Dissertation_Xiaochi Chen

SYMBIOTIC HERITAGE

Negotiating Preservation and Development in Wangshi Neighbourhood, Suzhou

SYMBIOTIC HERITAGE

Negotiating Preservation and Development in Wangshi Neighbourhood, Suzhou

Chen Xiaochi (Plus)

Architectural Association

MPhil in Architecture and Urban Design - Projective Cities 2023/2025

Cover sheet for submission 2024-2025

Programme: Projective Cities, Taught Mphil in Architecture and Urban Design

Name(s): Chen Xiaochi (Plus)

Submission title: ‘SYMBIOTIC HERITAGE’

Course title: Dissertation

Course tutor(s): Platon Issaias, Hamed Khosravi, Anna Font Vacas

Declaration:

“I certify that thie piece of work is entirely my/our own and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of others is duly acknowledged.”

Signiture of Student(s):

Date: 21st of March 2025

Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of Taught Master of Philosophy in Architecture and Urban Design - Projective Cities

Abstract

This thesis examines the interplay between conservation policies, spatial adaptation, and socio-economic shifts in Wangshi Neighborhood, Suzhou, through a symbiotic framework that reconciles strict preservation with dynamic development. Grounded in official planning, the study delineates the area into the Heritage Core, Tourism Hub, Residential Adaptation, and Mixed-Use Transition Zones, and analyses three courtyard typologies—Type I (multi-household shared), Type II (mixed-use), and Type III (incremental expansion)—to reveal how preservation and development can mutually reinforce each other.

Chapter 1 establishes the research framework using functional zoning and typological analysis, laying the foundation for understanding how a symbiotic approach can balance heritage conservation with modern urban demands. Chapter 2 demonstrates that high-density living in the Residential Adaptation Zone erodes shared spaces, blurs household boundaries, and diminishes living comfort in Type I courtyard houses, thereby exposing challenges related to fragmented property rights and informal modifications. Chapter 3 focuses on the Tourism Hub Zone, where the commercialisation of Type III courtyards—as teahouses or folk experience venues—occurs alongside the informal sale of traditional handicrafts by left-behind women. Drawing on insights from Type II models, it proposes a women-friendly economic empowerment space that integrates dedicated vending zones, improved public amenities, and design elements tailored to support local artisans in preserving traditional crafts while fostering development. Chapter 4 addresses the spatial fragmentation caused by rigid preservation policies, proposing adaptive reuse in the Mixed-Use Transition Zone through the creation of transitional corridors and shared public spaces to reconnect isolated areas and nurture a symbiotic relationship between conservation and urban growth.

Overall, this study advocates flexible, context-sensitive strategies that harmonise heritage preservation with modern development, offering a replicable design framework for the renewal of garden-centred historic neighbourhoods in Suzhou.

Left: Figure 0.1: Preservation and Development in Courtyard House, by Author.

Structure

Questions & Objectives

Chapter1 Heritage Conservation and Spatial Division 20

1.1 Functional Partition

1.2 The Dual Role of Government Policy

1.3 Courtyard Typologies, Across Zones

Methodology Tools: 4 Funtional Zones and 3 Courtyard Typologies

Chapter2 Negotiating Preservation and Urban Pressures 54

2.1 Cultural Heritage and the Evolution of Residential Practices

2.2 Threshold and Collaborative Framework in Collective living

2.3 Multidimensional challenges and potential opportunities for threshold

ACT I: Reorganization of Multi-Occupancy Courtyard Houses

Chapter3 Openness and Women's Empowerment 128

3.1 Missing Female Narratives in Garden Heritage

3.2 Openness as a Lens for Economic Empowerment

3.3 Shifting Perspectives: Opportunities and Challenges of Women’s Traditional Craft Practices

ACT II: Reconfiguration of Women’s Economic Role

Chapter4 Reconnecting Wangshi Neighbourhood 170

4.1 Gardens as Community Hubs: A Historical Perspective

4.2 From Dynamic Heritage to Static Island

4.3 Latent Connections Among Zones

ACT III: Reconnecting Zones in the Wangshi Neighbourhood

Left: Figure 0.2: The Way of Living in Courtyard House, by Author.

Preface

1. Jing Xie and Tim Heath, “Conservation and Revitalization of Historic Streets in China: Pingjiang Street, Suzhou,” Journal of Urban Design 22, no. 4 (April 26, 2016): 455–76, https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2 016.1167587.

Can the Preservation of Historic Districts Truly “Preserve” Our Lives?

If cultural heritage is the “memory” of a city, then communities are its most authentic carriers. Rooted in Confucian ideals of “benevolence” and “harmony”, and Daoist principles of “unity between humanity and nature”, traditional Chinese philosophy profoundly shaped the social and cultural foundations of historic districts, integrating physical forms with social life. However, Suzhou’s ancient town today faces a glaring “paradox of preservation.”

Taking Pingjiang Road Neighbourhood as an example, its physical form has been carefully protected, but the over-commercialisation of tourism functions has destroyed community life. Jing Xie and Tim Heath, in their article “Conservation and Revitalisation of Historic Streets in China: Pingjiang Street, Suzhou,”1 highlight how residential houses have been converted into guesthouses and commercial shops, and public spaces progressively commercialised. Original neighbourly interactions have been replaced by demands catering to visitors. This commercial transformation has not only disrupted residents’ daily rhythms but also eroded the social fabric of the community, turning Pingjiang Road from a vibrant, people-centred neighbourhood into a tourist-centric exhibition street. The loss of community vitality epitomises the tension between conservation and development.

A similar contradiction can be observed in Suzhou’s Wangshi neighbourhood. Unlike Pingjiang Road, where the issue centres on commercial transformation, the core problem in Wangshi lies in the isolation of its classical garden. As a representative heritage site, Wangshi Garden has been completely preserved in terms of its physical integrity. However, its connection to the surrounding community has been separated by protective policies that reinforce boundaries. Today, the garden exists as a “cultural island,” disconnected from the alleys and courtyard houses that once intertwined with it. Historical records such as the “Prosperous Suzhou” scroll depict a harmonious integration of gardens, streets, and courtyard houses—a vision of “a garden within the street, and a street within the garden.” This dynamic network of interaction now seems confined to the pages of history. Traditionally, gardens like Wangshi served as spaces for Confucian rituals and social interaction, embodying the cultural philosophy of “ritual and music order” and “human-nature harmony”. However, modern preservation practices have fractured this relationship, reducing the garden to a static cultural artifact and undermining its broader social and cultural significance.

Whereas, the community surrounding Wangshi Garden has not remained static. Faced with urbanisation and tourism pressures, residents have actively adapted to this new environment. Courtyard houses have been subdivided into multifamily dwellings, public spaces converted into storage or commercial areas, and alleys repurposed for stalls and temporary workspaces. These transformations have endowed public spaces with new functional roles, evolving them from traditional family-centred gathering places into shared spaces meeting diverse needs. At the same time, these dynamic adaptations have reshaped social interactions, shifting from stable, long-term familial networks to more fragmented and transient social ties. While these changes reflect the community’s resourceful responses to constraints, they also exacerbate the functional divide between the community and the garden, highlighting the structural inadequacies of preservation policies in addressing dynamic and evolving community needs.

Behind the apparent success of material preservation, the conservation of historic districts often involves selective interpretations of authenticity and overlooks the social and cultural foundations of heritage. In the case of Wangshi neighbourhood, traditional social life and physical forms were once deeply integrated. Today, this integration has been fractured into two disconnected states: “displayed architecture” and “vanished life.” This raises a critical question: Are we preserving only the “objects” of heritage while neglecting the “people” who sustain its vitality?

This study seeks to address these contradictions and reconsider the core objectives of historic district preservation. How can cultural heritage be protected while sustaining the vitality of the community? How can historic districts balance the needs of visitors and residents instead of becoming singularly focused exhibition spaces? By analysing the Wangshi neighborhood, this research explores a preservation strategy rooted in social and cultural foundations—one that not only emphasises the material preservation of heritage but also restores the interaction between communities and heritage sites. Such a strategy envisions historic districts as living homes for residents, rather than mere landscapes for admiration.

Introduction

2. Ping Xu, “FENG-SHUI MODELS STRUCTURED TRADITIONAL BEIJING COURTYARD HOUSES,” January 1, 1998.

As China’s urbanisation and economic development are accelerating, historic districts are increasingly rent between the needs of renewal and cultural transmission. Inside the anctient town of Suzhou, Wangshi Neighbourhood stands out not only for its classical garden—which traditionally embodied the community’s “way of life” and instantiated Confucian values of benevolence and harmony and Daoist values of harmony between human and nature2, but also as a significant carrier of local cultural practice and everyday life. However, during the last several decades, rigorous conservation policies combined with commercial pressures have progressively isolated Wangshi Garden from its surrounding neighbourhood. The formerly active private garden, embedded in communal life, has increasingly turned into a “static island” separated from the pulse of daily life.

3. 金秋野 and 王欣 2014. 乌有园: 绘画 与园林. 第一辑 [ARCADIA: Painting and Gardens, Volume 1]. 同济大学出版社. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=45bSswEACAAJ.

The motivation for this study is to seek strategies through which traditional cultural heritage can be preserved while also meeting the diverse needs of modern urban living. This research suggests the concept of “Symbiotic Heritage” that broadens the conventional focus on physical preservation to also emphasise the transmission of intangible cultural practices and the liveliness of community life. Tea culture, embroidery, and Kun Opera are not only emblematic of Suzhou’s rich cultural heritage but are also at the heart of the ongoing identity and cohesion of the community. As recent scholarship has highlighted3, genuine heritage conservation must balance the conservation of physical fabric with the revitalisation of dynamic everyday cultural expressions.

4. Communist Party of Suzhou Municipal Committee Office and Suzhou Municipal People’s Government Office, “Notice on the Issuance of the ‘14th Five-Year Plan for Cultural and Tourism Integration Development of Suzhou’ (Suzhou Party Office [2021] No. 56),” November 29, 2021, Accessed [02.23, 2025], http://ijgyg.com/uploads/2023/02/ suzhoushisiwuwenlvronghe.pdf

The Wangshi Neighbourhood was selected as the focus of this study due to its distinctive spatial character—a traditional garden-centred and functionally diversified zoned space—and its representative status in illustrating the tensions between heritage conservation and modern urban development. Master planning reports, such as the Suzhou “14th Five-Year” Cultural Tourism Development Plan4, have zoned the site into strictly protected zones (e.g., Wangshi Garden) and public historic districts targeted for resident-led revitalisation. These designations have not, however, addressed the growing functional disconnection between the Wangshi garden and adjacent urban fabric.

To address these issues, this study adopts a multidisciplinary approach,combining field surveys, literature reviews, and case studies, with a view to establishing a theoretical framework for Symbiotic Heritage. This would inform strategies that balance heritage preservation with the demands of contemporary urban life.

The structure of this thesis is as follows:

Chapter 1: Functional Zoning and Policy Impacts

This chapter establishes the research baseline by analysing the official and designed functional zoning of Wangshi Neighbourhood—the Heritage Core, Tourism Hub, Residential Adaptation, and Mixed-Use Transition Zones—and presenting three main courtyard typologies (Type I: multi-household shared, Type II: mixed-use, and Type III: incremental expansion). It lays the foundation for how policy and spatial organisation come together to influence community fabrics.

Chapter 2: High-Density Living and the Erosion of Courtyard Life. The chapter focuses on the implications of high-density living and its impact on conventional courtyard ways of life—those that are at the heart of privacy and community interaction—that are being eroded. It discusses how uncertain boundaries between households under conditions of extreme urban pressures undermine the cultural fabric and traditional practices of the community.

Chapter 3: Marginalised Groups and Community Dynamics

This chapter is concerned with the role played by undervalued social groups, including left-behind women, in sustaining local crafts and smallscale economic practices. It explores how these groups contribute to the economic and cultural narrative of the neighbourhood and emphasises the need for inclusive strategies for enhancing community participation and social equity.

Chapter 4: Regenerating the Community Hub through Adaptive Reuse. The last chapter responds to the functional fragmentation of Wangshi Neighbourhood through the moderate reuse of the Mixed-Use Transition Zone. By incorporating traditional Suzhou cultural components to rebuild a new community center, this chapter presents strategies intended to recreate the historic link between Wangshi Garden and its surrounding urban environment, thus realizing a symbiotic equilibrium between conservation and revitalised contemporaneity.

Through the subsequent chapters, the study aims to provide a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for the reconciliation of heritage conservation and contemporary urban development, ensuring that the physical and cultural fabric of Suzhou’s historic districts is retained and revitalised.

Suzhou Ancient Town

Figure 0.3: Mapping of Suzhou Ancient Town with Wangshi Neighbourhood Locatin, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 0.4: Mapping of Suzhou Ancient Town, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 0.6: Mapping of Suzhou Ancient Town with Wangshi Neighbourhood Locatin,, Illustrations by the author.

Chinese

Figure 0.5: Mapping of Suzhou Ancient Town with Chinese Garden Highlighting, Illustrations by the author.

Wangshi Neighbourhood

Research Questions

-How can urban renewal achieve an effective balance between the preservation of cultural heritage and the demands of modern living under conditions of high-density residence and fragmented property rights?

-How do current conservation policies in Wangshi Neighbourhood lead to a functional disjunction between the traditional garden and community life, and what specific impacts does this separation have on community vitality and cultural transmission?

-What spatial and functional transformations occur during the commercial conversion of traditional courtyard spaces, and how do these shifts redefine the community’s economic development and cultural identity?

-How can design interventions ensure that the commercialisation of traditional courtyards harmoniously balances economic benefits with social equity, thereby enhancing the participation and empowerment of marginalised groups?

-How do the spatial interactions within historic districts expose the “conservation paradox”, and how might optimised connectivity and transitional design foster a symbiotic relationship between preservation and modern development?

-How can flexible design strategies integrate modern commercial demands while retaining the cultural essence of traditional courtyards, thus achieving an organic fusion of economic development and community living needs and overcoming the constraints imposed by high-density development and fragmented property rights?

Objectives

To investigate how the balance between cultural heritage preservation and modern living can be reconstructed and safeguarded under high-density pressures and fragmented property rights.

To evaluate how current conservation policies in Wangshi Neighbourhood affect the functional integration between the traditional garden and community life, and to assess their impact on community vitality and cultural transmission.

To analyse the spatial and functional transformations resulting from the commercialisation of traditional courtyard spaces, and to devise design strategies that ensure economic dynamism coexists with social equity.

To propose flexible design interventions that enhance spatial connectivity and reconcile modern commercial demands with the cultural essence of traditional courtyards, thereby fostering a symbiotic relationship between preservation and contemporary development.

Chapter 1

Heritage Conservation and Spatial Division

This chapter outlines the functional zoning strategies in Wangshi Neighbourhood under the dual government approach of preservation and development. It examines how the contrasting policies of strict “static preservation” and flexible “dynamic encouragement” have produced distinct spatial patterns across different zones. Furthermore, by analysing the evolution of three courtyard typologies—multi-household shared, mixed-use, and incremental expansion—it illustrates how traditional courtyards adapt to the pressures of high-density living and tourism, laying the foundation for subsequent discussions on cross-zone integration and comprehensive spatial governance.

Left: Figure 1.1: Wangshi Garden, Photo: Deng Yucheng

1.1 Functional Partition

1.1.1 The Emergence of the Zoning Model and Government Policy Targets

1. Fang Liang, Yu Pan, Min Gu, Yancheng Liu, and Li Lei, “Research on the Paths and Strategies of the Integrated Development of Culture and Tourism Industry in Urban Historical Blocks,” Frontiers in Public Health 10 (November 7, 2022): 1016801, https://doi. org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1016801.

2. “The ‘Suzhou City Territorial Spatial Master Plan (2021–2035) (Draft for Public Comments)’ Released – The Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” n.d., accessed [11.18, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/ szyw/202109/1f760cef5765436689cbf6fa3947d7c9.shtml.

3. “Suzhou National Historical and Cultural City Protection Ordinance –Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” Suzhou.gov.cn, 2018, accessed [12.01, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/ gbdfxfg/202207/1505c8c15d4a4c08b2c7f026567a4338.shtml.

4. UNESCO, 2024 Suzhou Symposium Proceedings: Youth and Traditional Building Skills Symposium, 15–16 July 2024, Suzhou, China (Paris: UNESCO, 2024), accessed [02.13, 2025], https://articles.unesco.org/sites/default/files/medias/fichiers/2024/12/2024%20 Suzhou%20Symposium%20Proceedings-20241212.pdf

Wangshi Neighbourhood in Suzhou ancient town serves as a major illustration of the dual approach to historic district management, where the government tend to preserve historical integrity while gradually promoting economic and community vitality through targeted policies. 1 According to the Suzhou Historic and Cultural City Preservation Plan (2021–2035), Wangshi Neighbourhood is divided into two main functional areas: the Heritage Core Zone and the Common Historic Area. 2 In the Heritage Core Zone, the government imposes the most rigid heritage conservation regulations, emphasising close control over building forms and intended uses to safeguard material integrity of cultural heritage; in comparison, the Common Historic Area allows a certain degree of renovation and redevelopment in order to strike a balance between preservation and utilisation.3

It is noteworthy that, besides having a strict zoning scheme at the planning phase, the government has initiated multiple support or regulation policies, such as issuing approval guidelines andzaq financial subsidies for courtyard renovations and innovative commercial models in the Common Historic Area (e.g., cultural preservation, traditional craft businesses and youth engagement) 4 . However, these operative “encouragement and regulation” policies are not well coordinated with each other in practice. Different administrative departments and zoning management systems lack coordination, and this lead to different approaches in spatial utilisation and development [Fig1.2]. Consequently, while the zoning model can potentially protect significant historic buildings, it may also create potential conflicts and challenges when it is implemented on the ground.

Small-scale mixed-ownership units

Residents participate in management

Nuclear Family Extended Family Cooperative Family

Jurisdiction

Measures

Lack of clear legal frameworks

Preservation and Gerneration Strategies

1. Historical and cultural preservation basic requirements

2. Actual situation of Suzhou ancient town’s development

3. Needs of different groups within the ancient town Satisfy and combine

Figure 1.2: Gusu Ancient Town Historic Preservation Neighbourhood Scheme, Information from “The ‘Suzhou City Territorial Spatial Master Plan” . Suzhou Historic and Cultural City Preservation Plan 2021-2035

Historic Preservation Area Common Historic Area

Cultural Heritage Council Repair Improvement Preservation Rehabilitation New Construction Demolition Gusu Ancient Town Planning Committee

1.1.2 Zoning Model and the Challenge of Community Cohesion

5. Communist Party of Suzhou Municipal Committee Office and Suzhou Municipal People’s Government Office, “Notice on the Issuance of the ‘14th Five-Year Plan for Cultural and Tourism Integration Development of Suzhou’ (Suzhou Party Office [2021] No. 56),” November 29, 2021, Accessed [02.23, 2025], http://ijgyg.com/uploads/2023/02/ suzhoushisiwuwenlvronghe.pdf

Nevertheless, while this strict zoning approach effectively preserves the material integrity of cultural heritage, it also results in spatial isolation in reality. The Heritage Core Zone is subjected to the most strict conservation regulations, which can prohibit building expansions and changes in use.5 Then this results in the area becoming a “closed-off space”, oriented toward exhibitions rather than community engagement. For instance, Wangshi Garden is enclosed by clear boundary and a designated tourist route [Fig1.4], and is separated from the daily life of local people. The physical barriers in place make the place even more isolated, which in turn reduces how involved residents feel with the Heritage Core Zone.6

6. Gregory Brown and Christopher Raymond, “The Relationship between Place Attachment and Landscape Values: Toward Mapping Place Attachment,” Applied Geography 27, no. 2 (April 2007): 89–111, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2006.11.002.

Athough the Common Historic Area is meant to adjust, adapt and meet to the contemporary living needs through minor renovations, actual implementation suffers from fragmented management systems, complex approval processes, and a lack of cross-district coordination. Each functional zone essentially develops in isolation regarding spatial usage and development directions, lacking effective linkage. Consequently, overall community cohesion and interaction continue to weaken. In other words, while “preservation” and “development” appear side by side in the plan, the reality seems like each zone operating independently, making it difficult to form a cohesive, vibrant network of community spaces.

The present research synthesises policy documents and fieldwork phenomenon to further divide Wangshi Neighbourhood into four main functional zones [Fig1.5] : Heritage Core Zone, Residential Adaptation Zone, Tourism Hub Zone, and Mixed-Use Transition Zone; and examines the relationships among them. Under a dual system of government regulation and policy encouragement, how each zone navigates its individual constraints and opportunities, and the ways in which they collectively lead to division, integration, or tension at the community scale, will be the central focus of the following analysis.

Figure 1.3: Bird’s-eye view of Residential Area in Suzhou Historic Centre

Source from: Suzhou Old Residence, Chen Congzhou

Figure 1.4: Spatial Interventions in Wangshi Neighbourhood Based on the Gusu Ancient Town Historic Preservation Scheme Information from: Suzhou City Territorial Spatial Master Plan (2021–2035)

Figure 1.5: Functional Zoning Framework of Wangshi Neighbourhood Illustrations by the author.

1.1.3

2. “The ‘Suzhou City Territorial Spatial Master Plan (2021–2035) (Draft for Public Comments)’ Released – The Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” n.d., accessed [11.18, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/ szyw/202109/1f760cef5765436689cbf6fa3947d7c9.shtml.

According to the “Suzhou Historic and Cultural City Preservation Plan (2021–2035)” 2 zoning Wangshi Neighbourhood and combining both fieldwork observation and zone-specific characteristics, this study categorises the neighbourhood into four functional zones: the Heritage Core Zone, the Tourism Hub Zone, the Residential Adaptation Zone, and the Mixed-Use Transition Zone. Each zone embodies another spatial approach to mediating between preservation policy and daily use— maintaining relative independence but intersecting with one another—thus illustrating the multiple tensions between “static preservation” and “dynamic adaptation” within historic district.

Heritage Core Zone

Represented by Wangshi Garden, this area is subject to the most strict cultural relics protection regulations, which causes its daily-life functions to gradually weaken and transforming it into a museum-like space for display and tourism. The enclosure formed by high walls, restricted entrances, and a singular tourist route further reinforces the separation between external sightseeing and resident’s life. [Fig1.7]

Residential Adaptation Zone

Confronted with high-density living conditions and strict regulatory oversight, residents resort to small-scale, informal renovations, such as subdividing interiors or constructing temporary additions, to meet everyday demands. While this strategy relieves housing pressures, it also leads to the privatisation of shared space and increases management challenges.[Fig1.9]

Tourism Hub Zone

Located along major streets and at the periphery of the Heritage Core Zone, this zone has converted traditional courtyards into teahouses, guesthouses, and local culture experience place. Although the commodification of cultural resources promotes economic growth, it also triggers a tension between external capital investment and local economy. [Fig1.11]

Mixed-Use Transition Zone

Due to partial demolition and relatively liberal policy control, this zone contains vacated traditional courtyards and residential houses in active use. Phases of development overlap, offering opportunities to explore new strategies for balancing preservation with contemporary demands.7[Fig1.13]

Overall, while this functional zoning model, which is guided by both “preservation” and “development” imperatives, has well protected the Wangshi Neighbourhood’s intangible heritage, it has also caused spatial and social fragmentation. Under strict regulations, some zones are leading toward “static” preservation, whereas others, operating under relatively flexible and supportive policies, exhibit “dynamic” adaptability. However, the lack of systematic coordination among these zones discourages the neighborhood’s cohesion and vitality. It also addressed several key questions:

7. Mingming Dun and Yong Wang, “Review and Reflection on the Conservation Process of Historic and Cultural Areas in Suzhou Old Town,” [City Planning Review] 46, suppl. 1 (2022), accessed [11.28, 2024], https:// library.ttcdw.com/dev/upload/webUploader/202310/1697286060bd85cbf672680ea2. pdf

How can cultural preservation within the core zone be balanced with the demands of surrounding vibrancy? How are government assistance and regulation provisions well integrated? And how are divergent stakeholders’ interests balanced?

Figure 1.6: Location of Heritge Core Zone in the Wangshi Neighbourhood

Overview of Functional Zoning

Figure 1.8: Location of Residential Adaptation Zone in the Wangshi Neighbourhood

Figure 1.10: Location of Tourism Hub Zone in the Wangshi Neighbourhood

Figure 1.12: Location of Mixed-Used Transition Zone in the Wangshi Neighbourhood

Figure 1.7: The Heritage Core Zone, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 1.9: The Residential Adaptation Zone, Illustrations by the author.

60m

Figure 1.11: The Tourism Hub Zone, Illustrations by the author.

60m

Figure 1.13: The Mixed-Use Transition Zone, Illustrations by the author.

1.2 The Dual Role of Government Policy

1.2.1 The Government’s “Static Preservation” Approach

8. Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Culture, Radio, Television, and Tourism (苏州市文化 广电和旅游局), “关于印发《苏州市‘ 十四五’文化旅游发展规划》的通知” [Notice on the Issuance of the Suzhou ‘15th Five-Year’ Cultural Tourism Development Plan], accessed 17 March 2025, http://whhlyt. suzhou.gov.cn.

i. Strict Control Over Building Facades and Structures

In the process of preserving Suzhou’s traditional gardens, the authorities have drawn upon the Suzhou Classical Gardens Protection Ordinance and The Fourteenth Five-Year Plan 8 , among other legal frameworks, to uphold the “authenticity” of cultural heritage through rigorous controls and approval mechanisms. This approach is primarily reflected in the following aspects:

i. Restoration and renovation within the Heritage Core Zone must strictly adhere to original styles, materials, and craftsmanship, with no unauthorised alterations to facades or structural features permitted, thereby preventing the historic landscape from being compromised.

ii. Limits on Functions and Uses

iii. Stringent Approval Processes

9. Franciza Toledo, “THE ROLE of ARCHITECTURE in PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION,” 2006, https://www.iccrom.org/sites/ default/files/ICCROM_13_ArchitPrevenConserv_en.pdf.

ii. The government prohibits any form of commercial development or independent modifications by residents in core garden areas, so as to prevent cultural heritage sites from being repurposed into modern shops or private dwellings.

iii. All proposals concerning restoration, events, or spatial adjustments in the Heritage Core Zone are subject to multiple layers of approval, and must comply with technical guidelines set by heritage authorities.

Although these “static preservation” measures dispute indiscriminate alterations, they risk fostering “museumification” 9: the Heritage Core Zone becomes a “closed-off space” centred on display and tourism, disconnected from local life. Excessive emphasis on strict control also undermines the gardens’ potential to engage neighbouring residents, weakening community ties and social functions. Over time, even if the core area remains physically intact, it struggles to meet modern needs, giving rise to a “cultural island” effect.

Figure 1.14: Physical separation of the Heritage Core Zone from the alley

Source: Author.

Figure 1.15: Designated Tourist Path vs. Residents’ Everyday Routes in the Heritage Core Zone

Source: Author.

1.2.2 The Government’s “Dynamic Encouragement” Initiatives

10. Yin-wah Chu, “China’s New Urbanization Plan: Progress and Structural Constraints,” Cities 103 (2020): 102736, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102736.

i. Courtyard Reorganization and Small-Scale Upgrades

ii. Investment Promotion and Tourism Development

In contrast to the “strict control” policies applied within the Heritage Core Zone, the government adopts a range of “dynamic encouragement” measures in the Common Historic Area and Tourism Hub Zone to revitalise traditional spatial resources.10 These measures are primarily reflected in the following aspects:

i. Within the Common Historic Area, residents are permitted to carry out moderate courtyard renovations, such as adding bathrooms in partially unused spaces or subdividing interiors, thereby improving living comfort and economic feasibility.

ii. Aimed at tourism-oriented districts, the government encourages private or corporate investment to repurpose old houses or utilise historic buildings for guesthouses, teahouses, and handicraft workshops. The goal is to develop a “culture+commerce” model to stimulate local economic vitality.

iii. Support for Homestay Business and Traditional Crafts

11. Chen, Jinliu, Paola Pellegrini, Yunqing Xu, Geng Ma, Haoqi Wang, Yang an, Yihan Shi, and Xiaoxiao Feng. 2022. “Evaluating Residents’ Satisfaction before and after Regeneration. The Case of a High-Density Resettlement Neighbourhood in Suzhou, China.” Cogent Social Sciences 8 (1). doi:10.1080/23311886 .2022.2144137.

iii. Certain local policies and funding programmes offer tax benefits or subsidies to artisans and distinctive homestay operators, hoping to preserve local skills and attract outside visitors.

Despite their intent to foster economic growth and spatial dynamism, these “dynamic encouragement” policies frequently encounter administrative fragmentation during implementation. Different agencies operate with minimal coordination, each emphasising economic returns, cultural conservation, or social stability within its own remit. As a result, overlapping mandates or conflicting objectives often arise: on the one hand, cultural authorities insist on preserving historic character, while on the other, tourism and commercial departments focus on financial gains and expansion. Consequently, individual zones follow divergent strategies without an overarching framework, hindering systematic collaboration across neighbourhoods.

Figure 1.16: Small-Scale Upgrade in Residential Adaptive Zone, by Author.

Figure 1.18: Traditional Cultre Scenario, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 1.17: Tourism Development Phenonmenon, by Author.

1.2.3 Multiple Stakeholders and Policy Outcomes

9. Franciza Toledo, “THE ROLE of ARCHITECTURE in PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION,” 2006, https://www.iccrom.org/sites/ default/files/ICCROM_13_ArchitPrevenConserv_en.pdf.

Under this policy environment, which combines “strict control” with “selective encouragement,” residents, investors, and businesses occupy distinct roles that collectively shape the development of the community space.

In view of stringent regulations in the Heritage Core Zone, some residents may choose to leave rather than navigate the restrictive environment; however, in Common Historic Areas or districts with relatively lenient oversight, they often resort to small-scale “edge ball” modifications—some secured through official procedures, others conducted covertly to accommodate living or commercial demands. 9 This bottom-up resilience helps maintain daily needs but also poses challenges regarding architectural cohesion and public safety.

External investors and local businesses actively establish homestays and handicraft experiences in Tourism Hub Zone, capitalising on supportive policies to generate profits. However, tension arises with cultural authorities who worry that excessive commercialisation may undermine the historic character. As a result, increased scrutiny is placed on building façades, signage, and even opening hours, reflecting a backand-forth tension between commerce-driven expansion and cultural preservation.

10. Yin-wah Chu, “China’s New Urbanization Plan: Progress and Structural Constraints,” Cities 103 (2020): 102736, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102736.

Although the government’s “static preservation” model seeks to safeguard the Heritage Core Zone’s authenticity, it often leads to “museumification” and an isolated “cultural island.” Meanwhile, the “dynamic encouragement” approach tends to be enacted primarily in Common Historic Areas or commercial zones, rapidly intensifying their commercial development.10 This creates a fragmented or polarised spatial pattern: the core becomes ever more enclosed while its surroundings commercialise swiftly, further eroding the continuity and public character of the neighbourhood as a whole.

Conclusion in Community Scale

In essence, governmental policy combines “static preservation” in the Heritage Core Zone with more flexible “dynamic incentives” in the wider historical and tourism areas. While both strategies aim to protect cultural authenticity and stimulate economic growth, their lack of overarching coordination often leads to spatial and functional disjunction, and even social and cultural frictions.

Accordingly, the next stage of research will investigate methods of bridging the divisions between these zones, particularly by facilitating cross-district collaboration and pooling resources to reconcile “static” and “dynamic” priorities. This might involve measures such as:

Institutional Frameworks: Establishing inter-departmental coordination to streamline approvals and oversight, thereby promoting synergy between the Heritage Core Zone and Common Historic Areas.

Spatial Strategies: Adopting “reversible reorganization” or “mixed-use reconfiguration” so that commercial areas and the core can jointly preserve historical features whilst accommodating modern public and economic needs.

Public Engagement: Encouraging participation from residents and businesses in neighbourhood governance, enabling various stakeholders to share responsibilities and foster a balanced alignment of interests.

By integrating strict heritage protection and dynamic revitalisation within a coherent framework—at institutional, spatial, and societal levels—Suzhou’s Heritage Core Zone and its adjacent areas may evolve into a more cohesive environment that respects cultural values whilst enhancing the vitality of the community as a whole.

Right: Figure 1.20: Wangshi Garden, Photo: Deng Yucheng

1.3 Courtyard Typologies Across Zones

Within the four functional zones of Wangshi Neighbourhood, the courtyard in the Heritage Core Zone remains strictly preserved, resulting in a “static” display-oriented space. In contrast, traditional courtyard houses in the Residential Adaptation Zone, Tourism Hub Zone, and Mixed-Use Transitional Zone have evolved into three main typologies— Multi-Household Shared Courtyards, Muti-Function Courtyards, and Incremental Extension Courtyards—driven by residents’ needs, economic pressures, and flexible policy incentives. These courtyard typologies not only reflect the diverse spatial adaptation strategies across the zones but also serve as an analytical framework for examining the interactions between them. The following chapters will delve deeper into these three courtyard typologies, aiming to explore how to balance heritage preservation with community vitality and spatial continuity.

Figure 1.21: Courtyard House in Wangshi Neighbourhood Illustration by Author.

Figure 1.21: Courtyard House in Wangshi Garden Illustration by Author.

Figure 1.22: Courtyard House Typology Location in the Wangshi Neighbourhood, Illustration by Author.

Figure 1.23: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood, Illustration by Author.

TYPE I: Multi-Household Courtyards

Basic Form

These courtyard houses typically originally feature a three-courtyards layout with two entrances. As residential demand increases, the originally shared courtyard spaces are gradually subdivided into individual units to accommodate multiple households or tenants.

Evolution Process

Under the pressure of high-density living, the formerly open shared courtyards are progressively partitioned and segmented, transforming into a series of private spaces. Entrances are usually allocated to different households, which reduces the overall communal and social functions of the courtyard.

Implications and Characteristics

While such subdivided adaptations improve space utilisation and meet residents’ needs for privacy, they inevitably weaken the overall cohesion and communal function of the courtyard. Public activity areas gradually diminish, and the original sense of shared space is compromised, thereby providing a research prototype for exploring adaptations to high-density living environments.

Figure 1.24: Courtyard House in Wangshi Garden

Illustration by Author.

Figure 1.25: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood, Illustration by Author.

TYPE II: Multi-Function Courtyards

Basic Form

Type II courtyard houses are typically situated along major streets or thor-

oughfares, featuring a layout that allows partial conversion of the property. Often, the front section remains residential, while the back area is adapted to accommodate small commercial spaces, such as shops or retail areas.

Evolution Process

As urbanisation and economic pressures mount, these courtyards gradually shift from primarily residential use to a “live-work” arrangement.

Residents or investors install commercial facilities in the rear sections to capitalise on passing foot traffic. Over time, the commercial function expands, reducing the courtyard’s role as a communal family space.

Implications and Characteristics

Although this mixed-use model generates additional income and exemplifies how traditional courtyards can respond to contemporary economic demands, it also compromises the courtyard’s function as a family hub. Shared areas become increasingly commercialised, lessening opportunities for communal interaction and ultimately reconfiguring the courtyard into a functional space oriented towards economic activity.

Figure 1.26: Courtyard House in Wangshi Garden

Illustration by Author.

Figure 1.27: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood, Illustration by Author.

TYPE III: Incremental Extension Courtyards

Basic Form

Type III courtyard houses expand laterally by adding new structures on both sides to increase the number of residential units. These additions are typically arranged symmetrically along the central axis of the courtyard, creating independent living spaces on either side.

Evolution Process

Under the pressure of growing population and economic demands, the formerly open courtyard areas are gradually filled by successive additions. This incremental expansion addresses the need for extra housing and commercial use, yet progressively encroaches upon the courtyard’s originally open, communal space.

Implications and Characteristics

While such expansions effectively increase housing density and adapt to market pressures, they also substantially diminish the courtyard’s openness and shared character. Over time, the courtyard becomes a collection of small, isolated spaces, reflecting the compromises made within limited physical boundaries in response to population and economic challenges.

Figure 1.28: Courtyard House in Wangshi Garden Illustration by Author.

0 20m

Figure 1.29: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood, Illustration by Author.

Conclusion

4 Funtional Zones, 3 Courtyard House Typolgies as Tools

This chapter has established a framework for understanding Wangshi Neighbourhood’s spatial configuration under dual approaches to heritage preservation and development. By introducing four functional zones: Heritage Core, Tourism Hub, Residential Adaptation, and Mixed-Use Transition Zone, combined with three principal courtyard typologies (multi-household shared, mixed-use, and incremental expansion), it highlights how high-density pressures, tourism demand, and strict conservation measures have reshaped traditional living environments. These are the observations on which the following chapters are based, in which courtyard residential responses, commercial strategies, and urban reconfiguration are addressed in detail.

Right: Figure 1.30: Analysis Tools in the Neighbourhood, Illustration by Author

Negotiating Preservation and Urban Pressures

This chapter examines how Type I courtyard houses in Wangshi Neighbourhood have transitioned from single-family homes into multi-household dwellings under high-density pressures and strict preservation controls. Informal modifications, especially partition walls, erode communal spaces, blur property boundaries, and disrupt traditional lifestyles. By examining contradictions between preservation of architectural fabric and preservation of traditional modes of living, this chapter proposes adaptive measures that reconcile heritage conservation with contemporary spatial needs while keeping physical integrity and social vitality.

Left: Figure 2.1: Wangshi Garden, Photo: Deng Yucheng

2.1 Cultural Heritage and the Evolution of Residential Practices

1. 金秋野 and 王欣 2014. 乌有园: 绘画 与园林. 第一辑 [ARCADIA: Painting and Gardens, Volume 1]. 同济大学出版社. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=45bSswEACAAJ.

2.1.1 The composition and sharing function of traditional courtyard in Wangshi Garden

“Chinese gardens were condensed into small courtyards of thousands of households in the daily life of the people, where residents planted flowers and grasses to cultivate their sentiments. Everyday life and philosophy are integrated in these small courtyards, which also become sanctuaries for Chinese art .”1 --Jin Qiuye

2. Ping Xu, “FENG-SHUI MODELS STRUCTURED TRADITIONAL BEIJING COURTYARD HOUSES,” January 1, 1998.

This poetic assertion not only reveals the unique status conventional courtyards in Chinese residential culture, but also exposes the fullness of sentiment and social functions they maintained through ages. Courtyards were once vital platforms in the life of household as well as neighbourly interaction in antient suzhou town, in where individuals nature, and space interwined to create a vibrant painting of daily living. However, with the emergence of urbanisation and the rise of multi-housegold living, tranditional courtyards are undergoing a serious transformation: from open, shared spaces to segmented, privatised domains. This chapter therefore examines the evolving relationship between preservation and modern adaptation in three sections: conventional courtyard spatial organization and functions, cultural memory and social cohesion in their spatial form, and evolving changes and challenges as a result of multi-household residential patterns. Preservation therefore transcends the preservation of physical architectural forms to encompass the intangible but crucial elements of communal ways of life and social fabric inherent in courtyard heritage.

3. Donia Zhang, “Courtyard Housing in China: Chinese Quest for Harmony,” Contemporary Urban Affairs 1, no. 2 (June 11, 2017): 38–56, https://doi.org/10.25034/ ijcua.2017.3647.

The courtyard in Wangshi Garden, as the only traditional courtyard preserved in the Wangshi Neighbourhood, its existence not only embodies ancient Chinese residential wisdom but also subtly reveals the internal tensions that arise as modern adaptive renovation progresses. The courtyard of the Wangshi Garden adopts a spatial layout that integrates the balance of Yin- Yang, the unity of heaven and man and the concept of feng shui, and builds a dual function that integrates to create harmonious coexistence of the public and private.2 The courtyard functions is like a tranquil pool, open and bathed in natural light and gentle windsIt is the ideal venue for family gathering, celebration functions, and daily relaxation, as well as a carrier of rich cultural recall and visual beauty . In this core space, every greenery and stonework tells the story of the ancient pursuit of a life that is both practical and poetic.[Fig 2.2]

Perception of heaven and earth, regarding orientations and positions

SOCIETY and PEOPLE

Hierarchical system in society and family

“I Ching” “Luo Book” “Eight Trigrams”

Chinese cosmology An ideal model for arranging The place linking heaven and earth

of yard, height of building, numbers of steps symbolize the hierarchical system within family

the outsider, an enclosing system in society and the family served central control

Other concerns about the prosperity of the family

The courtyard, an enclosing space, opens to the centre. It symbolises central control of the family

Symbolic system in measurement and decoration, such as sculpture and colours

Symbolic system in landscape design such as the use of vegetations

Figure 2.2: The feng-shui models and principles structured the Wangshi Garden courtyard dwelling, Source from: Ping Xu, 1998. Illustration by Author.

The Courtyard Dwelling in Wangshi Garden

Feng-shui model of an ideal site for a house

The feng-shui model formed the structure of the courtyard

Anicent

Perception of land form

Depth

Eliminating

4. “Francis D. K. Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd Edition Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming Internet Archive,” Internet Archive, 2015, https:// archive.org/details/FrancisD.K.ChingArchitectureFormSpaceAndOrder3rdEdition/ mode/2up.

The verandahs and corridors extending along the courtyard are like delicate lines in the painting, artfully connecting the various functional areas, forming a flexible transitional zone that maintains privacy and is full of shared atmosphere. [Fig 2.3] They form a flexible transitional zone that mediates between privacy and publicity, creating easy access for the residents as well as allowing natural neighbourhood contact.3 It is on the one hand preserves individual privacy and on the other hand supports communal interaction, has historically assigned traditional courtyards the esteemed position of “public living rooms”—the true spirit of neighbourhood cohesion.4

However, despite its poetic beauty, the current state of Wangshi Garden hints at emerging challenges. Under the pressures of modernisation and the shift toward multi-household living, the once unified shared spaces are increasingly being invaded by partitions. What was once a fluid, interactive “public living room” is now in danger of being divided and partitioned, and of losing both its historical memory and its role in creating community cohesion.

In examining Wangshi Garden’s spatial composition and shared uses, it is clear that its innovative model not only embodies the inherent affection for home characteristic of traditional residence but also provides precious lessons on how to maintain public space functionality in the face of modern residential challenges.

2.1.2 The cultural memory and community cohesion of

Traditional courtyards are not only places for living, but also embody cultural symbols and emotional bonds that have been passed down through generations. Historically, courtyards is often depicted in poetry and painting as symbols of “home or retreat place” reflecting the ideal state of harmonious coexistence between people and nature. These spaces form a unique collective memory through daily rituals, festivals activities and family gathering, providing emotional sustenance and identity for residents.

Zhang5 argues that every detail and every ray of light in a courtyard is filled with a profound philosophy of life and cultural significance. Indeed, traditional courtyards not only showcase the beauty of nature, but also integrate various folk customs, such as the festive spirit of rice dumplings during the Dragon Boat Festival and the reunions in the moonlight of the Mid-Autumn Festival, transforming the courtyard into a cultural practice space across. As a result, courtyards have served not only as private retreats for families in history but also as implicit communal living rooms, strengthening social ties and community cohesion.

In Suzhou’s ancient town, the older generation continues to cherish traditional lifestyles by preserving handicraft techniques and festive rituals, transforming those courtyards that carry emotions and memories into a cultural symbol. This cultural identity, accumulated by the details of life, not only reflects the memories of the past warm days, but also invisibly maintains the sense of belonging and cohesion of the entire community.

In summary, traditional courtyards, which its rich cultural connotations and shared lifestyles, establish a unique network of emotional bonds and community connections. This cultural memory and cohesion demonstrate the unique value of traditional residential modes and provide a foundation for understanding and analysing the fragmentation of public spaces and the weakening of community ties in modern redevelopment processes.

Figure 2.3: Verandahs and corriors extending along the Wangshi Garden courtyard, Illustration by Author.

the courtyard

5. Zhang, D. “Courtyard Housing and Cultural Sustainability in China.” Cambridge Open Engage, 2020. https://doi.org/10.33774/ coe-2020-14lbc.

Since the late 20th century,especially since the economic reforms of 1978, the traditional courtyards in Suzhou’s ancient town have undergone a series of significant transformations. In 1956, when the government began to protect cultural heritage, some traditional courtyards were open to the outside world while remaining predominantly single-family structure. However, after 1978, accelerated urban expansion and the growing demand for multi-household living prompted a marked shift. The originally spacious and fluid courtyards gradually appeared, the phenomenon of “fill-in” composed of partition walls and temporary installations subdivided the original open spaces into a number of small, enclosed living units. It is illustrated how the originally continuous arrangement of the courtyard, verandahs, and corridors has been gradually fragmented, leading to a significant reduction in the communal space, which is dedicated to family and neighbourhood interaction.[Fig 2.4-2.7]

This transformation unfolded in different phases. Initially, in 1956, the government initially intervened in the protection of cultural heritage, but due to limited residential demand, the courtyard still maintained a high degree of privacy and continuity6; 1978-1990s: With the economic reform and rapid population growth, the ancient city was faced with housing shortage, and a large number of traditional courtyards had to be renovated, and the original spaces were artificially cut off to meet the requirements of multi-household living7; Entering the 21st century, the pressures of tourism and marketisation further accelerated this trend, some courtyards have shifted toward commercial usage, but the introduction of modern facilities, such as air-conditioning and reconfigured amenities, has further compressed the remaining shared space, and the natural interaction between neighbors has been seriously affected.

The shift from single-family dwellings to multi-household living has not only physically changed the continuity of these spaces but has also deeply impacted their social functions. While the courtyard originally used as “public living room” facilitating the neighbourhood interaction and cultural continuity, the courtyards today risk losing the very communal character that defined them. These historical developments serve to underscore the tension between preserving traditional communal environments and meeting contemporary residential and commercial demands, providing a valuable backdrop for studying contemporary challenges to maintaining public space and community cohesion.

Consequently, the evolution of Suzhou’s traditional courtyards under the pressures of urbanisation has led to a profound reorganization of space, reducing the physical openness and social structure that are integral to public life. This shift sets the stage for later discussions on how to restore or reconfigure these thresholds to re-establish a dynamic balance. between private demand and public connectivity.

Figure 2.3: Residents daily ritual in courtyard, Picture: National Palace Museum, 2022

2.1.3 Courtyard change and contemporary dilemma under multi-family transition

6. State Council Gazette of the People’s Republic of China, Issue No. 4, 1961

7. Suzhou Declaration on International Co-operation for the Safeguarding and Development of Historic Cities,1998

Figure 2.4: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood (Stage I), Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.5: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood (Stage II), Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.6: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood (Stage III), Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.7: Transformation of Courtyard House in the Wangshi Neighbourhood (Current), Illustration by Author.

2.2 Threshold and Collaborative Framework in Collective living

“When we cross a threshold, we change a space and it changes us.”8

-- Allan Wexler

2.2.1 Physical Construction and Spatial Segregation

9. Kisho Kurokawa, The Philosophy of Symbiosis (London: Academy Editions, 1994).

As the demand for multi-family co-living continues to expand, the original flowing and interactive shared space in the traditional courtyard is being cut by rigid partition, while meeting the requirements of privacy and security, seriously weakens the basis of environmental quality and neighborhood interaction, exposing a structural contradiction that needs to be highlighted. In this process of transformation, the originally open public spaces becomes more subdivided and redefined, and the “threshold” – the critical interface that connects and separates public and private space – increasingly demonstrates its significance. To further examine the collaborative mechanisms within co-living arrangements, this section will establish a comprehensive analytical framework based on three dimensions: physical construction, social interaction, and functional configuration. This framework not only reveals how informal modifications erode traditional public spaces, but also provides a theoretical basis for examining how residents appropriate thresholds to balance privacy with social interaction. The following discussion will explore these three dimensions in detail, as they are materialized in Wangshi Neighbourhood’s shared domestic space..

The field observation in Wangshi neighbourhood also indicates that excessive subdivision of courtyards discourages natural light and ventilation, leaving residents in dark, narrowed units. Furthermore, in Figures, Doors and Passages, Robin Evans11 emphasizes the determinate influence doorways and corridors have on resident circulation and the preservation of privacy. If corridors or verandas become blocked or enclosed, what was originally transitional and connective space is transformed into an enclosed partitioned space, also undermining the area’s original social function.

More notably, this pressure for physical separation reflects the long-standing trend in European housing away from “enfilade” room plans [Fig 2.8]towards passage-based layouts[Fig 2.9]—Ching12 and Evans both observe that as population density rises and the demand for privacy increase, building configurations tend to incorporate additional divisions that further subdivide previously communal or interactive spaces. Thus, Type I courtyard houses in the Residential Adaptation Zone have begun transitioning from a pre-modification concern with “connectivity” to a post-modification focus on “segmentation”. While this process indeed meet multi-household requirements for privacy, it fragments the formerly open courtyard, compromising the essential daylighting, ventilation and neighbourly interaction.

4. “Francis D. K. Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd Edition Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming Internet Archive,” Internet Archive, 2015, https:// archive.org/details/FrancisD.K.ChingArchitectureFormSpaceAndOrder3rdEdition/ mode/2up.

In Wangshi neighbourhood original typology of Type I courtyard houses, the courtyard, veranda and corridor were often achieved through height change, materials and lighting, forming multiple transitional layers that Kurokawa9 refers to as a grey area. It allowed inhabitants to move gradually from public to private domains, maintaining adequate ventilation and daylight and affording a semi-open space available to engage with neighbours.4 However, as multi-household living became more common, residents typically had recourse to the installation of partition walls or the use of furniture to establish temporary barriers in order to reconfigure the courtyard and corridor. Although these measures addressed the immediate need for privacy, they necessarily compromised the original, step-by-step “grey area,” thus disrupting the courtyard’s overall cohesion.

10.

Verso, 2005).

Circular connection in original courtyard type. Illustration by Author.(lower)

In practice, such “fill-in” modifications may well meet residents’ pressing need for privacy and independent space, although they also generate dual problems of communal space privatisation and environmental quality loss. As Davis10 notes in his study of global informal housing, when partitioning is not followed by the provision of ventilation, light and sanitation facilities, the living condition that result can considerably deteriorate, leading in numerous problems including health hazards.

Consequently, “fill-in” modifications without incorporated planning and further infrastructure have an effect both on the extent of residential space and on interactions between communities. With growing pressures for high-density accommodation, maintaining adequate transitional space while effectively partitioning individual units has emerged as an urgent concern. The following section will therefore address how these physical subdivisions influence neighbourly relations and community cohesion, as well as the circumstances under which threshold spaces can still offer the necessary public amenities and sociability for multi-household living.

Mike Davis, Planet of Slums (London:

8. Joyce Beckenstein, “Allan Wexler: The Man Who Would Be Architecture,” Sculpture 31, no. 1 (January/February 2012): 52–57.

11. Evans, R. (1997). “Figures, Doors and Passages.” In Translations from Drawing to Building and Other Essays, 54–91. London: Architectural Association.

Figure 2.8: Circular connection with enfilade concept: New Castle, Kostelec above Orlicí, Heinricha Kocha, 1835 (upper).

Figure 2.9: Passage based layout in Amesbury House in Wiltshire, England, by John Webb, 1661. (upper)

Longitudinal Passage circulation in current Courtyard House, Illustration by Author. (Lower)

12. Francis D. K. Ching, Architecture: Form, Space, and Order, 3rd ed. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007).

Figure 2.10: Comparative axonometric diagram showing how additional partitions disrupt continuous circulation and shared areas in Type I courtyard. Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.11: Compromised living conditions in current Type I courtyard house, by Author.

2.2.2 Social Interaction and Cooperative Networks

In the process of modern transformation, the traditional courtyard, which used to be the threshold of flexible connection between public and private space, is gradually transformed into a rigid private interface, which directly weakens the basis of neighborhood interaction and community cohesion. In the original Type I courtyard houses of the Residential Adaptation Zone, in occupation by a single family or a small group of households, the courtyard and veranda spaces did more than just provide physical connectivity: they served as an essential foundation for everyday neighbourly interaction and mutual support. Under this traditional configuration, like shared space functioned in much the same way as a “public living room,” with residents hanging out laundry, collaborate on cooking, or hold social gatherings. As Fisher and Sennett13 argues, only when the public space is able to accommodate frequent neighbourly encounters do people tend to maintain relatively stable levels of trust and emotional connection.[Fig 2.12]

However, with multi-household dwelling, most partition walls and separate facilities have encroached incrementally upon space that was originally public or semi-public. Passages and courtyards have been appropriated by individual households, causing a decline in opportunities for residents to meet or interact. Soja14 argues that spatial boundaries are continually negotiated in daily life, which is a view supported in the Wangshi neighbourhood: households always reinforce their own private boundaries, with no co-ordinated mechanism or open dialogue to govern how public space should be shared. Scott15 also points out that, in the absence of clear rules for sharing or quantifiable cooperative dividends, individuals tend to maximise their personal interests, leading to a “tragedy of the commons.”

[Fig 2.13]

Nevertheless, there remain a few residents who still negotiate informally, even using limited corridor or veranda areas to place small tables, chairs, or basic washing facilities, thus retaining a bit of public life for those who willing to be receptive to mutual support. Historical precedents also show that, with institutional support or planning, the development of multi-family shared corridors and service space can minimize crowding and tension (e.g., Henry Roberts’s “Model Houses for Families”)16

[Fig 2.14]. However, under current renovation schemes in the Wangshi neighbourhood, shared spaces tend to be lacking institutional oversight, and remaining largely informal and short-lived.

In summary, the transition of Type I courtyard houses from single-family to multi-household occupancy poses multiple challenges to social interaction:

[Fig 2.14-2.17]

Shrinking Public Space: With inadequate common spaces, neighbourly interaction is more dispersed or confined to private units.

Conflicts of Property and Interest: In the absence of a shared consensus or management framework, privatisation and competition for resources become prevalent.

Mutual Support Weakened: As the courtyard becomes subdivided, neighbourly collaboration traditionally weakens progressively.

Extended Private Boundaries: People extend personal belongings and amenities into public spaces, further encroaching on previously shared space.

And as Fisher and Sennett13 implies, public space loss also brings an end to social coherence and identity of community. The following sections will explore, from the standpoints of property structures, spatial strategies, and resident participation, how threshold spaces might be adapted and managed in high-density, multi-household contexts to revitalise community engagement and cooperative networks.

13. Claude S. Fischer and Richard Sennett, “The Fall of Public Man.,” Contemporary Sociology 7, no. 2 (March 1978): 163, https:// doi.org/10.2307/2064683.

15. James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (S.L.: Yale University Press, 1990).

14. Edward W. Soja, Thirdspace Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-And-Imagined Places (Malden, Mass. U.A.: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).

16. Henry Roberts, The Model Houses for Families Built in Connection with the Great Exhibition of 1851 ... [Etc.], 1851.

Figure 2.14: Model Houses for Four Families, by Henry Roberts.

13. Claude S. Fischer and Richard Sennett, “The Fall of Public Man.,” Contemporary Sociology 7, no. 2 (March 1978): 163, https:// doi.org/10.2307/2064683.

Figure 2.12: Open courtyard and transitional spaces in original Type I courtyard house Illustration by Author. 0 15m

Figure 2.13: Partial subdivision and threshold modifications in a Type I courtyard house, Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.15: Makeshift washing facilities and personal items occupying a shared passageway in Residential Adaptation Zone by Author.

Figure 2.16: Informal outdoor sink installation in a subdivided Type I courtyard, illustrating limited indoor amenities by Author.

Figure 2.17: Privately used shared space with household items in Type I courtyard house. by Author.

Figure 2.18: Resident drying laundry in a communal walkway, reflecting daily life under multi-household adaptations by Author.

2.2.3 Physical and Social Interweaving

4. “Francis D. K. Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd Edition Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming Internet Archive,” Internet Archive, 2015, https:// archive.org/details/FrancisD.K.ChingArchitectureFormSpaceAndOrder3rdEdition/ mode/2up.

Under the influence of high-density multi-household housing, the threshold that originally served as the link between public and private mobility is gradually turning into a rigid boundary that blocks social communication. In previous sections, this study examined the physical configuration of threshold spaces and the resulting impact on social interactions in the adaptation of Type I courtyard houses in Residential Adaptation Zone. Originally, height differences, materials and lighting built what Hertzberger17 would describe as a transitional zone, which is an intervening space that provided an abundance of daylight and ventilation as well as acting as a sort of communal living space for neighbourly contact.4 However, with the rise of multi-household living, modifications such as partition walls and the strategic placement of furniture have increasingly redefined these transitional zones into static, private interfaces, thereby eroding their original connective function.

15. James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance:

Yale University Press, 1990).

13. Claude S. Fischer and Richard Sennett, “The Fall of Public Man.,” Contemporary Sociology 7, no. 2 (March 1978): 163, https:// doi.org/10.2307/2064683.

As Hillier18 points out, the spatial organization is intimately associated with social relations; when these threshold spaces of transition between public and private lose their ability to connect, neighborly interaction diminishes both in number and quality, leading to a gradual shrinkage of communal areas. In the absence of unified regulations, residents tend to reinforce their own private boundaries, which is a consequence that Scott15 cautions leads to a tragedy of the commons, where individual interests taking over from collective benefit. Moreover, Sennett13 recommends that the degradation of public realms always undermines social cohesion and community identity.

While residents have attempted to preserve some shared spaces through informal negotiation, Soja14 supports that spatial boundaries are continually being renegotiated in daily practice. These transient, locally managed arrangements are unlikely to withstand the pressures of property disintegration and economic pressure, and ultimately lead to a continuous erosion of public assets.

In conclusion, the transformation of Type I courtyard houses in Residential Adaptation Zone reflects a shift in the threshold, which is from open, flexible connectors to privatised, rigid interfaces. Although such changes are reactive to the immediate need for personal privacy, they also disassemble the communal fabric required for neighbourly relations and mutual support. This negative cycle which characterized by increased physical segregation, less public space and weakened social networks, is a primary challenge in low-planning intervention high-density urban environments.

17. Herman Hertzberger and Ina Rike, Lessons for Students in Architecture (Rotterdam: Nai010 Publishers, 2016).

Hidden Transcripts (S.L.:

14. Edward W. Soja, Thirdspace Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-And-Imagined Places (Malden, Mass. U.A.: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).

18. Hillier, Bill. 1998. Space Is the Machine: A Configurational Theory of Architecture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Figure 2.19: Partial subdivision and threshold modifications in a Type I courtyard house, Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.20: Original single-household threshold layout in Residential Adaptation Zone, Illustration by Author.

50m

Figure 2.21: Multi-household adaptations in Residential Adaptation Zone, Illustration by Author.

2.3 Multidimensional challenges and potential opportunities for threshold

In earlier analysis of the physical and social dimensions of Type I courtyard houses in the Residential Adaptation Zone, it is shown that in a multi-household living model, the “threshold” is experiencing a major transformation. Originally as a transitional space which fostered connectivity and social interaction, it is progressively being reconfigured into an interface emphasising segregation and privatisation. Although this shift is a reaction to the urgent need for personal privacy, it inevitably undermines public common areas, diminishes neighbourly interaction and mutual support networks, and even results in issues such as inadequate natural light, ventilation, and sanitation facilities, thus creating a negative cycle.

Firstly, the segregation of boundaries reflects the inherent conflict between the necessity of high-density living and traditional spatial forms of community. As population and household numbers increase, inhabitants will tend to ‘self-fill’ the available but limited courtyards or corridors, inevitably reducing the initial public space. More specifically:

Physical Challenges: Reducing Spatial Quality

The extensive implementation of partition walls and single unit installations fragments courtyards and passages to isolate ventilation, natural light, and circulation pathways, thereby diminishing overall environmental comfort. In building structures of historical or cultural heritage, these incoherent transformations may also raise structural and security concerns.

Social Challenges: Erosion of Public Traits

Since public spaces that first become accessible to the community are extremely privatised, natural neighbourly relations are in short supply, and it becomes increasingly difficult to sustain day-to-day interaction and support networks. As Fishers and Sennett13 argues, a deterioration of public space is also usually accompanied by a decline in social cohesion.

Governance Challenges: Absence of Coordinated Mechanisms

Disparate property rights, various amendment strategies, and absence of holistic regulation cause the dwellers to act independently without guidelines that control communal passages and courtyard maintenance. According to Scott15, in the environments where public resources lack the control of regulatory guidelines or cooperative incentives, the tendency towards privatisation is continually reinforced, further exacerbating the decline of communal spaces.

Despite the many challenges, there are some indications that threshold spaces do not necessarily have to be led passively to radical privatisation; under suitable circumstances, they still hold the potential to be reshaped as vital public domains.

Maintenance of Localised Public Spaces

Some residents, even during renovation, continue to preserve a small number of shared facilities in passages or verandas; for instance, public seating, informal conversation corners, or communal laundry areas. The fact that these localised public areas continue to exist implies that residents still need communal interaction, revealing that an intermediary zone between privacy and publicity is still possible.

Cultural Traditions and Community Memory

Many residents, particularly the older generation or those with a strong cultural identity, maintain an emotional attachment to the historical and social value of the courtyard. As Knapp19 observes, in the revitalisation of traditional Chinese residences, cultural identity often lead to the mobilization of instinctual efforts towards preservation and rebuilding communal areas. Such cultural identification provides a necessary basis for the incomplete recovery of public attributes of threshold spaces.

Social Innovation and Governance Experiments

Some communities have experimented with local organisations or microscale self-governance to achieve consensus-based utilisation and rotational maintenance of public areas, even where there are fragmented property rights. Soja 14 suggests that, through the continual reconfiguration of spatial boundaries in daily practice, a cooperative framework may redefine these fragmented thresholds as dynamic interfaces between public and private domains.

13. Claude S. Fischer and Richard Sennett, “The Fall of Public Man.,” Contemporary Sociology 7, no. 2 (March 1978): 163, https:// doi.org/10.2307/2064683.

2.3.1 Multiple Challenges at the Public–Private Threshold

15. James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (S.L.: Yale University Press, 1990).

2.3.2 Potential Opportunities of Threshold Spaces

14. Edward W. Soja, Thirdspace Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-And-Imagined Places (Malden, Mass. U.A.: Blackwell Publishers, 1996).

19. Knapp, R. G. 2012. Chinese Houses: The Architectural Heritage of a Nation. Tuttle Publishing.

Figure 2.22: Retained communal features and personal adaptations in a Type I courtyard, illustrating residents’ cultural identity and the potential for shared threshold spaces. by Author.

2.3.3 Exploring Issues and Uncovering Potential Opportunities

After having a comprehensive analysis of the physical division and the decline in social interaction in the Type I courtyard of the Wangshi neighbourhood, an urgent question arises: in a high-density, multi-household living environment, how can reconfigure those “threshold” spaces that once connected public areas while still delineating private boundaries, so that they not only preserve historical memory and communal functions, but also serve the diverse demands of modern living?

From a spatial strategy perspective, the traditional courtyards used to be founded upon courtyards, verandas, and corridors to form a continuous public space, which gave the residents a natural place for interaction. In contemporary renovation, however, these spaces have been substituted with fixed partitions, and a loss of original fluidity and connectivity can be seen. Examining the transverse layout of the courtyard, one can observe that changing some of the spatial arrangements to a longitudinal orientation can permit the maintenance of each household’s existing form while making possible the eventuality of more shared or extended space. In addition, with the restrictions of ventilation and daylight in high-density situations, clear openings in the roof are a necessity consideration; and with over 20 residents in four families needing to share just two sanitary facilities, reconfiguring these facilities in a new design is a necessity. Whilst keeping a communal kitchen ensures each family retains its basic cooking facilities, but also enables greater communal gatherings. Thus, this approach seeks to go beyond the rigidity that has been caused by current “fill-in” remodels.

Second, from the perspective of property rights and policy mechanisms, ownership fragmentation in common courtyard renovations tends to result in each household having control over common resources independently without coordinated integration and monitoring. This is a major factor in the gradual loss of public spaces. Future studies therefore must examine how government departments and community organizations can collaborate to create a flexible yet well-structured system for property management and operation. For instance, subsidies for rent, grants for renovation, and technical support for rebuilding roofs or pipes can be introduced, laying down which areas need to retain public purposes and which can be partly privatised, with proper financial incentives to the residents. This process would not only facilitate conflict resolution in the sense of ownership but also motivate long-term preservation of shared resource in ancient courtyards as a way to ensure these enclaves maintain their autonomy of operation within an economy system without losing shared nature.

Lastly, viewed from the perspective of resident engagement and social networks, small-scale self-governance and spontaneous negotiation within the community can offer more flexible strategies in the absence of large-scale planning interventions. In traditional courtyards, the natural interaction and mutual support among neighbours have long been crucial in maintaining community cohesion. Future design and governance initiatives should thus emphasise stimulating residents’ sense of participation. By involving them directly in the planning and management of shared spaces, design proposals can be better aligned with real-life requirements, while simultaneously enhancing the community’s identification with, and sense of belonging to, renovation efforts. For instance, hosting activities such as a ‘Traditional Courtyard Memoir’ or a ‘Creative Community Market’ can encourage residents to share personal narratives, gradually fostering a bottom-up model of collaborative governance within the community.

In summary, these multi-faceted reflections not only reveal the deeper causes behind the fragmentation of communal spaces and diminishing social interaction during courtyard renovations, but also provide practical pathways for future interventions. By reinstating openness in spatial strategies, establishing coordinated governance mechanisms around property rights and policies, and reviving community networks through resident involvement, these “threshold” spaces can once again serve their essential function of connecting public and private realms. The upcoming ACT will further refine the Adaptive CoDesign Framework for Residents–Council Collaboration, Spatial Reorganisation, and Functional Optimisation to Achieve Public–Private Balance, exploring how these conceptual insights might be translated into concrete design solutions that help traditional courtyards in modern urban environments attain a dynamic equilibrium between communal and private spheres.

Conclusion

High-density settings expose contradictions while opening doors for community renewal and collaboration.

High-density living intensifies the tension between individual privacy and communal well-being, and it also opens doors for renewed community collaboration. By examining how thresholds in Wangshi neighbourhood’s Type I courtyards have shifted from open, fluid spaces to fragmented, private enclosures, we see that the loss of shared areas is not merely a design issue, but a deeper structural challenge involving fragmented ownership, limited governance, and diminished neighbourly engagement. Nevertheless, these very contradictions point to potential strategies: through spatial strategies that reintroduce flexible thresholds, policy frameworks that address property fragmentation, and participatory initiatives that rebuild trust and social networks, traditional courtyards can be revitalised as spaces for cultural continuity and collective identity. The following ACT will propose an Adaptive Community Transformation framework, outlining how these insights may be translated into concrete design and governance measures that enable high-density communities to balance individual needs with shared aspirations.

Right: Figure 2.23: Photo: Deng Yucheng

Act I

Design Framework for Residents–Council Collaboration, Spatial Reorganisation, and Functional Optimisation to Achieve Public–Private Balance

Through multi-party collaboration, restore the courtyard’s threshold spaces for communal use, address modern needs for privacy and comfort, and preserve historical character and cultural memory, while establishing a viable design and management framework.

1. Strategically Leading Designs: Resident–Council Collaboration, Spatial Reorganization, Functional Optimisation

2. Content & Strategy Design: Public Space Revitalisation, Property Rights & Operational Mechanisms, Sanitation & Functional Upgrades.

Right: Figure 2.24: Analysis Summary in Type I courtyard, Illustration by Author

Design Constraints and Context (in Accordance with Suzhou Regulations)

20. “苏州国家历史文化名城保护条 例 - 苏州市人民政府,” Suzhou.gov.cn, 2018, https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/ gbdfxfg/202207/1505c8c15d4a4c08b2c7f026567a4338.shtml.

In accordance with Suzhou regulations for the conservation of historic buildings and traditional streetscapes20, this project is governed by several significant design constraints:

1.Preservation of Main Structural Framework and External Walls

The historic load-bearing system and external walls must be conserved wherever possible to avoid large-scale demolition, thus conserving the building’s historical integrity and structural stability.

Any reinforcement work or internal subdivision must be limited to the current structure, minimising changes to the external envelope and structural components.

2.Limiting Building Height

The new or renovated parts of the building must not exceed two storeys in height, thereby maintaining the traditional scale and skyline of the streetscape.

If changes to the roof are needed—such as adding skylights or lightweight additions—caution needs to be exercised in incorporating these features tastefully into the original roof design.

3.Maintenance of the Original Façade Appearance

Modifications to the façade should also be minimal to preserve the overall historic appearance. Doors and windows should remain in the same location, be of the same size, and be of the same type as the original plan or merge with the surrounding areas in the same manner.

Any new material or finishes that are introduced on the exterior walls should blend in with the existing materials, colors, and textures and therefore maintain the traditional character of the place.

4.Respecting the Original Household Layout

Internal household design framework should honor existing subdivision into household units and should not blindly merge or divide them.

The public and private space allocation, as well as circulation routes, should be maximized within the original household layout, preserving residents’ daily usage patterns and habits to a great extent.

Figure 2.25: Axonometric Diagram of Design Constraints, Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.26: Family Structure in plan of Design Constraints, Illustration by Author.

3B: Family A

4B/4B: Rent B

3B: Shared Family D

4B: Family C

15m

Figure 2.27: Household Division Axonometric Diagram of Design Constraints, Illustration by Author.

Design Contents& Strategies

Reintroduction of Threshold Spaces

For corridors and verandas, restore or adapt semi-open corridors that had been replaced by hard partitions, thereby recreating spatial fluidity and offering residents natural opportunities to interact with one another.

In terms of communal courtyard, retain a part of the courtyard as a communal space (e.g., for drying clothes or washing rice). Through careful visual and circulation design, maintain a strong connection of this space with each household entrance.

Flexible Use of Circulation and Flow Lines

For multi-functional passage, orient corridors such that their start and end points lead directly to the courtyard and the communal kitchen, and thereby form open and continuous communal routes.

In terms of optimising the longitudinal corridor, where heritage guidelines allow, introduce a staircase to link upper and lower levels. This intervention has to be smoothly incorporated into the original building shape.

Subtle Façade Modifications

For door and window reconfiguration, insert or move internal doors and windows to establish visual links with common spaces, fostering a sense of connectivity between residents.

In terms of consistency in Materials, when constructing or refurbishing at ground-floor level, adhere to materials and colours that complement the original building, preserving the district’s overall appearance.

Defining Public–Private Boundaries

For property demarcation, use legal agreements or community contracts to separate each home’s private domain from common spaces; e.g., courtyards, stairs, and rooftop gardens.

where feasible, utilize incentives such as partial maintenance fee waivers or tax credits to encourage households’ shared ownership and maintenance of common amenities.

Flexible Governance and Finance Mechanisms

For government subsidies and grants, provide targeted financial support to projects like pipe replacement or rooftop upgrading, subject to the condition that a certain percentage of space is retained as publicly accessible.

In terms of community cooperative organisations, establish residents’ committees or cooperatives to oversee communal space maintenance, mediate disputes, and manage cost-sharing and revenue distribution.

Long-Term Maintenance and Management

For professional operations and maintenance, employ professional crews or local community groups to handle technically demanding upgrades, like piping or waterproofing, ensuring high-quality, long-lasting results.

In terms of regular inspections, conduct scheduled inspections to ensure compliance with heritage conservation and safety standards, adjusting operations plans as needed to address overcrowding or decay.

Respecting the Original Configuration

For minimising alterations, retain current household boundaries wherever possible, preserving the building’s established structural logic and ongoing community relationships.

In terms of balancing interaction and privacy, form semi-private hallways or utilize various flooring materials to separate household areas, allowing discreet neighbourly interaction with privacy.

Adaptive Internal Partitioning

For consolidated shared facilities, group kitchens, bathrooms, and other amenities requiring water and drainage together to reduce repeated construction, facilitate easier maintenance, and uphold the original household delineations.

Incremental Piping Improvements

For consolidated wet areas, toilets, bathing, and laundry facilities to optimise pipe runs and minimise secondary structural interventions.

In terms of pipe upgrades, work together with government agencies and technical specialists in upgrading or replacing aging pipes for better water pressure and drainage efficiency.

Cooperation Network Diagram for Residential Adaptation Zone

Residents Government/Policy Makers

Policy and Legislative Framwworks

Financial Incentives and Technical Assistance

Reorganisation for High-Density Living

Engagement and Feedback

•Establish clear guidelines for high-density living (allowable building height, safety standards)

•Provide legal mechanisms to encourage reorganisation and shared infrastructure upgrades

•Subsidies and Grants for rooftop reconstructions or water-pipe upgrades.

•Technical Support offering expertise in green roofing, and plumbing solutions

Monitoring and Compliance

Oversee implementation

•Collaborate to optimise shared spaces, adapt household layouts, and maintain neighbourhood cohesion.

•Coordinate with technical experts to ensure structural safety when renovating rooftops and installing new water systems.

•Participate actively in policymaking discussions, voicing local needs (e.g., rooftop access, sanitary facilities).

•Offer insights on community habits and spatial usage, ensuring strategies are practical and accepted.

Effective reorganisation of high-density living through optimised household segmentation, provision of shared spaces, and enhanced sanitation facilities

Rooftop and Rainwater Management

For lightweight rooftop interventions, within the constraint of not exceeding two storeys, strategically introduce skylights or partial glass roofing for better interior daylighting and ventilation.

In terms of rainwater harvesting system, enhance rooftop drainage and provide storage facilities, promoting resource recycling while reducing pressure on municipal water supplies.

Bathrooms and Shared Service Facilities

In terms of adding bathrooms, given that four households with over twenty residents currently share only two bathrooms, ensure that each household has at least one private sanitary facility to meet basic needs.

By following these guidelines, focusing on public space revitalisation, property rights and operational mechanisms, household division, and sanitation or functional upgrades, this approach respects local heritage requirements while addressing the challenges of high-density living.

Figure 2.28: Cooperation Network Diagram in Residential Adaptation Zone, Illustration by Author.

Proposal of Family A Design in TYPE I Courtyard House

Proposal of Family C Design in TYPE I Courtyard House

Proposal of Family D Design in TYPE I Courtyard House

Figure 2.37: Communal Kitchen Plan and Layout, Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.38: Original single-household threshold layout in Residential Adaptation Zone, Illustration by Author.

Proposal of Longitudinal Shared Space Design in TYPE I Courtyard House

Figure 2.39: Longitudinal Shared Spaces and Different Household in Axonometric Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.40: Longitudinal Shared Spaces in Type I Courtyard House, Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.41: Ground Floor Plan and Digram Illustration by Author.

Longitudinal shared spaces

Collective Kitchen and Public Toilet

Transition Boundary

Courtyard Main Entrance

Longitudinal shared spaces

Collective Kitchen and Public Toilet Transition Boundary Courtyard

Figure 2.42: First Floor Plan and Digram

Illustration by Author.

Figure 2.43: Stage I--Original scenario in Type I Courtyard House

Figure 2.44: Stage II--Roof, Water Pipe Construction in Process

Figure 2.45: Stage III--Household Boundary Construction

Figure 2.46: Stage IV --New Proposition in Type I Courtyard House

Figure 2.47: Shared Spaces Revision

Figure 2.48: Shared Spaces Revision

Figure 2.49: Sectional Perspective with showing Roof and Daylighting, Illustration by Author.

1m

Figure 2.50: Detailed section with showing New Structure and Original Structure, Illustration by Author.

Solid Substrate 100mm

Drianage Layer

Moisture Retention 3mm

Waterproof Menbrane 1mm Concrete 200mm

Figure 2.51: New Proposition in Type I Courtyard House, Illustration by Author. 0 50m

Figure 2.52: New Proposition testing in Residential Adaptation Zone, Illustration by Author.

Design Framework for Residents–Council Collaboration, Spatial Reorganisation, and Functional Optimisation to Achieve Public–Private Balance

Through coordinated efforts between residents, local authorities, and other stakeholders, the framework proposes reinventing historic courtyard threshold spaces for collective use without sacrificing present needs for comfort and privacy. Respecting historic character and cultural memory, it presents a just design and management strategy. The strategy develops in two main sections:

Strategically Leading Designs: Resident–Council Collaboration, Spatial Reorganisation and Functional Optimisation.

Design Content & Strategy: Public Space Revitalisation, Property Rights & Operational Mechanisms and Sanitation & Functional Upgrades

Taken together, these actions contribute to the achievement of a public–private balance that responds to the preservation of heritage, encourages a vibrant communal life, and offers practical adaptability to shifting residential needs.

Chapter 3

Openness and Women’s Empowerment

This chapter examines the effect of courtyard commercialisation in the Tourism Hub Zone on local left-behind women’s economic activities, particularly Type II and Type III courtyards. Traditionally, the openness character of these courtyards enabled flexible production and exchange of crafts, but many semi-open spaces were enclosed or remodelled, limiting women’s market access.

To address this, the chapter discusses reorganizing courtyard spaces to recapture economic opportunities. Type II courtyards have the potential to maintain commercial access through the front-shop format, whereas Type III courtyards can incorporate flexible shared space to accommodate craft-based livelihoods.

Lastly, the chapter emphasises the symboitic of preservation and development. By the reconfiguration of courtyard space without compromising its historical adaptability, cultural heritage can be conserved alongside sustainable economic empowerment, with local women’s craft economies remaining sustainable in modern commercial settings.

Left: Figure 3.1: Wangshi Garden, Photo: Deng Yucheng

3.1 Missing Female Narratives in Garden Heritage

3.1.1

Conference, “Economic Change Around the Indian Ocean in the Very Long Run,” Venice, July 22–24, 2008).

“Gender has become a powerful critical lens through which various forms of individual and collective sufferings, alienations, and injustices could be seen and examined.” - A. N. Standridge

In traditional Suzhou garden and courtyard narratives, the economic and social functions of women have long been overlooked. Even though courtyards were not only private familial space but also sites of serious economic and social activity, historic art, literature, and official heritage records all have a tendency to highlight men’s contribution to economic activity, while the actual involvement of women in these spaces has been marginalised or even erased. By examining women’s historical roles in courtyards, the gendered biases in heritage narratives, and the representation of gender in conventional market artwork, this section examines the invisibility of female economic and cultural agency. It also brings to light the necessity of reinscribing female narratives into heritage conservation practice.

Historically, women in Suzhou courtyards played an essential role in household-based production and handicraft labor as the backbone of local economies such as embroidery, textile manufacturing, and food processing. While traditional records usually depicting courtyards as sites of male sociability and intellectual discourse, courtyards were also at the center of women’s economic life.2 Within these confined environments, women carried out activities such as washing, cooking, gardening, and textile manufacturing in support of both family livelihood and local economies.3

An example is Suzhou embroidery, a business that thrived in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Women dominated the production process, from preparing the fabric to stitching and finishing. However, commercial networks remained male-dominated, with men usually being responsible for market transactions and distribution.4 Likewise, in textile and fan-making businesses, women did the labour-intensive production work while men managed sales and trade networks, perpetuating gendered divisions in economic agency.5 [Fig 3.1-3.2]

Although women contributed economically, their work remained confined to production rather than market participation. The divide between domestic labour and commerce limited the formal documentation of their roles. As a result, their role in the courtyard economy is rarely mentioned in heritage narratives, and heritage conservation tends to focus on the architectural and cultural achievements of elite men, with less attention paid to the economic contributions of women artisans and labourers.

8. Wu, B., Li, M., & Huang, G. 2002. A study on relationship of conservation and tourism demand of world heritage sites in China. Geographical Research, 21(5), 617-626.

The official approach to the conservation of heritage has been mainly with the preservation of the physical structures of Suzhou’s gardens and courtyards, their architectural integrity unaffected by their shifting socio-economic functions. Suzhou’s classical gardens were designated as cultural heritage protection units in 1955 by the State Council,6 which placed them under strict conservation laws that prioritised the preservation of their aesthetic and structural forms at the expense of their lived experiences.

However, with the economic reforms and the rise of tourism in 1978, the courtyard spaces were gradually opened to the public and transformed into an important part of the city’s tourism economy.7 In 1985, China formally acceded to the Convention on the Protection of the World Culturalc and Natural Heritage, a decision that further enhanced the global influence of Suzhou gardens and attracted a large number of tourists. Through this process, the function use of courtyards has undergone major changes, which many courtyards have been transformed into teahouses, homestays, and arts and crafts exhibition halls, transforming from private economic spaces into commercial venues.

4. Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

5. Evelyn S. Rawski and Thomas G. Rawski, China’s Economic Development and Global Interactions in the Long Run (paper presented at the Harvard-Hitotsubashi-Warwick Conference, “Economic Change Around the Indian Ocean in the Very Long Run,” Venice, July 22–24, 2008).

Taking Suzhou embroidery industry as an example, although women have historically dominated the production process, the embroidery display and sales mode promoted by tourism is often brand-oriented and market-oriented, and is mainly controlled by enterprises and shops, rather than relying on the female manual labour network in the courtyard space.4 This shift has reduced women’s artisanal production to a cultural display rather than an informal economic activity. Similarly, other courtyard economic models, such as textile and food processing, are also gradually declining due to changes in spatial functions.5

1. A. N. Standridge, “Raise the Red Lantern: A Critique of Patriarchy in Chinese Cinema,” Film Matters 12, no. 1 (2021): 117–121.

The Absence of Women’s Voices in Garden Heritage

2. Lu, Weijing. “Gender and Social Life in Imperial China.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. 30 Oct. 2019.

3. Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).

4. Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

5. Evelyn S. Rawski and Thomas G. Rawski, China’s Economic Development and Global Interactions in the Long Run (paper presented at the Harvard-Hitotsubashi-Warwick

3.1.2 Gendered Biases in Heritage Narratives

6. State Council Gazette of the People’s Republic of China, Issue No. 4, 1961

7. Suzhou Declaration on International Co-operation for the Safeguarding and Development of Historic Cities,1998.

Figure 3.2: Lady Embroidering, Chinese, 18th century, The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri. Purchase: William Rockhill Nelson Trust 53-84.

Figure 3.3: Shop with fans, China, Collection of photographs of China, Taken by Stanley O.Gregory, 1920-1930.

In traditional Chinese paintings, depictions of urban economic life are mostly concerned with male participation. Such depicted works as Suzhou Market Scenes Album depict bustling market transactions, workshops, and public life, but commercial bargaining, shopkeeping, and trade are usually depicted as male domains. Women, however, are primarily depicted as customers, attendants, or passive observers. [Fig 3.4-3.5] This visual depiction maintains the male superiority of the formal economy while confining women’s economic pursuits to the household, thus limiting their perceived independence in the broader socio-economic environment.

However, historical research indicates that women in Ming and Qing Suzhou actively participated in industries such as embroidery, fan-making, and tea trading, establishing small-scale economic networks within courtyard spaces.3 The discrepancy between visual representation and economic reality suggests that historical narratives have played an important role in shaping gendered economic spaces, influencing contemporary perceptions of women’s economic contributions.

Significantly, the openness of courtyard areas, particularly door and window layout, played a key role in women’s economic activities. Vernacular courtyard doorways, lattice windows, and decorative openings were not merely architectural aesthetic values but also generated semi-open areas for social and economic exchange. Women could view external market activities from windows and even communicate restrictedly with those passage by, while doorways and verandas served as a continuation of their workspace for handicraft production, minor trading, or offering services.

Additionally, the “Beauty Lean” as a characteristic architectural element in courtyards, further facilitated women’s participation in external economic and social activities. This seat, attached to window sills or veranda railings, allowed women to perform embroidery, weaving, and other handicrafts in a semi-private space but with maintaining visibility to the outside world. The combination of doorways, windows, and the Beauty Lean created a transitional space that protected women’s privacy while enabling them to observe and engage, to some extent, in marketplace interactions.

However, with the commercial redevelopment of courtyard spaces, the marginalisation of women’s economic activities has become increasingly evident.9 Many courtyards have been repurposed into teahouses, guesthouses, or craft exhibition halls, promoted by government agencies, market investors, and tourism developers, but left-behind women’s local economic roles have not been integrated into this commercial framework.

They had formerly been occupying the semi-open spaces of courtyards, such as doorways and windows, for small-scale handicraft making and informal sales, but the shift to a commercialised model has disenfranchised them, with no allocated selling spaces.

These redevelopment of courtyards prefer branded, enterprise-based business models to traditional courtyard-based economic networks. Consequently, women who used to engage in courtyard-based production and trade have become economically dependent, and their labor has been turned into cultural performance or supporting services rather than being labeled economic activity.4

Thus, in conservation of heritage and in adaptive reuse of courtyards, one of the most important challenges is how to revive and implement the openness of courtyards to make them once more a site of women’s economic participation. In maintaining the architectural form of courtyards, measures should not only employ but also utilize doorways, corridors, and other open architectural forms in order to create avenues for women’s economic participation. These areas in the past played a middle ground between home life and the marketplace, allowing women to watch, engage, and take part in economic endeavors in a limited but meaningful way. In modern reuse of courtyards, there should be an attempt to reinstate these open areas to create formal selling spaces, where women can regain their place in the courtyard economy. It can only be by preserving both the physical structures and the socio-economic functions that they formerly held that women’s previous work can be adequately remembered and retained within a modern framework.

3.1.3 Gender distribution in traditional painting

3. Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).

9. Zhang, Gege, Xiaoyuan Chen, Rob Law, and Mu Zhang. 2020. “Sustainability of Heritage Tourism: A Structural Perspective

9199.

Figure 3.4: Openness Features in the Wangshi Garden, Illustration by Author.

4. Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

Figure 3.7: Suzhou Market Scenes Album, Qing Dynasty. Handscroll, ink and colour on paper. Suzhou, China.

Figure 3.8: Suzhou Market Scenes Album, Qing Dynasty. Handscroll, ink and colour on paper. Suzhou, China.

Figure 3.7: Spatial Openness and Female Social Interaction in Traditional Courtyards, Qiu Ying, Late 19th century.

Figure 3.8: The Role of Windows in Gendered Spatial Dynamics of Courtyards,Qiu Ying, Late 19th century.

3.2 Openness as a Lens for Economic Empowerment

3.2.1Openness

Openness is not only a physical feature of space but also a social and economic empowering mechanism. In Wangshi Neighbourhood, openness disparities among Type II (front-living, back-shop) courtyards and Type III (incremental expansion) courtyards create the spatial foundation for women’s economic endeavors. Type II courtyards, with their frontage on to the street and open plan, facilitate commercial usage, whereas Type III courtyards, despite the potential to extend, suffer a loss of openness with commercial re-use at the expense of women’s economic roles. It is argued, in this chapter, how courtyards’ openness impacts the economic empowerment of women and strategies for reclaiming such openness are found in adapting courtyards for reuse.

Openness of the courtyards not only controls spatial utilization but also immediately affects their economic adaptability. In Type II courtyards (front-shop, rear-residence type), openness is expressed in the unbroken progression from street to courtyard, with no dividing line between the veranda and the shop, and commercial and residential functions mixed together. This spatial organization brings down the disincentive of economic activities, allowing for lively interaction between household and marketplace and thus developing a responsive economic form. However with shifts in types of property and urban functions, this openness itself has been modified time and again. From 1950s-60s family-owned form, to the 1970s-80s shared equity and rental, to the recent commercial development, the spatial occupancy of courtyards shifted from household-oriented towards market-oriented. While some of the courtyards retained their elastic commercial functions, others were converted into roofed commercial spaces due to market concentration or heritage conservation policies at the expense of their original flexibility in spatial application.[Fig 3.9]

On the other hand, Type III courtyards (incremental expansion model), despite having high flexibility with regard to residential extension, lost their openness during the process of commercialisation. During the 1960s-80s, these courtyards were converted informally for multigenerational or tenancy sharing use, generating an adaptive spatial order. However, after the 1990s, with the influx of tourists, these courtyards became integrated more into tourist redevelopment projects, where many of the initially semi-open areas got remapped into single-function consumer spaces, such as teahouses, guesthouses, or cultural display halls. The doors and windows which once connected the courtyard to external markets, were compromised, reducing their historical flexibility and functional diversity. [Fig 3.10]

Openness in the courtyard economic system not only organizes spatial logic but also considerably influences the form of economic autonomy10 Half-open spaces such as doors, windows, and verandas were relied upon in classical Suzhou courtyards, providing a flexible transitional zone between household and market. This physical layout enabled courtyards to maintain privacy while, simultaneously, they could offer interface with external markets by way of visual, auditory, and social contacts.3 Window sill, for instance, was routinely used to display goods, verandahs to serve as informal reception areas to deal or contact, and “beauty lean” seating elements in addition to providing a place for resting offered scope for viewing the street and contact with persons passing through. These open structural zones were not merely physical zones of transition but played a significant role in facilitating courtyard-based economic activity.

However, the harsh lines of commercial redevelopment are re-forming the openness of courtyards. Most courtyards, when converted into teahouses, guesthouses, or cultural exhibition halls, were reorganized into formalized commercial spaces and enclosed domestic spaces, eliminating or minimizing the semi-open spaces that previously subsidized household economic activities.11 This spatial inflexibility not only changed the architectural features of courtyards but also undermined their original economic design, so it was not possible to sustain an economy based on spatial openness for industry and commerce.

Therefore, in the adaptive evolution of the courtyard, reinstating spatial openness is not just a continuation of architectural heritage but also a response to economic independence. Future conservation and reuse planning must not only focus on physical preservation of courtyards but instead on how to revitalise architectural elements such as doors and verandas in order to reclaim economic openness so that courtyards continue to enable flexible economic activities in contemporary times.

as Structural Condition for Courtyard Economy

10. Ali Madanipour, Public and Private Spaces of the City (London: Routledge, 2003).

3. Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).

11. Ariella Matan and Peter Newman, People Cities: The Life and Legacy of Jan Gehl (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2016).

Figure 3.10: Transformation of Type III Courtyard in the Tourism Hub Zone, Illustration by Author.

Historically, women’s economic existence was typically structured around domestic space, relying on architectural elements such as doors, windows, and verandas to control contact with the outside world. Suzhou embroidery, for example, was typically done by windows, where sunlight improved precision, and employees stayed connected to external activities while attending to domestic duties.3 Verandas were also semi-public areas where women could exchange and present handicrafts or watch over market transactions. These intermediate areas bridged the line between economic and domestic life, making informal but essential household-based economic activity possible.

The commercialisation of courtyards gradually marginalised women’s economic roles as spatial elements supporting their work were altered or removed. Redevelopment often replaced flexible, multi-functional spaces with rigid commercial zones, making it increasingly difficult for women to sustain economic engagement. Two key shifts contributed to this: first, courtyard structures were modified in ways that eliminated or restricted access to previously adaptive spaces; second, women’s participation in economic activities declined as formal businesses replaced informal household production. These interconnected changes reinforced the exclusion of women from local commerce.

Many incremental expansion courtyards were converted into teahouses, themed cafés, or curated cultural spaces focused on controlled visitor experiences rather than adaptive spatial use. Original doors and windows were often blocked or reconfigured, reducing opportunities for craft production and small-scale trade along courtyard peripheries.12 As a result, access to street markets and local economies was significantly diminished, limiting economic opportunities for women.

Similarly, front-shop, rear-residence courtyards retained commercial functions but became formalised, male-dominated enterprises. The shift towards fixed rental models and external investment made it harder for women to integrate into these new business structures. Previously, the adaptable nature of courtyard commerce allowed for fluid, home-based enterprises, but commercialisation replaced these with rigid, market-driven systems that left little space for informal trade or household production. These changes have often involved blocking or reshaping original doors and windows, which have led to fewer chances for women to engage in craft production or informal sales activities along the edges of these courtyards.

Therefore, spaces that were once a way for women to connect with street markets and small economies became less accessible. This situation has clearly made it harder for women to participate in business activities in these areas, limiting their opportunities in commercial life.

3.2.2Openness as Structural Condition for Courtyard Economy

3. Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).

12. Yuyang Wang, Asterios Agkathidis, and Andrew Crompton, “Parametrising Historical Chinese Courtyard-Dwellings: An Algorithmic Design Framework for the Digital Representation of Siheyuan Iterations Based on Traditional Design Principles,” Frontiers of Architectural Research 9, no. 4 (2020): 751–773.

Figure 3.11: Commercial Adaptation of a Traditional Courtyard: Handicraft and Textile Sales in Suzhou, by Author.

Figure 3.11:Informal Street Economy: Elderly Woman Selling Handicrafts in Suzhou, by Author

Figure 3.12: Commercial Adaptation of Traditional Courtyards: Cultural Venues in Historic Suzhou, by Author

3.3 Perspective shift: Opportunities and challenges in Women’s Craft Economy

This section discusses the opportunities and challenges faced by female handicraft economy in the process of courtyard commercialisation. By analysing the impact of the transformation of courtyard business model on handicraft economy and how the change of spatial attributes shapes the role of women in the market, this chapter proposes strategies to promote the sustainable development of handicraft economy and lays the foundation for the subsequent design intervention.

The traditional courtyard economy relies on spatial flexibility, with elements such as doors, windows, verandas, and semi-open corridors providing a connection between the economic activities of the home and the external market. However, with the commercialization of courtyards, many spaces have been reprogrammed into fixed functional areas, weakening these flexibilities and shifting the courtyard economy from adaptive production to standardised consumption space.

The adaptability of the courtyard originally allowed it to adapt economic activities to the needs of the family without changing the core spatial structure. However, Type III courtyards are gradually being transformed into teahouses, homestays or themed commercial spaces during the commercialisation process to provide a more attractive visitor experience. Although this transformation enhances the commercial value of the courtyard, the economic interaction space at the original boundary of the courtyard is compressed, and the space for handicraft production and trading activities is gradually reduced.12 This kind of rigid transformation reduces the original economic adaptability of the courtyard, making it difficult to maintain the once flexible family economic activities.

The commercialisation of courtyard is mainly guided by tourism consumption, which leads to the blurring of the market positioning of handicraft economy. Many handicraft products have been redefined as cultural exhibits rather than informal commercial goods, making it difficult for female artisans to gain a stable economic position in the market.

With the development of courtyard economy, more and more commercial spaces are branded and standardised to meet the consumption needs of tourists. Craft economies have traditionally relied on small-scale, personalised production, and in this business environment, they have gradually become less competitive.4 In addition, tourists’ demand for handicrafts is often based on ornamental and souvenir consumption, rather than practical consumption, which makes it difficult for the handicraft economy to integrate into the broader market structure.

sustainable development of female handicraft economy

The sales mode of handicraft products is controlled by commercial operators, and the autonomy of craftsmen is further limited.

Under the tourism-based business system, the business model of the courtyard is often dominated by investors and operators, and artisans, as affiliated producers, lack economic decision-making rights such as independent pricing and market promotion.13

Although many Type II courtyards retain commercial functions, due to the reconstruction of formal business models, the local left-behind women have limited participation in decision-making and management levels. With the rise of the commercial leasing model, the management right of courtyard space is often concentrated in the hands of a few investors, making handicraft producers lack independent management rights, and further limiting their economic influence. The role of artisans has gradually changed from independent operators to producers dependent on commercial space operators, resulting in a significant reduction in their decision-making power in the courtyard economy system.

In terms of re-examine the garden business model and give greater autonomy to the handicraft economy. The courtyard economy should not only be seen as an adjunct to the tourism business, but might explore how to make it part of an independent production and trading system. The craft economy can be integrated with the community economy, rather than relying solely on the tourist market, resulting in a more sustainable business model.

The current courtyard business model mainly serves the needs of tourists, but this single consumption orientation limits the development space of the handicraft economy. By encouraging community participation, making the craft economy not only accessible to tourists but also integrated into the local market can create a more stable sales channel for it. This can not only increase the economic independence of craftsmen, but also reduce their dependence on external operators, so that they can gain greater initiative in the market system.

For improve the accessibility of handicraft economy through the adjustment of courtyard space, the adaptive transformation of the courtyard should retain a certain degree of spatial openness, so that the handicraft economy can continue to exist in the courtyard boundaries, doors and windows or transitional spaces, rather than being completely replaced by formal business models.

3.3.1 Challenges of female handicraft economy in courtyard business model

12. Yuyang Wang, Asterios Agkathidis, and Andrew Crompton, “Parametrising Historical Chinese Courtyard-Dwellings: An Algorithmic Design Framework for the Digital Representation of Siheyuan Iterations Based on Traditional Design Principles,” Frontiers of Architectural Research 9, no. 4 (2020): 751–773.

4. Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

3. Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).

3.3.2 Strategies for promoting

The success of the handicraft economy depends on the accessibility of the market, and the spatial layout of the courtyard directly affects its economic interaction. Instead of simply being a cultural exhibition place, courtyard renovation can potentialy explore how to restore open spaces such as doors, windows and verandas, so that they can continue to carry small-scale economic activities. For example, the Type II courtyard can provide a more flexible way of economic participation without affecting commercial operations, making the courtyard not only a place for tourists to consume, but also to serve the needs of the local economy.

In terms of spatial considerations in empowerment strategies The sustainable development of handicraft economy not only depends on the adjustment of market environment, but also needs the support of space strategy. In the process of courtyard renovation, how to maintain its connection with the external market will determine whether the craftsmen can continue to survive in this space system.

The adjustment of the spatial strategy not only focus on the transformation of the physical environment, but also ensure the flexibility of the courtyard space, so that it can adapt to a variety of economic activities. For example, in the adaptation of the courtyard, the multiple approaches of using the original doors, windows, verandas and other spaces of the courtyard to make it a supplementary area for handicraft display, trading or production, rather than simply as a static preservation of historical heritage. By reserving flexible use areas in the courtyard space, a more inclusive business environment can be created for the handicraft economy, enabling it to play a greater role in the modern courtyard economy system.

The protection of traditional courtyard should not only focus on the physical building form, but also include the social and economic functions carried by the courtyard. Women’s handicraft economy used to be an important part of the courtyard economy, thereby in the process of conservation, it should be considered that this economic model continues, rather than simply transforming it into a part of the tourist consumption experience.

The development of the courtyard business model needs to find a balance between spatial protection and economic empowerment, ensuring that commercialisation does not completely replace the adaptive economic model of the courtyard. By adjusting the business model so that the economy can both meet the needs of the modern market and continue to support the development of the handicraft economy, its long-term sustainability can be remained.

3.3.3 A Symbiotic Approach to Preservation and Development

Figure 3.13: (upper) Historical Representation of Embroidery: A Woman Sewing in a Traditional Courtyard. From Sohu.com, May17, 2020 (lower) Contemporary Suzhou Embroidery Artisan at Work, by Author.

Conclusion

The courtyard reworking in the marketplace has remapped economic orders and enabled potential for women’s craft economies to be reinvented.

As courtyard economies transitioned from flexible, semi-domestic production models to formalised commercial spaces, women’s economic roles underwent a shift. As economic expansion has been supplemented by market-led commercialisation, it has also, to some extent, compromised craft independence of production. This transformation does not indicate the destruction of craft economies but provides an opportunity to reinterpret courtyard openness and economic flexibility.

Openness within courtyards is not merely a spatial characteristic; it is fundamental to economic inclusion. Through re-integration of semi-open spaces such as doors, windows, and verandas, the connection between the courtyards and street economies can be revived, creating versatile spaces for craft practices. Besides, restructuring commercial models to harmonise market requirements with community empowerment can produce a more balanced and diversified economic system. This chapter highlights that adaptation in courtyards needs to be not only for tourism-led business but also needs to consider how spatial and economic interventions can support women’s economic participation and the preservation of traditional crafts and provide a symbiotic relationship between heritage protection and economic development.

Right: Figure 3.14: Photo: Deng Yucheng

Act II

Commercial courtyard space empowering women artisans and fostering social equality, enhancing the marketplace for traditional crafts without compromising cultural identity.

Through a multi-stakeholder approach, establish a commercial courtyard model that integrates female artisans into the local economy without disturbing architectural and cultural integrity of the space. This framework aims to create an inclusive selling environment that enhances working conditions and fosters social equity.

Collaborative Network:

Form investor, business, and government partnerships through renovation grants, rental subsidies, and technical assistance to develop a committed economic empowerment zone.

Beauty Lean Outdoor Vending Area:

Combine ancient “beauty lean” sensibilities with modern-day female ergonomics to produce a dedicated outdoor vending area with liberal natural lighting, shelter, and effective display facilities.

Type III Courtyard Reuse

Reutilize available commercial courtyard designs by integrating shared facilities—such as public restrooms, indoor waiting areas, and ergonomic sheltered seating—so as to improve working spaces and improve social interaction.

Right: Figure 3.15: Circulation Evolution Analysis in Type III courtyard, Illustration by Author

Design Contents& Strategies

The reconfiguration of courtyards for commercial purposes must balance architectural integrity, cultural heritage preservation, and economic equity, ensuring that historical spatial logic and socio-economic functions are sustained.

1. Architectural Constraints: Cohesion and Openness

Be sensitive to spatial hierarchy by preserving the enclosed status of courtyards while adding commercial functions in harmony with existing buildings.

Maximize threshold spaces (doors, windows, verandas) to facilitate commercial interaction rather than enclosing or reusing them in a rigid fashion. Limit physical transformations to preserve commercial developments that enhance rather than disrupting the architectural character of the courtyard.

2. Cultural Constraints: Preserving Economic and Social Heritage

Promote symbiotic conservation, with commercialisation enhancing rather than obliterating traditional courtyard economies.

Preserve craft-based economies, without the exclusion of women artisans by integrating them into contemporary commercial systems.

Emphasize functional heritage use, repurposing architectural elements such as window sills and beauty lean structures as living hubs of economic exchange rather than static cultural icons.

3. Governance Constraints: Enabling Equity and Cooperation

Encourage multi-stakeholder governance, involving government agencies, firms, and craftspeople in decision-making to ensure equitable spatial allocation.

Implement adaptive policy support, i.e., rental subsidies or reserved craft vending areas, to enable inclusive courtyard economies.

Prevent displacement of local economies, and therefore, adaptive commercial models seek community accessibility above change by external capital.

This chapter analyses how courtyard economic changes can sustain women’s economic agency, so craft-based economies are integrated rather than displaced in modern commercial settings, laying the foundation for the subsequent design strategies.

• Establish extension area seetlement.

•Implement regulatory measures ensuring the integration of local artisans into commercial operations.

Financial Incentives and Technical Assistance

Monitoring and Compliance

Oversee implementation

•Provide rental subsidies or Tax Reduction for the investors and business.

•Offer technical support for vending area installing

•Collaborate to expand and upgrade commercial courtyards.

•Coordinate with technical experts to ensure structural safety.

•Establish resident-artisan councils that engage the local artisans in developing courtyard adaptations.

•Provide opportunities for artisans to negotiate workspace allocation, pricing structures, and selling practices, excluding commercial exclusion.

Fostering Inclusive Courtyard Reconfiguration through Adaptive Spatial Design, Economic Accessibility, and Heritage Integration

Figure 3.16: Cooperation Network Diagram in Tourism Hub Zone, Illustration by Author.

Cooperation Network Diagram for Tourism Hub Zone

Policy and Legislative Framwworks

Engagement and Feedback

Assisting in Courtyard Reconfiguration

Investors/Business

Government/Policy Makers

Locaf Female Artisans

Figure 3.17: Traditional and Contemporary Ergonomic Propostition, Illustration by Author.

1m

Figure 3.18: Exploded Axonometric of Proposition Beauty Lean Structure, Illustration by Author.

Figure 3.17: Type III

Courtyards Reconfiguration Propostition, Illustration by Author.

Figure 3.18: Reconfiguration Settlement in Tourism Hub Zone, Illustration by Author.

Figure 3.19: Type III Courtyards New Propostition, Illustration by Author.

10m

50m

Figure 3.20: Local Female Artisans friendly reconfigurations in Tourism Hub Zone, Illustration by Author.

Figure 3.21: Reactivating Economic Agency Through Window Interactions, by Author.

Figure 3.22: Artisan-Friendly Public Spaces in Tourism Hub, Illustration by Author.

Reconfiguring Courtyard Spaces for the Economic Empowerment of Left-Behind Women

This chapter has argued about the marginalisation of traditional craft economies of left-behind women in courtyard commercialisation and how spatial openness strategies can introduce new economic possibilities. While redevelopment of courtyards has prioritised towards consumption led by tourism, disrupting former household-based craft economies, built-in flexibility in these spaces remains capable of reacting to market demand. Through rearranging courtyard space in economic planning, such sites not only become assets for the conservation of heritage but also vehicles for enabling left-behind women and the sustainable development of craft economies.

The symbiotic combination of economic empowerment and heritage preservation has been realized here. The model respects the historic adaptability of courtyard spaces while enabling formalisation and market integration of craft economies, supported by policies, spatial interventions, and new business models that ensure long-term sustainability. Conservation and economic development are not opposing forces but can be complementary approaches.

The reconfiguration of courtyards has already been shown to exercise their dual function in preserving cultural heritage and catalysing economic development. With the reorganization of courtyard business models to reinsure craft economies, left-behind women recover stable economic stakes. This practice not only introduces them to alternative economic avenues but also maintains the courtyards as “living” heritage sustaining both cultural and economic vitality for contemporary society.

Right: Figure 3.23: Street in the Tourism Hub Zone, by Author.

Reconnecting Wangshi Neighbourhood

This chapter examines the functional fragmentation in Wangshi Neighbourhood and proposes that a demolition site in the Mixed-Use Transition Zone should be redesigned as a new community hub with traditional Suzhou cultural elements incorporated. Once a vibrant community hub, Wangshi Garden has now turned into a static ‘cultural island’ subject to tight conservation controls. By incorporating old tea ceremonies, embroidery, and Kun Opera, the proposed hub aims to promote renewed local involvement and intergenerational transmission of culture, offsetting heritage conservation with contemporary renewal.

Left: Figure 4.1: Wangshi Garden, Photo: Deng Yucheng

The Wangshi Garden used to be a community hub in Historical Perspective

This section explores the historical role of the Wangshi Garden as a cultural and social hub of the community, and analyses how it maintained neighborhood relations and promoted economic interaction through spatial adaptability in different historical periods, and gradually evolved into a static heritage display space after the implementation of conservation policies. By examining how their lingkage affects the fabric of communities, modern strategies for balancing conservation and development can be better understood.

2. Andong Lu, “Deciphering the Reclusive Landscape: A Study of Wen Zheng-Ming’s 1533 Album of the Garden of the Unsuccessful Politician,” Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 31, no. 1 (March 25, 2011): 40–59, https://doi.org/10.1 080/14601176.2010.520459.

3. Wu, Hong. (1877). Suzhou Prefecture Gazetteer (蘇州府志).

As an important representative of Suzhou gardens, the Wangshi Garden was not only a private home and a place for scholars to retreat, but also a place for community cultural activities. Its spatial layout supported scholars’ gatherings, neighborhood exchanges and festival activities, making it beyond the function of private courtyards. Wangshi Garden was originally built during the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279) as the private residence of Shi Zhengzhi, known as “Yuyin (Fisherman’s Retreat),” symbolising a retreat into a pastoral way of life.1 During the Ming Dynasty, renowned artist and calligrapher Wen Zhengming undertook its reconstruction, renaming it “Wangshi Garden.” This renaming not only reflected the literati’s idealised aspiration for a life of simplicity and harmony with nature, captured in the phrase “finding joy in fishing,” but also signified a transformation of the private space into a semi-open cultural venue. Wen Zhengming broke the traditional isolation between private gardens and the outside world through the spatial design of Wangshi Garden. The pavilions and towers within the garden provided venues for literary gatherings, while small gates connecting to nearby alleys served as pathways for community residents to participate in festive activities.2

For instance, the “Records of Wumen Elegance”3 document a Mid-Autumn Festival gathering hosted by Wen Zhengming in Wangshi Garden, which brought together local literati and community gentry. During such events, the garden became a venue for cultural exchange beyond its physical boundaries, as the host and local participants engaged in activities like calligraphy, painting, and poetry recitation. This blending of private and public realms positioned Wangshi Garden as a significant site within Suzhou’s historic neighborhoods: not only as a space for the owner’s aesthetic pursuits but also as a shared cultural platform that fostered regional identity and social connections. In addition, the spatial layout of the garden is adaptable within the neighbourhood, with small side doors connected to the streets, allowing outside residents to enter the courtyard for festivals, forming a semi-public cultural meeting point. This feature further proofed the garden plays an important role in community interaction.

4.1.1 The social and cultural functions of the Wangshi Garden

1. Duncan Campbell, “Trans planted Peculiarity: The Garden of the Master of the Fishing Nets” 9, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 9–25.

Figure 4.2: Gathering Place in Wangshi Garden, Illustration by Wu Guanzhong, 1980.

Figure 4.3: Wu, Bin. Gusu Fanhua Tu (Prosperity of Gusu Scroll). ca. 18th century. Private Collection, Suzhou. Accessed via Suzhou Museum.

4. Li Lu and Mei Liu, “Exploring a Spatial-Experiential Structure within the Chinese Literati Garden: The Master of the Nets Garden as a Case Study,” Frontiers of Architectural Research 12, no. 5 (2023): 923–946, https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2023.07.004.

As a microcosm of the former Wangshi Neighbourhood, Wangshi Garden was not only the private residence of its owner, but also the community hub in the neighbourhood. The spatial organisation of the garden reflects the functional distribution of the entire neighbourhood, where different areas were connected through corridors, windows, bridges, and pavilions, and ultimately converge into the central courtyard. This spatial logic accommodated both residential and social needs, shaping a dynamic network of community interactions. Historically, Wangshi Garden functioned not as an enclosed private retreat but as a important node for broader neighbourhood engagement. However, could a similar pattern of spatial connectivity have extended beyond the garden to the wider Wangshi Neighbourhood? In other words, as the social and cultural core of the neighbourhood, were Wangshi Garden equivalent architectural linkages facilitating interaction between different zones of the community?

The physical layout of the garden played a significant role in its connection to the environment. The central courtyard was open to the public, and the buildings surrounding it were linked by corridors, windows, and bridges that created a system of spaces encouraging movement inward. The design not only accommodated daily operation but also adaptive spatial utilization. For instance, Dianchun Yi Pavilion, a well-known site for literary salons, was linked with residential rooms, studies, and garden spaces through meandering corridors, which allowed visitors to circulate among functions naturally rather than being isolated in separated areas.4 This system of organisation resulted in each functional area having a separate identity while at the same time being incorporated into an interactive and cohesive entity.

5. Wu, Wenting, Kai Zhou, Tianjie Li, and Xiaoling Dai. 2024. “Spatial Configuration Analysis of a Traditional Garden in Yangzhou City: A Comparative Case Study of Three Typical Gardens.” Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 24 (2): 593–604. doi:10.1080/13467581.2023 .2300391.

This dynamic system relied on the combined action of several architectural components. Corridors provided fundamental connections while regulating openness by their curve circulation, which allowed different functions to exist together without segregation.5 Windows acted as visual and social interfaces, offering light and ventilation and enabling individuals to observe external activities and feel a sense of connection with the exterior world. Pavilions were spaces for cultural exchange, while bridges helped to link different areas of the garden, directing traffic and encouraging interaction. The addition of these spaces made Wangshi Garden not only a private residence but an open and socially engaging common space.

If Wangshi Garden’s spatial layout permitted movement within the garden proper, could the same system have permitted connections between the larger Wangshi Neighbourhood? It is reported historically that the garden was a focal point of local social and cultural life, with much of community activity centered around it. But the exact mechanisms linking the garden to the larger neighbourhood are not well arranged. Were corresponding corridors, semi-public areas, or architectural features permitting motion and engagement beyond the garden walls part of the equation as well, elevating its status as a shared cultural center for the community even higher?

It leads to a broader debate on the relationship between spatial openness and communal involvement in heritage preservation. If the spatial organisation of Wangshi Garden is to be considered a microcosm of the overall neighbourhood structure, then it should not be preserved as a discrete piece of historical heritage but as an expression of historical community structure and contact. In the context of urban renewal, rethinking how such networks of space once functioned can offer a model for how they can be rebuilt today so that heritage spaces continue to be living, breathing community assets rather than fixed histories.

4.1.2 Spatial connection and functional adaptability of Wangshi Garden

Figure 4.4: The Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.5: The Connectable Architectural Elements in Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Wangshi Garden is not only an enclosed garden; it used to be a focal location within the wangshi residential area in history. Its special spatial layout combined private residence, scholarly gatherings, and broader community interaction, having a profound effect on Suzhou’s urban environment. As a part of the Heritage Core Zone, the garden formerly interacted dynamically with both the Residential Adaptation Zone and the Tourism Hub Zone, jointly defining the ancient town’s spatial pattern.

Whereas during Qing Dynasty and Republican periods, Wangshi Garden possessed a number of gateways directly connecting neighboring lanes.3 These gateways not only provide access to and from the gardens, but also become important places for handcraft commerce, neighbourly exchange, and amusement during festive celebrations on special occasions. During ceremonies such as the Lantern Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival, chosen areas of Wangshi Garden had access through neighboring alleys with which local residents were permitted on ceremonial days. These elements together constitute a rich spatial network, so that the garden can provide services for the community in a wider scope.

In Wangshi Garden, amenities like covered paths, doors and windows, pavilions, and water-crossing bridges cemented its linkage with the outside community. Passages were utilised both as circulation and social exchange4; window arrangements facilitated ease of exchange between the interior and exterior of the garden so that hosts could show calligraphy or paintings; water-crossing bridges joined together various functional areas, and pavilions were focal points for ceremonies and social events. Therefore, these developed a stratified network of space for an expanded community beyond the immediate garden dwellers.

With modern conservation, Wangshi Garden more and more shifted from an active social centre to a static display space. The once-open entrances were shut, and only one primary entrance remained open for entry. The garden then lost its interfaces with the local wangshi society, and living and tourism areas became more functionally separated. While these practices have preserved Wangshi Garden’s physical integrity, they have lessened its functionality for communal use.

In the context of contemporary urban renewal and heritage reuse, it is necessary to strictly protect its historical environment and architectural form, and to continue its lifestyle and cultural connotation through a more flexible way. Due to its location in the historic preservation area, the garden itself is difficult to directly transform, but it can indirectly reproduce some spatial elements and social functions in other suitable areas, thus revitalising the modern urban structure. The next section will further explore how to seek diversified space practice opportunities for community interaction and cultural inheritance while adhering to the conservation principle.

4.1.3 How Wangshi Garden Shaped the Neighbourhood Structure

6. Liangyan Ge, “On the Eighteenth-Century English Misreading of the Chinese Garden,” Comparative Civilizations Review 27, no. 27 (1992): Article 6, https://scholarsarchive.byu. edu/ccr/vol27/iss27/6.

3. Wu, Hong. (1877). Suzhou Prefecture Gazetteer (蘇州府志).

Figure 4.6: Once opened Suzhou Garden, China, Collection of photographs of China, Taken by Stanley O.Gregory, 1920-1930.

Figure 4.7: Well-Preserved Enclosure Wangshi Garden, by Author.

4.2

From

Dynamic Heritage to Static Island

This section examines how preservation policies transformed Wangshi Garden from a community hub into a static heritage site, focusing on architectural integrity while restricting its social function. The shift from open interaction to controlled tourism has reduced community access, highlighting the impact of rigid conservation strategies on local engagement.

Conservation policies after 1955 progressively transformed Wangshi Garden from an open public space into a closed exhibition hall. While the policies first emphasised architectural integrity through reinforced walls and limited entrances, they simultaneously destroyed the original social roles of the garden, losing its openness to the surrounding community.

Historical maps and archival records reveal the evolution of Wangshi Garden’s boundaries and its shifting role in community interaction. Qing Dynasty maps describe the garden with an open boundary design, featuring multiple entrances connected to surrounding alleyways. As previously evidenced by literary works, this layout provided community residents with various access points, supporting the garden as a centre for cultural and social gatherings within the neighborhood.7

However, since the Republican era (1912–1949), these connections began to break down. Documents indicate that different points of access were increasingly being compressed into one main entrance, which was a testament to a shift from a partly open cultural space to one more dominated by private sphere. This bodily enclosure marked a turn from an exposed community-based place to an exclusionary retreat for upper class groups, reducing its entry to the broader neighbourhood.

Following the introduction of formal heritage protection in 1955, attention turned to upholding the integrity of the buildings of the original garden. Reinforced walls, restricted entry points, and control over space were all designed to help protect the historic nature of the garden at the expense of its interactive potential. This transition severed its connection with the wider community and reshape it as a passive site of history rather than an active community space.8

Although these policies maintained the site away from modern urban development, they also restricted residents’ everyday contact with the garden. Space earlier used for everyday informal social and economic activities was displaced, and local interaction was forced to shift to alternative location.

9. Fei Chen, “Interpreting Urban Micromorphology in China: Case Studies from Suzhou,” Urban Morphology 16, no. 2 (October 2012), https://doi.org/10.53847/ um.v16i2.3985.

Since the economic reforms of 1978, cultural heritage sites have become more and more incorporated into the tourist economy. Wangshi Garden was redesigned as a controlled tourist destination rather than a living community space. Physical enclosures, initially reinforced for protection, were further adapted to manage visitor flow and restrict local access.

As part of this transition garden spaces were rearranged into controlled visitor paths, and an entrance fee system established its status as a commercialised heritage site. The shift towards a tourism model emphasised economic returns over local participation, cementing Wangshi Garden’s position as a static display rather than a dynamic cultural centre.9

Therefore, Wangshi Garden’s walls symbolise its shift from open community centre to closed cultural showcase. The shift symbolises the evolving concerns of conservation policies, which previously balancing protection with community involvement, now more concerned with controlled preservation.

The Wangshi Garden case raises serious questions about how historic community centers can be remapped and made a part of contemporary urban life. Rather than asking challenging questions about present-day conservation policy, the question is whether once-inherent cultural and social functions in Wangshi Garden can be brought elsewhere to the neighborhood. Can key cultural elements of the garden be represented in different zones to initiate new forms of community interaction? This approach considers opportunities to recreate a community center beyond the heritage legacy so that Wangshi Garden’s heritage will continue to contribute to the lively social life of the neighbourhood.

4.2.1 How Preservation Policies Transformed the Spatial Role of Wangshi Garden

7. Zhang, T.; Lian, Z. Research on the Distribution and Scale Evolution

Figure 4.8: Map of Suzhou Ancient Town in 1905 with highlighting Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.9: Map of Suzhou Ancient Town in 1914 with highlighting Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.10: Map of Suzhou Ancient Town in 1938 with highlighting Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.11: Map of Suzhou Ancient Town in 1975 with highlighting Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.12: Map of Suzhou Ancient Town in 2009 with highlighting Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.13: Map of Suzhou Ancient Town in 1975 with highlighting Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

4.2.2 Functional Fragmentation and Spatial Isolation

10. Bo Yang and Nancy J Volkman, “From Traditional to Contemporary: Revelations in Chinese Garden and Public Space Design,” URBAN DESIGN International 15, no. 4 (October 26, 2010): 208–20, https://doi. org/10.1057/udi.2010.13.

While Wangshi Garden transitioned from an open community hub to a closed heritage area, the surrounding neighborhood grew extremely functionally fragmented. What was initially a close spatial network gradually dissolved and paved the way for three zones: the heritage core, the residential adaptation zone, and the tourism-commercial zone. While this zoning has enabled the development of tourism, it has also reduced people’s interaction and made spatial use more rigid.

Historically, Wangshi Garden was not a self-contained section but a cultural centre that was deeply integrated with the surrounding streets and neighborhoods. In Qing Dynasty, there were various entrances in the past linking the garden to the neighbouring alleyways, making residents access it easily for festivals, handicraft exchange, and socialising.10 Nevertheless, with the coming of mid-20th-century heritage protective measures, such points of access were gradually lost, with only the main entrance reserved for official use. This physical barrier disrupted the passage of the community, making the garden less a collective public space and more a place built largely for tourists.

10. Bo Yang and Nancy J Volkman, “From Traditional to Contemporary: Revelations in Chinese Garden and Public Space Design,” URBAN DESIGN International 15, no. 4 (October 26, 2010): 208–20, https://doi. org/10.1057/udi.2010.13.

The conservation strategy of Wangshi Garden prioritises spatial integrity over its interaction with the community, transforming it from a dynamic social hub into a static exhibition space, thus limiting its original social function.

With the rise of tourism, courtyard economies have increasingly catered to visitor consumption rather than serving local residents. Traditional handicraft production once relied on the flexible spatial conditions of courtyards, such as window ledges for display and verandas for trade. However, with the reappropriation of courtyard spaces to other uses, these activities no longer enjoyed their adaptive environments. Today, handicraft exhibitions in courtyards are mostly held for the purpose of tourism experience rather than being a sustainable economic support base for local craftspeople.

11. Gulnara Ismagilova, Lenar

and Ilshat

“Using Historical Heritage as a Factor in Tourism Development,” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 188 (May 14, 2015): 157–62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2015.03.355.

At the same time, the development of the Residential Adaptation Zone is limited by the space closure, which leads to the reduction of the interaction between it and the Wangshi Garden. As the garden is gradually isolated by walls, residents can no longer freely enter the garden to carry out daily activities as in the past, and the original economic model of the garden is gradually weakened. Meanwhile, the rise of Tourism Hub Zone has brought new economic opportunities, but its market operation mode is mainly dominated by investors and external operators, with limited direct participation of local residents. This change in business model intensifies the spatial imbalance, making the development of community economy more dependent on external capital, rather than the original community network.11

Spatially, the walls of Wangshi Garden serve not only as cultural symbolism for preservation but also as a physical barrier that enhances functional segregation. The previous fluid interaction among the heritage core, zone of residential adaptation, and tourism space has been cut off so that it is more challenging for the traditional courtyard economies and local cultural interactions to continue. Whereas tourism has provided economic returns, it has not become part of community life and has instead helped to perpetuate the alienation of the heritage zone from the surrounding neighbourhood. The challenge now is to find mechanisms to maintain the integrity of heritage conservation while reconnecting these isolated spaces.

11. Gulnara Ismagilova, Lenar Safiullin, and Ilshat Gafurov, “Using Historical Heritage as a Factor in Tourism Development,” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 188 (May 14, 2015): 157–62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2015.03.355.

Moreover, the static management of courtyards has undermined their economic autonomy, making them less adaptable to market changes. The tourism-driven consumption model favours branded and standardised operations, with restricted access to independent market channels for local artisans and reliance on commercial enterprises in the tourism area for sales. This model not only reduces economic self-sufficiency for the community but also exacerbates the disconnect between courtyards as ‘cultural heritage sites’ and the actual economic needs of local residents.

Above all, the functional fragmentation of courtyard space has also lost them their connection to surrounding neighbourhoods. While courtyards were traditionally spaces of cultural congregation and shared life, they are now only actively utilised at select times of festivals, while on a daily basis their use remains restricted to coordinated tourist tours. This disconnect in usage further reduces the functionality of courtyards as part of contemporary communal life.

Thus, conservation strategies must move beyond mere physical preservation towards a more inclusive management model, that ensures courtyards are not only preserved as historical sites but also reintegrated into community life, enabling them to function as active spaces within a dynamic cultural and economic network.

Safiullin,

Gafurov,

4.2.3 The Impact of Static Conservation on Community Interaction

4.3 Potential Connections between Different Zones

This section will explore the potential spatial and social links that exist among the Heritage Core Zone, Residential Adaption Zone, Tourism Hub Zone, and Mixed-Use Transition Zone within the Wangshi Neighbourhood. Although these areas have become increasingly distinct in their functions, they still share certain spatial networks and everyday interaction patterns. By examining these latent connections, this section seeks to identify ways of strengthening inter-zone collaboration and fostering mutual benefit, thereby conserving cultural heritage while continually revitalising community life.

Although the various functional zones in the Wangshi Neighbourhood have become increasingly distinct, spatial connectivity continues to operate in everyday life, offering a foundation for potential interaction across different areas. Traditional alleyways, a hallmark of Suzhou’s old town, remain essential channels for residents and visitors alike, even though parts have been walled off by preservation policy or commercial redevelopment. These paths gently link diverse functional spaces, allowing for casual interactions and sustaining the flow of individuals within the community.

At the same time, somw commercial courtyards that combine residential and business uses play a vital bridging role between the Residential Adaption Zone and Tourism Hub Zone. They not only preserve a lifestyle once depicted in historical paintings but also offer experiential consumption opportunities for visitors, thereby fostering a measure of social and economic integration. Through these semi-public courtyards, originally discrete functional zones come into contact in everyday routines, gradually shaping a symbiotic collective living.

Within the Mixed-Use Transition Zone, a demolition area featuring mostly Type III courtyards presents new possibilities for the creation and diversification of communal space. Even though individual zones have begun to function more independently, this transitional area retains the potential to connect the Residential Adaption Zone and the Tourism Hub Zone. If planning and design efforts focus on the openness and versatility of this demolition site, not only could the traditional courtyard layout be preserved, but more inclusive public spaces could also be introduced for the community. By carefully remodelling or redeveloping this zone, a balance may be struck between safeguarding heritage and meeting contemporary needs, offering fresh opportunities for urban renewal and community cohesion.

4.3.2

12. UNESCO, 2024 Suzhou Symposium Proceedings: Youth and Traditional Building Skills Symposium, 15–16 July 2024, Suzhou, China (Paris: UNESCO, 2024), accessed [02.13, 2025], https://articles.unesco.org/sites/default/files/medias/fichiers/2024/12/2024%20 Suzhou%20Symposium%20Proceedings-20241212.pdf

Community transitional spaces, such as alleys, semi-public courtyards, and commercial activity areas, which create opportunities to transcend functional boundaries among different zones. In particular, the Mixed-Use Transition Zone has significant potential to balance heritage conservation with contemporary growth. Within the context of UNESCO 2024 initiative encouraging younger generations to engage with cultural heritage, this flexible venue can accommodate space for multiple activities relating to intangible traditions—tea ceremony, Kun opera, or embroidery—which would bring fresh energy to community life.12 By offering a less confined environment than the heritage core and more range than a neighborhood motivated exclusively by tourism, the Mixed-Use Transition Zone supports the maintenance of cultural customs along with embracing alternative means of involvement. As a result, it supports bonds among residents and guests, fosters the transmission of venerable customs, and contributes to a more active, networked urban fabric.

4.3.3

In the Wangshi Neighbourhood’s increasingly fragmented layout, balancing cultural heritage with modern needs has become a core challenge for urban renewal. Tensions among the Heritage Core Zone, Residential Adaption Zone, Tourism Hub Zone, and Mixed-Use Transition Zone demand that historical authenticity be safeguarded while accommodating contemporary life. Through cross-disciplinary collaboration, the community can conserve traditional buildings and intangible arts, such as Kun opera, tea ceremonies, and embroidery, within a modern social context.

A flexible, open planning strategy can foster stronger connections among these zones, thereby enhancing community engagement. Transitional spaces near the Heritage Core Zone, along with the commercial capacity of tourism areas, can offer versatile venues for cultural activities. In the Residential Adaption Zone, involving local residents integrates historical memory with daily living. Coordinated efforts among government, cultural institutions, businesses, and citizens are crucial for valuing both heritage and everyday life. By introducing inclusive business models into the MixedUse Transition Zone, younger generations can learn and carry forward traditional skills in an authentic environment, revitalising intangible heritage. With flexible policies that avoid a one-size-fits-all approach, the Wangshi community may successfully balance preservation with progress, becoming a showcase of diverse cultural synergy.

4.3.1 Latent Spatial Connections within the Community

Transitional Spaces Promoting CrossZone Interaction

Reconstructing the possibility of heritage preservation and community integration

80m

Figure 4.14: Spatial and Functional Contacts between Different Zones, Illustration by Author.

Conclusion

Remapping Economic Orders through Courtyard Reworking

The discussions in Chapter Four reveal how the Heritage Core Zone, Residential Adaption Zone, Tourism Hub Zone, and Mixed-Use Transition Zone can be more than just isolated fragments of urban space. By rediscovering latent connections and reimagining transitional areas, it becomes possible to strike a balance between safeguarding cultural heritage and meeting contemporary demands. Although spatial distinctions remain, cross-zone collaboration fosters a more inclusive community dynamic, allowing both residents and visitors to engage with living traditions while exploring new economic and cultural possibilities. Ultimately, this chapter has underscored the potential for heritage protection to serve not merely as a preservation measure, but also as a catalyst for urban resilience, community cohesion, and sustainable development.

Right: Figure 4.15: Photo: Deng Yucheng

Act III

Reconnecting Wangshi: An Adaptive Reuse Scheme for the Mixed-Use Transition Zone

This proposal centres on the demolition area within the MixedUse Transition Zone, where the retention of the original outer walls and primary structural elements, coupled with the addition of new shared corridors and communal spaces, aims to revive the once-lost community hub. Owing to strict conservation policies, Wangshi Garden has grown isolated from its surrounding daily life, eroding the lively neighbourhood interactions and cultural exchanges that once flourished. By preserving the historic fabric yet introducing diverse cultural and social functions into the modern urban environment, the scheme allows residents, visitors, and traditional arts to coexist in a shared space.

Building on this foundation, the community hub incorporates tea ceremony areas, embroidery workshops, and Kun Opera activities, thereby extending intangible heritage while generating multiple layers of social and economic vitality. The inclusion of transitional corridors and supporting facilities encourages a gradual interweaving of people and functions, ensuring each zone retains its unique character while fostering closer collaboration. By harmonising heritage preservation with development needs, “Reconnecting Wangshi” redefines the relationship between the garden and its environs, offering a transferable renewal model for other historic neighbourhoods in Suzhou that revolve around classical gardens.

Right: Figure 4.16: Photo, by Deng Yucheng

Design Contents& Strategies

Any new construction or modifications within the Suzhou Old Town must respect the existing urban fabric and traditional architectural language. Structures are limited to two storeys, ensuring harmony with the historic skyline and preserving the characteristic human scale.

All design interventions should protect and uphold Suzhou’s cultural heritage—both tangible and intangible. Beyond preserving the physical integrity of historic gardens and courtyard complexes, the scheme should also encourage ongoing transmission of local customs, such as tea ceremonies, embroidery, and Kun opera, through spaces and programming that foster community engagement.

The design preserves the original outer wall and main structural elements, maintaining the historic essence while accommodating new functions. Two Type III courtyard blocks are connected via a longitudinal corridor, allowing movement between them and enhancing spatial continuity.

A transition corridor along the zone’s edges facilitates gradual interaction between otherwise disconnected areas. This corridor links newly introduced communal spaces—cafeterias, tea rooms, and craft studios— into one cohesive network, drawing different user groups together.

Within this reconfigured setting, a central hub accommodates a cafeteria, tea culture spaces, embroidery workshops, and Kun Opera activities. By bringing these functions together, the project heightens cross-zone connectivity and enriches social engagement, fulfilling both preservation and contemporary cultural needs.

and Legislative Framwworks

Financial Incentives and Technical Assistance

• Government bodies provide flexible regulations that allow partial modifications of historic structures while safeguarding core heritage features.

•Subsidies and tax benefits encourage investors to restore and upgrade existing courtyards, promoting long-term economic viability.

Monitoring and Compliance

Oversee implementation

• Private businesses and local artisans co-develop courtyard adaptations under government oversight.

•Local craftspeople, especially female artisans, participate in decision-making about workspace allocation, operation schedules, and pricing structures.

Figure 4.17: Cooperation Network Diagram in Mixed- Use Transition Zone, Illustration by Author. Cooperation Network Diagram for Mixed-Use Transition Zone Policy

Resident–Artisan Councils

A vibrant community hub that upholds heritage values while unlocking contemporary development potential. Residents

20m

Figure 4.18: Preservation of Architecture Fabric in Demolision Area, by the author.

20m

Figure 4.19: The Shared Spaces and Linkages Strategies, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.20: Transitional Corridor Scenario along the Zone Edge, by the author.

15m

Figure 4.21: The Community Hub Proposition, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.22: The Community Hub with Floor plans, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.23: The Shared spaces in the Community Hub, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.24: The Scenario on the First Floor, by the author.

Figure 4.25: The New Proposition in Mixed-Use Transition Zone, Illustrations by the author.

Heritage Protection Agencies

Cooperation Network Diagram for Wangshi Neighbourhood Policy Environment Government/Policy Makers

Encouragement: Subsides & Assiatance

Encouragement: Investment promotion&subsides Policy Fomulation& Enforcement

Reorganisation for

Figure 4.26: New Proposition in the Wangshi Neighbourhood, Illustrations by the author.

Figure 4.27: Cooperation Network Diagram, Illustration by Author.

Figure 4.28: The Wangshi Garden, Illustrations by the author.

Conclusion

This thesis put forward a framework design that aims to make heritage protection and modern city life together in Wangshi Neighbourhood. Research at the beginning estabished t a comprehensive understanding by looking at function areas and typological analysis, which revealed that strict protection rules have caused the community to break into separate parts, and Wangshi Garden has become like a “static island” where normal daily life disconnected from daily life

In response to theses challenges, Chapter 2 highlighted how high-density living affects traditional courtyards, showing higher numbers of people and unclear household boundaries made it difficult to keep the important balance between personal space and shared culture activities. Then in Chapter 3, discussion moved towards groups often not noticed much, like women left behind, who contributes in small businesses and making traditional crafts. These are quite important for keeping community life active and cultural heritage alive. Their experiences underscore the need for design strategies that not only stimulate economic development but also promote social equity.

The strategies presented in Chapter 4 were designed to bring a new approach to the Mixed-Use Transition Zone, to help reconnect Wangshi Garden to the surrounding neighbourhood. The design proposals, while aiming to rebuild some sort of connection between these places, are also focused on reemerging a vibrant community hub that is deeply rooted in the traditions of Suzhou. The interventions include the integration of cultural elements, such as tea ceremonies, embroidery, and Kun Opera, which should help establish a lively cultural atmosphere within this new community hub.

It can be seen that these strategies, when viewed as a whole in combination with the approaches suggested in earlier chapters, work together to form a design framework that is comprehensive. The framework shows how it is possible to find a balance between heritage conservation and urban renewal, aiming for a future where historical elements are preserved but, at the same time, meet the demands of modern life. In this way, the suggestions made offer flexible guidelines that could be adapted to other historic neighbourhoods, particularly those with gardens at their core, across Suzhou ancient town, ensuring that the cultural significance of these areas is preserved while still allowing for the development of urban life.[Fig 4.28]

Right: Figure 4.29: Photo, by Deng Yucheng.

List of Figures

Figure 0.1-0.6. by Author.

Figure 1.1, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 1.2, by Author.

Figure 1.3, Congzhou Chen, Traditional Suzhou Residences (Centenary Edition) (Shanghai: Tongji University Press, 2022).

Figure 1.4, by Author. Source from: “The ‘Suzhou City Territorial Spatial Master Plan (2021–2035) (Draft for Public Comments)’ Released

– The Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” n.d., accessed [11.18, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/szyw/202109/1f760cef5765436689cbf6fa3947d7c9.shtml.

Figure 1.5-1.17, by Author.

Figure 1.18, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 1.19, by Author.

Figure 1.20, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 1.21-1.29, by Author.

Figure 1.30, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 2.1, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 2.2, by Author, Source from: Ping Xu, “FENG-SHUI MODELS STRUCTURED TRADITIONAL BEIJING COURTYARD HOUSES,”

January 1, 1998.

Figure 2.3, National Palace Museum, 2022.

Figure 2.4-2.7, by Author.

Figure 2.8, Circular connection with enfilade concept: New Castle, Kostelec above Orlicí, Heinricha Kocha, 1835 (upper). by Author.(lower).

Figure 2.9, Passage based layout in Amesbury House in Wiltshire, England, by John Webb, 1661. (upper). by Author. (Lower).

Figure 2.10-2.11, by Author.

Figure 2.12-2.13, by Author.

Figure 2.14, Model Houses for Four Families, by Henry Roberts.

Figure 2.15-2.22, by Author.

Figure 2.23, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 2.24-2.53, by Author.

Figure 3.1, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 3.2, Lady Embroidering, Chinese, 18th century, The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri. Purchase: William Rockhill Nelson Trust, 53-84.

Figure 3.3, Shop with fans, China, Collection of photographs of China, Taken by Stanley O.Gregory, 1920-1930.

Figure 3.4, by Author.

Figure 3.5-3.6, Suzhou Market Scenes Album, Qing Dynasty. Handscroll, ink and colour on paper. Suzhou, China.

Figure 3.7-3.8, The Role of Windows in Gendered Spatial Dynamics of Courtyards,Qiu Ying, Late 19th century.

Figure 3.9-3.12, by Author.

Figure 3.13, (upper) Historical Representation of Embroidery: A Woman Sewing in a Traditional Courtyard. From Sohu.com, May17, 2020; (lower) Author.

Figure 3.14, Deng Yucheng.

Figure 3.15-3.23, by Author.

Figure 4.1, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 4.2, Gathering Place in Wangshi Garden, Wu Guanzhong, 1980.

Figure 4.3, Wu, Bin. Gusu Fanhua Tu (Prosperity of Gusu Scroll). ca. 18th century. Private Collection, Suzhou. Accessed via Suzhou Museum.

Figure 4.4-4.5, by Author.

Figure 4.6, Collection of photographs of China, Taken by Stanley O.Gregory, 1920-1930.

Figure 4.7, by Author.

Figure 4.8-4.13, Pictures by Suzhou City Planning Archive, illustrations by Author.

Figure 4.14, by Author.

Figure 4.15-4.16, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 4.17-4.28, by Author.

Figure 4.29, by Deng Yucheng.

Figure 4.30, by Author.

Preface&Introduction

CHAPTER 1

1. Jing Xie and Tim Heath, “Conservation and Revitalization of Historic Streets in China: Pingjiang Street, Suzhou,” Journal of Urban Design 22, no. 4 (April 26, 2016): 455–76, https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2016.1 167587.

2. Ping Xu, “FENG-SHUI MODELS STRUCTURED TRADITIONAL BEIJING COURTYARD HOUSES,” January 1, 1998.

3. 金秋野 and 王欣. 2014. 乌有园: 绘画与园林. 第一辑 [ARCADIA: Painting and Gardens, Volume 1]. 同济大学出版社. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=45bSswEACAAJ.

4. Communist Party of Suzhou Municipal Committee Office and Suzhou Municipal People’s Government Office, “Notice on the Issuance of the ‘14th Five-Year Plan for Cultural and Tourism Integration Development of Suzhou’ (Suzhou Party Office [2021] No. 56),” November 29, 2021, Accessed [02.23, 2025], http://ijgyg.com/uploads/2023/02/suzhoushisiwuwenlvronghe.pdf

1.Fang Liang, Yu Pan, Min Gu, Yancheng Liu, and Li Lei, “Research on the Paths and Strategies of the Integrated Development of Culture and Tourism Industry in Urban Historical Blocks,” Frontiers in Public Health 10 (November 7, 2022): 1016801, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1016801.

2.“The ‘Suzhou City Territorial Spatial Master Plan (2021–2035) (Draft for Public Comments)’ Released – The Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” n.d., accessed [11.18, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/ szyw/202109/1f760cef5765436689cbf6fa3947d7c9.shtml.

3.“Suzhou National Historical and Cultural City Protection Ordinance – Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” Suzhou.gov.cn, 2018, accessed [12.01, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/gbdfxfg/202207/1505c8c15d4a4c08b2c7f026567a4338.shtml.

4.UNESCO, 2024 Suzhou Symposium Proceedings: Youth and Traditional Building Skills Symposium, 15–16 July 2024, Suzhou, China (Paris: UNESCO, 2024), accessed [02.13, 2025], https://articles.unesco.org/sites/ default/files/medias/fichiers/2024/12/2024%20Suzhou%20Symposium%20Proceedings-20241212.pdf

5.Communist Party of Suzhou Municipal Committee Office and Suzhou Municipal People’s Government Office, “Notice on the Issuance of the ‘14th Five-Year Plan for Cultural and Tourism Integration Development of Suzhou’ (Suzhou Party Office [2021] No. 56),” November 29, 2021, Accessed [02.23, 2025], http://ijgyg.com/uploads/2023/02/suzhoushisiwuwenlvronghe.pdf

6.Gregory Brown and Christopher Raymond, “The Relationship between Place Attachment and Landscape Values: Toward Mapping Place Attachment,” Applied Geography 27, no. 2 (April 2007): 89–111, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2006.11.002.

7.Mingming Dun and Yong Wang, “Review and Reflection on the Conservation Process of Historic and Cultural Areas in Suzhou Old Town,” [City Planning Review] 46, suppl. 1 (2022), accessed [11.28, 2024], https://library.ttcdw.com/dev/upload/webUploader/202310/1697286060bd85cbf672680ea2.pdf

8.Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Culture, Radio, Television, and Tourism ( 苏州市文化广电和旅游局), “关于印发《苏州市‘十四五’文化 旅游发展规划》的通知” [Notice on the Issuance of the Suzhou ‘15th Five-Year’ Cultural Tourism Development Plan], accessed 17 March 2025, http://whhlyt.suzhou.gov.cn.

9.Franciza Toledo, “THE ROLE of ARCHITECTURE in PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION,” 2006, https://www.iccrom.org/sites/default/ files/ICCROM_13_ArchitPrevenConserv_en.pdf.

10.Yin-wah Chu, “China’s New Urbanization Plan: Progress and Structural Constraints,” Cities 103 (2020): 102736, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. cities.2020.102736.

11.Chen, Jinliu, Paola Pellegrini, Yunqing Xu, Geng Ma, Haoqi Wang, Yang an, Yihan Shi, and Xiaoxiao Feng. 2022. “Evaluating Residents’ Satisfaction before and after Regeneration. The Case of a High-Density Resettlement Neighbourhood in Suzhou, China.” Cogent Social Sciences 8 (1). do i:10.1080/23311886.2022.2144137.

CHAPTER 2

1.Fang Liang, Yu Pan, Min Gu, Yancheng Liu, and Li Lei, “Research on the Paths and Strategies of the Integrated Development of Culture and Tourism Industry in Urban Historical Blocks,” Frontiers in Public Health 10 (November 7, 2022): 1016801, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1016801.

2.“The ‘Suzhou City Territorial Spatial Master Plan (2021–2035) (Draft for Public Comments)’ Released – The Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” n.d., accessed [11.18, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/ szyw/202109/1f760cef5765436689cbf6fa3947d7c9.shtml.

3.“Suzhou National Historical and Cultural City Protection Ordinance – Suzhou Municipal People’s Government,” Suzhou.gov.cn, 2018, accessed [12.01, 2024], https://www.suzhou.gov.cn/szsrmzf/gbdfxfg/202207/1505c8c15d4a4c08b2c7f026567a4338.shtml.

4.UNESCO, 2024 Suzhou Symposium Proceedings: Youth and Traditional Building Skills Symposium, 15–16 July 2024, Suzhou, China (Paris: UNESCO, 2024), accessed [02.13, 2025], https://articles.unesco.org/sites/ default/files/medias/fichiers/2024/12/2024%20Suzhou%20Symposium%20Proceedings-20241212.pdf

5.Communist Party of Suzhou Municipal Committee Office and Suzhou Municipal People’s Government Office, “Notice on the Issuance of the ‘14th Five-Year Plan for Cultural and Tourism Integration Development of Suzhou’ (Suzhou Party Office [2021] No. 56),” November 29, 2021, Accessed [02.23, 2025], http://ijgyg.com/uploads/2023/02/suzhoushisiwuwenlvronghe.pdf

6.Gregory Brown and Christopher Raymond, “The Relationship between Place Attachment and Landscape Values: Toward Mapping Place Attachment,” Applied Geography 27, no. 2 (April 2007): 89–111, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2006.11.002.

7.Mingming Dun and Yong Wang, “Review and Reflection on the Conservation Process of Historic and Cultural Areas in Suzhou Old Town,” [City Planning Review] 46, suppl. 1 (2022), accessed [11.28, 2024], https://library.ttcdw.com/dev/upload/webUploader/202310/1697286060bd85cbf672680ea2.pdf

8.Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Culture, Radio, Television, and Tourism ( 苏州市文化广电和旅游局), “关于印发《苏州市‘十四五’文化 旅游发展规划》的通知” [Notice on the Issuance of the Suzhou ‘15th Five-Year’ Cultural Tourism Development Plan], accessed 17 March 2025, http://whhlyt.suzhou.gov.cn.

9.Franciza Toledo, “THE ROLE of ARCHITECTURE in PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION,” 2006, https://www.iccrom.org/sites/default/ files/ICCROM_13_ArchitPrevenConserv_en.pdf.

10.Yin-wah Chu, “China’s New Urbanization Plan: Progress and Structural Constraints,” Cities 103 (2020): 102736, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. cities.2020.102736.

11.Chen, Jinliu, Paola Pellegrini, Yunqing Xu, Geng Ma, Haoqi Wang, Yang an, Yihan Shi, and Xiaoxiao Feng. 2022. “Evaluating Residents’ Satisfaction before and after Regeneration. The Case of a High-Density Resettlement Neighbourhood in Suzhou, China.” Cogent Social Sciences 8 (1). do i:10.1080/23311886.2022.2144137.

3

1.A. N. Standridge, “Raise the Red Lantern: A Critique of Patriarchy in Chinese Cinema,” Film Matters 12, no. 1 (2021): 117–121.

2.Lu, Weijing. “Gender and Social Life in Imperial China.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. 30 Oct. 2019.

3. Dorothy Ko, Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).

4.Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

5.Evelyn S. Rawski and Thomas G. Rawski, China’s Economic Development and Global Interactions in the Long Run (paper presented at the Harvard-Hitotsubashi-Warwick Conference, “Economic Change Around the Indian Ocean in the Very Long Run,” Venice, July 22–24, 2008).

6.State Council Gazette of the People’s Republic of China, Issue No. 4, 1961

7.Suzhou Declaration on International Co-operation for the Safeguarding and Development of Historic Cities,1998.

8. Wu, B., Li, M., & Huang, G. 2002. A study on relationship of conservation and tourism demand of world heritage sites in China. Geographical Research, 21(5), 617-626.

9.Zhang, Gege, Xiaoyuan Chen, Rob Law, and Mu Zhang. 2020. “Sustainability of Heritage Tourism: A Structural Perspective from Cultural Identity and Consumption Intention” Sustainability 12, no. 21: 9199. https://doi. org/10.3390/su12219199.

10.Ali Madanipour, Public and Private Spaces of the City (London: Routledge, 2003).

11.Ariella Matan and Peter Newman, People Cities: The Life and Legacy of Jan Gehl (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2016).

12. Yuyang Wang, Asterios Agkathidis, and Andrew Crompton, “Parametrising Historical Chinese Courtyard-Dwellings: An Algorithmic Design Framework for the Digital Representation of Siheyuan Iterations Based on Traditional Design Principles,” Frontiers of Architectural Research 9, no. 4 (2020): 751–773.

CHAPTER

CHAPTER 4

1.Duncan Campbell, “Trans planted Peculiarity: The Garden of the Master of the Fishing Nets” 9, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 9–25.

2.Andong Lu, “Deciphering the Reclusive Landscape: A Study of Wen Zheng-Ming’s 1533 Album of the Garden of the Unsuccessful Politician,” Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 31, no. 1 (March 25, 2011): 40–59, https://doi.org/10.1080/14601176.2010.520459.

3.Wu, Hong. (1877). Suzhou Prefecture Gazetteer (蘇州府志)

4.Li Lu and Mei Liu, “Exploring a Spatial-Experiential Structure within the Chinese Literati Garden: The Master of the Nets Garden as a Case Study,” Frontiers of Architectural Research 12, no. 5 (2023): 923–946, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.foar.2023.07.004.

5.Wu, Wenting, Kai Zhou, Tianjie Li, and Xiaoling Dai. 2024. “Spatial Configuration Analysis of a Traditional Garden in Yangzhou City: A Comparative Case Study of Three Typical Gardens.” Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 24 (2): 593–604. doi:10.1080/13467581 .2023.2300391.

6.Liangyan Ge, “On the Eighteenth-Century English Misreading of the Chinese Garden,” Comparative Civilizations Review 27, no. 27 (1992): Article 6, https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol27/iss27/6.

7.Zhang, T.; Lian, Z. Research on the Distribution and Scale Evolution of Suzhou Gardens under the Urbanization Process from the Tang to the Qing Dynasty. Land 2021, 10, 281. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10030281

8.Zhang, T.; Lian, Z. Research on the Distribution and Scale Evolution of Suzhou Gardens under the Urbanization Process from the Tang to the Qing Dynasty. Land 2021, 10, 281. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10030281

9.Fei Chen, “Interpreting Urban Micromorphology in China: Case Studies from Suzhou,” Urban Morphology 16, no. 2 (October 2012), https://doi. org/10.53847/um.v16i2.3985.

10.Bo Yang and Nancy J Volkman, “From Traditional to Contemporary: Revelations in Chinese Garden and Public Space Design,” URBAN DESIGN International 15, no. 4 (October 26, 2010): 208–20, https://doi. org/10.1057/udi.2010.13.

11.Gulnara Ismagilova, Lenar Safiullin, and Ilshat Gafurov, “Using Historical Heritage as a Factor in Tourism Development,” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 188 (May 14, 2015): 157–62, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.355.

12. UNESCO, 2024 Suzhou Symposium Proceedings: Youth and Traditional Building Skills Symposium, 15–16 July 2024, Suzhou, China (Paris: UNESCO, 2024), accessed [02.13, 2025], https://articles.unesco.org/ sites/default/files/medias/fichiers/2024/12/2024%20Suzhou%20Symposium%20Proceedings-20241212.pdf

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to everyone who has helped me throughout the research and writing of this thesis. Your academic guidance and warm support have been instrumental in my journey of exploration and practical inquiry.

I am especially grateful to the Architectural Association for providing an outstanding academic environment, and to all the supervisors within the Projective Cities team—Dr. Platon Iassias, Dr. Hamed Khosravi, Dr. Anna Font, Dr. Doreen Bernath, Daryan Knoblauch, Cristina Gamboa, and Roozbeh Elias-Azar—for your meticulous guidance. Your teaching, constructive critiques, and structural advice have been invaluable in shaping the framework of this thesis.

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to all the colleagues and friends I met during the Projective Cities from 2021 to 2025. Your engaging discussions and shared learning experiences have greatly enriched my academic journey. In particular, I am deeply grateful to Chen Kaiwen, thank you for your generous support in refining my research topic, organising my ideas, and exploring critical issues; thank you Shi Yi for the insightful, critical questions and academic assistance that helped me overcome many challenges; thank you Zhou Chuxi for your unwavering support and warm companionship during these years. I shall always remember the assistance of these three individuals.

During the production phase of this thesis, I am thankful to Deng Yucheng and Hou Yueheng for your excellent photographic contributions, which have greatly enhanced the presentation of my work. I also wish to thank my long-time friends Gao Yifan, Chu Xinyao, Lu Yanlin, and Zhang Jiaqi for their ongoing support and companionship throughout the process.

Furthermore, I extend my gratitude to all my friends in Tianjin, Suzhou, Liverpool, and London, your emotional support and encouragement have continuously driven me forward. Finally, I owe my deepest thanks to my parents for their unwavering love and support, and to myself for persevering through every challenge.

Thank you all for being an integral part of this journey.

Right: Figure 4.30: Local Women Economy Empowerment, by Author.