments have been done to prove that time dilation exists, including one experiment using two atomic clocks. One of the clocks was left on a single spot on the ground and the other was put on an aeroplane under the name of Mr Clock and flown around the world twice. Afterwards, it was found that slightly more time had passed for the clock on the ground, proving that time dilation does exist. Therefore, if you were to take advantage of time dilation and were able to invent a spaceship that could travel at speeds approaching the speed of light, then you would be able to time travel years in months and months in weeks. Although, you are also technically time traveling as you do day to day things, such as walk to the shops or drive to school, just on an infinitesimal level.

You could also time travel into the future using blackholes. Blackholes are the product of massive stars exploding in a supernova. This supernova releases so much mass that the fabric of space-time falls endlessly downwards, creating a sort of trapdoor in the universe, called a blackhole. These blackholes have extremely strong gravitational fields (so strong that even light becomes forced into the orbit) as they have so much mass. This means that anything that orbits the blackhole would be travelling at 90% of the speed of light at the slowest. This is where time dilation once again comes into play, as all the matter moving at 90% of the speed of light would experience time a lot slower than the rest of the universe. This means that if you went into the orbit of a blackhole you could easily time travel. However, there are big risks to this, as if you got sucked into the blackhole there would be no escape, as any

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E = mc^2 states how the speed of light defines the relationship between mass and energy, and how large amounts of energy can be interchangeable with small amounts of mass.

forward direction you tried to travel would bring you closer to the centre of the blackhole and closer to certain death. In smaller blackholes, you would also experience something called spaghettification as the gravity of the blackhole pulls your feet in first and the fabric of space-time becomes so narrow that your body is stretched until you become nothing but a stream of plasma.

So, we time travel forwards all the time and, with more advanced technology or the risky use of blackholes we could be able to travel years ahead of our friends and family, but, could you travel back into the past?

Well, in his book ‘Blackholes and Baby Universes’ Stephen Hawking said “The best evidence we have that time travel [to the past] is not possible, and never will be, is that we have not been invaded by hordes of tourists from the future.” In 2009 Stephen Hawking did an experiment to try and prove this. He hosted a party, however, although it had balloons, drinks and food, it was not an ordinary party. This was a time traveller’s party. What Hawking did to achieve this was to only invite people after the party had taken place. No one ever showed up to Stephen Hawking’s party, showing how time travel into the past probably is not possible.

However, Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen also had a theory that could (theoretically) allow time travel into the past. This theory was about a type of wormhole called an Einstein-Rosen Bridge. In order to visualize a wormhole, first get a piece of paper and pencil, draw two dots, one on each side of the page, and then connect them up with a line. Next, bend your paper so the dots sit on top of each other and stab a pencil through them. Now, you can clearly see that the line drawn on the page is a lot longer than going through the two holes in the page. This is the idea of a wormhole, a bend in spacetime with two holes connected together so that you could go through to get to the other side a lot faster than going the normal way. Einstein-Rosen Bridges are completely allowed by the current understanding of general relativity, however, despite this, there is no evidence that they exist.

With this in mind, let’s assume that the lack of definitive proof from our little corner of the universe

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does not entirely rule out the possibility of these Einstein-Rosen Bridges. Well, scientists are quite sure that if they exist these wormholes would be very small, which makes the idea of travelling through them challenging to say the least. If someone were to try and create a wormhole big enough for a human person to travel through then they would need to discover a type of particle with both negative energy and negative mass. Such particles have only ever been theorised about. Then, they would need to create a massive blackhole and an equal sized counterpart made up of those theorised negative particles.

Now, this is all very theoretical, but say it was successfully done? If one of the ends of the EinsteinRosen Bridge was near Earth and necessarily stable, and the other end travels at light speed through space, then, it would be possible to go through the moving end and come out of the stable end at a completely different time. This would mean that if an Einstein-Rosen Bridge was created in 1960 and you were to enter the moving end today, in 2023, you could leave the wormhole just a few years after it was created, due to previously mentioned, time dilation. This would also answer as to why we don’t see time travellers all the time, as we would first need to make an Einstein-Rosen Bridge now in order for people in the future to travel back into our time. Although, this does not work in reverse and you cannot travel back through the wormhole to the time you came from, you would need a different method for that. In conclusion, it would be very possible to time travel into the future if we were able to create a super-fast, near light speed space ship, or if we could successfully orbit a blackhole. And, very theoretically it could be possible to travel into the past, but only if we were to make the wormhole today, and wait a couple of years. What do you think? Could we time travel? Should we time travel? And, if given the opportunity, where and when would you go?

IS IT OK TO CLONE A HUMAN BEING?

By Chloe W - Year 9

The definition of a clone was originally the offspring from asexual reproduction of any plant, more recently the definition has been changed to add, that cloning is also the asexual, artificial reproduction of an organism. At the rate that science is advancing and improving currently, it is perfectly possible that in the next few decades we will be able to clone human beings. This is a huge milestone in the journey of science however the real question, and the one I will be exploring in this essay is, ‘Is it ok to clone a human being?’

Some people believe that cloning is the right answer, because cloning could control and get rid of unwanted infections (like coronavirus) and genetic diseases (like down syndrome). By cloning someone who has a natural built-in immunity to an infection, you could create a large race of people who are all immune to that disease or virus, this is one of many ways that cloning could help medically. Cloning could permanently get rid of many genetic diseases - conditions where parents have passed down copies of defective genes. By finding gametes (eggs/sperm) that are unaffected by the gene and using these to make a copy (clone). If we tested different people’s genetic information, then we could clone those people without the defective genes, this would mean that the population without the defective gene would decrease, until eventually the genes became non-existent. Alternatively, if a patient needed a blood transfusion but their blood type was extremely rare, you could have a clone of the patient to donate blood of the same type. Cloning human beings does not need to only mean cloning the entire human being, if an organ transplant was needed, without cloning a whole person you could just clone a particular organ or a particular part of that organ, then it would be a perfect match.

In conclusion, cloning could be positive when used to cure medical diseases and help patients struggling with things like organ transplants, blood donation and genetic diseases.

Not everyone thinks that cloning is such a good thing. One possible issue is that it creates less genetic biodiversity. Organisms with greater differences in their community are at a greater likelihood to be able to adapt to any challenges. For example, a new disease could be introduced by an animal, and because everyone is so similar genetically, it might make developing immunity very difficult. It could even wipe out the entire population of humans, and our race would become extinct. However, this could only happen if all humans on the planet had exactly the same DNA (clones). Another example showing how cloning could endanger our species, is Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, (Natural Selection). The theory states that through changes and mistakes in organism’s DNA, the organism could develop characteristics that would help it become better adapted to its environment. Especially when a change occurs in the environment it inhabits that could risk extinction of its species. For example, when a meteor came down approximately 165 million years ago, the dinosaurs became extinct. The most likely explanation was that because so much dust was thrown up, the sunlight was blocked out, therefore plants could not perform photosynthesis to make glucose to respire, and therefore they couldn’t survive. The dinosaurs then became extinct too from lack of food. If cloning was introduced there would be no change and less mistakes in DNA. There would be a risk that as a species we could not evolve to a change in the case of extreme climate change, a new disease or a new predator. This is part of the reason that humans mate and reproduce sexually, so that there is variation between offspring because there are two sets of genes to choose from.

On the other hand, cloning can, in a process called therapeutic cloning – also known as somatic cell nuclear transfer, create independent fertilised embryo cells. This is using an egg nucleus from a donor which is injected into an egg cell (without the nucleus) of an individual who is unable to have a child. This can be used to enable people who cannot have children naturally to conceive a child. The new cell is less likely to be rejected after being placed back inside the donor. This is different to infertility treatment currently available, where an egg and a sperm are mixed outside the womb then returned once fertilisation has happened. Embryo cells divide into stem cells (which are cells that can become any type of cell), they are identical to the donor’s cells, a clone. It is thought that these embryos could possess an advantage against embryos that are naturally grown, as well as being used to treat infertility they could be used to help research as stem cells could be used to create cell lines of any type of cell. They could study the cell or use these cells to study responses to disease.

Notwithstanding the positives of cloning, unfortunately clones created to date have a very low survival rate, as there have been many abnormalities that endanger them. For example, most cloned embryos die before they reach birth. Dolly the sheep, who was the first ever cloned sheep died in 2003, at the age of seven, the average life expectancy for a sheep is actually ten to twelve years. So, she didn’t live nearly as long as a

normal sheep would be expected to. In another example scientists have noted that a cloned animal’s liver is a lot smaller and less healthy than that which is usually seen in an ordinary animal. Sometimes abnormality occurs in the brain and heart as well as the liver, a larger birth size and problems with the immune system have also been noticed. There has never been a successful clone of a human being as the clone has never survived.

In conclusion, I believe that cloning can be ok, it depends on the circumstances, it is hard to deny that it could have a positive effect in the case of fighting infection, genetic diseases and treating infertility. I personally believe that cloning could be used to cure diseases and make organs and blood to donate, as well as creating children for infertile individuals, but I think it should be used sparingly. It should only be used if there is no other resort meaning that unless a clone is used the patient in question will die. We must closely monitor this to protect the human race. I do not believe that cloning should ever be used too often, as if our climate changes or a new disease is introduced we could be at risk of extinction. The scope to misuse cloning for example to create a “more intelligent or master race” is too great to allow us to take the risk. There should be no more strengthening the human race either, as we are already the most prominent predators and the most powerful in the animal kingdom.

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Cloning human beings does not need to only mean cloning the entire human being; if an organ transplant was needed, without cloning a whole person you could just clone a particular organ or a particular part of that organ, then it would be a perfect match.

Bibliography

https://study.com/learn/lesson/human-cloning-pros-cons.html

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-24903-7_8

https://journals.lww.com/joms/Fulltext/2020/40030/Ethical_Issues_of_uman_Cloning.1.aspx https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p011ms3r

https://archive.bio.org/articles/value-therapeutic-cloning-patients

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117#:~:text=Some%20researchers%20believe%20that%20stem,exactly%20how%20a%20disease%20develops.

SHOULD WE FEAR SUPER INTELLIGENT MACHINES?

By Jasper S - Year 12

‘Artificial intelligence’ - as scientists warn of the risks of AI, should we fear super intelligent machines?

With recent success in new artificial intelligence technologies and new applications, it is seeing an increase in people’s interest. From this interest many people have had fears about how AI could impact society in the future. These fears include, the AIs replacing people’s jobs and them developing fast enough, such that we lose control over them. However, I think that most of these fears are ridiculous. We should not fear super intelligent machines. This is because of the limitations in creating AIs and the current stages AIs are at.

For a self-learning AI to become smarter it requires the right kinds of problems to solve. To make a simple AI, we create an algorithm that will solve one specific problem. To increase its intelligence, we must continuously give it more complex and varied challenges, otherwise it will not develop new algorithms to solve these problems and discard old algorithms that can be improved. This means that an AI will never grow in its intelligence without us forcing it to grow. For example, facial recognition systems are a specialised form of AI designed to solve a specific problem, recognising faces. If this system was adjusted so that the simple AI could modify itself, it would never increase its intelligence without being given new and more complex challenges. So, without an urgent need, having more intelligent AIs would be a waste of time and effort. Additionally, for a super intelligent machine to be made that we should fear means that someone must have wanted and trained that AI for that purpose. Therefore, we should not fear the super intelligent machines, but the people making the machines dangerous.

Furthermore, each AI is designed for a specific problem. This is because of the “No Free Lunch Theorem”, which tells us that there is no algorithm for all problems that will outperform an algorithm for a specific problem. This means if we want the most efficient intelligence then we will need a new algorithm for each prob-

lem. Also, we have Rice’s Theorem which tells us that it is impossible for one algorithm to debug another algorithm perfectly, which means that a self-learning AI can never tell if what it has changed has worked without verifiable testing. This means that for smarter AIs we would need new algorithms for each problem that is faced. This is a big problem in AI research as time is spent figuring out which AI structures or algorithms solve which problems. This is important as the structure used can drastically change the computational power needed and efficiency of the algorithm. This is shown in biology, as in the brain there are lots of different structures for different purposes and not one big structure for all purposes. Therefore, to design a super intelligent AI we need to try and test different methods for each algorithm that the AI uses. Taking a tremendous amount of time and resources. With ever increasing computer processor speeds you might think that these challenges in creating AIs can be overcome by brute forcing them. As the speed of computer processors has been doubling approximately every 18 months for decades, this might have been eventually possible. However, this is not the case due to having to test the AIs. Due to AIs being unpredictable, because they are so complex and sometimes using randomness in their algorithms, there is no general way to test if the AI will always be correct. Also, as an AIs capabilities increase the number of possible outcomes from its inputs increase exponentially. This means that the amount of testing has to increase exponentially as well because we do not know if the AI will be accurate for all the different possible inputs. This becomes very important in safety-critical systems, like in self-driving cars, as there are lots of different inputs and the AI has to always be correct. Furthermore, as the machine becomes more complex every small change to its design has the potential to remove all of its existing capabilities. So, even more testing has to be done. Overall, testing can cause the development of an AI to be really slow, drastically reducing the chances of a super intelligent AI from being created at any point in the new future. Additionally, the rate that computer processor speeds have been increasing has decreased in recent years due to the limitations of cooling the processors. But this has been circumvented by just increasing the number of processors working in unison on a specific task. This would just make training and testing a super intelligent machine more expensive and time consuming, while creating practical limitations to how far artificial intelligence can go. As the methods of creating AIs slowly improve, can we ever expect a super intelligent machine? Currently we do not know if a machine can ever become smarter than a human. In recent years AI development has been highly successful, especially for specific tasks. However, an artificial general intelligence - a machine that is considered smarter than humans for all problems humans typically encounter - has been extremely slow, with

Our destiny will decide on what the machine’s goals are, which are impossible to predict due to the complexity of the machine.

progress being almost nothing. So a super intelligent machine is very likely not plausible. However, if we assume a machine smarter than humans is somehow created what will it do and will it be something to worry about? In such a scenario humans will likely no longer be in control and our destiny would be decided from what the super intelligent AI decides to do. Similarly, to how the destiny of chimpanzees is dependent on human decisions and not chimpanzee decisions. So, our destiny will decide on what the machine’s goals are, which are impossible to predict due to the complexity of the machine. The instrumental convergence thesis states that there are a number of instrumental goals the AI can be expected to have in order for an ultimate goal it may have. These instrumental goals may include, not being turned off, improving its own software and hardware, preservation of its ultimate goal and if it is misaligned with human values then making sure its own existence is not known to humans for self-preservation.

My previous points have mainly been discussing the limitations of creating super intelligent AIs and how difficult it is for them to be made. This is important as it means that the fears of AI bringing humanity to an end, commonly shown in science fiction movies, will very likely never happen. With the current state of AI these fears seem impossible as the most notable achievements of AI are self-driving cars, chatbots and surpassing human performance in many games, such as chess and go. However, the current state of AI is already enough to bring a variety of issues that have yet to be solved. An example of this is who holds the rights for AI generated material. Is it the person who used the AI, the owners of the material used to train the AI or no one? Each can have compelling arguments for their side but eventually a line has to be drawn somewhere. Other examples include, bias and discrimination from biased training data, loss of jobs, lack of accountability when they go wrong. Most of these examples can be mitigated from government regulations and laws when they catch up to the upcoming technology along with ensuring it is developed and used in a safe and responsible manner.

On the other hand, AI is able to bring a wide variety of benefits to society. These can include weather predictions, medical diagnostics and increasing efficiency and productivity. In fact, the technology is already commonly used in modern applications such as search engines, voice recognition and spam filtering. Furthermore, AI’s importance lies largely in the fact that it can

scale up the performance of intelligent tasks. In addition, powerful AIs can be given nearly any goal, which is both a risk and a benefit, allowing for repetitive and difficult problems to be solved by AIs without human interaction. In the long-term AIs can exceed human performance in specific tasks. At first thought, this may appear to only replace people’s jobs, but this will also create jobs in terms of AI developing, testing and monitoring, to ensure that AI systems achieve the goals we want them to. For AI to have a positive impact on society AI needs to be successfully controlled together with political challenges. In conclusion, I think that the possibility of a super intelligent AI is incredibly improbable and not something to fear. This is mainly because of the difficulty in creating intelligent AIs and the limitations of AI. In addition, the progress towards an artificial general intelligence is equivalent to nothing. So, I think the chance of one being created is next to nothing. On the other hand, I think that AIs with a singular purpose are able to bring a wide variety of benefits and risks in the future and should be regulated and controlled in a responsible manner before things are able to get out of control.

COULD A COUNTRY DISAPPEAR?

By Harry M - Year 10

Have you ever wondered if the UK could disappear? Have you ever thought about what the effect of rising sea levels could have on low-lying countries? While these might seem like obvious questions to explore to find out whether or not a country could disappear, I am of the opinion that the actual answer to this question requires more depth. I will feature three case studies of countries that have, are about to, or could disappear in order to present a well-rounded response, followed by the views of others and finally my own view.

To first see if a country could disappear, the definition of a country should be examined. In 1933 Franklin D. Roosevelt and the leaders of all other sovereign American countries met in Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, and signed the ‘Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States’, which is seen by many as the first declaration of what defines a country [1]. The convention states that a country has to have: a permanent population; a defined territory and government [2]. This definition will be applied to all case studies to prove that each example is a country. However, it can also be used to determine if a country has disappeared. If none of these factors are present, then it can be safely assumed that a country has ‘disappeared’.

Firstly, to answer the question- ‘could a country disappear’, I’ll examine a country that has arguably disappeared- Ancient Egypt. The Ancient Egyptian civilisation began in 3100 BCE Nile [3] and stopped existing for cartographers in 30 BCE when Cleopatra was defeated and the Kingdom was annexed by the Romans. Whilst this fulfils the aforementioned criteria of when a country has ‘disappeared’- its population was now Roman, its territory was a part of the Roman Empire, it was governed from Rome [4] - the Ancient Egyptian people, culture and society still existed, only now ruled over by Romans. It is then quite easy to argue that the country of Egypt still existed- whilst its territorial jurisdiction was gone its society was not. The Montevideo Convention then arguably overlooks one of the most important aspects of what defines a country: its people, culture and society. Ancient Egypt still disappeared, yet its cultural disappearance happened a lot longer after annex-

ation. In addition to this then, the main components of a country could also be a shared culture, language and religion [5]. Returning to Egypt, I will now examine its disappearance in relation to these factors as well. The Ancient Egyptian culture was deeply entwined with its religion and language. The Ancient Egyptians were polytheistic and worship towards the Gods dictated how they lived their everyday lives, with worship being written in hieroglyphs [6] [7]. Ancient Egypt as a country has disappeared due to the loss of these defining cultural features; the first blow to Ancient Egyptian society was the introduction of Christianity by the Greek Romans which replaced its classical religion, and greatly changed society [8]. Ancient Egyptians gradually became more Hellenised, still retaining parts of their old culture, such as the language spoken, Coptic, being a mixture of Greek and Egyptian [9]. The final blow to what was left of Egyptian society came in the form of the Muslim Arab invasion of 639 AD [10]. The Egyptian populace were slowly replaced and assimilated with Arab settlers, Arabic became the dominant language and Islam the dominant religion. It can be argued then, that with the Arab conquest, the last vestiges of Ancient Egyptian society were vanquished, and their country; society and culture had disappeared. Yet the Arabs today who inhabit Egypt call themselves Egyptian, which raises the question of whether today’s Egypt is merely a continuation of an ancient legacy, or a new country entirely?

A more modern example of a country disappearing is Tuvalu; a tiny island nation located in the Pacific. The total land area of Tuvalu is only 26km, making it the 192nd smallest country in the world [11]. However, rising sea levels mean that the whole of Tuvalu is predicted to be completely underwater by the end of this century [12], with forty percent of its capital city, Funafuti, already being fully submerged by the sea at high tide [13]. If Tuvalu does end up submerged by the end of the 21st century, it can be safely said that the country has ‘disappeared’- its population would have long since left, and its defined territory would be under the ocean. However, whilst the physical land mass of Tuvalu would have disappeared, its current Prime Minister, Kausea Natano, has devised a plan to prevent the nation from disappearing entirely. Natano plans to recreate his entire country in the Metaverse, an online simulation, so that it can be preserved. The foreign minister of Tuvalu, Simon Kofe, stated “Islands like this one won’t survive rising sea levels. So we’ll recreate them virtually. Piece by piece we’ll preserve our country, provide solace to our people and remind our children and our grandchildren what our home once was” [14]. Whilst the physical nation of Tuvalu will be gone, its people will still live on, and its culture will be preserved, so can it be argued that the country would even disappear at all?

China has made no secret that it will use any means necessary to retake Taiwan, and it is only the protection of the US navy that has prevented this. It is also no secret that President Xi sees the residents of Taiwan as Chinese, and thus the US and Taiwan are both certain it is likely that if China does take over the island it will go to extreme lengths to erase the newly formed national identity, just as they are doing with the Muslim Uyghurs in East Turkestan.

The final case study is a country that is at high risk of disappearing, yet is also quite controversial: Taiwan. Taiwan is an island nation located in the Pacific and has its seat of government in the city of Taipei [15]. Taiwan became a separate entity from China during the Chinese Civil War, when the nationalist, western supported, Republic of China was losing and forced to escape to Taiwan, as mainland China was overrun by the communist, USSR supported, People’s Republic of China [16].

As a result, both sides claim the territory of the other, however in recent years Taiwan has begun the process of dropping its claims, as return to the mainland seems

increasingly unlikely. This is also a consequence of a ‘Taiwanese’ identity emerging, one notably distinct from the previous Chinese one. Over 90% of the island’s residents identify as exclusively Taiwanese, a massive change from the non-existent identity present 70 years ago. [17] So, whilst it seems as though a political divide has led to the birth of a new nation, it may also be leading to the death of the nation. China has made no secret that it will use any means necessary to retake the island, and it is only the protection of the US navy that has prevented this. It is also no secret that President Xi sees the residents of Taiwan as Chinese, and thus the US and Taiwan are both certain it is likely that if China does take over the island it will go to extreme lengths to erase the newly formed national identity, just as they are doing with the Muslim Uyghurs in East Turkestan [18]. So, whilst the Taiwanese identity exists at the moment, and by extension the nation of Taiwan also exists, it is extremely likely that if China were to ever to take over the island, the full re-absorption of it back into China proper would be a top priority, and thus it could be safely argued that the country of Taiwan would have ‘disappeared’. However, this does raise the question, how hard is it to erase a national identity?

Before I give my own opinion to the questions I put forth at the end of each case study, I will first examine the views of others on this subject. When attempting to research other views on countries disappearing, the online discussion was almost exclusively centred around countries disappearing due to climate change. Professor Mueller of Oxford University believes that ‘it’s possible for countries to disappear, both economically and literally, due to climate change.’ [19] In fact the consensus generally seemed to be that a country could quite easily ‘disappear’, and according to NDTV World news there are forty-two countries at risk of sinking below sea level [20].

However, the argument is far more nuanced than this. I will begin with re-examining the case studies. To begin with, as previously proven, most aspects of Ancient Egyptian society are beyond a doubt, gone. Yet vestiges remain- the Copts still exist and make up around 10% of modern Egypt’s population [21]. The Copts may be Christian, yet the Coptic Orthodox Church does link some of its practices to the ancient rituals of the Egyptians. Even the Arab population of Egypt sees themselves as not a new people in an old land but the successors to an ancient legacy. It is additionally hard to argue that Tuvalu will ‘disappear’ since even the sinking of the island will not be enough to kill the nation whose people would still

REFERENCE

live on, and have ensured that their home remains safe in the metaverse for future generations to enjoy. Even in Taiwan, a country that still struggles to be recognised as independent, a strong sense of nationalism exists, something that China would struggle to eraseespecially with the two million Taiwanese in diaspora who would continue to bear the legacy of their country [22]. So, to conclude, whilst a country could disappear in the physical sense, it could never disappear in the cultural sense. This is since the continuation of such countries is ensured through the one key trait that has allowed human life to exist on the planet for so long: the key trait of evolution.

1. http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/countries/country_definition.html#:~:text=(a)%20a%20permanent%20population%3B,countries%20don’t%20recognize%20it.

2. https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/01/1-02/rights-duties-states.xml

3. https://www.worldhistory.org/Narmer/

4. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zg87xnb/articles/zqykkty#:~:text=In%20332BC%20Alexander%20the%20 Great,part%20of%20the%20Roman%20Empire.

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism#:~:text=It%20further%20aims%20to%20build,promote%20national%20 unity%20or%20solidarity.

6. https://museumsandgalleries.leeds.gov.uk/featured/ancient-egyptian-spirituality/#:~:text=The%20Ancient%20Egyptians%20were%20polytheistic,their%20beliefs%20about%20the%20afterlife.

7. https://nelc.uchicago.edu/language-study/ancient-egyptian-language-program#:~:text=Ancient%20Egyptian%20 is%20considered%20to,like%20English%2C%20French%20and%20German.

8. https://brill.com/view/journals/nu/68/2-3/article-p180_4.xml?language=en

9. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25017472

10. https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/From-the-Islamic-conquest-to-1250

11. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16340072

12. https://www.euronews.com/next/2022/11/23/tuvalu-is-recreating-itself-in-the-metaverse-as-climate-change-threatens-to-wipe-it-off-th

13. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/tuvalu-sinking-pacific-fears-becoming-superpower-pawn-2022-05-13/

14. https://www.euronews.com/next/2022/11/23/tuvalu-is-recreating-itself-in-the-metaverse-as-climate-change-threatens-to-wipe-it-off-th

15. https://www.britannica.com/place/Taiwan

16. https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/content_3.php

17. https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2021/08/11/2003762406

18. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-xinjiang-uyghurs-muslims-repression-genocide-human-rights

19. https://oxplore.org/question-detail/could_a_country_disappear

20. https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/42-small-countries-could-disappear-without-action-on-climate-change-2574728

21. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/copts/

22. https://taiwaninsight.org/2022/07/27/the-taiwanese-diaspora-in-berlin-and-covid-19/

IN A GROWING WORLD, HOW WILL WE MANAGE TO FEED A GROWING POPULATION?

By Margo C - Year 12

At the moment the world’s population is growing by over 200,000 people a day according to The World Counts (Population clock). At this current rate, it is estimated that by 2050 the world’s population will be 9.7 billion (predicted by the United Nations). In addition, after steadily declining for a decade, world hunger is also on the rise, affecting nearly 10% of people globally in 2022. From 2019 to 2022, the number of undernourished people grew by as many as 150 million, a crisis driven largely by conflict, climate change, the growing population and the COVID-19 pandemic. These four factors working together are creating fear for future generations with the increased risk of food insecurity for a larger percentage of the population. With a growing population and a large number of people already experiencing food insecurity, many people are questioning how we going to feed the world. To keep up with this remarkable growth the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), anticipate that by 2050 we will need to produce 60% more food to feed a world population of 9.7 billion. So, the real question is how are we going to do this? And is it possible with the resources that we have on Earth?

Seemingly the most sustainable method at the moment to feed our growing population would just be to decrease the amount of food wasted. Over one-third of food produced for human consumption is wasted. If this food was economised two billion more people a year would be fed. In summary without any change to our agricultural processes two billion more people a year would be sufficiently fed. To manage to feed our growing population this looks like the best start, using

what we are already producing. This wouldn’t put any more strain on earth’s natural resources so would be the most sustainable method for now. According to the World Food Program (WFP) “In developing countries, 40 per cent of losses occur at post-harvest and processing levels.” During transport, due to overproduction and unstable markets food is often lost long before it arrives in a supermarket. Other problems include overbuying, poor planning and confusion over labels and food safety. Which contribute to food waste at supermarkets and in homes. “Consumers in rich countries waste almost as much food as the entire net food production of sub-Saharan Africa each year.” (WFP). Obviously, we will reach a stage in the near future where simply not wasting food won’t be enough to sustain the growing population and we will have to produce more food. However, at this stage where food that could feed two billion people is wasted seems like the obvious place to start.

In a growing world, another method to help manage to feed our growing population would be to shift the majority of world diets to more plant-based foods. Agriculture takes up half of the worlds habitable land. Livestock use up most of this land as the animals need land to graze on and land to produce crops for them, such as cereals, maize and soy. Almost 80% of agricultural land is used for meat and dairy production. According to Our World in Data “If everyone shifted to a plant-based diet we would reduce global land use for agriculture by 75%. This large reduction of agricultural land use would be possible thanks to a reduction in land used for grazing and a smaller need for land to grow crops”. It takes almost 100 times as much land to produce a kilocalorie of beef or lamb versus plant-based alternatives such as peas or tofu. Data from Our World in Data suggests that if the entire world adopted a vegan diet then the worlds agricultural land would shrink from 4.1. billion hectares to 1 billion hectares. This reduction of 75% would create room for more plant-based food to be produced. Hypothetically managing to keep up with the growing population. Oxford Martin School researchers proposed that 8 million lives could be saved by 2050 if global diets relied less on meat. If this scheme was translated worldwide it doesn’t seem unreasonable that the growing world population could be sustained this way. Logistically it proposes a bit of a challenge. How cooperative would the world be to changing their diets to plant based? Especially in some developed countries such as the USA who consume a lot of meat. In 2018 they consumed 99.3kgs per capita. The average per capita meat consumption per person in the world that year was 38.7 kilograms. Only 10% of Americans don’t eat meat, it would be a challenge to get 90% of the population to completely change their diet. This is also similar in a large percentage of developed countries. Even having one less meat meal a week would have a significant impact on the amount of agricultural land that is needed to be used in meat production. Switching to a plant-

based diet would be better for health within people, the world and the climate. It would be more manageable and efficient to feed the growing world’s population this way. However, it would require worldwide cooperation which could be difficult to achieve.

In order to feed our growing population another proposed idea is to use the seas to produce more food. The sea covers 71% of the earth’s surface but only produces 17% of the food we eat. Fish currently accounts for about a fifth of the animal protein consumed by humans. U.N. food experts predict that the oceans could provide more than two thirds of the animal protein humans consume in the future. Mass-producing food from the ocean usually has a lower impact on the climate than land-based agriculture. Food from the sea can have far fewer biodiversity impacts and a lower carbon footprint than food from land if done so responsibly. It also isn’t as limited by the land and water constraints as land agriculture. In order to increase the food produced to feed our growing population, fishing needs to be done in a sustainable way. There are many benefits to fish, they reproduce quicker than most land animals, they contain fats, oils and vitamins that you can’t find in land animals and they require less time and effort to produce. These are all traits that make them advantageous towards feeding a larger population. However, fishing has not been done sustainably up to this point. Lack of regulations concerning wild fishing has resulted in depleted populations. Lack of investment into fish farms has led to infection and low standard of quality fish produced. If the world was going to invest in fishing industry to feed the future it would need to be done in a more sustainable way. Either in fish farms or wild fishing. Overfishing can be reduced by getting rid of the $35 billion in annual global fisheries subsidies. These harmful subsidies can increase fishing capacity by reducing costs, which heightens the risk of overfishing. Eliminating illegal and unreported fishing could also save an estimated 11 to 26 million tons of fish. Aquaculture can include the use of algae, seaweed, or oil seeds-based fish foods rather than relying on small fish to feed larger ones like salmon.

These are all more sustainable methods of increasing the usage of the sea to feed the growing population. In 2016, fisheries yielded 171 million tons of fish for consumption. By 2030, that number is expected to reach 201 million tons. If invested correctly (no cut corners) farmers should have more control of the quality of their stock making it a quick and effective way of producing a high protein source of food for the world.

New farming initiatives such as vertical farming and genetically modified crops may be the way to sustain our growing population. “Vertical farming is the practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers. It often incorporates controlled-environment agriculture, which aims to optimize plant growth, and soil-less farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics.” (Wikipedia). Vertical farming helps to increase the number of crops that can be grown in any given space. There are a few limitations to vertical farming such as the food that can actually be grown. Certain crops that require a lot of space to grow or that are particularly heavy such as potatoes struggle to grow in these conditions. According to Future Food Finance vertical farming has the potential to produce over 350x more food per square yard than a traditional farm, thanks to faster growth cycles and quicker harvests. The controlled environment in vertical farms creates the perfect atmosphere for growth, speeding up the growth cycles and harvests. This will help to feed our growing population as at its average productivity it yields 400x more per sqm and is 30x more water efficient. Food can be produced in what would otherwise be wasted space e.g. an Old WW2 shelter in Clapham is used for vertical farming. This brings food production closer to consumption hubs reducing transport. There can also be multiple crop productions across climate and seasons which increases food security. Genetically modified vegetables may also be the way forward, they can increase the crop yield and can also be engineered to become pest-resistant. This in turn helps local farmers better withstand environmental challenges that might otherwise wipe out a whole season of produce. Golden Rice is a genetically modified rice crop “that has been developed to have an enhanced amount of beta-caro

With a growing population and a large number of people already experiencing food insecurity, many people are questioning how we are going to feed the world.

tene (pro-vitamin A), a necessary and often not easily available micronutrient in different parts of the world, like the Philippines. Extreme vitamin A deficiency can lead to blindness and other health complications.” Another GMO crop that could help to feed future populations is Cavendish bananas. In parts of Africa, Asia and Australia bananas are a major source of nutrition but they became threatened due to Panama disease. Bananas in these parts of the world were beginning to get wiped out so scientists genetically modified the bananas to make them resistant to this disease. This is important as in order to feed a larger population food sources have to be reliable. GM crops would provide more dependability creating a safer food market. When crops are reliable prices rarely change, negating a bad season or disease that could wipe out crops, which can result in the prices sky rocketing. A stable food market is essential to feed a larger population as more people would go hungry if prices increased. Through the use of GM crops food security should hypothetically increase creating a stable food market and increased production of certain crops. These crops can result in better yields and survive droughts and floods, helping to make sure there is enough food available while also reducing the carbon footprint of agriculture.

Bibliography

In conclusion, I think in this growing world with an estimated population of 9.7 billion in 2050, a range of methods are going to have to be used to manage to feed our population. Some of the methods listed above will undoubtedly be used but they won’t be the only ones. Multiple methods of food production will be essential to grow food for the whole world. To keep up with the immense growth of the world population we will need to adapt diets, waste less food and use new initiatives such as sea farming or vertical farming. All of these practises will be essential but I don’t believe that we can rely on just one. Food security will only be achieved if multiple reliable food production systems are interlinked and used together. Creating food security for that many people will be an immense challenge especially when at the moment the world is struggling with conflict in some regions, recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change and the repercussions of the growing population. But change needs to happen now. To achieve 60% more food production by 2050 the world will need to invest as a globally united unit into sustainable agriculture. However, I do think that this is possible. It would require compromise from many nations and multiple trial and error of new food production methods. But something needs to happen as the food we produce now will not sustain a population of increased size.

https://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/follow-the-food/how-our-food-can-fix-the-planet.html

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/how-to-feed-the-world-without-destroying-the-planet

https://www.actionagainsthunger.org/the-hunger-crisis/world-hunger-facts/

https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-food-oceans-idUSKBN1XT1H9

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019GH000204

https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/environment/2018/08/can-the-ocean-feed-a-growing-world

https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/feeding-the-world/

https://www.futurefoodfinance.com/article/0263_vertical-farming-growing-up?utm_source=rss&utm_campaign=altfi#:~:text=By%20operating%20in%20a%20controlled,growth%20cycles%20and%20quicker%20harvests.

https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/planet-earth/state-of-the-planet/world-population-clock-live

https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2022/01/28/the-biggest-future-trends-in-agriculture-and-food-production/?sh=42ce5bfc107a

https://www.mappr.co/thematic-maps/meat-consumption-by-countries/

https://www.wfp.org/stories/5-facts-about-food-waste-and-hunger

https://ourworldindata.org/land-use-diets

https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2016-03-22-veggie-based-diets-could-save-8-million-lives-2050-and-cut-global-warming https://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/follow-the-food/five-ways-we-can-feed-the-world-in-2050.html

https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-future-of-eating-gm-crops.html

https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2014/nov/19/top-books-feeding-world-food-poverty

WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY AND HOW IMPORTANT IS ITS APPLICATION IN MEDICINE?

By Elsie T - Year 12

The prefix ‘nano’ originates from the Greek word ‘nános’ meaning dwarf. Evidently the term nanotechnology does not involve the technology surrounding dwarfs or garden gnomes, so what does it mean? The national nanotechnology initiative (NNI) in the United States has defined nanotechnology as “science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, where unique phenomena enable novel applications in a wide range of fields, from chemistry, physics and biology to medicine, engineering and electronics”

One nanometer is one billionth of a meter, to put that to scale: one sheet of paper is 100,000 nanometers thick, and if a marble was representative of a nanometre then a meter would be the size of planet earth. However, nanotechnology is not the same as nanoscience although they are very similar : nanoscience is the study of properties and of matter at the nanoscale rather than the practice and application of said science which would be nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology is a fairly new concept even today but the first known concepts of it have been around since the early 1960s even though nanoparticles have been used unconsciously since the 4th century. The publication of ‘There’s plenty of room at the bottom’ by

Richard P. Feynman is considered to be the beginning and ‘father’ of nanotechnology as we know it today. ‘There’s plenty of room at the bottom’ discusses the theory of writing all 24 volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin. Feynman discusses several ways in which he would theoretically be able to execute this, all including an electron microscope in some way (because of the scale he was working with) and addresses the fact that he would have to use individual electrons to create this, so without using the word nanotechnology explicitly ‘there’s plenty of room at the bottom’ refers to writing the entire Encyclopedia Britannica on the nanoscale. Surprisingly he does state that once made it would be very easy to replicate and read through a microscope, so really the only fundamental issue would be making it. After this publication Feynman soon went on to win a Nobel prize 5 years later for his work on quantum mechanics.

However, the earliest use of nanoparticles dates all the way back to the 4th century in a piece of art called the Lycurgus cup. This cup used gold nanoparticles as well as silver and copper nanoparticles to achieve dichroism (two colors) in the cup thus making it able to change color from gold to orange. The Lycurgus cup is recognised as one of the oldest synthetic nanomaterials ever recorded. Later during the 9th-17th centuries, Islamic ceramics were glazed with ‘glittering luster’ later discovered in Europe to have contained either Ag (silver) or Cu (copper) nanoparticles that are now called ‘metallic nanoparticles’. Similar concepts were used in the Renaissance pottery of the 16th century. However the first time to use nanoparticles out of the artistic world was during the 13th to the 18th centuries to produce “Damascus” : a type of saber blade that was reinforced with carbon nanotubes to provide strength and resilience. Carbon nanotubes are created from rolled sheets of graphene (carbon) and improve thermal stability, strength and electrical conductivity of the polymer it is incorporated into. In 1986, two physicists: Binnig and Rocher received a Nobel prize in physics for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). The STM was then used four years later by Don Eigler in Almaden to individually manipulate 35 individual Xe (Xenon) atoms on a surface of Nickel to form the IBM logo. This event is considered the last part of historical nanotechnology before we reach nanotechnology as we know it today.

“ “

Nanotechnology is a fairly new concept even today but the first known concepts of it have been around since the early 1900’s.

‘Nanomedicine’ is the term used to refer to the applications of nanotechnologies in the medical field and healthcare. These technologies can be used to prevent, diagnose, monitor and treat diseases. There are several types of common nanomaterials and nanoparticles that have been investigated and approved for clinical use. These include but are not limited to : Micelles. Micelles are molecules that contain amphiphilic molecules (molecules that are covalently bonded but have different attractions for the solution that they are in) and lipids, they often spontaneously self-assemble into clusters of spherical vesicles when under aqueous conditions only. These contain a hydrophilic outer layer (a layer which is attracted to water) and a hydrophobic inner core ( a core which is water repellent), these unique properties allow for micelles to be used as drug delivery agents, and therapeutic agents in medicine. Liposomes. Liposomes are very similar to Micelles but are mildly more complex meaning that they can be used for so much more than Micelles. They can be modified with polymers and antibodies enabling macro molecular drugs to be integrated into the liposomes. Doxorubicin is a type of chemotherapy drug. It works through blocking an enzyme called topoisomerase 2 that cancer cells need in order to divide and grow. Cancer by definition is the uncontrolled and unchecked growth of cells that result in a mass or tumor forming. Therefore stopping the uncontrolled growth of these cells will prevent and or stop the spread of the cancer in the body. If doxorubicin is liposomal this means that the drug doxorubicin is released slowly because it is in the small vesicles that liposomes provides and therefore dosage can be less frequent. You can be given liposomal doxorubicin through a central line into your bloodstream which is much less invasive than chemotherapy. Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (Caelyx) is used in the process of chemotherapy to treat many cancers like ovarian, breast cancers, and myeloma (blood cancer). Carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes are rolled up single layers of graphene (carbon atoms arranged in sheets) that can be multi-layered or single layered. Due to the high surface area : volume ratio they are considered to have high loading capacities as drug carriers for their size, when compared to other substances of the same size. Additionally - due to their unique mechanical and electronic properties - they are good biological sensors and imaging contrast agents.

One more specific example of nanotechnologies application in medicine is through carbon nanoparticles and the fullerene of carbon, C80 - C80 is a spherical structure (ball) consisting of 80 carbon atoms - which is used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). C80 is

used to contain the element Gadolinium (Gd) which is used as a contrasting agent or ‘dye’ in MRI scans. When injected into the body the Gd medium used improves the resonance and quality of the images therefore allowing the radiologist on hand to study the images with more precision and provide a much more accurate diagnosis or set of results subjective to what is being examined. This may in the long term save someone’s life if their diagnosis was able to be made earlier because of the Gd injected. Gd is only used in about 1 in 3 MRI scans due to a patients medical history. Often a patient will be recommended to take Gd during the MRI scan so that the radiologist may see the difference before and after the injection. After the injection the Gd only takes only a few minutes to take effect so does not need to be taken in advance. Evidently some risks will arise with any procedure but with the intake of Gd in C80 fullerenes, there are risks including but not limited to: some transient symptoms including , headache, nausea and dizziness. Allergy related reactions, though these will usually become evident after a few minutes, and severe reactions only occur once in every ten thousand people, but nurses should be aware beforehand if you are likely to have an allergic reaction. Furthermore if you are pregnant or lactating you are not advised to receive the injection either as it is likely to affect your newborn or unborn child. There have also been significant breakthroughs with nanotechnology through cancer research. Evidently if a cancer treatment is less invasive and causes the least amount of side effects it will be deemed superior to others. Nanotechnology has aided the creation of such treatments by incorporation of Polyethylene Glycol onto the surface of nanoparticles for drug delivery has been proved very effective, as it can pass through the body with little detection of the immune system meaning there is a smaller chance of rejection or your body trying to fight it and this subsequently allows them to circulate in the bloodstream until it reaches the tumor.

In closing, nanotechnology is a vast and intricate area of STEM that much research has been put into and will continue to be put into as it and its benefits specifically in medicine are ever becoming more evident. It’s importance will always be great as long as it still remains to improve quality of life and improve on current techniques to treat disease and process information. Although many nanomedicine techniques are not available to the public yet, we now have the technology to research further into and develop further what we already know. So I believe that its application in medicine is very important now and will always continue to be.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28482636/

https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/treatment/drugs/liposomal-doxorubicin

https://www.insideradiology.com.au/gadolinium-contrast-medium/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6982820/pdf/molecules-25-00112.pdf

Medical reports:

‘nanotechnology and its use in imaging and drug delivery’ by SERJAY SIM and NYET KUI WONG

‘The history of nanoscience and nanotechnology: from Chemical - Physical Applications to Nanomedicine’ by Samer Bayda, Muhammad Adeel, Tiziano Tuccinardi, Marco Cordani, and Flavio Rizzolio

‘There’s plenty of rooms at the bottom’ - Richard P. Feynman

EVALUATE THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE LABOUR PARTY’S PROPOSAL TO PUT VAT ON PRIVATE SCHOOL FEES.

By Daniel F - Year 12

November 2022 was when the Labour Party first proposed the idea of adding VAT on private school fees. VAT is a type of indirect tax that is collected by a third party e.g. a shop keeper who then have the obligation to present the government with the VAT that they have collected throughout the year. Even since the idea, it has generated a lot of discussions and debates among politicians and economists. On top of that, this matter also involves the general public as many people would not have a sufficient amount of funds to provide their children with private education, if the VAT is applied. In a study, it is shown that pupils in private schools will perform significantly higher in terms in their A level grades, compared to similar state schools. The importance of A level grades cannot be emphasised more as it provides a pathway or a chance even for students to study at their dream universities for an extensive period of their lives. All of this seemingly unfair phenomenon is due to one reason – misallocation of resources.

The original aim of the Labour Party for this proposal is to reduce the gap between the rich and poor by forcing the rich to pay more, which meets one of the Five Macroeconomic Objectives. This will hopefully equalise the situation where some parts of the society

have the ability to afford tens of houses and mansions, where some cannot even afford their basic human needs, who rely on benefits to live. However, the consequences are not as simple as the surface level of interpretation. By introducing VAT on private school fees, this would have a significant impact on the education sector and the entire economy. This will be evaluated and discussed further throughout the essay.

Positive impacts of adding VAT on private school fees

First of all, by introducing VAT on private school fees, this would likely result in an increase in government taxation revenue. In the UK, around 20% of students who are aged between 16-19 are in private schools. It is also estimated that the average private school fee is around £13,700 a year, which is compared to £7,100 in spending per year on a state school child. Be aware that the figure for private school, which is already nearly twice the amount compared to state school costs, does not include the everyday spending!!! If we were to include the expenditure of private school families, the figure would increase exponentially to an unfathomable amount for an average state school household. Anyway, by applying VAT to private school fees, this would lead to a substantial increase in government taxation revenue due to the nature of Ad Valorem tax. This increase in revenue could help the government to recover from a budget deficit into a budget surplus, thus decreasing the rate of increase in the national debt. Furthermore, this increase in remaining revenue, after covering up all the costs could be used to finance public services and projects, that are being carried out in sectors such as health and defence, providing better services to the public.

Secondly, the proposal could potentially reduce income inequality. This was also the major objective when the Labour Party proposed. The Labour Party aims to reduce the gap between the rich and poor by adding VAT onto private school fees. Generally speaking, families who are able to afford private education for their children are very likely to be wealthy. By increasing the fixed costs of the education fees, this will equalise and balance out the inequality that exists between the society as the rich are forced to pay more in real terms. In effect, this will ease the anger of the poor as the rich are being obligated to feed back into the society more than ever due to their capability.

Lastly, the introduction of VAT could potentially grant an improved access to education. If the proposal goes through, this will mean the cost of private school in general would increase, leading to a decline in its demand. This relationship between the level of demand and price can be seen through the supply and demand diagram which was first constructed by Alfred Marshall in 1890. This in turn would result in a reduction in the number of private schools available to the society, as the business owners would see potential of making a profit to reduce dramatically, due to the decline in demand.

As now there are more students out of school, this forces the government to open up more public schools and provide education to all pupils, using the increase in revenue they have just received from the VAT. This means that the access to education has been improved as there are more state schools available, mainly benefiting students from low-income families who may not have enough fund to afford private education.

Negative impacts of adding VAT on private school fees

Every proposal comes with negative effects. In this case, one negative consequence would be the total destruction of the private education sector/market. Due to the increase in price of 20%, this means that a lot of families would become incapable of providing their children with private education, thus choosing state schools. This means that the demand overall for private education would fall at a large scale, leading to a reduce in confidence of investors and private school owners to invest in private education. This will result in less investment being made, shifting the aggregate demand curve inward, resulting in a decrease in the level of real GDP. This theory was first invented by John Maynard Keynes, presented in his work ‘The General Theory of Employment’. With the crash of private education sector, especially during a financial crisis when people are living on the edge every single day, the effects of introducing VAT would be absolutely detrimental and will cause the UK economy to worsen from the current basis.

Lastly, a fall in demand of private educations can be very problematic. Although the government is able to construct new state schools for the increasing demand of free education, the cost of newly built schools can be high while being a long-term cost. The government needs to first buy the land and ask for workers to build the physical buildings of the school, which can easily be in the millions. Then once all the construction has been done, the government needs to hire teachers and staff to allow the school to provide education to its students. Lastly, the government also needs to provide lunch to every pupil attending the school. All of the costs added together would way exceed the 20% VAT gained from private school fees. This means that the government would need to move capital that is being used elsewhere, in order to support schools to function properly, for a very long time. If the government is unable to provide the capital needed, then borrowing would be the only solution, thus increasing the national debt which would be very controversial in the current economic/political situation.

Conclusion

In conclusion, introducing VAT to private school fees does not seem as easy as it sounds to be as it involves complex and far-reaching economic impacts

that could easily crash the country’s economy. On one hand, it would increase government taxation revenue and reduce the gap between the rich and poor. Although on the other hand, it would completely destroy the private education market, leading to the need of new state schools of which the capital would have to be provided by the government, which is proven to be very problematic. In my opinion, I do not agree with the Labour Party’s proposal as I believe the negatives strongly outweigh positives – which is why in the history of education, there hasn’t been a single case where any type of education provider is taxed. Especially during the current costof-living crisis, it would easily outrage the public if the government asked them to pay more for their children’s education when most people cannot even afford their energy bills. Therefore, I think the proposal to be relatively under-considered and should not be accepted, at least not at the current moment.

Bibliography

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/news/2019/nov/rich-resources-private-schools-give-pupils-educational-advantage-ioe-research-shows#:~:text=Pupils%20in%20 private%20schools%20do,upper%20secondary%20education%20in%20England.

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TO WHAT EXTENT HAS EXPOSURE TO MICROPLASTICS HAD AN IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH: DOES PLASTIC MAKE US SICK?

By Esme B - Year 12

Introduction

Plastic is everywhere. Our food is wrapped in it, our drinks are stored in it, our clothes are made of it, it touches every aspect of our lives. Plastic has been seen as an important invention, as something that would improve our lives. However questions are now being asked as to the potential negative impacts to the planet and to human health. It is becoming a key topic for global health organisations as they assess the potential impact of plastic – both negative and positive. Health is defined by the World Health Organisation as ‘the complete state of physical, social, and mental well-being and not merely the absence of illness, disease or infirmity’. I will specifically focus on how widespread microplastics are, the main routes of exposure and entry into the human body and food chain, the effect on cells and the body, and possible solutions to any negative impact. Do microplastics make us sick? How? And what can we do about it?

Plastic, as defined by the Science History Institute, is a material that can be shaped when soft and later hardened, retaining its shape, with a synthetic or naturally occurring origin. Plastics are all made of polymers and are produced in the processes of polycondensation and polymerization in which longer polymer chains are formed. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration defines microplastics as small plastic pieces less than five millimetres long which can be harmful to

our ocean and aquatic life [1]. Microplastics become classed as nanoplastics when they are less than 100 nanometers in size.

The invention of plastic has been revolutionary, with the first synthetic polymer created by Leo Baekeland in 1907 to help meet the large appeal of new consumer products[2], and was mass produced during World War 2. Plastic became the new versatile option to naturally occurring materials, and the modernisation of technology allowed for the exponential growth of production and advanced manufacturing. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the world produced just 2 million tonnes of plastic in 1950[3], increasing to nearly 460 million tonnes in 2019, causing concern on the unknown long term effects on the environment.

Figure 1 [4]

Microplastics have become pollutants in the earth due to their non-biodegradable nature, but plastic has become part of our daily lives due to its many desirable properties, including being ductile, lightweight and strong. The increase in usage has led to huge volumes of non-biodegradable microplastics being found all over the world. On the ocean floor alone, 14 million tonnes of microplastics have accumulated, with 40 million tonnes found along the worlds shorelines[5]. The damage and impact this has caused can be seen through studying marine organisms including plankton and shellfish. Plastic debris that has been ingested has now been found in all 7 species of marine turtles, 36% of seal species and 40% of seabirds[6]. This can in turn directly affect humans through the marine food chain.

There is a growing concern on the impacts of microplastics due to their small size and easy entry into the human body. Humans are exposed to microplastics through several routes including ingestion via the consumption of food and water, inhalation of particulates such as synthetic fibres or the friction of rubber vehicle tires, and by dermal contact from the use of everyday cosmetics. Once microplastics enter the body they can then have effects at a cellular level as the absorption of toxic chemicals can pose a threat to cell functionality which could in turn lead to disease. However, the longterm human health impacts of microplastics are

still unclear. New alternatives to plastic with plant based origins are being explored, which can be recycled and are biodegradable, not posing a threat to our planet. This could hopefully overcome microplastics passing down the food chain.

An impact is a strong effect on the outcome of something. To come to a conclusion on the long-term impact of plastics on human health, I will determine how and to what degree microplastics have had an impact in humans based on research available, by exploring whether plastics can have a detrimental effect to health, by causing death and disease through damage to individual cells, or whether we should not be overly concerned about our exposure to microplastics as they have minimal impact on our well-being.

Section 1 - Sources of Microplastics

Microplastics are categorised into two groups, primary or secondary.

Primary microplastics enter the environment directly in the form of small fragments, usually produced for commercial use such as cosmetics, car tyres and textiles fibres from clothing[7]. A study discovered that 3 million tonnes of primary microplastics enter the global environment annually. The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that 9% of the microplastics released into the environment is due to the washing of textiles and leaking into the wastewater treatment system, contaminating water supplies entering the aquatic environment[8].

Secondary microplastics arise from the breakdown or degradation of larger plastics into smaller particles, due to weathering, high ultraviolet sun exposure or physical abrasion. Examples of their origin include plastic bags, plastic bottles, and polystyrene. Discarded fishing nets contribute to a further 500,000 tonnes of microplastics entering the ocean annually[9].

Microplastics emerge from macroplastics which are particles more than 5mm in size. An estimated 8.28 million tonnes of microplastics and macroplastics leak into the environment each year[10]. Once disposed of, plastic remains in the environment for many years, however it eventually decomposes. Physical forces, such as wind and waves, wear down larger materials whilst ultraviolet light from the sun weakens plastic causing the collapse of polymer chains[11].

Microplastics are found globally with the majority on the ocean floor and beaches. It is estimated that there is 24.4 trillion pieces of microplastics in our oceans[12]. There are still gaps in much of the research as microplastics smaller than 300 micrometres are unaccounted for due to constraints in net mesh sizes used to collect samples.

A high proportion of microplastics are found in soils, it is estimated that 31,000 to 42,000 tonnes of microplastics[13] are found on farmland soils within Europe. They enter soil through contaminated sewage leaking

toxic chemicals into the ground, posing an environmental threat. A study published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, concluded that microplastics have affected the abundance of the community composition of soil fauna at different trophic levels[14]. Higher concentrations of microplastics had considerable negative effects on the composition of the soil fauna, leading to the significant reduction of many species found below the surface including oribatid mites, and Lepidopteran larvae[15]. Due to the micro size of many plastics, current wastewater treatment centres are unable to filter out these small particles, so they end up in water supplies that are thought to be uncontaminated. Microplastics are able to unnoticeably travel all around the globe.

Section 2 - Exposure to Microplastics Ingestion

One route of microplastic exposure for humans is through the ingestion of plastic particles. The majority of plastic pollution is in the ocean, initially threatening marine wildlife. The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation estimates that the global average of fish and seafood consumption in 2018 was 20.5 kg[16]. Currently, half of the fish we consume is farmed; creating a controlled environment limiting the plastic exposure, however fish fed wild fish reintroduces the chance of microplastic entering the food chain. The miniature size of microplastics allows the easy ingestion by small organisms, such as zooplankton, at the bottom of the food chain. It can then pass up trophic levels into larger species eventually consumed by humans. The digestive tracts of many species eaten by humans, including herring, scampi, and blue mussels, have been found to contain microplastics, including mussels purchased from UK supermarkets[17]. The consumption of these fish opens humans up to the risk of plastic exposure. Microplastics are considered inert or chemically inactive, however many are derived from plastics which contain harmful additives, for example phthalates which increases their durability. It has been found that plastic contamination in human liver samples with cirrhosis was 8 times as great as that found in the livers of healthy individuals[18]. This may suggest that the accumulation of plastic in the liver is a contributing factor to the occurrence of liver disease.

Microplastics can cross many biological barriers, eventually entering lymphatic tissue reaching organs including the liver and kidneys. Once particulates enter the human body they follow the route of food reaching the digestive system. Due to their micro size, they pass from the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract diffusing into the bloodstream or entering the lymphatic system. Plastic particles can interact with biomolecules such as lipids, and proteins within the GI tract, becoming covered in a layer of these molecules known as a corona mainly consisting of protein. These corona complexes affect the transportation of plastics allowing them to reach deeper into the body[19]. Particulates can slip through loose

“

Microplastics have become pollutants in the earth due to their non-biodegradable nature, but plastic has become part of our daily lives.

junctions in the epithelial layer of the intestine and enter blood capillaries, plastic particles can then be transported to lymphatic vessels by dendritic cells. Microplastic pollution has been found in human blood. One study found microplastics attach themselves onto the outer membrane of red blood cells. This can reduce the cells’ stability, altering red blood cell function and restricting their capacity to carry oxygen[20].

Metallic and polyethylene particles have been found in the liver, lymph nodes and spleen of people with joint replacements, showing once plastic particles spread quickly in the body. 68% of study patients were found with metallic wear particles in the paraaortic lymph nodes[21]. Studies have been conducted on mice exposed to fluorescent polystyrene microplastics. Three weeks after stopping the exposure, microplastics were still observed in the liver, kidney, and gut tissue, suggesting microplastics can have long term impacts. The mice who received a higher dose of 0.5 mg/day had a decreased liver weight, whilst others showed inflammation of the liver and disruptions to lipid metabolism causing oxidative stress[22].

This demonstrates the potentially toxic effects microplastics can have on humans. Microplastics have been discovered in other foods including honey and tea. Plastic particles have been found in 12% of honey samples in an Ecuadorian study[23]. Particulates can enter plants as they are small enough to be absorbed through the roots, travelling up the stem reaching the vascular system, eventually accumulating in the consumable parts of plants for bees. This is just one source contributing to the 4.1 micrograms[24] of microplastics adults consume on average weekly, equivalent to one credit card. A single tea bag releases 11.6 billion microplastics[25]. Plastic is often used for sealing tea bags, specifically polypropene, and as plastic mesh in premium brands. Once placed in hot water, tea bags release microplastics which are then ingested; a concern in the UK where 100,000,000 cups of tea are consumed daily[26]. However, brands such as Teapigs, are moving towards sustainability using biodegradable materials.

Drinking water treatment systems are effective at removing large debris and smaller particles including soluble minerals, such as magnesium, and dangerous heavy metals. Secondary treatment of wastewater is

“

proven to remove from 78.1% up to 100% of microplastics present[27]. However, this does not prevent microplastics found within drinking water. Various equipment used in water purification is made from plastic, and the abrasion and degradation of these parts contribute to the presence of microplastic in supposedly uncontaminated water[28].

Bottled water is another concern, with one study finding 93% of bottles tested showed microplastic contamination, which is around twice the amount found in tap water[29]. Even the opening of a plastic bottle induces friction from the cap, increasing the number of microplastics being consumed. In spite of that there is no evidence that the consumption of drinking water from plastic bottles has posed a risk to health. It has been proven that plastics do not remain in the body for long periods of time, one study found 80% of fish that were revealed to contain microplastics contained only one particle[30]. Overall, there are limitations on the research of ingestion of microplastics as there are few human studies on the ingestion of microplastics.

Inhalation

Microplastics can present as airborne plastic particles. The University of Portsmouth found we breathe in up to 7,000 microplastics daily, and a study inside homes revealed we inhale 12,891 microplastic fibres per year[31]. We are exposed to these particles in indoor and outdoor air through synthetic textiles, rubber vehicle tires and polluted air. Once breathed in, microparticles follow the pathway of air reaching the lungs and eventually alveoli, the air sacs involved in gas exchange within the lungs. Alveoli have a large surface area and are present in vast numbers with there being around 480 million[32] in the lungs of adults, providing a substantial expanse for penetration deeper into the body. The thickness of the alveolar-capillary barrier is extremely thin at one cell thick, ranging from 0.2 to 2.5 micrometres, allowing small plastic particles to permeate through and further diffuse into blood capillaries. Once in the bloodstream, microplastics can potentially act as endocrine disruptors and interfere with cellular activity.

Microfibres, a primary source of microplastics, form from the friction of textiles due to mechanical stress. Synthetic fibres release into indoor air from the

abrasion due to wear and enter wastewater during the washing of clothes. One study based on 7 patients exposed to synthetic fibres revealed those working in the textiles industry are at risk of respiratory issues due to the inhalation of dust. One weaver who worked with acrylic fibres found herself suffering from asthma-like symptoms, further examination revealing a moderate degree of airway obstruction. Another textiles worker presented with a slightly enlarged liver and clear fibrosis shown as scared tissue around the bronchi in the lungs. A male worker who dealt with wool and polyester fibres suffered from two spontaneous pneumothorax, otherwise known as a collapsed lung. These case studies prove the presence of fibres from synthetic materials are a likely factor to the occurrence of respiratory conditions and pulmonary disease[33].

The concentration of microplastics in atmospheric fallout was studied at several sites in urban Paris. It found a higher concentration of microplastic fibres in indoor locations compared to outdoor locations. The highest accumulation was found in an office with 4.0-59.4 fibres per m3 and up to 18.2 fibres per m3 in an apartment. Outdoor concentrations reached a highest value of 1.5 fibres per m3. This disparity is due to the presence of fibre releasing surfaces such as carpets and sofas combined with the absence of wind[34]. On average we spend 90% of our time indoors, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, putting ourselves at risk of higher concentrations of microfibre inhalation, seen as a factor in the occurrence of respiratory illnesses.

The wear of vehicle tyres on road surfaces due to mechanical abrasion further contributes to the buildup of microplastics within the atmosphere. The contrast between a fast moving vehicle and a rough road surface allows heat to build up resulting in large tyre particles being generated[35]. In the UK, the Environment Agency has estimated that 63,000 tonnes of wear and tear particles are produced per year[36]. Only 0.1 to 10% of tyre wear is emitted as airborne particles[37], but many will re-enter the air after travelling through waterways. The impact of these particles is determined by the chemical composition, size and concentration in the air. Smaller particles less than 1 micrometre can penetrate deep into the lungs passing through the epithelium by endocytosis or diffusion, but the later effects in other organs are still unknown. The chemical composition of wear and tear particles can produce toxic effects in cells due to the exposure of metal substances. High exposure to tyre debris has caused DNA damage, affected cell morphology and increased cell mortality in human lung cells[38]. It is concluded that the release of wear and tear particles from vehicle tyres has given rise to the 7 million premature annual deaths, as stated by the World Health Organisation, but is not the underlying factor. There are large amounts of missing data on the toxicology of vehicle tyre particles, so it remains unclear whether airbourne

microplastic release is of concern.

Dermal Contact

Cosmetics, such as facial cleansers, body wash and blusher, in the health and beauty industry are another pathway of microplastic exposure. The Plastic Soup Foundation has found microplastics in 87% of the top ten best-selling cosmetics brands, showing roughly just 13% of cosmetic products in the market are microplastic free[39]. 3,800 tonnes of microplastics from care products and cosmetics are released into the environment annually, many entering the wastewater system, returning to our drinking water and agriculture soils.

Microbeads are a type of microplastic, made of polyethylene, smaller than 5mm and intentionally added to personal care products, including exfoliants and toothpaste. With a variety of purposes including to aid exfoliation, prolong-shelf life or the timed release of ingredients. It is estimated that up to 94,500 microbeads are released in a single use of an exfoliant[40].

Plastic particles enter the human body through direct contact with the skin barrier. Particles less than 100 nm penetrate the dermal barrier. Weakenings on the epidermis, the outer layer of skin, due to a skin wound or via hair follicles and sweat glands eases penetration. Extremely small synthetic fibres less than 25 micrometres can penetrate through pores in the skin’s surface[41]. They then travel further into the body through the blood capillary system. Overexposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes temporary damage to the skin presenting as sunburn, but also affects the mechanical properties of the stratum corneum, the outer layer of the epidermis[42].

The stratum corneum plays an important role in preventing unwanted substances entering the body, acting as a barrier from the external environment, helping to protect underlying cells from UV exposure. Exposure to extreme UV conditions alters its function provoking intracellular cracking[43]. This damage can result in skin inflammation or infection, affecting the barrier’s capacity to resist harmful substances entering the body, and increasing microplastic exposure due to dermal contact.

Only 10% of the worldwide cosmetic brand Nivea’s[44] products are free of ingredients containing plastic. Carbomer is a microplastic used as a thickening agent in Nivea cosmetic products, a relatively low risk ingredient to humans. Carbomer does pose a threat to marine life after entering the sewage system. Even though many cosmetic products are extremely polluted with microplastics, those found in everyday products are often not directly harmful to human health and are otherwise seen as low risk.

Section 3 - Toxicity to Cells

Microplastics absorbed into the body or entering through skin barrier penetration can have physical and chemical effects on cells. The risk posed depends on individual microplastic properties such as their shape, size and chemical additives present, as well as the properties of the membrane present. A study, supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, looked at the mechanism of ultrafine particles crossing cellular membranes, using ultrafine titanium dioxide which was inhaled by rats. 80%of the retained titanium particles after 24 hours were found on the luminal side of the epithelium, indicating the majority of the particles were unsuccessful in crossing the membrane. Ultrafine particles, classed as particles less than 1 micrometre, are more likely to cohere to the epithelial membrane, proposing microplastics of similar size cannot easily pass through cell membranes.

The uptake of various sized polystyrene microspheres by cultured macrophages, a white blood cell which destroys foreign antigens, was investigated to represent the response of phagocytic cells. All sized particles were found in macrophages, which included fine particles, between 1 and 0.2 micrometres, and ultrafine particles, less than 0.1 micrometres, proving the possibility of microplastics undergoing phagocytosis in the human body[45].

It is thought that entry of small particles into cells are not due to processes of endocytosis, the uptake of matter into a cell through a membrane bound vesicle, as particles found to cross the cell membrane were not membrane bound within the cell. It is more likely that the interaction between fine plastic particles and proteins present on the cell membrane allows for the crossing of fine particles into cells. This is a concerning risk to humans with the possibility of harmful molecules directly interacting with the cell cytoplasm, the site of chemical reactions with a cell. Specifically polystyrene nanoparticles can easily pass through lipid membranes and once dissolved can adjust the membrane framework affecting its properties[46]. This in turn alters the activity of proteins found in the membrane and sequentially cellular operation.

Once in the bloodstream, microplastics can potentially act as endocrine disruptors (EDCs) and interfere with cellular activity. There is further

concern on chemical additives contained in microplastics. Additives are chemical substances purposely added to plastics to enhance various properties such as flexibility, colour or durability.

EDCs disturb the hormonal system of the body. They are found in the environment, manufactured products and food products[47]. Once EDCs have entered the body they can bind to endocrine nuclear receptors, including hormone receptors, interfering with the original hormone. EDCs do this by mimicking the natural hormone, reducing its action or further disrupting metabolism, transport or synthesis of hormones, resulting in irregular hormone regulation[48]. Within the human body the reproductive system is one of the areas higher at risk from EDCs; high heavy metal (a type of EDC) exposure has reduced the number of mature oocytes in women compared to those living in areas not contaminated[49], and diethylstilbestrol (synthetic oestrogen) has previously led to the exhaustive loss of the number of corpus luteum in adult ovaries demonstrating EDCs ability to threaten ovulation[50]. The occurrence of EDCs in everyday lifestyles is proven to cause damaging effects in the human body, suggesting that our increased consumption of plastic products could further pose more extreme risks to human health.

Section 4 - Solutions to Microplastic Pollution

Microplastics are polluting our environment but is there a way to stop this? There are two ways in which we can reduce exposure, by reducing our consumption of polluting plastics directly through finding new alternatives or by exploring new ways in which to dispose of and destroy plastics removing the chance of microplastics entering our environment.

New alternatives to plastic in everyday items include beeswax reusable wraps, bamboo drinking straws and paper bags. Bioplastic is another alternative which is made from naturally derived, biodegradable substances in place of petroleum[51]. There are many advantages to bioplastics. They are free from chemical additives which pose a threat to health, and will decompose, reducing the issue of plastic seeping into the environment from landfill. However, the degradation of bioplastics is not always possible and requires the use of large-scale facilities, requiring polluting toxins, which may not balance out the positive effects.

We can diminish the danger of microplastics impacting human health through the cleanup of current microplastics in the world or creating an effective disposal system which will prevent the chance of human exposure to microplastics internally. Recently scientists have aimed research towards removing microplastics within the oceans that waste water treatments fail to filter out. In 2022 the use of the vegetable okra was discovered to clear aquatic pollution through extracting the polysaccharides found in the sticky goo within the vegetable. This substance has the power to act as a natural floc-

culant which stimulates the clumping of small particles together allowing the manageable removal of microplastics during the process of wastewater treatment. So far it has been tested in Texas, USA with results proving that okra material achieved better results in the removal of microplastics compared to the standard flocculation chemicals used[52]. Okra is non-toxic and a renewable source which can be used globally, so this discovery can play a role in eliminating the path of microplastic exposure in humans through ingestion of drinking water and also the unknown potential long-term effects of drinking chemically treated water.

Laws and regulations have been implemented within nations in order to reduce plastic consumption and improve recycling of non-biodegradable materials, promoting a sustainable world. In the Netherlands there are several packaging policies in place, enforced by the 2014 Packaging Management Decree[53], which manages plastic pollution within the country. Citizens who produce more than 50,000 kilos of packaging material per year are required to pay a contribution towards the Packaging Waste Fund[54]. It also aims to discourage manufacturers from the use of single-use packaging, resulting in the reduction of contaminated packaging in circulation. There are also bans in place on single-use plastic where a non-plastic alternative is available. This helps reduce the volume of plastic entering the world, through eliminating the potential sources of microplastics, focusing on governments playing a major role in the reduction of microplastic production.

Another way of reducing the potential risks of microplastics is through eliminating microplastic use altogether with environmentally friendly options. The use of mushroom mycelium, the hyphae filaments within fungus, has been successfully transformed into biodegradable packaging[55]. This can be used in the packaging of everyday products during transportation, and biodegradable properties will allow the release of nutrients into the soil rather than polluting chemicals. This can benefit ecosystems by providing an improved habitat while removing the chance of plastic pollution.

Overall a global stride is required to find ways to eradicate the possibility of microplastics entering the environment through the stopping of plastic production, while exploring ways to clean the current environment from microplastics already present. The rate at which technology, including within healthcare, is advancing may eliminate the risks posed to human health from the exposure of microplastics. This may mean that exposure to microplastics in the future will have little effect on human health due to new medical research, laws and plastic solutions which remove any harmful effects.

Section 5 - Conclusion

The debate around to what extent microplastic exposure has an impact on human health and whether it makes us sick is a complex one. The prevalence of

the use of microplastics has grown exponentially and research may not have kept pace with that growth and as such may not be conclusive. There are studies showing issues of EDCs entering the human body and their potential to impede hormone control can lead to a host of illnesses; such as Diabetes which leads to 1.5 million deaths each year[56]. Case studies, specifically on those frequently exposed to microplastics have found that those working in textile factories are associated with a higher risk of suffering from respiratory illnesses. This may be due to the exposure of small synthetic particles which have the potential to cross cell membranes.

High levels of exposure to small particles has been associated with life threatening conditions, suggesting that microplastics have negatively affected human health. Studies in women on the exposure of unnatural chemicals have proven to damage reproductive success through jeopardising ovulation. This suggests that exposure to foreign substances, like microplastics, within the body can adversely impact female health. Importantly, through studying past trends of plastic use, the future outlook of global plastic consumption suggests that its use will only increase, contributing to the accumulation of plastic in our environment. The prevalence of both primary and secondary microplastics also will grow globally due to an increasing human population having a higher demand for plastic products. The occurrence of microplastic exposure will escalate, which further raises the chance of us more frequently experiencing the impacts of microplastics.

The pace of current technological advances and widespread awareness of the issues of plastic pollution has driven new demand and investment in innovation for solutions. In recent years laws have become stricter based on plastic disposal and usage, such as the banning of plastic carrier bags in the UK and tight regulations on package labelling in The Netherlands. Other initiatives based on the removal of plastic currently in our environment, such as using okra, are another angle which reduces the potential exposure to microplastics. These solutions are extremely important as their large-scale use in the future may be able to eradicate any possibilities of microplastics exposure in humans. However a global effort is required in order to minimise the potential impacts plastic will have on our health.

The large-scale use of plastics is a fairly new phenomenon, and the discussion of whether plastics are harmful to our health is even more recent, exemplifying gaps in our knowledge on the long-term impacts microplastics will have on human health, further demonstrated by most studies conducted involving other animals and not humans as subjects. This limits the current consensus on whether we need to be overly concerned with plastic exposure. There being few scientific studies on this topic makes it challenging to fully understand the hidden repercussions of microplastic pollution. However current research into this topic is only expanding, as

the issue of climate change relating to the pollution of our world is becoming an increasing global concern. Currently microplastics exposure in humans has had little impact on our health looking from a global perspective. There is little evidence of microplastic particles being the definitive and sole cause of specific diseases, however this does not mean small particulates have influenced the onset of certain, especially respiratory, illnesses. At present, levels of human exposure to microplastics have not been known to make us sick due to their minute concentrations. Nonetheless a larger exposure to microplastics in the future has the capacity to induce more severe impacts to our health.

Microplastic exposure has had an impact on human health to a minor extent, with our current knowledge on the topic limiting a final and definite conclusion. Over 90% of microplastics ingested get excreted, further solidifying the idea that minimal exposure to microplastics will cause minimal damage. Although we should be wary of our plastic consumption - as of now the exposure to microplastics plays a small role impacting the health of humans, but this may increase dramatically over time.

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THE EFFECT OF NATURE ON IMPROVING THE MENTAL HEALTH OF STUDENTS

By Ella B - Year 12

Introduction

Research continues to be conducted measuring to what extent nature-based projects such as classroom plants and gardening can positively impact the mental health of higher education students in UK schools. By understanding how to quantify mental health, scientific studies can assess factors that affect stress from a biological and cognitive perspective and schools can proactively intervene and improve poor mental health. In the long term this should lead to less strain on society as collective poor mental health is detrimental to society. Although nature can reduce stress and symptoms of depression, to what extent can nature-based projects be integrated into UK schools, so that the benefits to student well-being outweigh the costs?

Mental health is “a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life…, learn and work well [with others],” (World Health Organisation, 2021) and it fluctuates on a continuum “in response to changing stressors” (World Health Organisation, 2021). It is an individualised perception of the world which closely affects our behaviour. Due to this individuality, it is impossible to accurately generalise as it is such a complex phenomenon. However, key terms can encapsulate the emotions and physiological reactions to good or poor mental health in words such as stress and symptoms of anxiety and depression. In this context, symptoms of anxiety and depression are umbrella terms for expressions of poor mental health. These can manifest themselves in three main ways: Psychologically (low mood or sadness and having low self-esteem) (NHS England, 2022), Socially (avoiding contact with friends

and taking part in fewer social activities) (NHS England, 2022) or Physically (lack of energy). These are just a few of the ways in which poor mental health can appear in an individual but it is undoubtedly an unpleasant experience which most people will suffer from at different points in their life and in different severities.

There is also no one clear cause for poor mental well-being but it has been established that external factors such as family problems or bullying as well as genetic factors such as possible candidate genes including 5-HTT and MAOA (Domschke, 2017) are partially responsible. For this reason, there cannot be one single solution to reducing poor mental health. Instead, a myriad of techniques and approaches must be implemented into schools to ensure students develop a strong mental resilience, so they are ready for adulthood.

The impact of poor mental health is extensive because as well as the personal suffering of the individual, there are also wider societal impacts such as in the workplace. Once students graduate and join the workforce, their productivity becomes a factor that affects the overall UK economy. Annual statistics from the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE), published in 2022, reported that 50% of all absenteeism at work relates to mental health challenges (HSE, 2022). Absenteeism leads to lack of productivity, and this has extreme costs for the overall economy of the UK. A report from London School of Economics (LSE) found that, “Mental health problems cost the UK economy at least £117.9 billion annually” and “almost three quarters of the cost (72%) is due to the lost productivity of people living with mental health conditions.” (LSE, 2022) This extreme number shows the desperate, nationwide need for prevention of mental health conditions in children and adults. This viewpoint is supported by the LSE, as the same article is titled ‘The economic case for investing in the prevention of mental health conditions in the UK’ (LSE, 2022). This article also concisely summarises how findings such as these should affect UK policies. “[This data] makes the case for a prevention-based approach to mental health which would both improve mental well-being while reducing the economic costs of poor mental health” (LSE, 2022).

Similarly, the cost and strain on the NHS has an equally large impact and presents another strong case for the necessity of a successful preventative program in UK schools. According to NHS England, the NHS spends “£13.3 billion a year” (Baker, 2023) on treating mental health issues. This includes providing vital therapy and advice for sufferers, as well as how to deal with the day-to-day mental strain that poor mental health often causes. Therefore, the impact of poor mental well-being is interdisciplinary and widespread across the UK; it is seen in the personal suffering of individuals, the UK economy, and the strain it has on the NHS. These three areas confirm that there is a prevailing problem regarding mental issues in the UK in 2023.

Nature based projects are one possible solution

to preventing and counteracting this epidemic. Nature based projects are broadly defined as, “Solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience” (European Research Executive Agency, 2021). In the context of schools, this means integrating nature into schools to the effect of improving students’ poor mental health. This can be achieved through tailored projects that suit the environment and resources of each school. The benefit of interacting with nature has positive impacts on cognition, physiological stress, and brain stimulation – all of which are in rapid development in teenagers and young adults i.e., students in higher education.

Chapter 1

Currently, the mental well-being of students in higher education is worse than that of the adult population in the UK. This conclusion was drawn from a report published by the Office for National Statistics.

Bar chart showing results from a questionnaire carried out by the Office for National Statistics (Johnston, 2021)

This source revealed that:

“Average life satisfaction for first year students [at university] is 6.6 (out of 10) … however, average scores are… statistically significantly lower than the adult population in Great Britain (7.1).” (Johnston, 2021)

This trend is mirrored by anxiety and depression levels, both of which are higher than the general population, suggesting that students have higher levels of poor mental health than the general adult population. Statistics gathered from questionnaires in this report found that, “Over the [first two weeks of starting university], 37% of first year students showed moderate to severe symptoms of depression whereas only 16% of the general adult population reported experiencing symptoms of depression. Additionally, [anxiety levels for students were] 39% [whereas only] 16% of the general adult population reported feeling anxious.” (Johnston, 2021)

Therefore, in 2021, the mental health of students in higher education was significantly worse than that of the general adult population. An important distinction to make is that this study measured symptoms of anxiety

and depression, not diagnosable mental illnesses, meaning these university students were experiencing symptoms of poor mental health not mental illness.

It is vital to address this difference between mental health and mental illness. “[Positive] mental health refers to anyone’s state of mental, emotional well-being [whereas] mental illness is a diagnosis” (Taylor Counseling Group , 2021). Although they are entirely separate things, the two can influence each other. An individual with a mental illness, such as clinical depression or bipolar disorder, could have periods of poor mental health but they could also experience periods of “physical, mental, and social well-being,” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023) i.e., positive mental health. Vitally though, the two conditions are separate and different methods must be used to assess and treat them. For example, mental illness can be treated through drug therapy. However, poor mental health may be improved through exercise more regularly and maintaining social connections which would improve the “way a person feels, thinks, acts or experiences the world” (Taylor Counseling Group , 2021) i.e., their mental health. This dissertation will focus on mental health primarily, but occasionally the two will intersect.

To assess mental health, it must be quantified. One way is by using Screening Assessment Tools (Morson, 2021), which consists principally of self-completed questionnaires. These are ideal as they can “efficiently assess specific components of people’s mental health” (Morson, 2021) and can be targeted to specific demographics such as students in higher education. An example of this tool is the Patient Health Questionnaire screener (PHQ) and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Morson, 2021). These are just a few of the possible questionnaires dedicated to assessing different aspects of mental well-being. They are both valuable because they allow for a sliding scale of severity and as mental health fluctuates on a continuum it is an ideal tool. However, many scientific studies will combine these tools with other more qualitative tools such as the Diagnostic Interview (Morson, 2021) to gain the most insightful information.

Using this knowledge, evaluation of the source can be much more accurate and subsequently one can determine if this data is reliable. The methodology used to assess levels of poor mental health in the report published by the Office for National Statistics was gathered using standardised Screening Assessment Tools, such as the Patient Health Questionnaire and the Generalised Anxiety Disorder for symptoms of depression and anxiety respectively. This increases the reliability of the data as these tools are standardised questionnaire meaning the tests can be redone with same or different university students and similar results should be found if there is a true higher level of poor mental health. The methodology used to gather the information is therefore a strength

of this research, and means the data is reliable. However, there are some possible co-variables that may have been responsible for the trend seen in this data set, such as the fact that the questionnaires were conducted in the beginning of the academic year and therefore likely coincided with the nerve-racking time of starting university. Therefore, emotions may have been running high anyway, and anxiety levels may have been higher than average. This limitation suggests that using this data as proof that the poor mental health of students is higher than the general population should be accepted with reservations, but overall, it is still presenting reliable statistics.

The significance of this data is that it confirms that there is a disparity between the number of students suffering from poor mental health compared to adults in the UK. This means that students are the demographic that need the most resources and support when tackling poor mental health, as there is such a large proportion that are suffering.

To understand what kind of support students, need, school specific indicators can be used. This can help schools tailor an action plan, for most effective implementation of mental health projects and on what timescale this would be feasible.

Using measurement tools [such as indicators] can [provide] useful data for schools and can help them understand the following:

• the needs of their pupils

• how to identify the most suitable interventions to address these needs.

• how to allocate resources to meet their needs (Anna Freud , 2023)

A few key indicators for assessing mental health in schools are responses from questionnaires, academic performance and tracking absences.

Student questionnaires can collect large amounts of general data and so are a good starting point to see how students feel about the current community mental health and the effectiveness of existing programs (such as PSHE classes). Questionnaires can be tailor-made to a school by a keen teacher or standardised using online surveys. For example, the charity SEND has developed, “age-adaptable questionnaires to survey pupils on their well-being so that [schools] can identify and address areas of concern. Topics covered include bullying, depression, low mood, self-esteem” (KLeaders, 2022).

Academic performance is another indicator which can help determine if there is a trend of poor mental health within a school as well as ascertaining which students are struggling the most. Poor mental health has “a significant impact on engagement, concentration, enthusiasm and sociability” (Clark, 2021) Therefore, the development of poorer mental health can lead to changes in academic performance such as grades. An American study supports this conclusion. They found that:

Table showing factors affecting academic performance of college students (Arora, 2017)

When students were asked what factors affected their academic performance mental health was a common factor seen in the levels of anxiety (21.9%), depression (13.8%) and stress (30.0%) show. These findings are important as schools can track how an individual’s grade can change over a year. If a student’s grade decreases drastically in a year or they are significantly less engaged in class, then teachers can identify them as needing extra mental health support.

Similarly, absence from school has been correlated with poor mental health of students as those who suffer may be unable to face the stress of school and are more likely to take a sick day or an unauthorised absence. A “new study saw researchers from [many universities and] NHS Wales” [which] examined the association between attendance (absences and exclusions) and neurodiversity [and] mental health, in a cohort of 437,412 Welsh school pupils” (Cardiff University, 2021). The conclusion of this report was that students suffering from mental illness and poor mental health, “are much more likely to miss school than their peers” (Cardiff University, 2021). Furthermore, the analysis of this data reveals that, “Absences and exclusions may provide a useful tool to identify those who require additional support. Early intervention will not only reduce immediate distress and difficulties for the young person but also may also interrupt poor life trajectories and improve outcomes in later life.” (Cardiff University, 2021)

Therefore, analysis of school attendance and the other indicators can further identify the specific demographic of students that need the most school support and are therefore a vital tool for ensuring that nature-based projects are targeted and effective.

Chapter 2

Now that the problem and demographics of students with poor mental well-being has been identified, possible solutions must be discussed. Nature is a solution. More specifically, the integration of nature into school through green projects, targeted to key areas of heightened poor mental health within a school community. So why and how can nature help with mental health? This relates to the biological effect of being in green

Figure 2

spaces and vitally connecting with the natural environment.

The biophilia hypothesis is a prime example of how deeply scientists believe that humans desire connection to nature. This theory suggests “that humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with nature” (Rogers, 2023) and theories like these have been around since the 19th century. However, as modern technologies develop, a deeper understanding of biology can show the more specific effects of nature on human brains, bodies, and minds.

The brain is closely interlinked to the mind, and both relate to an individual’s experience of mental health. The “mind is our ability to think and feel [whereas] the brain is the “organ that supports these functions” (Sumu, 2021). Therefore, factors that influence the brain directly affect an individual’s mental health.

A study that examines nature’s effect on the brain regarding the cognitive functioning of an individual was published by News Medical Life Sciences. Their study showed that “experiencing nature [can] restore someone’s ability to focus [and is evidence for] the Attention Restoration Theory (ART)” (Ackerman, 2018).

This theory was proposed by Rachel Kaplan and was investigated as technology increased and time in nature decreased in the 1980s. “The ART hypothesis suggests that nature has the capacity to renew attention [especially] after exerting mental energy, for instance, after spending sleepless nights studying for exams” (Ackerman, 2018).

The study in question looked at the effect of walking in nature vs walking in an urban environment on three brain regions which are the amygdala, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The study aimed to establish a “causation association between the three brain regions when activated by stress [and see if they] would be activated differently in either setting compared to baseline levels” (Thomas, 2022) The findings were gathered using a fMRI, which is an internationally accepted technique for producing high-resolution images of localised brain regions (Thomas, 2022). The results found that the amygdala reacts differently to urban and forest environments, as “it was markedly reduced after the nature walk” (Thomas, 2022), and the study concluded that, “We interpret this as evidence showing that nature is able to restore individuals from stress” (Thomas, 2022).

Furthermore, the bodily effects of something as simple as walking in a forest was explored by a Japanese study, which examined the cardiovascular responses to walking in forest and urban environments” (Miyazak, 2014) Cardiovascular responses were defined as heart rate variability, heart rate, and blood pressure. The results showed, “Forest walking significantly increased the values of ln (HF) when compared with the urban walking” (Miyazak, 2014). The biological metrics used are the natural logarithms of variables related to heart rate

variability (HRV). HRV is measuring, “the amount of time between heartbeats [when it] fluctuates slightly” (Cleveland Clinic, 2021). HF partly controls the modulation of the vagus nerve and is an indicator of the parasympathetic nervous system. This system is how the body relaxes after a period of stress. Therefore, the HF metric for measuring the heart rate variability records whether the body relaxes as the participant walks through the forest vs. an urban area. The results showed that, “During stimuli, clear differences were found in the values of ln (HF) between forest walking and urban walking” (Miyazak, 2014) meaning exposure in the forest leads to the psychological relaxation of the body as “walking in the forest environment may promote cardiovascular relaxation by facilitating the parasympathetic nervous system”(Miyazak, 2014). Therefore, it can be concluded that nature can be used as a tool to physiologically reduce stress in the brain and accordingly improve poor mental health.

However, further research must be conducted to establish what type of nature exposure and for how long an individual must be engaged before successful reduction in stress is seen.

Chapter 3

Nature based projects for schools aim to apply the scientific knowledge that nature is good for mental health to the school environment, to prevent long term mental health problems and alleviate some existing strain. For this to be effective, the green projects need to be tailored to the school and needs of the students. Schools are also limited by (or enhanced by) their local environment and available space. For example, rural schools will find it much easier to take their students out on forest walks once a week whereas urban schools will struggle. Instead of viewing this as a limitation, schools can embrace their local community and available nature. Therefore, flexible low-cost integrations of nature that are applicable to both urban and rural schools are ideal. Urban schools typically have much lower access to nature and green spaces as they are in a city. The Office for National Statistics calculated that there are “1.77 million hectares of urban area in Great Britain, of which 0.55 million hectares are classified as natural land cover (31%)” (Anderson, 2018). Therefore, the most emphasis should be placed on urban schools which have very little access to nature as these are the most deprived areas in relation to green spaces.

The projects that would be most easily integrated into urban schools but that would still have a significant impact on the mental well-being of students are teacher training for integration of nature into the classroom, classroom plants, and growing a school garden. The implementation of an eco-team would also be beneficial for ensuring that these projects are run efficiently and that more ideas continue to be developed.

Teacher training for implementation of nature into the classroom is an effective way of introducing and developing an interest in nature as well as a respect for the outdoors. It can be using in both urban and rural schools and so is nationwide green solution. Teacher training consists of building teachers’ confidence and providing them with the tools to develop interest in nature amongst their students. A project that delivers this service is the Nature Friendly Schools charity, which is backed by government funding as part of the UK government’s 25 Year Environmental Plan. They provide a “Bespoke package of teacher training, designed to empower teachers to lead outdoor learning independently by raising their confidence and knowledgebase” (Nature Friendly Schools, 2022). The fact that this has been backed by the UK government and that so many charities and foundations are involved (such as YouthMinds, Field Studies council and Wildlife Trusts) shows that this pioneering idea has been successful. Reports from schools who have used this teacher training programme and who have integrated some of the recommended projects have reported: “Nature Friendly Schools have been so beneficial for our pupils and our school. Many children come into school with different anxieties, but when they’re learning outside, they are present in the moment, and their worries just seem to fade away. Learning in nature has become a keystone part of their education.”(Feild Studies Council , 2022) For example, teacher training can lead to increased use of outdoor classrooms which will lead to more focused student learning as students will feel more self-confident and composed. It does, however, take away valuable time from the core curriculum, and as higher education curriculums are already so tightly packed something else would have

to be sacrificed for this to be integrated. So, this may not be feasible as the academics of a school cannot and should not be sacrificed. A possible solution is to place more emphasis on extracurricular nature projects so that students can still interact with nature without feeling the strain on their learning. Even so, the impact that an outdoor classroom would have on a student’s education would be hard to measure, and therefore schools may be less inclined to allocate time and teacher resources to this project because it could infringe on the school’s academics curriculum.

Another nature-based project that can be used to improve poor mental health are classroom plants. This is a simple and potentially highly effective way of greening the classroom and biologically reducing stress in students on a cognitive and physiological level.

New research from the Institute of Neuroscience at King’s College London looked at the effect of placing plants indoors as well as regular exposure to plants outside during the stressful COVID-19 pandemic. They looked at the correlation between indoor plants and the change in depression, anxiety, and stress ratings before and after the study. The exact correlations can be seen in Figure 4 and a notable trend they found was “that outdoor plant exposure seems to be negatively correlated with DASA scores and COVID-19-related stressors” (Kings College London, 2022).

Figure 4

The key take aways from these data are that time spent indoors with plants is correlated to improving symptoms of poor mental health and that, spending time outdoors in green spaces has a similar effect. All correlations are tested against a significance level of < 0.05 and being above this significance level “indicates that there is a relationship between the variables being studied” (Cloud Research , 2021) and although correlation does not show causation, the two factors may affect one another.

So, plants in classrooms “are potential mechanisms to reduce mental strains and improve emotional

Table showing the different numbers and percentages of people in urban and green areas (Anderson, 2018)

Table showing the correlation between Indoor and Outdoor Plant exposure and symptoms of poor mental health (Kings Collrge London, 2022)

well-being” (Kings College London, 2022) and as these data are so specifically applied to the emotional well-being of students, it can be concluded that class plants are an effective nature-based solution. However, it should be noted that correlations are weak and only shows reduction in symptoms in the short term but has no comment on the long-term effects.

For class plants to be used most effectively, students should interact as much as possible with the plants, perhaps by creating class plant monitors who are responsible for keeping the plant watered. Although this project does have an upfront cost it can be marginal by growing plants such as tomatoes which are cheap and upcycling plant pots and decorating them which will also increase student engagement.

If engagement with class plants is high, then schools can start a garden as it can deepen students’ connection with the outdoors and subsequently reap the emotional well-being benefits. A scientific commentary published by Science Daily (a highly reliable source that has passed through rigorous peer reviews and is therefore reliable) supports this idea. The psycho-therapeutic benefits of gardening are that it improves mental well-being, but this nature-based project also facilitates a community hub where students can freely express thought and troubles (Ainamani, 2021).

A case study from a UK school supports the effectiveness of this project as they “recognised the need to support children whose mental health had suffered as a consequence of [the pandemic]” (School Gardening , 2023). Their school garden has massive benefits for the young people in ensuring that they were happy, healthy, and well-rounded individuals” (School Gardening , 2023) Gardening also came with additional benefits such as integrating a “BTech in Land Based Studies or Horticulture, enabling students to not only benefit their personal growth, but leave with post-16 education prospects” (School Gardening , 2023) and subsequently creating more of an incentive for this project to be introduced into schools.

Chapter 4

Nature-based solutions have been shown to have a biological impact on improving poor mental health as nature calms the amygdala and facilitates the activation of the parasympathetic nervous system. Nature is a tool that can be used to reduce stress and act as a preventative for the poor mental health of students. However, there are significant issues regarding the implementation and feasibility of projects, and this may limit the benefits that these projects can bring. Subsequently, after extensive research and critical review, I have determined that nature-based projects in UK higher education can and should be used as a tool to improve poor mental health however, they cannot be used in isolation as they are not a strong enough resource to counteract high rates of poor mental health. Furthermore, the complex nature of

poor mental health and the fact that it never comes from one single source means that specialised projects such as nature-based solutions will never be enough to ‘solve’ this multifaceted issue. Therefore, nature-based projects do work to an extent, but they must work in partnership with other projects that share a common goal to be effective.

A governmental report, which focuses on “Promoting children and young people’s mental health” (Public Health England, 2021) agrees with my judgement. The report outlines eight key principles that schools can “help contribute towards protecting and promoting children and young people’s mental health” (Public Health England, 2021). The nature-based projects discussed in the dissertation do meet several of these principles but there are key gaps that need to be addressed to ensure students receive the most effective well-being support and this is why nature-based solutions need to work in partnership with other projects.

One of these gaps is “Working with parents and carers” (Public Health England, 2021) This is an immensely important aspect of student well-being as it can help tackle potential causes of well-being issues such as family issues and discord. An exemplar project, recommended by UK government, in this area is providing parent workshops which “helps parents to be role models for their children regarding how they deal with setbacks and develop resilient thinking” (Public Health England, 2021). This is provided by the charity, Bounce Forward (Public Health England, 2021). It would be difficult for nature-based projects to achieve this principle because exposure to nature does not tackle the potential causes of student poor mental health, it only addresses the

Figure 5

Figure 5 shows the eight principles that are central to the governmental mental health plan (Public Health England, 2021)

symptoms. Therefore, a combination of projects must be used to truly achieve a school environment that nurtures and protects the well-being of its students.

I also believe that for this issue to be tackled comprehensively, a wider scope must be analysed. For example, there should be more emphasis on assessing when the best time is for intervention to occur, as their critical periods of cognitive development in childhood and, therefore, projects could be tailored to that age group. By college and university, a young adult may have already suffered a lot and damage may already have been done. Maybe there should be more focus on younger years, even as early as primary education.

Nature is huge resource that can be a real asset for improving the mental health of students, but it is currently not being used in any meaningful way. On their own, nature-based projects will never be an all-encompassing solution to improving mental health, but they are a key resource that schools can invest in to create the best possible environment for their students.

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COULD A COUNTRY DISAPPEAR?

By Zac H - Year 9

The idea of a country disappearing may seem far fetched, or even impossible. However, the reality is far from this. These scenarios don’t necessarily involve a country actualy disappearing from existence. To understand how a country would disappear, one first needs to

operate, effectively causing the country to disappear, both physically and politically. This scenario would have devastating implications for the affected country, leaving many people without anywhere to live. For example, the Maldives (a group of atoll islands – low lying coral reef islands) is a country that is at particularly high risk of ‘disappearing’ due to sea level rise. This is because over 80% of the country is below a meter above sea level, meaning that there is quite a high chance of it being engulfed by rising sea levels. This would force all of the permanent population (currently 522,000 people) to become climate migrants, having to find a home elsewhere. This number of migrants would put pressure on other countries, especially when repeated, over multiple countries affected in the same way. Many of the countries affected, including the Maldives, are popular tourist destinations, and so a whole tourism industry could be hugely affected, leaving many without jobs. Another major concern is that with the loss of these areas, indigenous cultures may disappear.

“ There are currently projects led by some of the island countries most at risk to rising sea levels proposing the construction of floating city-like structures.

understand what a country actually is. The Cambridge dictionary defines a country as ‘an area of land that forms an independent political unit with its own government; a nation considered esp. as a place’. A country ‘disappearing’ would therefore be its loss of any of these criteria.

One widely held projection for the loss of a country, and maybe one that is more likely than not to actually happen, is that a country is completely consumed by rising sea levels. This is caused by two factors, both of which are a direct result of global warming. One of these is that, as the atmosphere warms, it breaks a delicate balance, causing ice (from the poles, Greenland, and inland sources) – some of which have been around for approximately 35 million years – to melt into the sea. Another factor causing rising sea levels is the thermal expansion of the water itself. This means that it takes up more space than the ocean can hold, thus causing the water to take up space which used to be land. This would directly effect the ‘area of land’ part of the definition, and make it very difficult for any kind of government to

There are currently projects led by some of the island countries most at risk to rising sea levels proposing the construction of floating city-like structures. These would act as a ‘replacement’ for the land that is lost due to climate change, meaning that the countries would not ‘disappear’, rather relocate to a man-made location. Another possible cause for the ‘disappearance’ of a country is annexation. This is where a country declares its power over another one, therefore making it part of its own country. This could arguably lead to the disappearance of a country, as the annexed country would lose its ‘own government’ which was part of the criteria of a country. This may occur due to a long term dispute over the land. An example of annexation in the past is the annexation of Eritrea by Ethiopia in 1962. Because Eritrea became under the rule of Ethiopia, and did not have its own government, it no longer fulfilled the criteria of a country.

With so many territorial disputes ongoing today, it is highly likely that annexation will play out at some

time in the future. A whole country being annexed is much less likely to happen, but still quite possible. An example of a modern day territorial dispute involves China and Taiwan. Taiwan, which is an independent island country located about 100 miles off the coast of China, is said by China to be a breakaway province of the much larger country. China says that it should be reunited with Taiwan. However, the Taiwanese people do not believe that they should be part of China, and so refuse to accept this request. This has lead to China displaying military aggression to try to pressure Taiwan into the deal. It is feared that China might go beyond this and attempt to annex the entire country, as they have demonstrated as a threat during military practices. If they did succeed, China would impose their own government upon Taiwan. Because this would result in Taiwan not having an ‘independent political unit with its own government’, it would arguably no longer be a country. However, this is not the full story. Although officially Taiwan might in this case no longer be an independent country, the majority of the citizens would not feel that they belonged to the Chinese state. In fact, in 2021, just 3% of Taiwanese citizens identified as Chinese, indicating that a whole country invasion and annexation of the country would not change the belief among the citizens that their country had ‘disappeared’.

A somewhat less violent, and probably less likely to happen, scenario is the merging of two or more countries to form one. Examples of instances where this could happen include a peaceful unification between China and Taiwan. However, for reasons mentioned in the previous paragraph, this is highly unlikely to play out in reality. However a possibly more likely peaceful unification is one between Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. This would be known as the East African Republic, and would be one single nation, instead of the seven separate ones present today. Every single one of these countries would fall under the rule of a central government, and so lose their ‘own government’, causing them all to no longer be classed as individual countries. The aim of this would be to form a more stable economy for the whole of the new country, through the use of a single currency and lack of trade costs. This stability would make the nation more appealing for influential powers such as the USA or China to trade with. However, this might never come to reality. Purely the number of countries planning to merge raises the fragility and risk of the situation, because just one of the countries deciding not to collaborate could jeopardise the whole plan. Also, a history of tensions and disputes between these and their neighbours, as well as a history of governmental corruption, putting individual leaders before the people, puts this at risk of never reaching a successful ending.

A final way that a country could disappear is the break up of a union country. An example of this is here in the UK. The UK is the United Kingdom, and is its own country.

It encompasses England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland which are also all their own countries, making a complex arrangement governed by a central government in London. Scotland and Wales have their own parliaments, who are able to make laws which have to be passed by the UK government, and Northern Ireland has a National Assembly.

In Scotland, the governing party is the Scottish Nationalist Party (SNP) who have a prioritised policy of independence from the United Kingdom. They say that the UK Government is not acting in the best interests of the Scottish people when it comes to Scottish policies, and that Scotland has the right to indefinitely create its own laws that are best for the country, without the ultimate ruling of another government. In 2014, the SNP held an election to decide if the country would leave the UK. The results were: Leave: 45%, Remain: 55%. However, in recent years, the SNP has called for another election, the results of which could be different. It is unclear what would happen to the UK if Scotland did leave, but what is clear is that although the UK will still have its own land and government, it will not be the same country and will in a way have disappeared.

In conclusion, by some measures, yes a country can disappear. This can be due to rising sea levels, annexation, unification, and partitioning of unions. A country can seem to us like a solid, unchanging fact of life. But if we look at history and science, we can see that a country can not only change, but disappear entirely.

IS IT OK TO CLONE A HUMAN BEING?

By Thomas M - Year 10

Cloning is a recent phenomenon which for many years has simply been something found in science fiction and tabloids, however now it is more possible than ever. It is banned in many countries and organisations as large as the UN have banned any human to be cloned. So why is this and how could it be changed in future – what is the result of cloning?

Cloning was first thought of in 1938, and the first evidence of successful cloning was in 1952. The idea was to remove a nucleus of one cell and create a perfect replica to it inside another cell. The first attempts at what would be described as cloning occurred in 1885. Scientists were heavily scrutinised by the Church which had large control over the Western part of the world, and the colonies these empires occupied. Before the theory of Darwinism and the widespread scientific boom that was carried along with it, the Church made sure anybody that opposed their views were kept quiet, and unable to spread the views to the public. This was largely due to large income from the public going into the Church, and if less people believed in the Christian Catholic/Protestant views then they would make less money, especially people who would spend their money on purgatory or trying to compensate for actions they were ashamed of in order to be able to reach Heaven.

In the AHR act, it was made that cloning of a human became illegal, and anybody pursuing the act of cloning a human would result in the defendant spending ten years in prison. This of course caused many conspiracy theories of why humans weren’t allowed to be cloned – the Illuminati theory, belief in a Matrix or ordinary humans simply being supressed by elite upper class, who were already carrying out cloning activities and didn’t want the research to be expanded further for fear of potential misuse.

The dangers associated with cloning are obvious. A silent takeover of governments may occur if a rival governing body of an enemy state decided to take prominent politicians and replace them with puppets who look like them and control the country of choice without

being able to be accused of tampering. This of course would require a huge amount of planning, however lower security risks could include criminals being able to hide their tracks, the wrong people getting hold of technology such as this, like terrorists, and even lower criminals that could sell it. The most real problem is of course the humanity of it, and if it is really fair to tamper with an Earth that was created in the way it was deliberately, and creating extra humans of perfect genes is against the natural order.

The benefits include the fact that if humans can be cloned then organs can be, and therefore people wouldn’t have to donate their organs for medical reasons or have patients needing them waiting for a donation so the surgery can be carried out to save their life. This would be revolutionary in the medical field, and people of rare blood types could be administered treatment quicker, given only one sample is needed to create perfect copies of them. The advantages are endless, and can include natural immunity for diseases being able to be spread along a newer generation.

The worries were that it wasn’t a humane act to bring someone into the world who was designed. This issue is debated frequently in philosophy, and it is known as a Design argument for humans. Whilst the genes of someone may be the same the person is very much affected by their environment – as an example Hitler may not have grown into the genocidal maniac he was if he was in a different environment, or country, as his hates were largely due to prior experience in a failing country eager to grow after what was seen as cowardice by their leaders in the First World War. Or Bill Gates, if he had grown up in a different city, he may have never had the experience needed to create the technology many

“ The most real problem is of course the humanity of it, and if it is really fair to tamper with an Earth that was created in the way it was deliberately, and creating extra humans of perfect genes is against the natural order. “

use for such important activities today, and the software I am using now to write this, being his Microsoft Word documents.

Another issue may be that the human that is born hadn’t had a choice as to what happened. They were designed possibly to be a child for an infertile couple, who had the father cloned to be the son. The son may feel excluded from others, and the possibility to be himself is taken away due to the fact he can see his father and what he is like, knowing he will physically be like him. It could cause the clone to feel like they have no individuality, and create many different mental health problems for the clone.

Animals are cloned already however, so is it really an issue? Dolly the sheep, a frequent example used of cloning, and probably overused, was a 1996 experiment to clone a perfect replica of a sheep. She died aged 6, which is around half the age of what her species usually grow to be. This is, in a way, an argument against cloning, as it shows there are many issues with cloning that could take many years to iron out and fix, due to the fact research on the topic is illegal. If a human was born to only live a sort of half-life, dying due to complications from their birthing process, then was it right to be born in the first place? These are the issues that mean cloning hasn’t been researched up until now.

Could this be changed? Maybe. The brains of the world right now believe that it is dangerous however, in the words of Bill Gates ‘could save the world’. Of course, a lot goes on behind closed doors that is not seen by the public, and also likely illegal by the elite. After all, if some laws are punishable with fines then it is only a law for the poor. Elon Musk, the leading pioneer in many areas of science, believes it is the future, however minds such as these must be carefully monitored, hence the American governments caution with having Musk put brain chips into the public. Whilst these great minds believe it is the future, it is still a hotly debated topic, and will remain so until someone breaks the guidelines. This could go one of two ways – end in global prosperity and medical revolution for many, or a desolate future where editing yourself is the norm and people are only the product of a lab and their ‘parent’s’ choices.

So, is it ok to clone humans or is it a crime against humanity and the order of natural lives? Well, this can’t be answered correctly. Likely, the trajectory of mankind will be how it was in the past, meaning that a decision will be made that could benefit us or condemn us and both are as likely as each other. When it comes to topics like this, progress must be carefully monitored, or it could result in our own downfall from us taking on too much that we don’t understand.

IS WASTE GENERATION INEVITABLE, OR IS HUMANKIND FAILING TO SEE OPPORTUNITY IN WHAT WE CONSIDER ‘WASTE’?

By Toby R - Year 12

Abstract

‘Waste’ is just a word, a word that at one time in history did not exist. Therefore, at one point in time, the abundance of visual and environmental pollution it creates and the road to climate breakdown did not exist either. So, how is it that waste is being rejected and abandoned to the point that our future living conditions are in jeopardy? By looking back at how the concept of waste came to be, it becomes clear that waste began as a category for objects that lacked value, whether that is land (as referenced in William The Conqueror’s Domesday Book) or an item that was no longer desired by its owner. It was through major scientific discoveries such as sanitation and industrialisation that led to the collective desire to push waste out of a close proximity with humankind, whether to reduce the chances of illness from the contamination it created, or just for aesthetic purposes. Therefore, by putting the needs of humankind ahead of those of our environment, the burden material waste has on the natural world was ignored. Consequently, waste infrastructure was not updated, and the volumes of waste we generate as a growing population has since become overwhelming.

The most frustrating part of this whole waste crisis is the fact that humans created it, as a whole population. Therefore, the population must unite to solve it and so the tendency to blame others arguably becomes

an excuse to delay action. We must instead collectively hold ourselves accountable and realise it is not the waste itself that limits the solutions, but our mindsets. Similarly, it is not the abundance of waste that increases the difficulty in sustainably managing it, but the complexity of these waste materials. Therefore, it is time to shift the conversation of waste once more, as we have done in the past, to the environmental villain it is, and stop prioritising smaller, more conspicuous issues. While climate change may appear to be a problem of the future, it is the action we take now that affects this future.

Introduction

Waste is not the final product. Farm Urban technical director Jens Thomas once stated, ‘In nature there is no waste. Waste is a concept invented by humans who have not yet learnt to see value in what we currently call waste.’[1] Yet waste is a burden. Our waste was once peacefully part of the natural environment, but due to human intervention, the same materials that were once part of planet Earth’s composition are essentially causing their own destruction. On the one hand, quantitative data highlights irreversible elements of this crisis, with less than 10% of plastic waste having ever been recycled, meaning 8 million tonnes of plastics generated from the recent COVID-19 pandemic for example is predicted to end up strewn across coasts over the next century[2]. This is the portrait painted by a species who will not look past the linear ‘take, make, use and dispose’[3] waste stream. In contrast, by shifting the focus from learning about nature, to learning from nature, many argue that all our answers lie beyond humankind in nature, so by simple observation of this, waste can be shifted from an inevitable issue to a prosperous business opportunity. Therefore, should waste be inevitable? Or is humankind failing to find opportunity in a hopeful concept mistaken for rejection?

Resolving such a distinction involves looking back through historic timelines of academic articles to find what led the modern world to reject waste, whether from the problem of inconvenience, antagonist of sanitisation or environmental threat. Then by looking to nature, the supposed source of all these polluting materials, I will see whether or not the natural world has already solved our issue, through Lily Urmann’s podcast discussing biomimicry, a testament to how humankind is not the only stakeholder. Furthermore, a look at three international case studies from German bin-diving, Lush and Repack, taught by Delft University’s circular economy MOOC, will help determine whether there is hope for humanity to learn from nature’s intelligence or if we are bound for a wasted planet. I will define waste as a material item that has been rejected and left in a position to cause environmental damage. I drew this from the Oxford Dictionary’s definition to ‘use or expend carelessly, extravagantly, or to no purpose’[4]. I will assess how unavoidable such waste is based on a criteria of

inevitability, also by considering the Oxford Dictionary’s definition of inevitable of ‘certain to happen; unavoidable’[5] and whether the solutions are sustainable socially (whether it can be understood quickly by all), economically (whether it is cost-effective and promotes economic equity) and environmentally.

Capitalism is not an excuse

Before the miasmic issue of environmental and visual pollution originating from humanity’s scraps, waste was seen as more abstract. Specifically, the “out of sight, out of mind’’[6] idea was used to eradicate sights of waste from populated areas. This viewpoint can be compared to William the Conqueror’s Domesday Book definition of waste as “land which was either unusable or uncultivated, and not taxed”[7]. Therefore, if waste was believed to have no social, economic or environmental value, it was one less thing to think about and so was rejected as quickly as possible. This issue was considered by the sanitisation movement (among individuals such as Florence Nightingale)[8] that encouraged such elimination, bringing to light the risk of toxic ‘waste’ substances seeping into drains, sewers, even cemeteries and air pollution that led to disease and epidemics.

The movement used an analogy of cities as a healthy body:[9] roads (seen as arteries) required paving to enable easier cleaning, flowing through large green lungs (parklands) to provide pure air for residents to breathe while sewers (representing veins) should be built underground to keep humankind’s metaphorical ‘life blood’ (waste) from seeping out into the external environment, otherwise (similar to blood loss) this would prove fatal to humanity, as without developed waste management infrastructure, pollution would flood cities, leading to more frequent and intense epidemics, ultimately leading to the extinction of humankind. This is a promising analogy because not only is this waste issue being considered from a social, health point of view, but an environmental point of view too, and without a healthy environment, a healthy population is impossible. However, the limitations of such a scheme were its temporary nature because as populations increased, these sewers could not meet the increasing demands for waste eradication.

Following World War Two, industrial mass production disseminated the environmental issue of waste. Throwaway culture and the development of fashion trends convinced humanity products eventually become ‘obsolete’. Such culture was due to, as stated by Strasser “their ability to make people feel rich: with throwaway products, they could obtain levels of cleanliness and convenience once available only to people with many servants.’’[10]. This is a convincing argument because throwaway culture has become a societal norm, so not participating put one in the position of being seen as unconventional, perhaps increasing vulnerability to judgement. However, the limitation of this culture is the irony of waste disposal being associated with cleanliness when, in reality, it opened up a whole network of dirty pollution in the environment instead. The viewpoint behind throwaway culture can be compared to economist Charles Babbage’s ‘material dynamics’ and the growth of the ‘Efficiency Movement’[11] between 1880 and 1930 where preventing waste of labour and work potential was prioritised over preventing waste of material. This viewpoint is supported by Henry Ford claiming humanity was only “saving material because it represents labour.’’[12] Therefore, Strasser, Babbage and Ford have highlighted how humanity at this time was so focused on the social and economic burdens of waste, seeing reuse and recycling as unnecessary labour in such an age of industrialisation, that the long-term environmental impacts were ignored. This ultimately led to the immense scale of the environmental crisis today, whether through product-packaging-combinations (PPCs)[13] meaning waste was now more difficult to separate or how ‘non-renewable sources stocks are consumed in the same way renewable production flows.’[14]

But it doesn’t have to be this way. By introducing the economic burden of these waste materials earlier on in their production cycle, before they become waste, disposal can be prevented. For example, if supermarkets apply a fee to plastic carrier bags, previously worthless plastic now holds monetary value, and so capitalist ideals will influence consumers to use that bag as much as possible, to get their value for money. However, its limitations lie in the fact that plastic bags are typically not durable so cannot be sold for a high price. Therefore, the fee will not make much of a difference to residents in high income countries, who are objectively more responsible for waste regardless.

In contrast, from a more local context, perhaps the ignorance towards waste as a global environmental problem until the 1960s was due to the capitalist ‘NIMBY’ (‘Not In My Back Yard’) attitude, which is still prevalent today. Initially characterised by residents within a local community opposing proposed developments in their local area (whether due to noise levels, visual pollution or extra traffic congestion caused by construction vehicles) perhaps stakeholders had to settle for any waste management schemes that would not result in angered

locals, rather than environmentally sound waste disposal. Again, this ‘NIMBY’ attitude limits solving the waste crisis by focusing on social impacts (resident reactions) of waste generation, rather than environmental impacts. Alternatively, variation in economic development across the world means creating global waste management policies is a challenge as some countries may not be able to invest in waste infrastructure development, which could lead to waste being exported and illegally dumped in other countries, which is likely not considered when collecting national waste statistics. Therefore, even collecting waste data to begin resolving the crisis has limitations, failing to establish an accurate bigger picture of waste disposal around the world.

However, this does not eliminate the evidence of waste being viewed positively around the world, whether as a commodity, art or a livelihood, rather than something to reject. The potential of corporate environmentalism is slowly on the rise in fine art from the increasing popularity of environmental movements. Waste materials are gaining value and are becoming sought after. For example, more valuable pieces of waste such as silver residues found in photographic waste require payment to access them. Furthermore, what one industry produces as waste products could fuel another industry’s work. This idea of companies exchanging material by-products, energy and water for each other’s benefit was referred to as ‘industrial symbiosis’[15]. However, these waste exchange schemes are limited by their small scale, so to solve a global waste crisis, such schemes must increase rapidly. In addition to this, the Jardim Gramacho openair landfill site[16] on the outskirts of Rio de Janeiro is providing families with livelihoods by smashing up and burning waste to extract valuable metals. While this provides economic support, landfill sites alone are extremely harmful to the environment and burning waste releases toxic fumes which are fatal to lives. However, it proceeds because here, the waste is ultimately a life line.

Therefore, while business opportunities and livelihoods are being found in waste management on a very small scale, the conversation of waste management must be focused on the environmental issues. Because ultimately, without a stable environment, there is no home to establish a healthy humanity or economic activity. Additionally, contrary to popular belief, capitalism and waste actually have the potential to go hand in hand, simply by shifting how humanity view waste, as a business opportunity, rather than a financial burden. Not only would this shift provide business opportunities, but it would remove waste from the environment through a cyclical waste stream. They are resources after all. Such a shift has clearly occurred in history before, as I have mentioned, so now it is time to identify what humanity is

“

waiting for.

Nature holds the answer

Nature’s definition of what humankind calls ‘waste’ could not be further from our own. Nature sees value and vitality, with ecosystems working together harmoniously to recycle 100% of ‘waste’ material generated, due to the value of ‘waste’ in cyclical nutrient cycles. Nature needs this ‘waste’. It thrives on it. Therefore, in order to begin considering the environmental impacts of waste, the simple act of observing our surrounding environment not only opens our eyes to the dangers of waste pollution, but to the opportunities that arise from its presence. Being inspired by nature is important because it has essentially carved out all the innovation we need to solve our waste crisis. The key to access such solutions is biomimicry. An ancient practice, having only made its way into western academia in the last 40-50 years, Lily Urmann defined the practice on her podcast as ‘We learn from nature’s forms, processes and systems to inspire life-friendly design.’[17] Urmann’s podcast is a valuable source because she interviews a different biomimic in each episode, each from a different field, emphasising just how versatile, transferrable and relevant the practice is across all industry. Therefore, we have a lot to learn from nature.

‘Emulate’

In its simplest form, biomimicry draws upon ‘Life’s Principles’ which Doctor Laura Lee Stevens described on the podcast as 26 patterns present in nature which are all vital for survival. The viewpoint of Stevens can be compared to Sara El Sayed’s reference in a later episode as a ‘blueprint of how to be sustainable on planet Earth.’[18] Both are convincing viewpoints because the fact that such principles have been present for thousands of years indicates their reliability in maintaining a stable environment for species. A sustainable lifestyle has always been carved out for us by nature and our ancestors, yet it appears to have been forgotten through the age of industrialisation, influencing capitalist behaviours of independence. By replacing interdependence with independence, the reduced sense of community causes greater difficulty in uniting to respond to disasters and issues in the world. This is a reason for such procrastination in solving the current waste crisis. However, in contrast, the actions of humankind could be limited by what is an overwhelming task of mimicking natural processes that have originated from thousands of years of ecological succession[19]. Therefore, expecting humankind to achieve what nature has over thousands of years could be argued to be an impossible task. Except there is one difference: humankind is mimicking, not innovating, as the innovation has been done for us by the natural world.

“ Capitalism is not an excuse.

So, in order to begin this process of biomimicry, human kind must reconnect to nature, their home and only teacher.

‘Reconnect’

5 senses. Putting our evolution to work and using them is all that is required to reconnect to our environment. Following World War II, advances in molecular biology essentially caused many to believe the simplicity of natural history was not a worthwhile lesson, requiring a pair of binoculars only, and so was forgotten[20]. This is a convincing argument because it is technological advancements such as these that have created a more chaotic, fast-paced world, and observing the world around us requires slowing down, which typically only occurs towards the end of the working day, when darkness arrives, as does sleep. However, in this age of the environmental crisis, it is observational skills that are crucial for acknowledging where humankind is failing. Solving the environmental crisis has been overcomplicated with greenwashing campaigns and denial because humanity has become so caught up in the fast-paced world of business and industry. In reality, such human activity will only be a temporary success if our environment diminishes. It is observation and environmental awareness that has helped species to survive all through history, yet humanity is ignoring the solutions that are in plain sight.

The issue of natural history has been considered by specialist Tom Fleischner. My initial interpretation of the phrase ‘natural history’ alluded to the past, and while it is interesting to learn about how evolution got us to where we are today, it is not vital for guaranteeing a future on this planet because we cannot control nature. However, in contrast, Fleischner defined ‘natural history’ as “a practice of intentional and focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more than human world guided by honesty and accuracy’’. Fleischner’s viewpoint can be compared to and was inspired by Roman philosopher Pliny’s view of the phrase as not only ‘history’ but an ongoing ‘story’ which humankind are part of and not only a noun but an active verb of the present and a discipline for awareness. This is a convincing argument because the present will eventually be part of history, and having this awareness is vital for accessing the bigger picture of our environment’s evolution and story and through a love for our planet and environment, we will feel motivated to sustain it for future generations to learn all about natural history. There is a similar viewpoint held by Jamie Miller, who specialises in biomimicry in architecture, who stated ‘our thoughts form our environments.’[21] I believe this to be a reliable source because architecture is the ultimate method of creating an interface between humans and nature. By incorporating biomimicry and nature into ‘human’ environments, Miller is encouraging humans and other species to live in harmony rather than division. Therefore, how we think of nature defines if and how we wish to treat or nurture it and so whether we will commit to reusing or finding opportunities in waste to relieve the natural world.

Integrating nature into our lives can take many forms. On the one hand, how we manage our waste currently already shows evidence of biomimicry. For example, separation of waste materials could be argued to mimic decomposition of organic matter in nutrient cycling. Furthermore, the step-by-step nature of decomposition involves several organisms, all serving their own separate, distinctive function[22]. Similarly, humankind can utilise our differences rather than condemn them, to each do our small, distinctive bit to contribute to a more environmentally sound, sustainable waste recycling system. For example, those in power, such as governing bodies or TNCs, can promote and fund such a system, while the public can deal with their household waste in such a way that aligns with such systems, to ensure its success and sustenance. Therefore, biomimicry is already prevalent in society, so it is far from a novel concept.

‘Ethos’

The final step of biomimicry involves putting nature’s lessons into practice, using the natural world as more than a knowledge base, but as a guide through life because ‘ideas are effectively worth nothing until they are implemented.’[23] For example, in her article on ‘The ecology of recycling’, Marian Chertow explained how early studies on ‘green jobs’ suggested there are more jobs available in recycling and composting efforts than disposal and landfill efforts[24]. This is a convincing piece of evidence because jobs for sustainable waste management are not only limited to the environmental sector: sustainability can be applied to any and every job as the environment is all around us, so really nature and tradition[25] go hand in hand, rather than dismiss each other. The argument of Chertow can be compared to National Geographic explorer Jenna Jambeck’s, who stated how ‘we can now open up new jobs and opportunities for economic innovation’[26]. Both arguments are similar because they both emphasise how economic and environmental innovation are mutual and can support each other: without funding, humankind cannot invest in environmentally sound waste management schemes whilst without environmental awareness, there is not a stable environment for businesses and industry to generate this funding.

However, the limitations of such arguments can be seen through the development gap across the world, meaning not everyone has the financial means to invest in environmentally sound methods, especially in a world that relies so greatly on technology to do so. The issue of inequality has been carefully acknowledged by Victoria Burrows in her National Geographic article ‘Lessons from nature – bringing waste back into the cycle’, by considering how it can be cheaper for developed countries to ship waste elsewhere, which has a larger carbon footprint than local management. Such waste could also become contaminated during its journey, making it that much harder to recycle[27]. This is a valuable source, because it argues that at the heart of the burden of waste is and

social inequality. Therefore, I personally believe that until more developed nations hold themselves accountable accepting that they are a major cause for current environmental destruction, behind the false shields of greenwashing campaigns, the issue of waste cannot be truly resolved.

Ultimately, the only innovation required in biomimicry is about shifting our perspectives to ask the right questions to solve our issues. Andrew Howley also provided an example of this action, shifting the viewpoint from ‘Humans should stop doing so much damage’ to asking ‘How can humans be real agents for productivity, assistance and benefit to the rest of the living world?’[28] This argument was also prevalent in Victoria Burrows’s article, where she quoted structural engineer and architect Arthur Huang: ‘It’s about turning local pollution into a local solution.’[29] From these two consistent arguments, as well as what I have mentioned before, it appears clear that finding opportunity in waste is more of a psychological and social challenge, than a physical or mental one.

Waste management around the world

While eliminating waste from source would significantly relieve further environmental degradation, so much waste already exists in the world that there is and will be damage that cannot be prevented, so must instead be adapted to. By exploring such examples of adaptation around the world, we can gain an understanding of how resilient we have been so far in redefining waste as a commodity rather than a nuisance. Using my criteria of inevitability (assessing how unavoidable waste would become if that method was implemented worldwide), I can determine the co-benefits of each solution to not only consider its environmental impact, but how it is sustainable socially and economically, because it is clear that without a personal benefit, many feel unmotivated to change their treatment of waste.

On a local scale, Finnish packaging service “Repack” have implemented the circular economy in their reusable packaging, used for shipping products bought online. All packaging can be reused up to 30-35 times, saving 80% of carbon emissions[30] compared to even recyclable packaging, the next most sustainable option. Through a social lens, sustainability is attractive to customers, especially when they can show environmental consciousness by deciding whether to repurpose the packaging themselves, or send it back for reuse, emphasising how simple adopting a more sustainable mindset can be. Therefore, the ease with which the service is run is clearly socially sustainable. However, the expense of manufacturing durable packaging is not one that falls into the hands of the companies, but the customers who pay for this service[31]. Economically, this may not be as sustainable, as customers may argue shopping in person is less expensive in terms of shipping, however, this in itself generates unnecessary carbon emissions from travelling to the shop. Therefore, until perhaps the costs

are revised, to accommodate those who may not be able to afford such a service all the time, an initiative such as “Repack” may not appeal to a worldwide audience. However, it is definitely another step in the right direction, by putting the mindset of extending a material’s value into a business.

Furthermore, on a national scale, the debate in Germany as to the ethics surrounding bin-diving has been brought to light, following cases of activists being fined 225 Euros a piece and punished with 8 hours of food bank community service for the act[32], despite the food they supposedly stole being disposed of prior. This is ironic when considering it is initiatives like food banks that thrive off said food products. While the federal constitutional court claimed bin-diving was theft, agriculture minister Cem Özdem argued he would ‘prefer our police and our courts to be dealing with [actual] criminals instead.’ and follow in the footsteps of countries such as France, Sweden and the Netherlands who see waste as ownerless property.

In this case, the economic and environmental impacts of bin-diving appear to go hand in hand: food waste is removed from landfill, as is wasted capital supermarkets spent on ordering those products in the first place, especially when considering that popularity of such food products can be unpredictable. However, large institutions such as supermarkets may argue that bin-diving avoids paying the costs, and so are unlikely to support a scheme that does not bring them income. This can lead to reprioritisation of the climate crisis by focusing on economic burdens rather than environmental burdens. However, they can eliminate this burden in the first place, by advocating for the elimination of food waste, through educating customers on ‘use by’ dates and meal planning, and change a population’s mindset, especially when considering that according to research, when 25% of a population adopt a certain mindset, the whole population shifts[33]. Supermarkets could also make predictions as to which products won’t sell before their ‘use by’ date, and donate them to food banks. Those who bin-dive to avoid rising costs could visit these initiatives instead, and access cheaper food at better value, avoiding the risk of bacteria inside a bin, food-poisoning and saving time. Therefore, bringing to light the question of when an item loses its value has been successful in starting the conversation about extending a product’s life cycle, however, supermarkets could implement schemes that prevent health and environmental risks instead of disposing of the food for others to find if they claim that bin-diving is such a significant issue.

Even on an international scale, “Lush” is an interesting case study for the creativity that can arise from the use of pre-existing materials. They too have criteria for sourcing product materials to ensure every product’s sustainability is considered, as explained by packaging buyer, Lee Carpenter: ‘Can we not use packaging?’ If not ‘Can we minimise our packaging?’ Or ‘Can we make

packaging that is recyclable?’ Finally, giving customers the choice between using ‘naked’products (products without packaging) or a sundry-style, refillable packaging[34] clearly demonstrates a brand image completely orientated by sustainability. Packaging buyer Maria Feast explained how ‘naked’ products not only spare polymers, but the cost of transport and its environmental impacts, not to mention sparing the company up to 20-30% of an item’s cost that would have originally been spent on packaging alone (with only 10% spent on the ingredients)[35]. Then, any packaging that can’t be avoided is sourced from cork and disposable, post-consumer cups from high street chains.

Lush has clearly advocated for the importance and to an extent the ease of ensuring a waste product’s life cycle is maximised: all customers have to do is bring empty packaging back to their nearest shop. The fact a simple act as this can help customers feel accomplished in fuelling a sustainable practice is likely to be motivating, and so is more likely to be sustained socially. Economically, naked products are bound to reduce in cost due to lack of packaging, however, such products are unprotected from breakage and wasted money, so the focus on effective packaging will shift to a focus on preventing damage in an environmentally sound way. Therefore, Lush’s environmental consciousness is extremely inspirational, but just ensuring their brand image educates on how to recycle their packaging in and out of the shop for example could increase the accessibility of social and environmental sustainability even more, creating a larger market for sustainable industry. But regardless, Lush provides hope for a world where waste generation is no longer inevitable.

These case studies show that the right steps are being made towards integrating sustainability into retail and industry, however, ensuring clarity in companies’ brand images and consumer education will ensure customers know exactly how they are contributing to the fight against climate change. Bringing sustainable products to the forefront of shopping will increase accessibility for all. Though altogether, it is the actions of these companies which are so vital because essentially, without a stable and inhabitable environment, business will simply be no more.

Conclusions

Waste generation is not inevitable. Waste is just a word or category devised by a species which doesn’t understand its complexity, and so refuses to get involved with what it doesn’t know, a word that once did not exist. Perhaps this is from a fear of failure, expressed through hiding behind the wall of capitalism and centrally planned solutions to the waste problem, holding us back from the storytelling[36] of waste as an opportunity rather than an inconvenience. As Jamie Miller explained to Lily Urmann ‘Our thoughts form our environments.’(37) Therefore, it is not the waste itself that is limiting its own

potential, but our mindsets. This can be changed not only through finally accepting waste as the environmental issue it is, but realising it is not just the abundance of waste that is damaging to our environment, but the complexity of the materials creating this waste.

We already have the innovation and potential to create a world without waste, just as we created a world burdened by the word. Despite this, resilience must be prioritised over efficiency to create genuine change in the world as not everything will immediately fall into place. This is supported by Adam Johnson’s Ted Talk, dismantling the myth that it is governments and company owners who will ‘save’ us, when really, it is the entrepreneurs achieving ‘serendipity’ through networking and supplying each other with fragments of knowledge to build up the bigger picture of how we can solve the issue. This was evident in the case studies of bin-diving in Germany, to the innovative companies of ‘Repack’ and ‘Lush’ which are bringing sustainable shopping to the forefront of public conversation.

Collectiveness is key. For now, humankind is failing to see opportunity in what we consider ‘waste’. But, as I have mentioned, humanity has shifted views towards waste in the past, from seeing it as just an inconvenience, to a health hazard, to an environmental issue. So, in order to live in a world without waste, we must simply shift our view again, seeing material waste as a business opportunity, with the potential to become an environmental saviour instead of a villain. Waste is not the end.

REFERENCE:

1. Jens Thomas, ‘The future of food?’, Biological Sciences Review, November 2019, pp.26-29

2. Victoria Burrows, ‘Lessons from nature – bringing waste back into the cycle’, 30 August 2022, https://www.nationalgeographic. com/science/article/paid-content-lessons-from-nature [23 March 2023].

3. Sustainable Packaging in a Circular Economy [MOOC]. Delft University of Technology, Delft. October 2022 – February 2023. 4-5. Oxford English Dictionary (England: Oxford University Press, 1884-1928).

6. Helena Mateus Jerónimo, ‘Technology and Ecological Values: Confronting Normal Waste as Unavoidable Matter in Modern Society’, in Helena Mateus Jerónimo, ‘New Perspectives on Technology, Values, and Ethics’ (Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science: Springer, Cham, 2015), pp. 183 – 195.

7. Koskela, Lauri, Sacks, R. and Rooke, John, ‘A brief history of the concept of waste in production’, 18-20 July 2012, in University of Huddersfield Repository http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/25197/1/ KoskelaBrief.pdf [23 March 2023].

8-9. Helena Mateus Jerónimo, ‘Technology and Ecological Values: Confronting Normal Waste as Unavoidable Matter in Modern Society’, in Helena Mateus Jerónimo, ‘New Perspectives on Technology, Values, and Ethics’ (Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science: Springer, Cham, 2015), p. 185.

10-12. Koskela, Lauri, Sacks, R. and Rooke, John, ‘A brief history of the concept of waste in production’, 18-20 July 2012, in University of Huddersfield Repository http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/ eprint/25197/1/KoskelaBrief.pdf [23 March 2023].

13. Sustainable Packaging in a Circular Economy [MOOC]. Delft University of Technology, Delft. October 2022 – February 2023.

14. Helena Mateus Jerónimo, ‘Technology and Ecological Values: Confronting Normal Waste as Unavoidable Matter in Modern Society’, in Helena Mateus Jerónimo, ‘New Perspectives on Technology, Values, and Ethics’ (Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science: Springer, Cham, 2015), pp. 183 – 195.

15-16. Marian Chertow, ‘The ecology of recycling’, UN Chronicle, Volume 46, Issue 4, p. 58.

17. ‘What is biomimicry?’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [pocast] Podcasts, 23 August 2022.

18. ‘Life’s Principles and a Regenerative Food System with Dr. Sara El Sayed’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [pocast] Podcasts, 23 August 2022.

19. Neellohit Banerjee, ‘Nature’s Efficient Recycling System Makes Sure Nothing Ever Goes ‘Waste’’, 24 February 2022 https://wildlifesos.org/conservation-awarness/natures-efficient-recycling-system-makes-sure-nothing-ever-goes-waste/ [23 March 2023].

20. ‘Natural History and Our Love for the World with Tom Fleischner’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [pocast] Podcasts, 23 August 2022.

21. ‘1 Billion Bio mimics and Biomimicry in Architecture with Jamie Miller’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [pocast] Podcasts, 23 August 2022.

22. Neellohit Banerjee, ‘Nature’s Efficient Recycling System Makes Sure Nothing Ever Goes ‘Waste’’, 24 February 2022 https://wildlifesos.org/conservation-awarness/natures-efficient-recycling-system-makes-sure-nothing-ever-goes-waste/ [23 March 2023].

23. ‘Biophilia and Creating a Life-Friendly Future with Timothy McGee’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [pocast] Podcasts, 23 August 2022.

24. Marian Chertow, ‘The ecology of recycling’, UN Chronicle, Volume 46, Issue 4, p. 60.

25. ‘Life’s Principles and a Regenerative Food System with Sara El Sayed’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [podcast] Podcasts, 14 September 2022.

26-27. Victoria Burrows, ‘Lessons from nature – bringing waste back into the cycle’, 30 August 2022, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/paid-content-lessons-from-nature [23 March 2023].

28. ‘All About AskNature with Andrew Howley’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [podcast] Podcasts, 7 April 2022.

29. Victoria Burrows, ‘Lessons from nature – bringing waste back into the cycle’, 30 August 2022, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/paid-content-lessons-from-nature [23 March 2023]. 30-31. Sustainable Packaging in a Circular Economy [MOOC]. Delft University of Technology, Delft. October 2022 –February 2023.

32. Oliver Moody, Germany could legalise bin-diving to reduce food waste, 3 January 2023, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ germany-will-legalise-bin-diving-to-reduce-food-waste-sskhsfxdh#:~:text=A%20senior%20German%20minister%20has,waste%20 and%20feed%20the%20hungry. [18 April 2023].

33. ‘1 Billion Biomimics and Biomimicry in Architecture with Jamie Miller’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [podcast] Podcasts, 4 October 2022.

34-35. Sustainable Packaging in a Circular Economy [MOOC]. Delft University of Technology, Delft. October 2022 – February 2023.

36. Adam Johnson, ‘A world without waste’, lecture delivered at a local TEDx event (27 January 2015).

37. ‘1 Billion Biomimics and Biomimicry in Architecture with Jamie Miller’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [podcast] Podcasts, 4 October 2022.

38. ‘Biophilia and Creating a Life-Friendly Future with Timothy McGee’, Learning from Nature: The Biomimicry Podcast with Lily Urmann [podcast] Podcasts, 10 June 2022.

39. Adam Johnson, ‘A world without waste’, lecture delivered at a local TEDx event (27 January 2015).

COULD A COUNTRY DISAPPEAR?

By Zoravar R - Year 10

Firstly, what defines a country? An environment suitable to live maybe, or a land area with laws in place and a monetary system? Well, a country is a nation with its own government, occupying a particular territory. The countries with the largest land mass and population include China, India, the US and Indonesia – and it would be hard for these countries to disappear, right? I am here to deliver a speech as to how a country or even countries could disappear. This will be shared to you in three parts, due to climate change, due to countries splitting or merging and if the government dissolved / an invasion.

Climate change has become a much larger and apparent issue in our modern society, but where has it stemmed from? The industrial revolution was the major start of the consumption of coal and other fossil fuels in England, formally starting in Scotland. Tons of fossil fuels were expelled into the earth’s atmosphere, ultimately resulting in a breakage in the Ozone layer. And up until now, this dramatic change in how we operate machines has seen a substantial increase. 35 billion tonnes of fossil fuels are burned each year – harming the environment. But what does a breakage in the Ozone layer mean and how does it make a country disappear? With the inevitable deterioration of the Ozone layer, droughts, storms, heat waves and the warming of the oceans are becoming more frequent. Well, just last year, in July, the UK experienced the highest temperature ever recorded in its history. 40.3 degrees. To put this in perspective, the average temperature in India’s hottest month (May) is 36 degrees. Along with these effects come rising sea levels.

Rising sea levels is the result of two factors due to global warming: the added water from melting ice sheets and glaciers, and the expansion of seawater as it warms. The glaciers are melting fastest and predominantly in Antarctica and Greenland, Antarctica losing ice mass at an average rate of around 150 billion tons per year; Greenland melting at a rate of 270 billion tons. Now the way seawater expands when the temperature rises, the particles have more internal or rather kinetic energy, meaning they move much faster, taking up more room and expanding. This is a massive issue, as the sea levels continue to rise, countries and territories will be at risk of an underwater

experience, in a negative way. The UK is 162 metres above sea level, France 322 meters, India 621 metres, Venice just 1 metre and the Maldives 2 metres. Micronesia, a cluster of Pacific Islands will feel the full changes of the sea level rise, many are going to be underneath the water by 2050. Amsterdam, the capital of the Netherlands, a thriving hub for innovation could be underwater by 2030. Sea level rise is one of the most dramatic impacts of climate change, islands and countries seeing an end to their lives, in such a simple way. By 2050, the sea level will rise by 12 inches. This is one way a country can disappear.

My second way a country could disappear is if invaded, merges with another country or split into a cluster of countries. WW1 was one of the biggest changes to countries’ statuses. Nine million soldiers were killed in combat and another five million civilians died as a result of military action in the war. There were two coalitions who fought, the Allies, consisting of France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan and the United States; and the Central Powers, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). Fighting occurred throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific and parts of Asia. A total of three empires collapsed during the war, the Russian Empire in 1917, the German and the Austro-Hungarian in 1918, and the Ottoman in 1922. Austria-Hungary also dissolved during the Great War, however interestingly, before that happened, Archduke Franz Ferdinand developed a plan where the country would actually be broken down into 13 semiautonomous states (meaning acting independently to some degree), roughly following cultural boundaries. This would be a great example as to how a country could somewhat disappear, but the Archduke had to get shot, ruining the example. But all hope was not lost, as when he was assassinated, the Allies invaded the country, dismantling it into

Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The country stood for a total for 51 years, not comparing to China’s 3500 years age. Which leads me onto my next example, Yugoslavia. It was suddenly created after WW1, which had originally belonged to the powerful empires of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Both of these empires were broken up, and the southern Slav nations were pushed into a single state, Yugoslavia (merge of nations into one country). This is how one country can disappear, or rather two countries, through a split and then merge. After this merge of the southern nations, many of the nations broke away from Yugoslavia over the century, including Croatia in 1991 and Montenegro and Serbia in 2006 (both in the summer). This is the split of nations into singular countries, another way a country can disappear. The second world war was the other shake up of countries and their statuses. The main allies included China, the US, the UK and Russia. The main axis included Italy, Germany and Japan. 70 million is a rough estimate of the casualties, 3% of the population of the world at the time, which would have been around 2.3 billion. Germany was divided into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), and East Germany or the German Democratic Republic, in 1949. Germany was unified in 1990, when the West Germany had to share it’s GDP, which they probably wouldn’t be thrilled about.

Going back to the climate change issue, with the rise in temperature, we will also see a decrease of water in quite arid countries, lying close to the equator. Even though sea level rise will happen, this will mainly happen around the countries north and south of the equator, due to the higher temperatures (sea water expansion when heated) and the fact they are near the glaciers which will melt. These countries include Lebanon, Burkina Faso, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Egypt and Ethiopia are some of the first countries which might face this dramatic decrease in water in the country due to the high temperatures posed due to climate change. The river Nile is a main source of fishing, trade and drinking water, the Nile flows from south to north, the source lying in Tanzania, near Lake Victoria, as seen in the Africa Special of Top Gear. Ethiopia implemented The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, or GERD, costing billions of dollars. Since the first brick was laid back in 2011, Egypt has tried to stop this dam from being built, at times, military conflict has seemed close. The first phase of filling the reservoir began in July 2020 and August 2020. The water was successfully increased, 40 metres higher than the bottom of the river which is at 500 metres above sea level. The Nile passes through the country of Ethiopia first, before it reaches Egypt, so if Ethiopia puts in a dam which is legally in their country, they can store and use some of the water along with making some hydroelectric energy (as seen in the power plant). This limits the amount of freshwater entering Egypt (the Nile is not salt water). The second and third phase of filling was completed in the summer of 2021 and 2022, water level increased to around 575 metres in 2021, and to 600 metres in 2022. It

will take 4 to 7 years to fill the dam and reservoir with the fresh water. Egypt is a far more dehydrated than Ethiopia, and if Ethiopia are already looking into the future to try to increase their water availability (especially in the dry low-flow months), it is inevitable for some kind of disagreement to break out. Egypt’s water share will be decreased from 12 to 25 percent during the filling period. In 2013, senior Egypt politicians were caught on camera discussing whether to destroy the dam. In 2018, the chief engineer and public face of the dam Simegnew Bekele was found dead in his vehicle in Addis Ababa. It is inevitable, as soon as 2030, as the rising temperatures get so out of control (the UK will be getting averages in the summer of 40 degrees in 2050), Egypt may involve military action to try to destroy the dam, restoring the water which once stood on their share of the Nile river. This will might lead to an invasion as a result of climate change.

My last way a country could disappear is if the government dissolved. To remind you about what a country is, it is a nation with its own government, occupying a particular territory. Kurdistan, the world’s largest ethnic group without its’ own territory, is an example of what not a country is, a country should tick both boxes. Kurdistan has a government but not a territory, so officially, it is not officially recognised as a country. So, what if an already standing countries government somehow dissolved? This would mean without a government but still with the territory, the country would not stand. This was seen in the Gunpowder Plot, when Guy Fawkes tried to blow up the Houses of Parliament, in doing so trying to get rid of the Catholic government. Another example is when Germany, in World War 2, invaded Belgium (a neutral low country), in order to take over France. It took Germany 14 days to invade and conquer Belgium, longer than expected. But they still did take over Belgium,

“ The glaciers are melting fastest and predominantly in Antarctica and Greenland, Antarctica is losing ice mass at an average rate of around 150 billion tons per year; Greenland is melting at a rate of 270 billion tons. “

removed the government, and the country of Belgium no longer stood. The USSR was formed in 1922, comprising of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine – through invasion. It was later dissolved in 1991, the first to break away were Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Other nations then soon escaped, obviously including Russia and Ukraine. Russia, now wanting to re-establish the Soviet Union, trying to re-capture Ukraine. Tibet was 1,971 years old, until it was annexed by China, in 1951. Over 1.2 million Tibetans (one out of every six) have died as a result of the Chinese occupation, with thousands of Tibetans being imprisoned. Over 6000 monasteries have been destroyed.

Out of all three examples in our modern world, the most common way a country could disappear would be through climate change, if we do not act now to try and reduce the impact of climate change, countries will

disappear, natural disasters will become more frequent and more lives will be lost. Ways we can help reduce this impact and become carbon net zero are by: considering our travel, throwing away less food, recycle more, saving energy at home and even eating more vegetables (as this will make the meat industry decline). Ultimately, we need our governments to make countries net zero by 2050, or we will not be able to reverse climate change. 110 countries have already made this pledge, at the COP 26 summit, including USA, Japan Australia and Korea, but many to not believe in these promises.

To conclude, I have talked through three ways a country could disappear, through climate change and rising sea levels, through an invasion, merge or split of countries and lastly if the government of the country dissolved.

HOW WILL A.I. GENERATED ART AFFECT THE FUTURE OF THE CONCEPT ART INDUSTRY WITHIN THE GAMES INDUSTRY?

By Tristan C - Year 12

Introduction

The theme and idea surrounding this dissertation first arose when I found a video from a reputable artist talking about AI art. At the time, I had no clue what that meant, or what it entailed at all. After some further research, and some reaching out, I was offered to test one of the emerging programs which were used to create this AI art, by the name of “Dall-E2”. As a personal hobbyist who dabbles in art, and someone studying computer science, I found it extremely interesting at being able to have a view on both matters, AI being very computer science related, and concept art specifically being something that I wanted to pursue as a career. Therefore, I’ve decided to write this dissertation to explore the different points of view on both sides, for programmers and researchers, and the artists who are potentially at risk.

What is the gaming industry?

The gaming industry is a vast one, with many different roles from all corners of the creative, engineering, technical and marketing spectrums, to name but a few, required to eventually create a “video game” – games that are played on computers, consoles or any digital format. Its set to become one of the largest industries in the world, and also one of the leading job providers in the future. However, one of the core stages of the industry, the “creative” stage, is coming under intense

pressure from new and upcoming technologies. This new technology is “AI Generated and Powered artworks”, released to the public in around April of 2022, and more to come with “The rate of innovation… has been extraordinary” according to technology journalist Thomas Claburn[1]. My dissertation will be exploring the effects that this new technology has on specifically the concept art industry, and its role within the wider games industry and game development lifestyle.

Concept art

A groundwork concept needs to be established firstly, and that is what is the “game development life cycle”? Whilst there is no defining ‘way’ to create a game as philosophies depend on the studio, there is a broadly accepted method which game studios, big and small, follow. As Adam Kramarzewski and Ennio De Nucci, both renowned game developers who’ve worked in the industry for over 20 years, state, “it all starts with an idea”. From that idea, a team of people needs to be assembled, and responsibilities founded. This is called the ‘conceptual’ phase. Here, it is mostly writers and game designers at work, who are thinking up a concept to present to potential investors and the press. Teams are also assembled, and include software engineers, artists, programmers, and management. Once a team has been set-up, we move to the ‘pre-production phase’. This phase of the game development life cycle includes fleshing out the basic components of the game to be developed and build on the ideas and concepts presented in the conceptual phase. Importantly, this is also when artists and concept art start becoming involved, as these are the first early stages of art direction being implemented into the development life cycle. Timelines and due dates are set, as well as limited demonstrations to the public and press, usually to garner some sort of funding. Finally, production begins once a clear consensus on the art direction and programming has taken place, and the ‘production phase’ can begin. This phase is where the Concept art industry is at its most critical point. Large swathes of quick, rough ideas are sketched, drawn, and produced and presented to environment artists, or main game artists, as a reference to what needs to be modelled or created, and largely determines the style. These ‘concept’ images are taken as a foundation for the theme, size, atmosphere and feel of a scene[2].

However, this is now at risk, as new rising technologies powered by ‘AI’, or Artificial Intelligence, are becoming readily available to the public and companies. These new technologies have the ability to replicate and even create their own works of art to a certain extent, with some degree of imitation of atmosphere and mood. Therefore, there is now a fear by artists that they may become replaced by these technologies, which on the surface seen much cheaper, quicker, more reliable and easier to use[3].

What areas of the games industry need concept art?

Every game that is being produced will follow a “development cycle”. There are different types of development cycles which reflect different approaches to how a development team would approach developing a game based on what type of game it is. No matter which cycles they use, they will always at least go through the “design phase”[4], which is part of the conceptual phase which is mentioned above. As previously mentioned, it is when a team is assembled to create conceptual artistic representations of how the final product will look. This phase is extremely important as it defines the way a product will look, as well as being present every time a game is being developed, no matter how it is being developed. Therefore, A.I art is likely to have a huge impact, as it will require a crucial step in how all games are developed to be changed and evolve.

AI, what it is and how it works.

Another concept that needs to be addressed is what ‘AI Generated and Powered art’ actually is. In the context being discussed, when I refer to ‘AI Generated Art’, or ‘AI art’, I’m referencing art that has been generated by one or more ‘neural networks’, which have been ‘trained’ on publicly available samples of artistic work submitted by humans.

There is a misconception between Neural Networks and AI, and this needs to be addressed as both are present in this dissertation, but they both play significantly different roles. A Neural Network comprises what are called ‘neurons’, and are a smaller, scaled down

version of how our brain works. Instead of receiving electrical signals like a brain, these virtual neurons take arbitrary units as an input, such as numbers. Any number of inputs can be taken, with only a single output. All of these inputs are processed with a specific formula, which, on top of the already given inputs, applies certain ‘weights’, numbers which are designed to increase or decrease the output.

The final output uses the formula OUTPUT=Weight 1*Input 1+Weight 2*Input 2…

The final number which is outputted is a number between -1 and 1, with 1 representing that the network is a definite yes to what it sees, whilst -1 is a definite no. Depending on these outputs and the intended result, the weights are adjusted until the network understands which weights it has to apply to get the right result. This is repeated with different inputs, and over time, the network learns how to apply different weights to get different results[5].

AI, short for ‘Artificial Intelligence’ however, is a much broader term used for programs which can learn from themselves and follow the theory behind their such way of learning. A Neural Network is a type of Artificial intelligence, and it applies certain theory aspects of AI, but it is not AI itself.

Throughout this dissertation, I will be specifically looking at art which has been achieved via the use of ‘stable diffusion’ AI algorithms. These use prompts and inputs from what is called a ‘GPT model’, an algorithm trained on billions of conversations to understand the meaning of words, and how they work within a sentence. These networks are usually trained on masses of data and text gained and found on the internet via the use of other complex algorithms called “web scrapers’’. This information usually includes alt text, text used to describe an image, various patterns found within images, and colour and transparency information found in these images, and their relation to what the image actually is, such as its name and subject. Although web scrapers aren’t necessarily the main point of focus in this dissertation, it is important to remember that they play a huge role in how the data on which these models are trained on is collected. It is therefore useful to keep in mind that a Webscraper, or something that ‘webscrapes’ is a specific piece of code used before these neural networks have been trained and are used to gather the initial data. This data is then processed and fed to the neural networks for them to use ‘Artificial Intelligence’ to learn what the images are, and how to replicate them[6].

With these very computationally complex tools at our disposal, the question remains if these new emerging technologies will be able to influence an equally emotionally complex topic, especially in Concept Art within the Gaming Industry, an industry where many people put a lot of their emotions into their work and display.

Costs involved with AI art

The human costs:

One of the main questions that will be posed is who will be affected the most within the concept art stage of the Game design process, and how many of them will be affected. The US is the second largest gaming market after China, with the Silicon Valley being home to over half of the top 10 Game Companies in America. Over 117 IPOs are based in the Silicon Valley, with Investing website Investopedia, responsible for reporting financial news and trusted by investors alike, estimating that the companies present in the area are worth an estimated combined £253 billion as of 2020[7].

These companies have extremely high costs in regard to employees, with technical engineers, programmers and management roles being the norm[8]. Usually, artistic roles such as Concept Art are some of the least paid roles. The US Bureau of Labour Statistics states that the average income for artistic roles such as animation, concept art, graphic art and multimedia art was at $77,700. However, the upper 10% earned over $142,630, although this is a broad category of artistic roles. The specific salary of concept artists specifically ranged heavily from the experience which they had to the type of company they worked for. For example, EA games (alternatively known as Electronic Arts) reportedly pay its concept artists an average of $68,242 according to Yahoo finance, a well-known and credited website by economists for its predictions and updates on economic areas, such as the wage market[10].

Using these statistics, we can determine that the average artist, which includes concept artists, earns just over 12% more than the national US average of $69,392 [11], making them fairly well paid. The amount of money that a company would spend on a concept artist will depend heavily on the length of time needed to make a game. Usually, the concept stage is the second stage of game development, after initial ideas have been put forward. Concept artists will usually go through several design iterations before having a design approved, usually between 2-8 or more according to concept artist Trent Kanuiga[12], who was a professional concept artist for large game companies such as Electronic Arts, Blizzard and others since the 2000s. This iterative process means however that concept artists can usually take between 10-80 hours[13] on a single piece, equivalent to roughly equivalent to between $373.60 to $2,998 when we estimate the hourly wage based on the statistics above. Considering that there are hundreds of pieces that need to be done, on top of multiple teams of artists creating the art, the cost of human concept artists slowly grows over the course.

Adding to the fact that worldwide wages in markets like the US, UK and China are rising at a rapid rate, it would appear that the cost of artists is rising. So how does A.I affect and change that?

The AI costs:

There are several different services which one may use to generate AI art, and all of them use different algorithms, leading to different results. The two most popular and frequented websites are ‘Dall-E2’ by OpenAi, and ‘Midjourney’ by a company of the same name. I will be using these two AI art service providers and their prices to denote how much cheaper A.I art is to make, but also how the prices are calculated when compared to how salaries of concept artists are decided.

Dall-E2 pricing:

The way payment for AI is calculated is by charging the user ‘per token’. A ‘token’, as described on the OpenAi website, is a collection of pieces “of words used for natural language processing. For English text, 1 token is approximately 4 characters or 0.75 words.” These tokens are then sent to the provider which runs the AI service. After it has received the token(s), it processes and analyses them, until a desired product is found, in this case an image or collection of images. Finally, the image is sent back for the user to see[14].

The price of the token depends on the type of ‘language model’ used. These are algorithms which are trained to recognise words and phrases and attribute them to certain objects or items, in this case items to be drawn. However, different language models are trained on different sets of data, meaning that one type of model will have an ever so slightly different interpretation of what a word or phrase should be linked to than another. This means some are used in different use cases, and are more or less expensive to train, affecting their use price per token[15].

The way these tokens are applied is by prompting the user in an app or website to enter a text prompt for the AI to generate an image out of. After breaking down the sentence(s) into tokens, the AI then proceeds to assess and evaluate the meaning of each token, and its relation within the broader sentence, a process which will be explained in later chapters. After that, the AI will use different techniques depending on the algorithm used to generate images. Finally, the image is refined via several processes and eventually displayed to the user.

A factor to consider when calculating the price of these AI images, and how they compare to those of actual Concept artists, we need to look at the final outputted image. Concept artists are usually not restricted to the size of their piece, nor its resolution. Outputted A.I images however are limited to how big and refined they can be, as the higher the resolution, size and detail, the longer it is to process, refine and output. Furthermore, more detailed pieces will usually require more Tokens, thus making it more expensive for very specific pieces. These drawings are around 2000x1200 pixels on a screen[16]. This means that it takes just over 2 AI drawings to fill out a typical concept art sheet, which would cost roughly just above $0.040 when using the Dall-E2 service.

Midjourney pricing plan:

The second most popular AI art program is called Midjourney. Midjourney has a different pricing plan to that of Dall-E2. Instead of charging a user ‘per token’ like Dall-E2, Midjourney instead charges users per ‘prompt’.

Midjourney operates on the Discord platform, a messaging service, and is accessed by messaging a ‘bot’ – a user who is controlled by A.I, with certain command. Midjourney describes the process as ‘Commands are used to create images, change default settings, monitor user info, and perform other helpful tasks. The /imagine command generates a unique image from a short text description (also known as a Prompt)’[17].

Midjourney charges users per prompt, with 25 being free when a user first uses the service. However, for more images a user is forced to sign up to a plan, which denotes how many prompts they can send and a price for doing so. 200 prompts per month would cost a user 10$ a month. Each prompt generates 4 images, so it would cost a user around $0.05 for each prompt. Companies that earn more than $1,000,000 a year, which would be those who would need these technologies for such things as concept art, would pay $60 a month, reduced to $576 a year[18].

If these prices were to be compared to the average salary of a multi-media artist earning $77,700 a year, we can deduce that an AI, no matter which of the two services used, would still be much cheaper per year than employing an actual concept artist. Therefore, it could prove to be an incentive to companies who would wish to cut their costs, especially during periods such as recessions or cost of living crises, to instead employ or use an AI to do iterative work such as Concept art at a low cost. AI are also not subject to employment benefits or workers protections. In the US, these would include

[19]:

• Health Insurance

• Retirement Benefits

• Leave Benefits

• Medical Leave

• Life Insurance

These would change depending on the country or the political area from which an AI is being operated. For example, there are stricter laws regarding workers’ rights and unionisation in areas such as the EU or countries like the UK[20]. However, it shows that many of the cost’s companies do have are rights related, and this is because as employees are human, they are subject to Human Rights to the extent of which the country in which they work has implemented them. These rights, as suggested in the name, only apply “All human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality… or any other status” as described by the United Nations[21]. Since an algorithm isn’t “human”, it can’t have any benefits, as well as the fact that it doesn’t need any of the benefits. This means that again, it is a huge incentive for companies to replace some of the more expensive aspects of the Game design process which can be easily converted to being ‘iterable – meaning that a process can be repeated and refined over a short period of time – and utilising AI instead.

Copyright and ownership

Current laws:

Ownership and copyright of a work is a very heated part of the discussion of AI art, for concept art in the games industry and art in general. Depending on the type of contract an artist has signed for a game company, the copyright of the final art piece is usually held by the company the art was produced for, but accredited to the artist themselves, which allows them to also show and use the art for portfolios, expositions, and other public uses. The consequence of the technology being so new means that there isn’t a specific of universally accepted copyright laws for AI specific generated art. It depends on the country, with a majority of countries, such as the US, as well as the region of the EU, requiring a human to be the author for a work to be eligible for copyright. US copyright law states “For the state to register an original work of authorship… provided it was created by a Human being”[22]. Other laws such as EU law are more ambiguous, stating works must “reflect the authors own intellectual creation”[23], which implies that the work must reflect an author’s “personality, feelings or emotions”[24], which machines aren’t believed to possess, therefore requiring the user to be human. Who owns the

“ The impacts are bound to be felt, and to be widespread, especially within the games industry. “

art is specifically important, as without the protection of copyright, it would mean that other companies and/ or artists could easily either replicate or outright steal the art were it to be AI generated, which could instead discourage companies from using AI at all.

Alternatives and case studies:

However, due to the ambiguity and lack of a unified approach, there have been some exceptions, such as the UK, Hong-Kong, Japan and China, amongst others. There are two alternative methods which have been brought forward on how an AI generated item could get copyright. The first would be arguing that the author of the program should be given the credit and copyright, as they created the program, and are therefore responsible for subsequent use of the program, unless stated otherwise or if the program is made “open source” – meaning others can use it and edit it, which would convolute who the true author of the program is. This is backed up by UK copyright law specifically stating that “In the case that a… work which is computer-generated, the author shall be taken as the person by whom… the creation of the work is undertaken”[25].

Another way of solving things would be to give copyright to the person who wrote the text prompt which the algorithm then used. This is because the person who writes the prompt is technically responsible for the subject or topic of the output, and therefore have creative control about what is going to be generated. These questions were first brought up in the mainstream media in 2018, where the first AI artwork was sold at auction brought up debates as to who the money should be given to. The piece, named ‘Edmund de Belamy’, was produced by a collection of different people, and this led to the argument of who would receive the pay for it when it sold for $432,500[26]. The piece was created using a GAN (Generative Adversarial Network) –a type of algorithm, which had been trained by being fed to recognise and reproduce artworks by the Dutch artist Rembrandt from the free website WikiArt[27]. However, the algorithm provided was edited by the 19-year-old artist and technologist ‘Robbie Barrat’[28], updating older code originally written by computer scientist ‘Ian Goodfellow’, who wrote the original GAN algorithm and theory. To complicate matter further, the final outputted image was able to be displayed using technology written by 3 employees from Google. In the end, it was decided that the Parisian based art collector ‘Obvious’, who commissioned the artwork and thought of the prompt, would be given full ownership of the image, and therefore would receive all of the profits.

Issues related to reference material:

Another issue arises when referencing copyright for AI generated art, and it comes down to the original material that an algorithm was shown to generate images.

Algorithms work primarily on being given a set of images to be trained on. These images are taken off of the internet on sites such as WikiArt[29] or Pinterest, and as well as image results for search terms. However, most of the time, these algorithms are fed the images without the consent or knowledge of the artist, meaning that many artists are having their copyrighted intellectual property being downloaded and analysed against their will. This was realized when artist Lauryn Ipsum found out that her signatures were present on certain AI generated images, as well as certain aspects of her style and characters being ‘ghosted’ – meaning that a faint outline of the original image was visible[30], despite her having never given consent to her images being used to train data.

The Images are then processed via a method called ‘denoising’ – where the algorithm learns certain patterns in the data of the image, such as colour, position and shape and through thousands of trial-and-error attempts starts to reconstruct it until the outputted image is the same as the input image. This is then done on a huge scale, with each specific pattern being stored alongside a text description inside of an ‘array’ – a graph where one axis represents the prompt, and another represents the unique data associated with said prompt[31]. This would mean that were companies in the games industry to use AI as a resource for concept art, they would likely get very similar or duplicate results, or outright copies of images that were used to train the algorithm. This would mean that games would not only lose their uniqueness or ‘touch’, but it would also mean that companies would be unable to determine who made their art, which could lead them into very unstable copyright territory, therefore again discouraging companies from actually using AI art in the games industry, and possibly driving them to keep their human artists.

4 digital artists have therefore filed a lawsuit against Midjourney – the company responsible for many of the AI generated images circulating the internet. These artists have alleged that “Stability (Midjourney) have scraped, and thereby copied, over 5 billion images from websites to use as training data… Stability (Midjourney) did not once ask for consent or permission from either the artists or owners of the images being scraped” and “did not seek to negotiate any license with the owners of the images being scraped”. As a result, they are arguing that their art, which they hold sole copyright and ownership to, has been illegally “stored and compressed to train data models against our choice”[32]. This has had a substantial impact on many artists, who have consequently found that their art was being recorded and stored by programs such as Photoshop and popular art websites such as Deviant Art. The outcomes of this lawsuit would require that AI art programs either pay artists who have their art included in data used to train the algorithm, or that the money generated by these algorithms have a small share given to the original artists.

Possible positive impacts:

Responses from OpenAI:

However, despite this negative press, the CEO of OpenAI – the second of the leading AI art companies –Sam Altman, has described how he imagines AI art could be used for the better and benefit of society, whilst also catering and respecting the jobs of artists.

In an Interview with the MIT technology review – one of the leading technology research groups – Altman showed a very different view from artists who felt that they were under threat. On the subject of copyright relating to training the AI itself, Altman remarked “We wanted to talk to those people who would be most negatively impacted first, and allow them to get used to it…The world I would like us… to get to is where if you are helping train an AI… you should somehow own [earn from] a part of that model”. This presents a very optimistic approach which could help resolve the earlier grievances relating to copyright, where artists could earn some sort of ‘royalties’ based on how much they contributed to the training of a model, whilst also giving consent to having their art be used in such a model[33].

Altman went on to say that although he thought there was going to be a “major transition” for artists and illustrators, he believed that there would be a result of “the amount [of work] one illustrator will be willing to do will go up by 10 or 100 times”. This would be a positive aspect of AI art from both the concept artist and the employer. It’ would theoretically allow for more efficient work, as A.I technology could be used alongside a human concept artist to give them ideas, a vague sense of creative direction, and would therefore speed up the entire concept art phase. This in itself would also have positive impact on the employer, as it would mean that game creation could be sped up significantly and would therefore allow games to be put out onto the games market much quicker. The result of this would be the ever-increasing speed of output for the games industry, which would consequently enlarge its value to be much higher than already forecast.

In this scenario, as Altman described, it would be a world where everyone is included and reaping the rewards of AI, whilst also keeping the need for concept artists. Therefore, the impact on the games industry would be hugely positive, as would the impact be on the concept art industry.

New jobs and careers:

Another possible positive impact would be the displacement of jobs rather than their outright removal. Concept artists are supposed to provide a vague concept to be built off of, not necessarily an entirely new and finished product. AI art is heavily dependant on the prompt given and depending on the quality of the text and language used to describe a prompt, the quality of the output image changes. Therefore, new jobs have already started to pop

up within the gaming industry and other industries such as marketing, offering the job of a “prompt giver”[34]. concept artists are need to understand the relation between their given prompt for their job, as they need to understand the relation between words and the canvas. Therefore, it would mean that with the rise of AI art, instead of concept artists necessarily being the ones to actually make the art, they would be some of the most qualified people to instead write prompts for the art to be generated, as they would understand the relationship between certain factors of a given project and its output.

Below is an example of how a prompt can change the given piece of art:

Notice how the more detailed prompt generated a more specific output, whereas the first prompt only generated vague, generic pictures. The outputs would be much clearer, specific and tailored were an artistic expert, like a concept artist, to be the one inputting the prompt.

Figure1:Thiswasgeneratedwiththeprompt:Conceptartforamedievaltown.

Figure2:Thiswasgeneratedwiththeprompt:MoodyanddarkConceptartfora medievaltown,rundownandputrid,andovergrow,digitalart,oilpainting

Possible negative impacts:

Ethical and moral impacts:

However, there are several ethical and moral impacts which could be seen as negative. Morally, from a financial point of view, concept artists are still much more expensive than AI generated artworks, and there could easily be a temptation to let many of the artists go. The concept art industry is already extremely competitive[35], and the reduction in concept artists, whilst putting them against the much cheaper AI art, could result in an extreme increase in the pressure and requirements to get such a job.

The pay for these concept artists could also decrease substantially. Artists could become to be seen as expendable and therefore less worthy of pay, which would affect over 70,000 people in the US and over several hundred thousand worldwide.

Conclusion:

I have shown that there are multiple possible impacts from the introduction of AI art, especially regarding concept art within the games industry. I feel that I have proposed a balanced view that shows the downsides of such an introduction, such as ethical issues, economic issues and employment impacts, as well as financial incentives and positives of AI art, such as speeding up the throughput of the games industry, increasing productivity and helping concept artists with their work and jobs.

No matter whether or not the impacts are positive or negative, the impacts are bound to be felt, and to be widespread, especially within the games industry, and is likely to cause upheaval within the concept art phase. The main deciding factor will be how AI art is implemented within the games industry. In its current form, AI art is mostly being used in an amateur capacity, with its potential untapped at the moment. As it gains momentum however, and the financial incentives become known, such as the possibility of saving money, the ease and simplicity of making the process iterative and automated, and the lack of legal responsibility such as rights and benefits, it is possible that companies may start to implement AI art over concept artists in the games industry. However, it is also possible that AI may not completely replace concept artists and could instead be used as a tool for inspiration and streamlining the creative process. Issues such as the lack of specific copyright laws on AI art may discourage the use of it as a final product, and instead encourage its use as only a reference, not final product. However, the final impact of AI art on the future of the concept art industry within the games industry is down to how it is implemented, and since AI art is currently in its early stages of implementation, it is too early to come to a unified conclusion.

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