Specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.
for the rearing phase (first 30 days of life) for the growing phase (no anti-waste ring)
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EDITORIAL
➤ Marianna Caterino
The question I hear most often is: "How did you end up in the poultry industry?" There is only one answer: through my encounter with Lucio Vernillo.
I joined the editorial team of Zootecnica International twenty years ago, and at the time, I didn’t even know the difference between a broiler and a laying hen. But that didn’t matter, as my early years were focused solely on administration. Over time, however, I began to immerse myself in the subject, developing an interest that eventually grew into a true passion for this field.
Lucio believed in me, assigning me a variety of tasks and gradually increasing my responsibilities, until I became his trusted right-hand man. My role has evolved from behind the scenes to one at the forefront. Together, we began attending fairs, conferences, and farm visits, meeting our clients and connecting with many key figures in the industry.
Lucio deeply believed in the value of human relationships, and I hold the same belief, placing great importance on them. He was not only a mentor in a professional sense; he instilled in me an unconditional love for life and all forms of beauty - from nature and art to music and human connections.
Today, armed with his teachings, I continue the path he laid out, driven by the same passion and integrity. In the book he wrote for his eightieth birthday, “Dionysus, or the Alchemy of Life”, he said: "One day, you will be the one to carry on Zootecnica.” That day has come. I want Lucio to be proud of me and all my collaborators.
This is the first issue in which I take on the role of Editor-in-Chief. A new logo and layout signal the start of a renewed commitment to strengthening and expanding Zootecnica as a key resource for professionals in the poultry industry, with the support and trust of both our loyal and new customers and readers.
MARCH 2025
IN MEMORIAM
In memory of Lucio
REPORTAGE
Bones and Meat: Craft the Ultimate Broiler Carcass! A conference on chicken nutrition and skeletal health in Madrid
FIELD CASE
Mozambique poultry receives new funding for its transformation agenda
DOSSIER
Brazil poultry sector shows good dynamics
FOCUS
Feeding strategies for improved performance
MARKETING
Oceania - Losses in world meat production despite considerable momentum
NUTRITION
Nucleotides: the key additive for a healthy gut and balanced microbiota in broiler chickens
VETERINARY
Cecal coccidiosis in turkeys
MARKET GUIDE
IFIF AND FAO STRENGTHEN COLLABORATION TO ENSURE SAFE AND SUSTAINABLE FEED AND FOOD
The International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) held their 23rd annual meeting in Rome, Italy, reaffirming their partnership on critical issues to advance safe, nutritious, and sustainable feed and food production.
The meeting was officially opened by Mr. Thanawat Tiensin, Assistant Director-General and Director of Animal Production and Health Division at FAO, alongside IFIF Chairman Mr. Ruud Tijssens. Welcoming IFIF delegates representing over 80% of global compound feed production, they reiterated their commitment to tackling challenges in the feed and food chain through a strengthened collaboration.
Mr. Tiensin emphasized the “vital role of the feed and livestock sector in driving sustainable transformation,” highlighting the importance of partnerships across public, producer, private, and sectoral boundaries. He stated, “Livestock production is a cornerstone of agrifood systems, providing essential nutrition and economic opportunities worldwide.” The meeting addressed FAO’s vision for the sustainable transformation of the livestock sector, which includes reducing feed loss and waste, optimizing feed conversion, and enhancing nutrient use to reduce environmental impacts and antimicrobial resistance.
Several key topics were discussed, underscoring IFIF and FAO’s collaborative efforts for sustainable livestock sector transformation.
• The role of animal feed in sustainable livestock sector transformation: IFIF’s ‘Road to 2050’ strategic process for stakeholder dialogue around the world to safeguard food security and offer feed as a recognized solution provider to global sustainable livestock.
• Codex Alimentarius and feed safety standards: The meeting covered regulatory and scientific matters, including advancements in Codex Alimentarius work, particularly
focusing on food safety foresight, emerging issues, and international standards to ensure feed safety and quality.
• Reducing the use of antimicrobials and advancing animal health: FAO’s RENOFARM initiative, aimed at minimizing antimicrobial needs on farms, and innovative feed practices to reduce antimicrobial use (AMU) were discussed, including IFIF’s role in promoting responsible AMU through nutritional innovation.
• Global feed standards convergence: FAO and IFIF reviewed the International Cooperation for the Convergence of Technical Requirements for the Assessment of Feed Ingredients (ICCF) work plan, reflecting the growing global alignment on feed standards.
• Emerging food production technologies: Discussions on cell-based food and precision fermentation highlighted the future of sustainable food production, with a focus on safety standards and potential contributions to food security.
• Development of the feed sector in East Africa: Opportunities and challenges in East Africa’s feed sector were explored, focusing on sustainable growth potential in emerging markets.
• Environmental sustainability initiatives: FAO and IFIF reviewed updates on the Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance (LEAP) Partnership Phase 5, the Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock (GASL) Work Plan, and the Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model (GLEAM), all supporting sustainable livestock practices.
Source: IFIF
ALPINE REACHES THE TOP OF ANATOMIC LEG PROCESSING
As demand for deboned leg meat continues to rise, ALPINE (Anatomic Leg Processor Innovative New Evolution) addresses processors’ needs for increased production volumes while maximizing yield and quality. The innovative ALPINE module, fitting in Marel’s ACM-NT cut-up line, represents a significant leap forward in anatomic leg processing.
Quite some advanced technologies have been implemented to realize ALPINE’s high performance, such as the Hip Dislocation Wheel. This unique feature allows for precise control of the hip tilting movement – needed to achieve an anatomical cut – without exerting excessive force or removing the leg from the shackle. It results in improved performance and virtually inexistent leg loss. To further enhance accuracy and minimize errors, ALPINE incorporates advanced back piece separation and detection technology which prevents incorrectly cut legs. Optionally, processors can integrate a special module to remove groin skin automatically, meeting specific market demands while saving considerable manual trimming labor.
Ease of operation
Equipped with a user-friendly HMI touchscreen, ALPINE makes it easy to enter a recipe that matches the specific characteristics of the incoming flock. This automatically engages the proper machine settings to provide the highest possible leg yield. The screen also shows performance data, enabling processors to monitor key metrics such as backpiece detection, leg loss, and unprocessed legs. Built-in machine software provides this real-time and historical performance data. Such proactive insights minimize the need for manual intervention and prevent downtime. ALPINE’s datadriven approach enables processors to maintain peak performance with minimal need for maintenance.
Wide weight range with consistent results
ALPINE is designed to process high-yield anatomic legs across an unprecedented range of bird weights without requiring major adjustments. This versatility is particularly valuable for processors handling diverse flock weights, enabling them to optimize operations even in markets that process big birds. Regardless of weight fluctuations, the result will always be consistent: a highyield leg. Compatible with both water-chilled and airchilled lines, ALPINE easily integrates into existing setups and pairs excellently with Marel's Thigh Fillet System, at a capacity of up to 7,200 products per hour.
Saving labor
By keeping legs in the shackles throughout the process, ALPINE practically eliminates product drops and minimizes rework, downtime and labor. Digital operation, automated settings, reduced need for adjustments and precise performance monitoring further highlight its laborsaving advantages. Touchscreen control and the broad weight range further contribute to ALPINE’s efficiency, ease of use and consistently high yield.
More information: marel.com/alpine
GIORDANO GLOBAL UNVEILS HCS+ PROLIFE
The Italian company Giordano operating under the brand name Giordano Global introduced the HCS+ ProLife system during the Eurotier exhibition in Hannover Germany.
HCS+ ProLife is the unique and patented system in the world that offers early feeding with fresh drinking water and that can be applied in both the hatchery and during the transport of the chicks. The HCS+ ProLife system was developed in close cooperation with the Lagerwey BV hatchery, part of the German EW group, CIQ Consultancy and Van Ravenhorst Carrosseriebouw from Barneveld. The crates of the HCS+ system are equipped with gutters for feed and fresh drinking water. The HCS+ Prolife system is the only system in the world that offers fresh drinking water inside the crate, while almost all suppliers offer water outside the crate. The water flows from the ceiling of the hatcher, by means of a simple and pressure controlled tube system, into the upper crate after which it flows through the crates below according to the marble tray principle. The water gutters are filled in a controlled manner from which the chicks can drink. Obvious, the water is only offered when the light in the hatcher is switched on. The combination of the duration of light and the supply of water ensures that the amount of micro bacteria in the offered when the light in the hatcher is switched on.
water remains within acceptable standards. The HCS+ ProLife system can be applied in almost all existing hatchers and with minimal adjustments. The necessary one-off provisions are the installation of water pipes in the ceiling of the hatcher and the placement of LED light strips on the side walls/screens. To drain the excess water that flows from the bottom crate, a drain will have to be made in the floor of the hatcher if this is not already present. Most hatchers already have this facility.
Since the dimensions of the HCS+ ProLife crates [60x40 cm] are the same as those of almost all existing crates on the market, no further adjustments need to be made. In addition to the crates, Giordano also supplies a matching egg tray. If desired, this tray can be placed alternately between the crates. After hatching, the chicks fall through the tray into the crate below, where they have direct access to food and fresh water. The egg shells remain mainly on the tray. Of course, it is up to the customers to choose the traditional method in which the eggs are placed in the crates or to hatch on special trays.
In addition to supplying the HCS+ ProLife system, Giordano can also support customers with all necessary technical advice on how to convert the hatchers correctly. The latter also applies to any adjustments in the hatchery automation if this is necessary.
The HCS+ ProLife system offers customers the solution to implement Early Feeding in their existing hatchery and at very low investments.
LOUIS PERRAULT, NEW PRESIDENT OF ERPA, EUROPEAN RURAL POULTRY ASSOCIATION
Louis Perrault is now the new President of ERPA, the association representing rural poultry in Europe. He succeeds Carlos Terraz and will continue the various actions initiated with European and national policy makers in favour of preserving free range production in Europe.
Prominent figure in the poultry sector for several decades, Louis Perrault has been working since 2002 at SASSO, a breeder specialising in coloured strains. He is in charge of deploying these strains for the development of rural poultry farming in Africa. Involved in defending the interests of the sector in France, he chaired the French National Union of Hatcheries (SNA) from 2012 to 2024. At the European level, he participated in ELPHA, the European organization representing hatcheries. And, as a founding member of ERPA, he contributed to its creation in 2007. “The issues that ERPA has promoted since its inception
are essential: they have raised awareness of this often littleknown poultry farm. Expanding its audience to more European countries will be a priority”, he said.
Carlos Terraz was President of ERPA from 2016 to 2024. The members of ERPA would like to thank him warmly for his involvement. Very committed to the promotion of alternative family farms and expert in Spanish alternative poultry farming, he runs several companies in the country: NutriAvanza, specialised in animal feed, and Granja Pinseque, specialised in the reproduction of rural poultry. He is also President of AviAlter, the professional association of alternative poultry farming in Spain.
Created in 2007, ERPA aims notably at preserving and developing the production of rural poultry in Europe (coloured birds from rustic slow-growing strains) and at promoting its specificities as well at defending free-range, extensive, and family-based methods of farming. Further information is available on www.erpa-ruralpoultry.wixsite.com
ARBOR ACRES SOUTH AFRICA RECOGNIZES CUSTOMERS’ EXCEPTIONAL BROILER AND BREEDER PERFORMANCE WITH ROADSHOW
Arbor Acres® South Africa recently held a roadshow where they awarded a number of customers with Arbor Acres Achievers Breeder and Broiler Club awards.
Arbor Acres South Africa has been the exclusive Arbor Acres distributor in South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho since 2006, and recognizes the importance in providing the local poultry industry with the best performing flocks, in order to ensure food security within the local markets. The Arbor Acres Achievers Breeder Club acknowledges customers who achieve a breeder performance of 140 or more chicks per hen housed at 60 weeks of age. The Arbor Acres Achievers Broiler Club recognizes producers who achieve a European Product Efficiency Factor (EPEF) of 400 or more with their broiler flocks.
Supreme Poultry
Each company received awards for their top performing breeder and broiler flocks. The first event held was on 19 November in Potchefstroom with Supreme Poultry. Supreme Poultry is a leading poultry producer in South Africa, operating as a division of Country Bird Holdings (CBH). They are known for producing high-quality chicken products under the consumer brand name Supreme Chicken. Their top breeder flock achieved 161.78 chicks per hen housed at 60 weeks, meaning they obtained Gold membership into the Achievers Breeder Club and the top broiler flock attained an EPEF of 443.78, gaining them Silver membership into the Achievers Broiler Club.
Chubby Chick
On the afternoon of 19 November, the Arbor Acres South Africa team held an event for Chubby Chick, a wellregarded poultry supplier known for its commitment to quality and freshness. Deon Fourie, owner of Chubby Chick, was in attendance alongside breeder and broiler
farm managers. The top performing breeder flock achieved 161.35 chicks per hen housed at 60 weeks, with the top broiler flock reaching an EPEF of 498.34, granting the company Gold membership into both the Breeder and Broiler Clubs.
Grain Field Chickens
Grain Field Chickens were the next customer to be welcomed into the Arbor Acres Achievers Broiler Club Gold tier with the best broiler flock achieving an EPEF of 471.78. Arno van der Nat, General Manager, Arbor Acres South Africa, visited the Grain Field Chickens Head Office on 21 November, where he met with the relevant team members to distribute the awards. Grain Field Chickens, based in Reitz, Free State, is a premier poultry producer in South Africa. They are renowned for their high-quality, fresh, and frozen chicken products.
Henwil Chickens
Henwil Chickens, a prominent poultry producer based in Lichtenburg, North-West, South Africa, had an award event at their head office on 28 November, attended by Arno van der Nat, and Henwil Chickens broiler farmers. The company was awarded with entry into the Arbor Acres Achievers Broiler Club with their exceptional broiler results with an EPEF of 469.32, therefore achieving Gold membership. Henwil Chickens is known for its modern facilities, ensuring high standards of food safety and quality. Janus Pretorius, Technical Officer, Broiler Division, Henwil Chickens commented, “We are delighted to have achieved Gold membership in the Arbor Acres Achievers Broiler Club. The Arbor Acres breed performs exceptionally
well in both open and environmentally controlled housing systems, and that is evident from the results received throughout our sites. The Arbor Acres broiler has the best feed conversion ratio (FCR), livability and EPEF.”
JR Poultry
JR Poultry, a poultry processing company based in Zeerust, North-West Province, South Africa, held their year-end function on 29 November. The event was the perfect opportunity to invite the Arbor Acres South Africa team along to distribute the Club certificates to the best performing producers. The top flock within the operation reached an impressive EPEF of 466.58 and Gold membership in the Arbor Acres Achievers Broiler Club.
Lufafa Hatchery
Lufafa Hatchery, a renowned poultry farm situated in the Letaba district, specializes in breeding, hatching and selling broiler chicks. They achieved entry into the Arbor Acres Achievers Breeder Club Silver tier in January by achieving 159.7 chicks per hen housed.
Ndiza Poultry
Ndiza Poultry, located in the village of Dargle in KwaZuluNatal Midlands, also gained Gold membership into the Achievers Breeder Club in January with a result of 160.4 chicks per hen housed.
CC Chickens Ltd
On 13 January, Arno visited CC Chickens (Pty) Ltd, an integration based in Kroonstad, Free State, to present their Achievers Broiler Club Gold certificate thanks to their exceptional EPEF result of 451.13.
“It was a privilege to attend the awards ceremony for our farmers. We are seeing impressive results in the field from the Arbor Acres broiler, and it is important to recognize our producers when they are achieving exceptional performance. Thank you to the Arbor Acres South Africa team for all of their assistance and insights on how to consistently maximize the genetic potential of our flocks,” added Albie Esterhuizen, Managing Director, CC Chickens Ltd.
Elgin Free Range Chickens
The final visit was to Elgin Free Range Chickens, a reputable poultry producer who specializes in raising freerange chickens. They were presented with a certificate from
Arno as a result of their best flock achieving 170.5 chicks per hen housed, and therefore gained Gold membership in the Arbor Acres Achievers Breeder Club.
“Arbor Acres customers have demonstrated exceptional broiler and breeder performance, and we will continue to highlight the impressive performance of the Arbor Acres breed through our Arbor Acres Achievers Clubs. It is of great importance to us to recognize customers who achieve extraordinary results with their breeder and broiler flocks. On behalf of Arbor Acres South Africa we would like to congratulate each and every one for their outstanding achievements. We wish you continued success and all the best in your future endeavours”, commented Arno.
NestSound™, Petersime’s unique chick sound monitoring technology that automatically alerts hatchery managers when chicks require attention during storage. ★
NESTSOUND™: PETERSIME’S GROUNDBREAKING
SOUND MONITORING TECHNOLOGY FOR ENHANCED CHICK WELFARE
Working with world-renowned universities, Petersime continuously invests in research and development to create added value for hatchery owners. As an industry-leading innovator, the company is introducing NestSound™ — a groundbreaking solution for monitoring chick vocalizations in hatcheries, aimed at improving the welfare of chicks.
The sound produced by new-born chicks is an important bio-signal to receive information about their welfare. When chicks are comfortable in their environment, they sit quietly and relaxed, often sleeping for extended periods, which aids in their recovery from the intense hatching process. However, if they are not completely comfortable, they are active and constantly vocal. Hence, monitoring chick conditions based on vocalizations is an essential element of welfare- friendly poultry production. Until now, research had not established a direct application to monitor vocalizations in the hatchery. That gap prompted Petersime to further examine the use of sound data and led the company to develop NestSound™, a unique chick sound monitoring technology that automatically alerts hatchery managers when chicks require attention during storage.
“Of the five senses, hearing is the universal alerting sense. For experienced hatchery managers, hearing the sound produced by new-born chicks is an important source of information about their well-being. However, this crucial bio-signal is only picked up when they pass by the chick holding room,” explains Rudy Verhelst, Business Development Manager at Petersime. “This is where our new NestSound™ technology comes into play. By measuring the vocalizations new-born chicks make, NestSound™ automatically and continuously monitors the
comfort level of the chicks stored inside the X-Streamer™ Chick-Store. This enables hatchery managers to promptly intervene whenever the chicks require attention.”
The X-Streamer™ Chick-Store is Petersime’s dedicated chick storage machine that automatically delivers the perfect storage conditions in any climate. With NestSound™, the machine now comes with an extra and very powerful tool to monitor chick welfare. The NestSound™ technology continuously measures the sound emitted by the chicks. Based on the NestSound™ call detection algorithm, the Chick-Store controller’s on-screen information dynamically displays the chicks’ comfort levels, making it easy to monitor their well-being. The information is also remotely accessible via smartphone, tablet or pc. The advantage is clear: The technology gives real-time information - even remotely - compared to a situation where the hatchery managers rely on their own occasional observations of chicks stored inside a traditional holding room.
The new NestSound™ technology also offers opportunities for market differentiation: End- customers are becoming increasingly aware of animal welfare. Thanks to the handy history reporting function, NestSound™ makes it very visible how the new-born chicks have enjoyed high comfort levels during their storage time at the hatchery.
AVIAGEN TURKEYS UPDATE BREEDER AND COMMERCIAL MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
The aim of these booklets is to support turkey producers and help them achieve optimum performance from their birds.
The booklets draw attention to essential management issues which, if overlooked, may reduce flock performance. These management techniques will help maintain bird health and welfare, allowing your turkeys to perform well. Information presented in the booklets combines the collective data derived from internal research trials, published scientific knowledge and the expertise, practical skills and experience of the Aviagen Turkeys’ Customer Support Team. Aviagen Turkeys Ltd (ATL) have recently added a small section to both guidelines on ‘Crop Fill’.
To download Commercial version: https://www.aviagenturkeys.com/uploads/2022/03/17/CL23_V3_Management%20Guidelines%20for%20Growing%20Commercial%20Turkeys_EN.pdf
To download Breeder version: https://www. aviagenturkeys.com/uploads/2023/09/05/BR28_V4.1_ Management%20Guidelines%20for%20Breeding%20 Turkeys_UK.pdf
HOTRACO ACQUIRED BY MUNTERS AB
Munters AB (SE) and its business area FoodTech has acquired Hotraco with headquarters in Hegelsom (NL) from Amsterdam based family office Nedvest (NL).
Hotraco is a leading provider of premium controllers and systems for automation, targeting the global agricultural technology industry mainly within poultry, layer and greenhouses. In addition, Hotraco provides solutions for crops storage, expanding Munters business area FoodTech’s offering within the food supply value chain to a new segment.
Munters acquisition of Hotraco marks another step in its strategy to create a digital ecosystem built around data capture platforms and software that supports a more efficient and sustainable food production.
“The acquisition is fully in line with our digital strategy and supports our vision to provide insights driving optimization across the entire value chain to improve yield, sustainability, transparency and animal welfare”, says Pia Brantgärde Linder, President of business area FoodTech
Munters is building a comprehensive ecosystem centered on data capture platforms such as controllers, sensors and IoT combined with advanced supply chain optimization software for AI-driven analytics.
“With an installed base of 45,000 controllers across 50 countries, predominantly in Europe, Hotraco strengthens
our European presence. The acquisition expands the amount of data integrated into our data ecosystem around the global food supply chain”, comments Pia Brantgärde Linder.
Hotraco’s potential to boost its business performance significantly relies on securing livestock, crop storage, and horticulture projects worldwide. Additionally, the company’s current size offers unique growth opportunities through the development of both existing and new sales channels, while also consolidating a dynamic presence in competitive target markets and regions.
“We are very pleased to have found a new owner for Hotraco and strongly believe that Munters is the right fit. The acquisition will provide exciting opportunities for management and the employees of Hotraco, with whom we have had the pleasure to work with over the past years”, says Jurriën Duijker, Investment Director of Nedvest.
The CEO of Hotraco, Berta Danielsdottir will remain as Managing Director and take a seat in the Business Line Controller Management team.
“The decision to sell to Munters was driven by the owners’ strategic intent to ensure the long-term success of Hotraco. Munters, as a well-respected and established player in our key markets, with a robust network of customers and suppliers, was identified as the ideal partner to support Hotraco’s continued growth and secure its future. I am very much looking forward to continue our journey as part of Munters”, says Berta Danielsdottir, Chief Executive Officer of Hotraco
Lucio, as photographed by his daughter Denise ★
IN MEMORY OF LUCIO
➤ Daria Domenici, freelance journalist
Lucio Vernillo passed away on December 7th. The editorial team of Zootecnica International has lost not only its editor and director-inchief but also a key figure in Italian poultry farming.
Lucio began his career in the poultry industry at a young age, gaining seven years of experience through study and practice - first at a Dutch company and later at an American firm, both specialising in poultry breed selection. In 1974, he began working alongside his uncle, the owner of Zootecnica International, before taking over the company in 1980.
From that moment on, Lucio Vernillo’s dedication never wavered. Driven by passion and tireless commitment, he often expressed his desire to work until the age of 100. Over half a century, the magazines - published in Italian, English, and Russian - have expanded their reach, attracting new readers worldwide and providing insightful coverage of advancements in both Italian and international poultry farming.
We wish to remember Lucio with his signature hat, not only as a dedicated professional but as a true lover of life. An incurable optimist, he believed that each person’s vital energy connected with others, fostering bonds and relationships meant to last forever. The many diverse friendships that enriched his life, along with his deep love for music - especially the organ, which he played for years in the stunning Florentine basilica of San Miniato al Monte, where he received a final farewell from those who loved him - filled his journey with warmth and fulfilment.
Lucio’s teachings, unwavering dedication, and extraordinary enthusiasm will endure. Building upon his legacy, we will continue to set and achieve new goals.
Lucio at the organ of the Basilica of San Miniato al Monte ★
BONES AND MEAT: CRAFT THE ULTIMATE BROILER CARCASS! A CONFERENCE ON CHICKEN NUTRITION AND SKELETAL HEALTH IN MADRID
The “Bones and Meat: Craft the Ultimate Broiler Carcass!” conference took place in Madrid in late October, bringing together industry professionals for an intensive two-day program focused on broiler nutrition and carcass quality. Organised by Zinpro®, the event attracted numerous clients from across Europe, underscoring the company’s strong presence and influence in the poultry market.
➤ Luigi Montella, MDV
The conference in Madrid on October 26 and 27 featured international speakers and leading specialists in poultry science. Following each presentation, speakers engaged enthusiastically with attendees, addressing questions and providing deeper insights into key topics. The conference spanned two focused days, with each day dedicated to a specific theme: Day One concentrated on broiler nutrition, while Day Two was devoted to enhancing chicken carcass quality.
On October 26, Kyle Venter, Innovation Manager at Neuro Livestock Research (NLR) in South Africa, kicked off the conference with a presentation on calcium digestibility. His report offered valuable insights into optimising calcium use, clarifying complex aspects of its absorption and effectiveness in broiler diets. Calcium is an essential component of broiler diets, as inadequate calcium levels can lead to skeletal issues, including lameness. These problems often arise due to the birds’ rapid growth rates, where the skeleton struggles to ossify quickly enough to support their developing bodies.
An estimated 2 to 6% of broilers are affected by skeletal issues linked to calcium deficiency, impacting overall flock welfare and leading to significant economic losses for producers. One potential cause appears to be the common practice of formulating broiler diets based on total calcium rather than digestible calcium. This approach can limit phosphorus availability, as calcium and phosphorus absorption are closely interconnected, ultimately affecting bone health and development. Therefore, it is essential to optimise dietary formulations with both calcium and phosphorus. Venter noted that calcium is a relatively inexpensive and readily available mineral, which often leads to its overuse in broiler diets, exceeding the actual requirements of the birds. The South African researcher discovered that 72% of the commercial feed samples he analysed contained excessive levels of calcium, with the average excess exceeding the birds’ requirements by 20%. The excess calcium in the diet poses a significant problem as it disrupts several factors, including phosphorus metabolism, protein utilisation, water consumption, and, as a result, the overall quality of the litter.
Field studies demonstrate the negative impact of excess calcium on digestibility. For every 0.1% increase in calcium, there is a notable reduction in phosphorus digestibility. Excess calcium also proportionally reduces the digestibility of phytate. Phytic acid exhibits varying degrees of stability when it forms complexes with different minerals the ability to bind with various raw materials (ABC: acid binding capacity) highly varies: it is minimal in cereals and proteins, while it is high in calcium and premixes. Pepsin and pH levels also influence calcium absorption, while the binding capacity (ABC) plays a crucial role in the digestibility of crude protein. Notably, protein digestibility is significantly higher at 21 days compared to 7 days. Excess calcium in the diet also impairs fat absorption by promoting saponification, and this effect is further exacerbated by the presence of saturated fats. As a result, metabolisable energy is reduced because a portion of the fats becomes indigestible. Additionally, the digestion of amino acids is also impaired.
Excess calcium also negatively impacts litter quality, as higher calcium levels lead to increased moisture in the
droppings. This excess moisture promotes dampness in the litter, which in turn contributes to a higher incidence of pododermatitis. From a commercial perspective, both low and high calcium levels negatively impact chicken weight, but excess calcium has the most severe consequences, leading to worsened feed conversion efficiency.
In light of this evidence, Kyle Venter emphasised the importance of optimising calcium levels in the diet to prevent the negative consequences of its excessive use, which can lead to reduced chicken performance. Similar to the shift that occurred with phosphorus, which was once calculated based solely on total content before transitioning to an evaluation of available phosphorus, the same approach must now be applied to calcium. Calcium should be assessed based on its digestibility, or dCa, rather than just its total amount. This task is challenging due to the low cost of calcium and the broiler’s ability to adapt, which limits calcium absorption in the case of excess.
Determining the presence of digestible calcium (dCa) in individual raw materials is also challenging, although recent methods for its evaluation have been developed. Calcium sources and their quality vary significantly. For instance, in a standard Aviagen maize-soya grower phase diet, limestone accounts for 73% of the total analysable calcium. However, its digestibility can vary greatly depending on particle size. If the particle size averages 0.5 mm, the calcium is 71% digestible, whereas if the particle size is reduced to 0.149 mm, digestibility drops to just 38%, despite both formulations declaring 0.64% calcium from carbonate. It is clear, therefore, that the presence of the same calcium level in the formula does not necessarily mean it is assimilated in the same way. Additionally, the size of calcium particles significantly affects the digestibility of phosphorus in the diet. In this case, the addition of phytase, regardless of calcium particle size, clearly enhances phosphorus digestion. Calcium dissolves quickly and has
the ability to break down phytate, promoting its hydrolysis. A comprehensive study assessing the presence of phytinic phosphorus in the diet, the percentage of calcium from limestone, the magnesium content in limestone, and the dynamic solubility of limestone revealed that the absorption of calcium and phosphorus is highly dependent on the presence of phytase. Similarly, tests on broiler feed formulated in different geographical regions showed that, despite having the same estimated calcium percentage (0.65%), the proportion of digestible calcium (dCa) varied significantly. It ranged from 0.43 in a typical soybean and meat meal diet, to 0.35 with soybean and sunflower corn, to 0.33 with soybean and wheat bran, and as low as 0.27 with rice and soybean bran.
The type and quality of phytases used also affect calcium absorption, with varying rates of solubility – slow, medium, or high– which in turn influence the amount of calcium absorbed. Increasing the phytase dosage, for example from 500 to 2000 FTU, enhances the hydrolytic rate of the substrate. Recent studies highlight the impact of calcium solubility rates and phytase enzyme dosage on the digestibility of calcium and phosphorus. All types of calcium carbonate examined showed improved absorption with the addition of phytase, with the greatest benefits observed in forms of calcium with slower absorption rates. In this test, increasing the phytase dosage from 1000 to 2000 FTU provided some benefits, but likely not enough to justify the added cost in the formula. Therefore, it can be concluded that excess calcium in the diet significantly impacts the digestibility of other nutrients, particularly phytate, as well as certain proteins and minerals. Today, data is available to assess the share of digestible calcium (dCa) at the commercial level. Formulating diets based on dCa and digestible phosphorus (dP) as reference points is highly effective in reducing skeletal issues in chickens, while also improving
their overall performance. Interactions between phytate and calcium should also be minimised, both from an economic and sustainability perspective.
Prof. Roselina Angel from the University of Maryland, USA, focused her presentation on chicken skeletal development and growth, examining the latest guidelines and field experiences. She assessed the use of digestible calcium (dCa) in diet formulations and its impact on economic performance.
Today’s chicken has undergone remarkable development compared to fifty years ago, largely driven by genetic improvements. Ross, for example, projects an annual weight increase of 40-45 grams over the next four years, along with improvements in feed conversion, carcass yield, breast yield, and leg development. Compared to the original chicken, which had a long, upright posture, the modern chicken appears more forward-leaning, largely due to the substantial muscle mass in the breast. Skeletal development in chickens begins at the embryonic stage, supported by the minerals found in the yolk, egg white, and shell. By the end of incubation, while other minerals in the yolk (such as phosphorus, zinc, iron, and copper) are depleted, calcium levels increase as it is absorbed from the shell to support bone formation. In fact, if we evaluate the presence of minerals in the shell before and after incubation, we observe a decrease of 30-35%.
The speed of mineralisation in the chick, once hatched, becomes very fast, especially in the first 10-14 days (corresponding to about 220 grams of weight) and then reaches a plateau. The ash content of the still-developing skeletal bones increases by nearly 1% each day, reflecting rapid mineralisation. However, between 10 and 24 days of life, mineralisation, expressed as a percentage of ash, averages no more than 2% per day.
To improve calcium digestibility, it’s important to recognise that every vertebrate has evolved with homoeostatic control over calcium absorption. Therefore,
we must ensure that the analysable calcium in the diet aligns with its actual content. Additionally, it’s crucial to evaluate the interaction between calcium and phytic acid, the efficiency of phytase, and the digestibility of both phosphorus and calcium, as well as their impact on the absorption of other dietary nutrients. Therefore, digestible calcium (dCa) values should be used, and it is essential to predict these values in the purchased batches by conducting rapid tests at the feed mill. Once we are aware of the dCa requirements and values, it is essential to validate these data through digestibility tests and assess the resulting performance yields.
Studies were conducted using the same batch of calcium carbonate to eliminate variability associated with raw material differences. The evaluation focused on calcium, phosphorus, and phytate levels, followed by the collection of ileum digests to determine digestible calcium (dCa) and digestible phosphorus (dP) for each treatment. Finally, the level of ash content in the bones was considered as an optimal level of dCa and dP. Early studies on this topic have already demonstrated that calcium is often supplied in excess in poultry feed and that the traditional 2:1 Ca:P ratio is flawed. Chickens only require the calcium and phosphorus they can actually utilise – namely, digestible calcium (dCa) and digestible phosphorus (dP). Therefore, the total levels of these nutrients analysed have little relevance. Using dCa and dP properly, recent studies show that phosphorus intake and, consequently, excretion, can be drastically decreased. In the past, the industry successfully reduced phosphorus intake from 13.2 grams per kg of live weight to 12.1 grams by incorporating phytase, which also led to a decrease in phosphorus excretion from 5.9 to 5.6 grams per kg of live weight.
Today, by using formulations with digestible calcium (dCa) and digestible phosphorus (dP), along with advanced phytase doses, it is possible to reduce phosphorus intake to as low as 8.1 grams and excretion to 2.5 grams per kg of live weight. This represents a significant decrease, with
positive implications for the environment. In field tests, formulas based on total calcium and digestible phosphorus (dP) evaluated using standard data, compared to those based on digestible calcium (dCa) and dP analysed on raw materials, resulted in weights of 2.703 and 2.799 kilograms at 37 days, respectively. The corresponding feed conversion ratios were 1.457 and 1.403. Therefore, using digestible calcium (dCa) and digestible phosphorus (dP) reduces feed costs per kg of live weight, with an estimated decrease of 17% in the USA. Additionally, bone ash levels increase, indicating better mineral utilisation, while litter conditions also improve.
Finally, according to Prof. Angel, it is crucial to support skeletal mineralization during the first two weeks of life by accurately estimating the proportion of digestible calcium in the carbonate. The choice of calcium source and the resulting digestible calcium (dCa) will be critical for performance, cost-efficiency, and sustainability.
Prof. Michael Kidd from the University of Arkansas, USA, discussed the crucial role of amino acids in formulating broiler diets. Historically focused on performance and yield, the American industry has primarily optimised nutrition through lysine, but other amino acids, such as threonine, valine, and histidine, are also crucial. Additionally, factors like amino acid density and the presence of zinc are becoming increasingly important in diet formulation. Over the past 35 years, chicken feed conversion has improved from 3.5 to 1.75, while the weight of chickens at
the same age has increased from 2 kg to 3 kg. It is estimated that by 2050, the weight of the broiler will reach 3.25 kg, with feed conversion dropping to 1.50. This means that a chicken that reached 2.27 kg at 53 days in 1988 will achieve the same weight in just 35 days by 2050. In this process, amino acids (AAs) play a crucial role. Specifically, after the first limiting amino acid – according to the “Liebig barrel” principle, which states that growth is limited by the scarcest resource rather than the most abundant – the importance of other amino acids increases. Different raw materials contain varying amounts of amino acids, as demonstrated in the formulation. For example, in a soybean-corn diet, the fourth limiting amino acid is valine, while in a sorghum-soybean diet, it is arginine. It is a complex situation: for example, reducing crude protein in a corn-based diet increases the demand for leucine, and its deficiency can lead to issues with feathering and mobility in broilers. A proper histidine-to-lysine ratio enhances performance, reduces feed conversion, and helps prevent plantar lesions. At the same time, it improves the yields of both the pectoralis major and minor muscles. Histidine also seems to have a protective effect on the dermal barrier when administered during the grower phase. Field trials on starter, grower, and finisher diets with increasing levels of lysine and zinc show that higher levels of both result in greater weight gain, improved feed conversion, and fewer myopathies in the pectoral muscles. A combination of Mn and Zn also enhances performance, resulting in lower mortality rates and fewer myopathies.
In conclusion, we are faced with the chicken’s pectoral muscles under increasing pressure. The industry must strike a balance between amino acids in the diet, reassess the proportion of minerals, and consider the variability in raw material markets. To assess the effects of these choices, constant monitoring of the supply chain is essential, including accurate and frequent evaluations at the slaughterhouse.
At the end of the first day of the conference, Dr. Cibele Torres, nutritionist at Zinpro, discussed the interactions between macro and micro minerals, explaining how they can pose challenges but also offer solutions.
Dr. Torres explains that feeding Zinpro® Availa® Zn as the sole source of zinc supplementation, is sufficient to meet and maximize modern broiler’s performance and skeletal health. This allows heavier birds to have robust carcasses to support more breast meat deposition. The primary goal of the Zinpro® Availa® Zn mineral complex is to support ossification during the first two weeks of life, as demonstrated by the tibial ash residue in trials conducted with levels up to 80 ppm. Feeding after 17 days of age favours the remaining performance, averaging 1.4% more weight, -4.4 conversion points and 2.6% rump yield. Confirming the improved mineral absorption, there was also a significant decrease in the excretion of phosphorus (-30%) and zinc (-19%). Other trials with Zinpro Availa Zn used in the starter phase during the first few days of life show an increase in the length of intestinal villi, which means better absorption of raw materials and minerals, so important during these days when the bone undergoes tumultuous development. This advantage is reflected at the end of the cycle, with a greater weight, better conversion and greater tibial ashes. A further advantage, as already reported above, is also a decrease in the phosphorus
Zinc not only plays a role in ossification, but also reduces the effects of inflammation, promotes protein synthesis and controls oxidative mechanisms, preventing muscular disorders
excreted (about 10% less as a relative improvement to the control) and with a better yield, compared to other products containing zinc sulphate. We should also remember that zinc not only plays a role in ossification, but also reduces the effects of inflammation, promotes protein synthesis and controls oxidative mechanisms, preventing muscular disorders. As explained by the previous speakers, Dr. Torres highlights the negative impact of poorly managed calcium on the release of inorganic zinc from raw materials. It is therefore essential for nutritionists to take action in this regard and to control the hydrolysis of phytate: this will make diets more cost-effective, avoiding the need for additional phosphorus, which is both expensive and polluting and allows the zinc from raw materials to be more available to meet the requirements for growth. In this context supplementing inorganic zinc will bring no additional benefits to the bird, whereas supplementing with a more available source of zinc like Zinpro Availa Zn will bring the bird’s performance to the next level.
From the left: Kyle Venter, Michael Kidd, Roselina Angel, Cibele Torres ★
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MOZAMBIQUE POULTRY RECEIVES NEW FUNDING FOR ITS TRANSFORMATION AGENDA
Mozambique, Southern Africa’s second biggest chicken meat producer after South Africa, has received US$33 million (EUR 31 million) from the African Development Bank (AfDB) to support the acceleration of the ongoing transformation of the country’s poultry sector through competitive, inclusive, and sustainable growth.
➤ Shem Oirere, Freelance writer
The new funding supports the development of the poultry sector as part of the broader US$105.45 million (EUR 99.25 million) Inclusive Agri-food Value Chain Development Programme (PROCAVA), an initiative aimed at accelerating “the transformation of the poultry sector in Mozambique through competitive, inclusive, and sustainable growth, with a primary focus on integrating
family farming and the private sector into productive poultry value chains, including maize and soybean,” according to the African Development Bank, one of the project’s key financiers.
The Bank is co-financing the project with a total of US$33 million (EUR 31 million), equivalent to 31.3% of total project costs, through the African Development Fund (ADF). The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is providing US$42 million (EUR
39.5 million) in joint project financing with the Bank.
The government of Mozambique is seeking an additional US$20 million (EUR 18.8 million) from the Green Climate Fund, while project beneficiaries, including the private sector, will provide at least US$5.6 million (EUR 5.3 million).
The idea to transform Mozambique’s poultry industry was first unveiled in February 2023 during the HighLevel Summit, known as Dakar II, held in Dakar, co-hosted by the African Development Bank and the government of Senegal. Dakar II is an integral part of the Bank’s Feed Africa Strategy (2016-2025), which aims to revolutionize African agriculture into a competitive, inclusive, and agribusiness-oriented sector. The summit aimed to “mobilize political, financial, and technical support to facilitate food sovereignty and drive agricultural transformation on a large scale throughout the continent.”
Through PROCAVA, at least 50,800 smallholder farmers, 50% of whom are women and 30% youth, will receive support to increase their net income. Of these, 10,000 will be smallholder poultry producers, while the remaining 40,800 will be producers supported with interventions to strengthen climate resilience in the soybean and maize value chains, both critical for the development of the poultry industry.
“The Bank has decided to disburse 33 million dollars to finance PROCAVA, a recently approved project with an emphasis on chicken farming,” said Flávio Soares da Gama, the AfDB representative in Mozambique.
Development estimates that the country’s chicken production reached 146,684 tons in 2022, an 8.1% increase from the 135,708 tons produced in 2021. This growth has been attributed to increased government campaigns promoting poultry production and investment-friendly policies that have attracted private sector investments into the industry. Private investments in Mozambique’s poultry industry are focused on chicken feed infrastructure, such as the two feed mills being developed in Mozambique’s Zambezia and Niassa Provinces with the support of the African Development Bank.
The structure of Mozambique’s poultry industry enables large and vertically integrated companies that produce and sell feed and chicks to distribute poultry market inputs primarily through the out-grower system, in which they provide inputs like seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, chicks, and feed to smaller producers, and collect grown chickens for marketing, according to the AfDB report.
The new financing will enable Mozambique’s poultry industry to establish a revolving grant fund to support poultry farmers
The AfDB funds will finance several activities, including the establishment of public-private partnerships to manage and operate poultry infrastructure based on a competitive selection process, according to the Bank’s project brief. For instance, the initiative aims to construct two slaughterhouses with cold storage rooms, two centers for the production of broiler day-old chicks, four storage facilities with cold storage rooms, four hatcheries with a capacity of 10,800 day-old chicks per week, egg packing and inspection centers, and breeding units for delivering hatching eggs for incubation.
Moreover, the new financing will enable Mozambique’s poultry industry to establish a revolving grant fund to support poultry farmers, especially those organized in commercially oriented cooperatives, and input suppliers in purchasing inputs, building climate-resilient infrastructure, and procuring primary poultry processing equipment. Mozambique’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
However, the report says, in the rural poultry market “aggregators usually buy from the producers and resell in bulk to the market,” creating a significant channel between rural and urban markets within Mozambique’s poultry industry. This value chain integrates hatcheries, grain producers, feed processors, poultry producers, abattoirs, distributors, and veterinary services. The Mozambican government, through the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, has previously introduced incentives to attract private investment in the poultry sector, such as the intensification of inspection and control actions against chicken smuggling, the integration of small and mediumsized breeders in the poultry production chain and the increase in corn and soy production have been, to a large extent, driving the sector's substantial growth in recent years.
Although the outlook for Mozambique’s poultry industry is positive, especially with the PROCAVA initiative, the country must address several constraints that have historically hindered the sector’s growth. These include limited access to funding for purchasing inputs like chicken feed, seeds, and fertilizers for grain producers, as well as equipment for chicken processors.
Successful implementation of the initiative would enable Mozambique to reduce poultry and poultry product imports, particularly from South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Brazil, which have created competition for local producers.
BRAZIL POULTRY SECTOR SHOWS GOOD DYNAMICS
The Brazil poultry sector shows good dynamics this year, thanks to the ever growing domestic production and exports.
➤ Eugene Gerden, Freelance writer
Historically poultry farming has been considered one of the main drivers of the Brazil national agribusiness, playing a crucial role in the country’s economy. In fact, the development of poultry farming in Brazil began with the Portuguese colonizers who introduced poultry farming during the colonial period. Since then, the demand for chicken meat has been growing.
At present Brazil is the second largest global producer, which produced around 15 million tons of poultry meat in 2023, a historic record for the country. In terms of the number of poultry slaughtered, there were more than 1.5 billion, with the South region contributing almost 60% of the overall output. The main producers are Paraná (34%), Santa Catarina (13%) and Rio Grande do Sul (12%).
Since 2013, the Brazil poultry production has increased its output by about 2.5 million tons up to 15 million tonnes. This year the growth is ongoing, despite the ever rising
There are good prospects for increased exports from the opening of new markets and expansion in already existing destinations
production costs and the ongoing geopolitical uncertainty, caused by Russian-Ukranian war. As for production costs, in recent years there has been a significant increase of prices for corn and soybeans both in the Brazil and global markets. However, the increase in productivity in the poultry sector in Brazil in recent years has generated savings in time and quantity of feed for animal weight gain.
In the past, it took 105 days for a chicken to reach slaughter weight, and 3.5 kg of feed was needed to gain 1 kg of weight. Currently, the growth cycle is 40 days (a reduction of 62%) and the ratio is 1.6 kg of feed consumed for 1 kg of weight gain (a 55% increase).
According to Renato Klu, a country manager of Quimtia Brasil, one of the Brazil’s major agricultural holdings, the outlook for the current year is approximately 16 million tons, which is by about 17% higher than in 2023.
Renato Klu comments: “The first six months of the year have already been marked by impressive numbers and a performance above expectations. But with the end of the year approaching, the trend is that Q4 of the current year will be quite positive for chicken meat consumption, hence high expectations for the production chain”.
In the meantime, exports also show good growth rates this year (up to 7%-8%, compared to 2023). In 2023 exports grew by 6,6%, exceeding 5 million tonnes being equivalent to about US$10 billion in value terms. In general, Brazil exports about 35% of its overall output to more than 150 countries, contributing 38% of total international trade. For comparison, the value of exports is greater than the
entire chicken meat production of Russia, which is the 5th largest global producer of chicken meat.
In accordance with the recent report of the Brazil Canal Rural TV channel, currently, China, the United Arab Emirates and Japan continue to be the largest importers of Brazilian chicken meat. The Brazil government, together with local producers, are constantly working on the opening of new markets for the domestic poultry along with expansion of presence on existing ones. For the current year several Brazil poultry factories received permissions for the beginning of exports to China, Israel and the number of other countries.
According to Luis Rua, director of markets from ABPA, “there are good prospects for increased exports from the opening of new markets and expansion in already existing destinations, which is also due to the slowdown in shipments from important competitors, such as the European Union and Canada. On the other hand, the consumption of poultry meat in the domestic market is also growing, which may contribute to re-direction of supplies from export to domestic markets”.
According to predictions of USDA. Brazil will remain the biggest global poultry supplier, which overall exports reach about 6,8 million tonnes annually with almost 41% of the market share.
In recent years, the Brazil government has begun to pay more attention to health issues in its poultry farming, given the ever growing spread of avian influenza, which have required significant investments in biosecurity and epidemiological surveillance to ensure the health and food safety of birds. Probably the most complex situation with influenza was observed on the coast of Paraná, the center of poultry meat production in Brazil. Still, according to earlier statements, made by Ricardo Santin, President of the Brazilian Animal Protein Association (ABPA), despite the circulation of the virus in the country and Parana state for over 200 days, fortunately it has not had a major negative impact on the Brazilian poultry farming.
Ricardo Santin comments: “This is a record, and it sets us apart from the rest of the world. While many countries are dealing with influenza in animal and poultry production, Brazil continues to maintain its high biosecurity, its valuable health status. Our biosecurity is working”.
According to data from the Brazilian Animal Protein Association, there are 3.5 million direct and indirect jobs across the production chain, while local poultry factories employ more than 300,000 workers. Per capita consumption of this protein is significant, with each Brazilian consuming an average of 45 kilos of it per year, a rate that has been maintained since 2020. Also according to ABPA, the average per capita consumption was 10 kg in 1986, which means that the increase was more than 350% in 36 years. Currently chicken meat is the most consumed meat types in Brazil although, according to
some local analysts, a further growth of consumption may be prevented by the generally high rate of inflation. Ricardo Santin, ABPA’s president comments: “Our production chain is continental in scope and plays a decisive role in the habits, economy and gastronomic culture from North to South. From the fields to the factories, billions are invested in cutting-edge technology to ensure the quality and health of products, with greater productivity. It is one of the country’s food foundations and an economic pillar for several regions”.
Egg production
should also increase
In case of eggs’, according to analysts’ predictions, the per capita consumption is expected to reach close to 300 this year, reaching the same level achieved during the pandemic. However, even though a large part of egg production is destined for domestic consumption, egg exports from Brazil demonstrated positive dynamics last year as grew by 175% up to 26,000 tonnes. In terms of production, last year egg production in Brazil amounted to 52.55 billion units an increase of up to 1% compared to 2022. This year the growth is ongoing.
FOCUS
FEEDING STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE
When
it comes to improving performance through nutrition, meeting poultry requirements in the way they want/need is paramount to fully achieve their genetic potential. Indeed, the type of feed and how feed is presented matter to improve productive efficiency.
Meeting nutrient requirements
Current selection of meat and egg chickens has resulted in a broad, worldwide range of commercial strains of chickens for multiple production systems. And, due to continuous artificial selection, commercial lines of chickens change year after year due to genetic progress for improved efficiency, productivity, and/or resilience. Yet, these changes in performance and robustness also carry nutrient specifications to support greater performance. For example, highly productive layers require high mineral needs to support laying persistency and prevent bone weakness (and associated health problems) at old ages. In the case of broilers, accelerated body weight gain comes at the cost of high protein consumption to attain such fast growth rate despite of improvements in feed efficiency. Thus, proper understanding of strain-specific requirements is paramount to safeguard poultry health as well as to evaluate on-site production efficiency.
➤ Aitor Arrazola, Research biologist, Ph.D. in Animal Behaviour &
Welfare
In line with this, poultry requirements vary with age. During rearing, three main developmental stages are: skeletal development (during the first weeks of age; chick stage), adequate organ development (starting around 6 weeks of age; juvenile stage), and sexual development (onset with juvenile-to-adult moult). Bones elongate quickly during their first weeks of age, and this period is crucial to develop a wide, vigorous frame on which muscle will anchor. This
becomes handy to achieve heavier body weights in broilers or maintain laying persistence after peak of production in layers. Then, pullets and cockerels need a steady growth rate to compensate for such fast growth rate during early rearing as organs such as heart and lungs cannot enlarge as quickly as muscle does. Consequently, maintaining a fast growth rate during this phase is risky and can lead to health problems like breathing issues and heart failure as these organs are underdeveloped for such heavy body weight. Finally, sexual development kicks in once mature body weight is reached at a good conformation (neither undernourished nor overweight). If flock uniformity is compromised, so is sexual maturation. Avoiding unnecessary stress and getting a good flock uniform is core to synchronize laying onset and sustain proper performance during lay. So, minding chicken development stage is crucial to implement feeding strategies that support poultry well-being, health, livability, and meat quality. Lastly, previously-mentioned requirements linked with age and strain are also dependent on current performance. Certainly, nutritional requirements will drop if performance outcomes are below expected objectives and, oppositely, if flock performance exceeds objectives. Monitoring flock performance live is therefore ideal to gauge whether nutrients are over- or under-provided since both are problematic. Customizing the on-site feeding strategy to actual performance (and environmental conditions) for a given genetic strain and age are desirable to optimize production efficiency, but how can feeding strategies satisfy these needs?
Phase-feeding
Implementing a three-stage feeding program during rearing and a two-stage feeding program during lay is the first step to satisfying strain-nutrient specifications across different developmental and production stages. Phase feeding means that different diets are fed through rearing (e.g., starter, grower I, grower II, or finisher diets) and lay (layer 1 & layer 2). Although diets may look similar, they are designed especially for broilers and layers to support their specific performance objectives at given development stages. Rearing feeding programs often have high protein content to meet birds’ growing demands
Implementing a threestage feeding program during rearing and a two-stage feeding program during lay is the first step to satisfying strainnutrient specifications
while layer diets are rich in calcium for eggshell formation. Particularly in the last period of their production cycle, phase-feeding is remarkedly important to help achieve market body weight quickly in broilers or boost laying persistency in 50-weeks-old hens (when mineral content could limit egg quality or bone integrity). Another advantage of phase feeding is that feed particle size is
During rearing,
three main developmental stages are: skeletal development, adequate organ development, and sexual development
adjusted to chickens’ age. Since newly-hatched chicks cannot feed on large feed particles, they require mash during their first weeks of age and gradually transitioning to crumble and pellets as they grow.
Although phase-feeding is useful to meet poultry needs as they grow, introducing new diets (e.g., from grower to layer diet) can be stressful and transitioning periods or intermediate diets (e.g., pre-layer diet) can lessen this stress. Another thing to keep in mind is that commercial diets and feeding programs are formulated to match bird type, developmental stage, and expected performance; nonetheless, checking out that the feeding strategy supports current performance is important to ensure productivity is not constraint, for example, in the case a flock is overperforming.
Nutritional enrichments
Supplementing barn environments with nutritional enrichments, beyond their main diet, cannot only support their nutritional requirements (such as mineral intake using pecking stones) but also promote feed digestibility and cut feed waste. As chickens lack teeth to grind feed, feed intake enters directly into the digestive system. In here, the gizzard act as a mill grinding feedstuff and its activity is improved when chickens consume grit or small stones (as they tend to do when ranging). Grit intake further promotes grinding activity by breaking feed down into finer particles before entering the stomach where it is mixed with gastric acids. In return, digestibility in the small intestine increases due to grit intake, facilitating nutrient intake for the same amount of feed intake and diet.
Chickens are not particularly picky eaters but still enjoy sorting crumbles/pellets out. This redirected behaviour toward feeder content can become a problem because of feed waste, predominantly in cage systems as feed falls on the manure belt or hallway floor where birds no longer have access to it. Regardless of whether this behavioural problem roots from boredom or lack of dietary fibre, this behaviour carries an economic loss. A strategy to tackle both possible causes is providing baskets full of straw or wood shavings
inside cages so chickens can engage in this pecking behaviour while reducing feed waste and allow them to meet dietary fibre intake as they please. For floor systems, straw bales (or similar options) provide opportunities to performance this feed-seeking behavior and redirect it away from feeders. Overall, planning a proper feeding enrichment can further help satisfy nutritional requirements (e.g., mineral and dietary fibre) when birds are in need of it and support foraging-like behaviours while also reducing economic loss.
Supporting feeding behaviour
Understanding poultry feeding behaviour can help accomplish higher individual daily feed intake, enhance uniformity of body weight (and other performance outcomes as well), and avoid feeding competition. Indeed, improvements in feeding strategies are pointless if chickens do not use resources appropriately. Chickens are social animals by nature, and they forage at the same time as a group preferentially after dawn and before dusk (except for broilers that do a large meal early on followed by periodical, small meals along daytime). However, if feeder space does not allow all birds to eat simultaneously, they will compete for feeder access during feeding time. In this scenario, bullies outcompete small chicks resulting in poor uniformity, reduced productivity, and welfare problems due to injurious pecking. Also, adjusting feeding time to match their natural feeding patterns can further trigger their motivation for larger feed intake. Having a large meal before dusk is indeed important for laying hens since egg formulation occurs during nighttime, and hens must intake enough calcium at the end of daytime to prevent soft eggshells. A welfare-friendly solution to this problem is running trough belts again (with fresh feed) around 30 min before lights go off while also dimming light intensity gradually to mimic sundown. Thus, hens learn that the dark phase is coming and can compensate for feed intake if necessary.
OCEANIA - LOSSES IN WORLD MEAT PRODUCTION DESPITE CONSIDERABLE MOMENTUM
There are hardly any recent studies on the role of Oceania in the global meat industry. This article will focus on documenting the role of Australia and New Zealand in meat production in order to close the existing gap.
➤ Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst
The author is Professor Emeritus, University of Vechta, Germany
The continents of Asia, South America and Africa have been characterized by remarkable dynamics in the past decade, both in terms of population development and meat production. The author has presented detailed analyses of the three continents (Windhorst 2024, 2024a, 2024b). It is worth noting that there are hardly any recent studies on the role of Oceania in the global meat industry. This applies to both production and trade. The reasons for Oceania’s neglect can certainly be seen in its small share in the global population and economic value added on the one hand and its peripheral location on the other, which makes access to important sales markets difficult. Despite remarkable dynamics in some areas of animal production, the continent has lost shares in world meat production in the period
under review. This article will focus on documenting the role of Australia and New Zealand in meat production in order to close the existing gap.
The limitations of the domestic market as an inhibiting factor
With 46.1 million inhabitants, Oceania accounted for 0.55% of the global population in 2023. The continent’s population is highly concentrated regionally (Table 1). Australia, with 26.4 million inhabitants, shared 57.3% in the continent’s total population, followed by Papua New Guinea with 10.5 million (22.4%) and New Zealand with
Australia
Papua
New
Others
■ Table 1 – The population of selected countries in Oceania (2023); data in million (source: Worldpopulationreview).
5.2 million (11.3%); the remaining independent countries of Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia contributed 2.8 million. Population density ranged from 2.2 inhabitants per km2 in Australia to 163 in Tonga. Both, the comparatively low population and the distance between the islands, are a problem because of the limited domestic demand for food and the high transportation costs, which reduce the competitiveness on the world market.
Remarkable momentum but share in global production declining
Between 2012 and 2022, meat production in Oceania increased from 6.0 million tons to 6.5 million tons or by 8.2% (Table 2). A look at the development of the most important meat types reveals major differences. The production volume of cattle meat decreased by 153,000 tons or 5.5% in the period under review. In contrast, production of the other meat types increased. Poultry meat in particular showed high absolute and relative growth rates. It accounted for 77.2% of the total growth in Oceania’s meat production. Country
This reflects the red-white shift in global meat production and consumption, which can be observed (Windhorst 2021). The relative increase of 29.7% was almost identical with the value achieved at global level. A comparison with the development of global production reveals that Oceania achieved a higher relative growth rate for pig meat, but a significantly lower for sheep meat. As will be shown in a later part of the article, this was mainly due to the decline in New Zealand’s production. Looking at the dynamics of meat production as a whole, a relative increase of 17.3% was achieved at the global level, more than twice as high as in Oceania. This considerable difference is also reflected in the decrease of the share in global meat production (Table 3). However, it is worth noting that the contribution to global meat production was three times as high as the continent’s share in the world population. This indicates a high export quota.
Different dynamics at country level
In a further step, the development of meat production at country level will be analysed. The countries of Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia are grouped together
■ Table 2 – The change in Oceania’s meat production between 2012 and 2022 in comparison to the global development; data in 1,000 t (source: own calculation based on FAO data).
■ Table 3 – The change of Oceania’s share in global meat production between 2012 and 2022; data in % (source: own calculation based on FAO data).
Cattle meat
Poultry meat
Sheep meat
Pig meat
Meat total
because they contributed only a small proportion to the continent’s total production. They will be dealt with as “island countries” in this article.
Between 2012 and 2022, cattle meat production in Australia fell from 2.2 million tons to 1.9 million tons or by 12.7%, while it grew from 607,000 tons to 728,000 tons or by 19.9% in New Zealand. Poultry meat, the second most important meat type, showed a remarkable dynamic. The
▲ Figure 1 – The share of the main meat types in the meat production of the Oceanian countries (2022) (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
153,000 tons more sheep meat in 2022 than in 2012, an increase of 27.6%. In New Zealand, in contrast, the production volume fell by 19,000 tons and only reached 437,000 tons, a decrease of 4.2%. Pig meat production developed similarly. In Australia, it rose by 84,000 tons to 436,000 tons or 23.9%.
In New Zealand, it showed a downward trend, production declined from 51,000 tons to 45,000 tons or 11.8%.
While the island countries produced almost no sheep meat, their production volume of pig meat increased from 97,000 tons to 102,000 tons or 5.2%. However, their share in Oceania’s pig meat production fell from 19.4% to 17.5% due to the dynamical development in Australia. The regional concentration of meat production in Oceania was very high, as can be seen in Figure 1. Australia accounted for 68.4% of total meat production in 2022, New Zealand 22.3% and the island countries 9.3%. As expected, Australia accounted for the highest share of all meat types. It was highest for poultry meat at 83.5% and lowest for sheep meat at 61.8%. New Zealand achieved the highest shares with 38.2% for sheep meat and the island countries with 17.5% for pig meat.
production volume in Australia grew by 312,000 tons or 28.8%; in New Zealand, the absolute increase of 52,000 tons was significantly lower, however, a higher relative growth rate of 30.8% was achieved. In the island countries, beef production did not change in the decade analysed, stagnating at 15,000 t, which corresponds to a share of 0.6%. In contrast, poultry meat production rose from 37,000 tons to 56,000 tons or by 51.4%. A later section will document which countries were primarily responsible for this. The development in the production of sheep meat and pork is interesting. Australia produced
Major differences in the importance of meat types
A comparison of the share of the meat types in overall meat production shows major differences as well between the continent’s and global production as between countries.
Figure 2 documents the share of the meat types in 2022 at the global level and in Oceania. While poultry meat ranked in first place in global production, followed closely by pig meat;
▲ Figure 2 – The share of the main meat types in world and Oceania’s meat production (2022) (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
in Oceania, cattle meat was in first place, well ahead of poultry meat. Pig meat was only in fourth place behind sheep meat. This reflects the availability of large natural grasslands on the one hand and the long affiliation to the British Commonwealth on the other.
Figure 3 documents the differences in the importance of the individual meat types in selected countries. In Australia and New Zealand, beef took the leading position. However, while poultry meat ranked ahead of sheep meat in Australia, sheep meat was in second place in New Zealand. Both countries dominated the list of sheep meat exporting countries in 2022. With a combined export volume of 833,000 tons, they accounted for over two thirds of the global export volume. The greater importance of poultry meat in Australia is due to the consumption behaviour of the population in the urban centers and the importance of tourism.
The distribution in Papua New Guinea, which had about twice the population of New Zealand, is interesting. With the exception of pig meat, commercial meat production was only of minor importance. In 2022, over 80% of the population’s meat demand was still determined by game meat. Vanuatu and Tonga are characteristic countries regarding the importance of pig meat, which accounted for well over half respectively almost three quarters of meat production, followed by beef. Both animal species were predominantly kept extensively, which also applied to backyard poultry farming.
In contrast, poultry meat was the unchallenged meat type in Fiji, sharing almost 85% in total meat production (Diarra 2017). This is mainly a result of the growing tourism. Due to the origin of visitors from countries with different religious affiliations, poultry meat is offered mainly in the tourist hotels because there is no ban on the consumption of this meat type.
Summary and outlook
In the past decade Oceania occupied only a subordinate position in world meat production, with the exception of sheep meat. The small population, the peripheral location to the major world markets and the scattered location of the islands were the most important steering factors for the falling behind the global dynamics. Although cattle meat still held the leading position in the continent’s meat production, poultry meat showed by far the highest relative growth rate in the period under review. This reflected the global trend towards an increase in the production and consumption of white meat. On the global meat market, Australia and New Zealand achieved an undisputed leading role in the export of sheep meat. Trade with other meat types was only of minor importance.
▲ Figure 3 – The share of the main meat types in the meat production of selected countries in Oceania (2022) (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
It can be assumed that Oceania will lose further shares in global meat production in the current decade due to the low demand of the domestic market and its peripheral location to the most important meat importing countries. Poultry meat will be characterized by a very dynamical development in Oceania and will increase its share in the continent’s total meat production. In contrast, cattle meat production will further decline, simply due to the higher production costs and high retail prices. Sheep meat is likely to consolidate its position, mainly due to stable exports. Pig meat, which has been of comparatively minor importance, is unlikely to show high growth rates in the future, primarily due to the emerging trend in meat consumption in postindustrial societies.
Data sources and additional literature
Diarra, S.: Poultry industries in the South Pacific region: issues and future direction. In: World’s Poultry Science Journal 73 (2017), no. 2, p. 293-300.
Fisher, M. W. and B. S. Jones. “Australia and New Zealand.” Long distance transport and welfare of farm animals. Wallingford UK 2008, p. 324-354.
Windhorst, H.-W.: The red-white shift in global meat production: In: Zootecnica International 43 (2021), no. 5, p. 32-37. Windhorst, H.-W.: Was it the decade of Asia? The dynamics of global meat and egg production between 2012 and 2022. In: Meatingpoint 2024, issue 54, p. 60 – 64.
Windhorst, H.-W.: South America – the continent of cattle and chickens. In: Meatingpoint 2024a, issue 55, p. 12-15.
Windhorst, H.-W.: Oceania - Losses in world meat production despite considerable momentum. In: Meatingpoint (in preparation)
Windhorst, H.-W.: Africa - supply problems despite remarkable dynamics. Part 1: Africa's role in global meat and egg production. In: Fleischwirtschaft international (in preparation).
Windhorst, H.-W.: Africa - supply problems despite remarkable dynamics. Part 2: Production and supply at country level. In: Fleischwirtschaft international (forthcoming).
NUCLEOTIDES: THE KEY ADDITIVE FOR A HEALTHY GUT AND BALANCED MICROBIOTA
IN BROILER CHICKENS
By supporting a balanced microflora and promoting the functional integrity of the intestine, nucleotides contribute to improved digestive efficiency and enhanced natural defense against pathogens.
➤ Pier Enrico Rossi, MDV
Matteo Blando, Product Manager Prosol Spa
For any living organism, the early stages of life represent a critical phase for development and future adaptability to the environment. In chicks, this delicate period is marked by a series of physiological processes that must occur efficiently and in a coordinated manner to ensure rapid and robust growth. Among these processes, one of the most complex and influential is the development of the digestive system. In chicks, the digestive system develops rapidly from the very first days of life, outpacing the growth of any other tissue. This development is not merely a matter of dimensional growth but also involves the acquisition of full digestive functionality.
Simultaneously, a multitude of microorganisms colonizes the intestinal environment, forming a dense community of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses that collectively constitute the so-called gut microbiota. The delicate balance established between the young animal and the microorganisms inhabiting its gut is crucial for the chick’s health, as it affects not only growth but also the
ability to respond to environmental stressors and diseases. Given the importance of ensuring the chick’s gut becomes efficient as quickly as possible, since optimal digestion and nutrient absorption are essential for healthy growth and high feed conversion, early intervention to protect this balance is imperative. From the first week of life, strategies should focus on promoting rapid colonization and proper maturation of the gut microbiota by investing in nutritional solutions that foster the development of a healthy and resilient intestine. Addressing an already mature or compromised microbiota later is much more challenging. Every nutritional decision made during the initial stages can have profound and lasting impacts, helping to achieve the goal more quickly: supporting a microbiota that is mature, rich, stable, and more resistant to stress. Such considerations emphasize that providing appropriate support for intestinal development must be a top priority for those involved in poultry farming, as this is critical for both animal welfare and the economic well-being of the farmer.
In this context, yeast-derived nucleotides can play a key role.
Nucleotides are the fundamental building blocks of nucleic acids and are involved in the synthesis of DNA and RNA. They are thus essential molecules during periods of rapid cell division and tissue renewal, particularly in the intestinal lining. Providing nucleotides through the diet from the earliest days of life can accelerate the development of the intestinal tract, supporting the formation of intestinal villi (Graph 1) and the maturation of epithelial cells. Additionally, nucleotides can positively influence the composition of the gut microflora. They serve as specific energy substrates for beneficial bacteria such as lactobacilli
▲ Graph 1 – Intestinal morphology
and bifidobacteria, promoting their proliferation over pathogenic bacteria. Moreover, they contribute to the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) by the microbiota, which are beneficial for intestinal health.
The challenges of the intestinal tract: bacteria, toxins, and inflammation
The intestinal tract of chickens is continuously exposed to bacteria, toxins, and other potentially harmful elements. These factors can lead to clinical or subclinical inflammation and tissue damage, which, in turn, can result in economic losses for farmers.
In such a challenging environment, adopting measures to actively counter these threats is essential. Healthy and intact enterocytes form a critical barrier that prevents pathogens and toxins from entering the bloodstream and triggering systemic immune responses. Furthermore, efficient intestinal cells ensure better nutrient absorption, avoiding malabsorption that could lead to undesirable fermentations. These fermentations often promote the proliferation of pathogens such as Clostridium perfringens, E. coli, and Salmonella spp. in the distal part of the intestine.
At the intestinal level, particular attention must be given to tight junctions. These structures play a fundamental role in ensuring an adequate level of occlusion against potentially harmful substances. The degree of occlusion, and thus
Data collected on day 21 of broilers' life Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences - University of Milan (2024)
impermeability, depends on the number of interconnected strands forming the junction. If the number of strands is limited, the junctions appear loose or permeable (so-called "leaky junctions"). Conversely, a greater number of strands creates tighter junctions, better sealing the intercellular spaces between enterocytes and preserving intestinal integrity.
A recent study on broiler chickens demonstrated that using nucleotides increased the genetic expression of tight junction proteins such as Zo-1, Occludin, and Claudin 3 (Graph 2). This resulted in a strengthened intestinal barrier and enhanced resistance to bacterial infections and the translocation of potentially harmful toxins. Additionally, the study reported increased mucin production. Mucin reduces the risk of direct contact between pathogens and the epithelium and serves as an important substrate for beneficial bacteria such as lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, further supporting microbiota balance.
Gut microbiota: the gut-brain axis
On an immunological level, a critical relationship exists between the gut microbiota and the central nervous system (CNS). This relationship is significantly strained when the host is exposed to specific stressors. Such stressors not
only trigger inflammatory processes of varying intensity but also negatively affect gut health, compromising its permeability and making it more susceptible to infections and harmful dysbiosis.
By promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria such as lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, nucleotides help maintain a balanced microbiota - an essential factor for proper communication between the gut and the central nervous system (CNS).
Nucleotides: when to use them
Strategic use of nucleotides is critical during various stages of chicken growth.
During the Embryonic Phase
By injecting nucleotides in ovo, it is possible to strengthen the immunity and vitality of chicks, with evident benefits at hatching. These include increased resistance to infections in the early stages of life and a reduction in early mortality rates.
In the First Weeks of Life
During this period, the gut undergoes rapid cellular replication, and the immune system is not yet fully developed. Nucleotides play a crucial role in supporting intestinal development and promoting a rapid and
▲ Graph 2 – Gene expression of tight junction proteins
Data collected on day 21 of broilers' life
Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences - University of Milan (2024)
effective immune response against stress, infections, and pathogens by increasing the production of lymphocytes and macrophages. Additiwonally, thanks to their ability to modulate inflammatory responses, nucleotides further strengthen defenses and are particularly valuable during vaccinations and pharmacological treatments, improving their effectiveness.
During Dietary Transitions
When included in feed during sensitive dietary changes, nucleotides help maintain the balance of the gut microflora, reducing the risk of imbalances.
In Stressful Situations
Nucleotides’ role in countering oxidative stress makes them a
valuable resource in major stress scenarios such as overcrowding, transport, and environmental or climatic challenges.
Choosing a reliable source of nucleotides is essential to optimize the return on nutritional investment. RIBOFEED not only provides a high content of free nucleotides but, thanks to its specific hydrolysis process, makes them readily bioavailable. These advantages allow young animals to immediately utilize these molecules without additional metabolic costs, supporting cellular functions and vital processes necessary to achieve genetic potential and guaranteed performance. This ensures proper growth, even during periods of heightened vulnerability.
CECAL COCCIDIOSIS IN TURKEYS VETERINARY
➤ Vijay Durairaj & Ryan Vander Veen Huvepharma, Inc., Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
Cecal coccidiosis is an important disease that affects the cecal integrity of turkeys and may result in watery feces with flecks of blood. In turkeys it is caused by three Eimeria species.
Turkeys have a pair of cecal pouches located at the junction of the ileum and colon. The ceca act as fermentation chamber and plays a role in fermentation of carbohydrates. It also helps in the digestion of crude protein, fiber, cholesterol, degradation of nitrogen compounds, and reabsorption of water, electrolytes and cholesterol (1). The turkey cecal pH is around 5.9 (1). Within a few days after hatch, turkey ceca can harbor around 1011 organisms per gram of digesta (2). The cecal microbiota is complex and includes several microbiota including bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi, and protozoa (3). Any insult to the ceca can affect the cecal health, which in turn adversely affects the homeostasis of the cecal contents.
Cecal droppings are dark in color (Figure 1A) and the consistency of cecal droppings is different from rectal feces. The rectal droppings are green, brown or gray with a white cap representing urates (Figure 1B).
A compromise in cecal health may be attributable to pathogens, feed quality, or toxins. Among the pathogens affecting cecal health, protozoan infections, especially Eimeria infections, are commonly seen due to the ubiquitous presence in the intense poultry raising operations. Eimeria in turkeys was first documented by Theobald Smith in 1895 (4).
▲ Figure 2 – Gross lesions of E. adenoeides in ceca. A) Healthy ceca with brownish contents. B) Watery cecal contents with caseous clots. C) Watery cecal contents filled with clots and clumps of caseous materials. D) Ceca packed with caseous material before the formation of a solid cecal core. E) One ceca is packed with caseous material before the formation of a solid cecal core and the other ceca has a corrugated cecal core. F) Both ceca have solid corrugated cecal core.
Cecal coccidiosis is an important disease that affects the cecal integrity of turkeys and may result in
▲ Figure 1 – Turkey feces. A) Cecal feces. B) Normal rectal feces. C) Flecks of blood in rectal feces.
▲ Figure 3 – Gross lesions induced by E. gallopavonis. A) Watery cecal contents in proximal one-third of the ceca with caseous clots. B) Caseous exudate in the ileum and proximal one-third of the ceca packed with caseous exudate. C) Cheesy caseous exudate in proximal one-third of ceca. D) Caseous clots in the ileum and caseous exudate extending from proximal one-third of ceca to middle of the ceca.
watery feces with flecks of blood (Figure 1C). Cecal coccidiosis in turkeys is caused by three predominant Eimeria species:
1. E. adenoeides- highly pathogenic
2. E. gallopavonis-highly pathogenic 3. E. meleagridis- non-pathogenic.
E. adenoeides
E. adenoeides was first reported by Moore and Brown in 1951 (5). Being a highly pathogenic Eimeria species (6), E. adenoeides is one of the predominating species documented in USA (7). The prepatent period of E adenoeides is 4.3 days (103 hours). E. adenoeides targets ceca and causes petechiae, congestion, edema, necrosis and sloughing of the cecal mucosa. Pathological manifestation of E. adenoeides includes watery cecal contents with cheesy caseous clots (Figure 2B, 2C, 2D), partially formed cecal core (Figure 2E) or solid cecal core (Figure 2F). In severe cases, the lesions may extend up to the lower small intestine and the cloaca. Infection causes dehydration, decreased feed intake, poor feed conversion, decreased body weight gain, and watery feces. In severe cases, it causes blood-tinged diarrhea along with mucous casts and mortalities.
www.specht-germany.com
E. gallopavonis
E. gallopavonis was first reported by Hawkins in 1950 (8). Being a highly pathogenic Eimeria species (6), E. gallopavonis is one of the predominating species documented in USA (7). The prepatent period of E gallopavonis is 4.4 days (105 hours). E. gallopavonis targets primarily ileo-cecal junction, extends up to cecal neck and rectum and causes petechiae, ulceration, hemorrhage and thickening of the intestinal wall. Pathological manifestation of E. gallopavonis includes formation of caseous clots or chunks (Figure 3A) in the cecal contents and presence of cheesy exudate in the anterior cecal neck (Figure 3B, 3C, 3D). Infection causes dehydration, decreased feed intake, poor feed conversion and decreased body weight gain. In severe cases, it causes flecks of blood in the feces and mortalities.
E. meleagridis
E. meleagridis was first reported in 1927 by Tyzzer (9). E meleagridis is considered as a nonpathogenic species (6). Infecting poults with a very high number of oocysts neither induced clinical symptoms nor weight loss (6). A slight drop in body weight was documented by Hawkins in 1952 (10). The prepatent period of E. meleagridis is 4.5 days (110 hours). Several studies characterized E. meleagridis as nonpathogenic with very minimal damage (11). Due to very minimal damage, it is often unnoticed in flocks.
Conclusion
Ensuring cecal health helps in improving the gut health. Several intervention strategies are available to control cecal coccidiosis in turkeys, including vaccines, synthetic compounds/chemicals, ionophores, and natural alternative products.
References
1. Proszkowiec-Weglarz M. Gastrointestinal anatomy and physiology. In: Scanes CG, Dridi S, editors. Sturkie’s avian physiology. 7th ed. London (U.K.): Academic Press. p. 485–527; 2022.
2. Apajalahti J, Kettunen A, Graham H. Characteristics of the gastrointestinal microbial communities with special reference to the chicken. World Poult Sci J. 60:223–32. doi:10.1079/WPS20040017; 2004.
3. Wei S, Morrison M, Yu Z. Bacterial census of poultry intestinal microbiome. Poult Sci. 92:671–683; 2013.
4. Smith, T. Investigations concerning infectious diseases among poultry Bulletin No. 8 (pp. 7–27). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry; 1895
5. Moore, E.N. & Brown, J.A. A new coccidium pathogenic for turkeys, Eimeria adenoeides n. sp. (Protozoa: Eimeriidae). The Cornell Veterinarian. 41, 124–135; 1951.
6. Lund, E.E. & Farr, M.M. Coccidiosis of the turkey. In H.E.Biester & L.H. Schwarte (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry 5th edn (pp.1088–1093). Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 1965.
7. Duff AF, Briggs WN, Bielke JC, McGovern KE, Trombetta M, Abdullah H, Bielke LR, Chasser KM. PCR identification and prevalence of Eimeria species in commercial turkey flocks of the Midwestern United States. Poult Sci.101(9):101995; 2022.
8. Hawkins, P.A. Coccidiosis of the turkey. Journal of Parasitology, 36 (2, Suppl.), 42–43; 1950.
9. Tyzzer, E. E. Species and strains of coccidia in poultry. J. Parasitol. 13:215; 1927.
10. Hawkins, P.A. Coccidiosis in Turkeys. Technical Bulletin 226. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State College Agricultural Experiment Station; 1952.
11. Cervantes HM, McDougald, LR, Jenkins MC. Coccidiosis. In: Swayne D, Boulianne, M, Logue C, McDougald L, Nair V, Suarez D, deWit S, Grimes T, Johnson D, Kromm M, et al., editors. Diseases of poultry. 14th ed. Ames (IA): Wiley-Blackwell. p. 1193–1216; 2020.
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