Zootecnica International - World's Poultry Journal - English edition - 12 December 2023

Zootecnica International – December 2023 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze

Ovostella chooses Eurosilos Sirp fiberglass silos Some common issues of the first week in brooding turkey poults Update on Marek’s disease: current situation and future perspectives

12 2023

The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.

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EDITORIAL Every technological innovation in history has often been followed by various levels of resistance, which is in contrast to the real needs of the population.

Correct information represents the only key to understanding the importance of making objective assessments, without running the risk of being diverted by excessively extremist currents of thought, which are not supported by scientific evidence.

This applies in many fields, such as medical science relating to both human and animal health and also for environmental protection. The food sector is closely related to these fields.

Over the course of fifty years, the issues of safety and sustainability have become increasingly important in animal husbandry. Regretfully however, the mass media has explored these issues without restraint, and often presented information that is not coherent or does not take account of the scientific aspects. It would be enough to mention how topics relating to GMOs, organic, antibiotic-free matters have been reported.

Even the technological innovation of equipment has suffered the same fate (for example enriched cages and aviaries in our sector) and at the root of this chaos there is incorrect, sometimes biased, information being circulated.

After over fifty years of experience in the poultry sector, I still dream of seeing producers cohesive in jointly producing correct information in the mainstream media, backed up with input from qualified scientists and technicians.

www.hubbardbreeders.com

SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS.......................................................................... 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................ 6 REPORTAGE

12

Round table: achieving sciencebacked sustainable poultry production in the EU............................................. 10

INTERVIEW

Ovostella chooses Eurosilos Sirp fiberglass silos............................................ 12

DOSSIER

Limestone quality: implications for poultry health and performance.................. 16

FOCUS

Some common issues of the first week in brooding turkey poults..................... 22

MARKETING

22

BRICS expansion: what does this mean for the poultry industry?..................... 28

NUTRITION

Investigation of the impact of a blend of a triple strain probiotic on performance and gut-brain axis........................... 34

VETERINARY

Update on Marek’s disease: current situation and future perspectives.............. 38

MARKET GUIDE.................................................................................44 UPCOMING EVENTS.......................................................................47

38

INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................48

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: available vaccines and vaccination strategies The European Union (EU) has experienced an epidemic of HPAI in wild and domestic birds in recent years. Areas with dense populations of poultry farms are at particular risk of HPAI transmission. Vaccination can be considered in addition to already implemented measures (e.g. surveillance, biosecurity and early detections) to prevent and control the spread of HPAI. Reference Laboratory (NRL) network, and directly from pharmaceutical companies’ websites. The effectiveness of vaccination strategies was simulated using mathematical modelling. The data used were published literature (there were no restrictions on publication language or study location); survey data; data on poultry population in France, Italy and the Netherlands; data on HPAI outbreaks in France, Italy and the Netherlands; data on pre-emptive culling in France, Italy and the Netherlands.

Limitations/uncertainties

The European Commission requested an overview of the available HPAI vaccines, their efficacy against currently circulating viruses and an assessment of various vaccination schemes to inform decisions on possible vaccination strategies. EFSA was also mandated to assess the surveillance and risk mitigation measures in vaccinated areas and farms. These topics will be addressed in a separate scientific opinion, with expected finalisation in March 2024.

EFSA issued a scientific opinion on this topic in 2007: in the current opinion, information about available vaccines and their characteristics was collected via a literature search, and in a survey that was launched by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and disseminated

by EFSA and the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). Data were also collected through consultation of the EU Reference Laboratory (EURL) and the National

4

•

Data on protection efficacy and duration of protection of available vaccines against HPAI are non-harmonised and few; therefore, the detailed description and comparison of these vaccines is not possible.

•

Few vaccines are tested on poultry species other than chickens.

•

Field studies on the effectiveness of vaccination to stop virus transmission are scarce.

Outcomes and their implications Outcomes •

Updated information was provided on types and characteristics of available vaccines against HPAI.

•

There is only one authorised vaccine against HPAI in chickens in the EU.

•

Insights were provided on different vaccination strategies for controlling HPAI in poultry, i.e. emergency protective vaccination in areas around a HPAI outbreak and preventive vaccination in areas and farms where the infection is not present yet.

•

Recommendations were provided for future scientific studies on HPAI vaccines.

- worldwide news -

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Implications •

EFSA’s scientific advice on HPAI vaccines and vaccination strategies will inform EU Member State policy makers and risk managers about potential prevention and control strategies for HPAI, thus enabling informed decisions on HPAI prevention and outbreak control.

•

The advice from EFSA may guide future development and use of vaccines against HPAI.

Key recommendations for policy makers and risk managers •

Preventive vaccination is the optimal vaccination strategy to minimise the number of outbreaks and duration of epidemic and should be conducted in the most susceptible and infectious poultry species in high-risk transmission areas. Multiple administration (i.e. booster vaccinations) can be used to enhance protection.

•

In case of an outbreak, emergency protective vaccination is recommended in a 3-km radius of the outbreak in high-risk transmission areas.

•

Vaccine efficacy should be monitored for all vaccination strategies.

•

Vaccination should complement and not replace other preventive and control measures, such as infection monitoring in birds, early detection and biosecurity, and is recommended as part of an integrated disease control approach.

Source: EFSA

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• • •

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Acid-resistant Material: the high-quality materials provide for highest stability and thus for highest functional safety.

Hygiene Surface: the extremly smooth inner surface and the outstanding hygienical characteristics of the plastic material avoid deposits.

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5

COMPANY NEWS

RoboBatcher robotic packing of chicken tenders Until now, in those markets where chicken tenders (aka tenderloins or inner fillets) are sold on trays for supermarkets, these packs have been put together by hand. Given the global shortage of labor, automation is the better option. That is exactly what Marel’s RoboBatcher Flex for tenders does. Featuring a new gripper, the robot improves on a manual operation by speeding up the process, minimizing giveaway and achieving stateof-the-art styling results. several workers per shift on this monotonous packing job, the RoboBatcher Flex for tenders outperforms a manual operation in speed, grading precision, batching accuracy and giveaway reduction. Besides reducing the need for labor, RoboBatcher Flex for tenders improves hygiene and food safety because fewer people are handling and touching the meat.

A processing plant in the above countries will produce plenty of tenders to keep the RoboBatcher Flex running full-time. If needed, the dedicated tender gripper on the robot arm can be changed over in a couple of minutes to batch and pack fillets, legs or drumsticks.

New tender gripper

Until now, the stream of tenders coming from the breast deboning equipment in a poultry processing plant has been processed manually. Most of the time, this involves operators packing tenders one by one while estimating the weights of tender batches and finally weighing trays manually on an off-line weighing scale. The Marel RoboBatcher is the ideal solution for automating this job.

Labor reduction Packing tenders in trays is labor-intensive, as quality is very important. In certain parts of the world, tenders have a very high value and must be handled with care. Saving

6

- company news -

In addition to RoboBatcher’s dedicated grippers for fillets, legs and drumsticks, Marel has developed a fourth gripper, especially for tenders. Once again, it features stateof-the-art technology, resulting in the precise, careful handling of tenders. The gripper picks up the tender and descends into the tray, which moves along with the belt to achieve a perfect styling.

The RoboBatcher Flex for tenders operates at high speeds. Acceleration forces reach up to 10G. The gripper features several 3D-printed parts that require fewer bolted joints, making it lighter and able to move faster. It is also easier to clean.

For more information: marel.com/poultry

Sanitary Box Professional, heavy-duty, insulated box for use on farms. Easy to transport and designed to comply with the health rules.

4 boxes in one full truckload 3 boxes in 1 x 40’ HC O/T container

Agritech s.r.l.

Via Rimembranze, 7 25012 Calvisano (BS) Italy Tel. + 39 030 9968222 r.a.

Fax + 39 030 9968444

commerce@agritech.it www.agritech.it

COMPANY NEWS

Pas Reform Academy collaborates with Tyson Foods in the US to train key hatchery staff Pas Reform Academy organized a three-day hatchery training program in collaboration with Tyson Foods. presentations were by Royal Pas Reform’s Senior Poultry Specialist, Gerd de Lange, Incubation Specialist Eline Holtslag and HVAC specialist Niek Yntema, with additional presentations from Dale Maloney (Daikin) and Dr. Mike Wineland.

The second and third day involved hands-on training in the Tyson hatchery. This included embryology, measuring egg-shell temperature, break out of clears and hatch debris, HVAC, egg-handling automation, in-ovo injection and transfer, and setter management. For this, the Royal Pas Reform training team was joined by Global Installation Manager Emiel Fieldt, Regional Sales Director Walt Wages and Incubation Specialists Rickey Cates and Terry Doss.

Royal Pas Reform recognizes the crucial importance of staff operational and technical skills in the success of any hatchery operation. To this end, Pas Reform Academy recently organized a three-day hatchery training program in collaboration with Tyson Foods, one of the world’s largest processors and marketers of chicken, delivering both classroom training and hands-on practical hatchery sessions.

More than 20 team members from nine Tyson Foods and Cobb-Vantress hatcheries were invited to the stateof-the-art Tyson hatchery in Humboldt, Tennessee. The interactive, hands-on training program revolved around incubation, technical support and engineering efficiencies and was tailor made to fit Tyson’s needs.

The program focused on the latest insights in incubation technology, combined in a series of theoretical and practical exercises, where participants learned from Pas Reform Academy’s trainers and shared experiences with other professional hatchery personnel. The training began with an exploration of factors affecting hatching egg quality, with particular attention given to egg handling, sanitation and storage. A detailed presentation and practical applications in embryology followed, to form a solid foundation for group discussions on how to optimize support for the embryo during incubation. The classroom

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Eline Holtslag comments: “Pas Reform Academy has developed this interactive, ‘hands-on’ hatchery management training program to help support customers with high-quality content, based on the latest developments and insights. Our aim is to enhance the technical understanding and operational skills of key hatchery professionals, in order to deliver the highest number of best-quality chicks.”

Interested in hatchery management training for your team? Contact Pas Reform Academy: https://www.pasreform.com/en/page/2/training

- company news -

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9

REPORTAGE

The conference focused on practical achievements made by the European poultry industry for a more sustainable production.

From right to left: Birthe Steenberg (AVEC), Joanna Stawowy (DG Agri), Magdalena Kowalewska (BNP Paribas).

Round table: achieving sciencebacked sustainable poultry production in the EU The debate organized on October 11 by AVEC in partnership with Agra Facts and Elanco Animal Health tackled the issue of sustainability from multiple aspects (policy, industry, and research perspectives) for the European poultry sector.

Philippe Caldier, independent journalist ph@caldier.fr

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For the organizers of this hybrid conference, “understanding the sustainability potential of conventional poultry systems calls for an evidence-based and holistic approach. The growing demand for food, satisfying societal demands, and guaranteeing access to high-quality and affordable food and micronutrients for all consumers has become critical, particularly for consumers that are under financial pressure, including the low-income population in the EU27.”

This was the framework of this ‘tight debate for the sector’ followed by more than

- reportage -

250 professionals on line and moderated by Rose O’Donovan, Editor of Agra Facts.

Many challenges For Magdalena Kowalewska, Senior Food & Agri Sector Analyst at BNP Paribas, the European poultry sector is facing many short and middle-term challenges, such as the war in Ukraine, with many consequences on the grain and poultry market, the Avian Influenza crisis which limits exports or the Corporate Sustainable

REPORTAGE

Directive. “According to it, 70% of the European poultry processing industries will have to report by 2025 about their greenhouse gas emmissions and we still have no methodology to calculate them,” said Magdalena Kowalewska. “In spite of a decrease of profitability of production for the farmers, poultry is still the cheapest protein for the consumer, with a possible increase in the capita consumption in the future.”

“The problem is that we need to have a clear definition of sustainability”, said on the other hand Joe Moran, Director of European Policy Office at Four Paws who explained that sustainability was first focused on climate issue, and then on animal welfare.

“We need to have a much more holistic picture of sustainability, with a balanced approach needed where all three pillars, environmental, social and economic, are considered”, completed Birthe Steenberg, Secretary General AVEC who mentioned that there is a very little focus on the consumer in the EU Farm to Fork strategy. “We need consumers to be educated and to talk much more and to listen to them”.

Sustainability charter Despite the complexity of the subject covered, the conference focused on practical achievements made by the European poultry industry. “A lot has been done with our Sustainability Charter launched after Covid and discussion has not ended”, explained Birthe Steenberg, who announced the holding of a conference on November 29 to present what has been done about sustainability in three European poultry processing companies from three countries.

“We have been loading data about welfare indicators of billions of birds since 2017”, explained then Janet Helms, Senior Manager Global Sustainable Sourcing, Animal Health and Welfare at Mc Donalds, with various conclusions: the reality varies among suppliers, the good management of the farms is the key. “We have to improve the key indicators to follow what happens day by day in the farms, we are committed to learn more about sustainability and to share our learnings”, said her colleague Floor Uittenhoove, who added: “we have to look to other aspects such as carbon emissions or deforestation and to balance them to aim healthy birds and a safe and affordable food supply for our customers.”

Overview of the panelists.

To be more pragmatic Regarding the EU legislation about sustainability and welfare and the new CAP, the conference was a bit disappointing. “We could do more about animal welfare but it should fullfil to the needs of the Member States”, said Joanna Stawowy from DG Agri who added: “we have to find a common ground between stakeholders, to work on better tools to measure animal welfare and to take in account the reality of poultry production.” Regarding sustainability, Joanna Stawowy estimated that more has been done in dairy compared to poultry production. “We need more constructive dialogue with the European Commission”, said Birthe Steenberg, remarks supplemented by those of Joe Moran who pleaded “for a more pragmatic and simpler approach to the European legislative framework on animal welfare”. “We must verify that the drug does not kill the patient”, added Joe who estimates the next CAP round should allow for much more support for the poultry farmers.

More poultry imports in the EU From July 2020 to July 2023, poultry meat imports from Ukraine to EU increased by 71% at 221,000 t, explained Magdalena Kowalewska who also said that EU poultry imports increased by 17% in 2023, mainly from Brazil, Ukraine and Thailand.

- december 2023 -

11

INTERVIEW

Ovostella chooses Eurosilos Sirp fiberglass silos The Ovostella agricultural company of Ghedi (BS) is a longtime user of Eurosilos Sirp fiberglass silos. We interviewed the owner, Domenico Varini, to understand the reasons for this choice and the advantages that this product choice offers them.

Domenico Varini is the owner together with Monica Varini of the Ovostella agricultural company located in Ghedi, in the province of Brescia. The company operates in the poultry sector, in particular in the breeding of laying hens, and was founded in 1976 by Bruno and Luigi Varini.

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- interview -

INTERVIEW

glass silos as we recognize their excellent physical and mechanical properties and, until 2020, we installed monolithic models. Visiting the Eurosilos Sirp stand at the VIV Europe 2018 fair, in Utrecht, we reviewed for the first time the European Millennium (MEP) models. The structure, composed of two horizontally bolted segments, has excellent characteristics in terms of solidity and robustness, which convinced us to test this innovative solution for storing our feed. We therefore took the opportunity to renew our systems on our path towards on the “floor farming” and switch to Millennium silos. For three years, therefore, we have been integrating a chain of 4-22 m3 MEP silos into our automatic daily feed transportation and distribution system. During the design phase we particularly appreciated the flexibility of the new silos and the technical support received from the Eurosilos Sirp staff, which allowed us to adapt, with some technical input, the new with our present set up.”

What are the methods of use and the advantages of Eurosilos Sirp products?

“Over the years there have been various moments of change – explains Mr. Varini – but one event in particular, the big snowfall of 1985, made it necessary to rebuild several seriously damaged buildings. This was an opportunity to start again with innovation and new projects.

Another milestone in the history of our company was 2013, the year in which we invested in the renovation of all company systems with Valli

technologies, to comply with animal welfare regulations. Finally, in 2020 we implemented free-range farming.

Today my cousin Monica and I raise around 68,000 red feathered laying hens for consumption of the fresh eggs, two thirds of which are freerange.”

How long have you been using Fiberglass silos?

“We are long-time users of Fiber-

- december 2023 -

“The diet of the Ovostella chickens includes mash feed – continues the owner – except for rare occasions in which, for animal health reasons, we have to switch to rations with crumbled ingredients. We have made the choice to assign two silos to each group on our farm - this way we can always keep one empty and one full to alternate the loading of the feed.

This takes place twice a week with the feed being fed into the top of the silo from the feed truck. The feeding frequency varies depending on the number of birds in each group and

13

INTERVIEW

at VIV Europe, particularly impressed us and we have chosen to confirm this collaboration in the name of innovation. Without forgetting, of course, the importance of human relationships and the availability of Eurosilos Sirp staff.”

w w w.e u r o s i l o s . i t

The characteristics of the European Millennium Silos – MEP

ranges from 4 to 5 feedings per day. On the maintenance front, the MEP models are practical and functional, and conform to current legal requirements, including washing at the end of the cycle and periodic checks of the bolts and structure of the silos. We are also helped in this sense by the alternation of the two silos in which one always remains empty and as such can enjoy a longer period of cleansing and airing.”

“Another advantage of MEPs - explains Domenico Varini - for us is the transparency of the silos, which allows us to immediately see the level of feed inside each silo.

This does contribute in a small way to company planning, when added to the advanced level of the technology we have at our disposal. Lastly, the robustness of this system leaves us calm in the face of the frequent extreme weather events that affect our area. In short, I consider it a long-term investment in the effectiveness and safety in our daily work.”

Why did you choose Eurosilos Sirp?

“The choice was made by virtue of a historic relationship, consolidated over the years with the founder of Eurosilos Sirp, Mario Telefri, and continues with the current management and with the company’s technical and commercial representatives. The technical characteristics of the Millennium silos, presented to us during the meeting

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New generation silos, the European Millennium model (MEP) is a horizontal bolted silo with two parts (an upper cylindrical and a lower conical) both equipped with an external joint, which allows them to be joined without directly drilling the walls.

Does not require internal paraffin treatment as the interior is perfectly smooth.

MEP silos are certified as per European standards.

Silos can be delivered already assembled (in the case of small units) or delivered disassembled by truck.

The range of Eurosilos Sirp go from 5 to 53 cubic meters and have recently undergone technical updating to ensure further customer satisfaction.

Eurosilos Sirp offer 360 degree consultancy service including tailor-made design and construction for both rigid and flexible screw conveyor systems along with a wide range of accessories.

The reasons for choosing fibreglass The multiple physical-mechanical properties enjoyed by fibreglass make it an unique composite material which performs better than other materials such as steel for example. In particular: •

It is more resistant to atmospheric agents and as such it is more resistant to corrosion than metals which guarantee its longevity.

•

Fibreglass has a high ratio between mechanical resistance and weight and consequently for the same weight it is more resistant than a steel product.

•

Reduced weight accompanied by exceptional mechanical characteristics makes fibreglass products easy to handle.

- interview -

INTERVIEW

- december 2023 -

15

DOSSIER

Limestone quality: implications for poultry health and performance Limestone is the predominant source of calcium (Ca) used in poultry diets and is most often formulated using estimated Ca content and assumed quality characteristics. However, limestone quality, traditionally determined by its mineral composition and particle size, varies considerably. Beyond these two factors, the rate of solubility has more recently been shown to also contribute to limestone quality.

S.J. Wilkinson Feedworks, Lancefield

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While it is known that limestone composition and particle size vary, less is understood about the rate of limestone solubility and how this may impact Ca and phosphorus (P) digestibility as well as bird performance.

Formulating poultry diets using a general book value composition of limestone may result in over or under estimating Ca con-

- dossier -

tent and overall nutrient digestibility which may manifest as physiological and performance issues in production. As the poultry industry moves towards adopting digestible Ca values when formulating, it is important to understand the variability in limestone quality and the influence this may play on poultry health and performance.

DOSSIER

Introduction Calcium (Ca) is a dietary essential mineral for poultry and the requirements for poultry have been investigated extensively for more than 75 years. Calcium is the most prevalent mineral in the body and is important for many physiological processes such as enzyme activation, intracellular signalling, acid base balance, eggshell formation and bone mineralisation. Almost 99% of Ca is stored in the skeleton as hydroxyapatite; hence the importance of providing sufficient dietary Ca to meet this requirement has dominated much of poultry nutrition’s focus. However, the objective of providing adequate Ca for skeletal integrity has often led to an oversupply of Ca in poultry diets which may have unintended antinutritive effects. High dietary Ca concentrations have been reported to impede the availability of minerals such as P, Mg, Mn, and Zn, reduce the efficacy of phytase through the formation of Ca-phytate complexes. Demonstrating the influence of dietary Ca concentration on endogenous and exogenous phytase efficacy, Tamim et al. (2004) showed in broilers that were fed diets without supplemental Ca (0.2% total Ca) or exogenous phytase that 69% of phytate-P was hydrolysed (at the ileal level) from corn-soy based diets.

However, when birds were fed diets containing 0.7% total Ca, the birds’ capacity to hydrolyse phytate-P was reduced to 25%, representing a 44% reduction in endogenous phytase efficacy. Moreover, when diets containing 0.2% total Ca were supplemented with a 6-phytase (500 FTU/kg), phytate-P disappearance increased to be greater than 75%. However, when diets with 0.7% total Ca were supplemented with phytase, phytate-P digestibility only increased to 59%, a result that was considerably lower than for the low Ca diet with no supplemental phytase. It should be noted that the antinutritive effects of 0.7% total Ca observed are lower than the total Ca recommendations for broiler starter and grower diets (Aviagen, 2022). It is therefore important to manage the total amount of Ca in poultry diets.

Limestone quality Limestone (CaCO3) is primarily added to poultry diets as a cost-effective source of Ca. Limestone in feed can contribute greater than 50% of total Ca consumed and in all-vegetable diets, this value may be as high as 70%.

Concomitant to the limestone added at the feed mill,

limestone may also be used as a carrier in vitamin-mineral premixes and may also be used as a flow agent such as in soybean meal. This may result in significantly more limestone and therefore Ca being added to the ration than intended. The quality of these other sources of limestone is much less likely to be understood yet the same considerations should apply. The utilisation of dietary Ca and P depends on their concentration and availability from the feed that is modulated via intestinal, renal and skeletal mechanisms. Calcium digestibility and metabolism are influenced by several factors, including phosphorus and vitamin D so that any deficiency or excess of one may significantly change the metabolism of the other. Recent research has shown that limestone quality (beyond the traditional quality characteristics) can influence Ca and P digestibility and is an important determinant in poultry nutrition.

Mineral composition Limestone has a maximum Ca concentration of 40.04% based on chemical composition and molecular weight, yet it is rare to see commercial limestone this pure. Typically, the Ca concentration of limestone used in animal feeds varies from 38-39% for high quality limestone but it is also possible to see examples with much lower Ca concentrations. Plumstead et al. (2020) reported that the analysed Ca content of limestone ranged from 30.440.0%. Lower quality limestone (~34% Ca) with higher levels of impurities such as magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) may also be encountered and potentially bring more to consider when formulating. As mineral nutrition advances and the effect of excess minerals, for example Fe, are better understood, the amount of Fe from limestone may need to be considered to minimise the proliferation of pathogenic microbes in the gastrointestinal tract.

Particle size and solubility Other components contributing to the quality of limestone are particle size and solubility. Two broad categories of particle size, coarse (>1000 µm) and fine (<1000 µm), are ubiquitously used in poultry nutrition. However, these classifications are not authoritative. In vitro limestone solubility has been linked to in vivo solubility and Ca digestibility in layers. Broiler studies have shown increased particle size results in increased Ca digestibility. Rapidly soluble limestone is thought to be less beneficial for broilers as more

- december 2023 -

17

DOSSIER

ionisable Ca is present in the gizzard and proventriculus, presenting greater opportunity for chelation with phytic acid. More recently, research has shown that limestone particle size is not in and of itself a reliable predictor of solubility rates, and that the geology of the limestone rock also contributes to the rate of solubility. So, while limestone at first glance may appear relatively innocuous, due to the inherent differences in purity, particle size and solubility between limestone sources, inclusion of limestone (from all sources) in poultry diets should be managed closely.

Australian context Recently, 29 limestone samples were collected from Australian sources and analysed for mineral concentration (Table 1), particle size (Tables 2 and 3) and solubility (Figures 1 and 2) according to the methods of Kim et al.

(2019). While limestone is generally thought to contain 38% Ca, the results of this survey show there is substantial variation in Ca concentration and should be accounted for when formulating poultry diets. Of the limestone samples analysed, the highest Ca concentration reported

Table 1 – Mineral concentration of samples of limestone used in Australian poultry diets.

Source

Form

Ca (%)

P (%)

Mg (%)

K (%)

Na (%)

Fe (mg/kg)

Mn (mg/kg)

Zn (mg/kg)

Cu (mg/kg)

NSW

Fine

37.19

0.01

0.49

0.04

0.02

671.2

291.7

15.8

0.0

NSW

Fine

36.89

0.01

0.52

0.03

0.01

631.5

320.2

73.2

0.9 2.3

QLD

Fine

37.59

0.01

0.17

0.04

0.02

1422.9

347.7

11.0

TAS

Fine

33.87

0.01

0.53

0.04

0.02

4131.7

93.2

20.0

5.8

SA

Fine

37.16

0.01

0.32

0.03

0.02

2704.8

385.1

5.8

3.2

QLD

Fine

38.51

0.01

0.17

0.03

0.02

1676.8

351.2

9.3

0.9

SA

Fine

36.17

0.01

0.30

0.03

0.02

2532.3

341.8

11.9

7.6 0.1

NSW

Fine

34.74

0.01

1.58

0.03

0.02

1403.5

1596.7

8.9

NSW

Coarse

36.22

0.01

0.34

0.04

0.02

3729.9

101.3

14.8

1.1

NSW

Fine

38.50

0.01

0.07

0.02

0.02

989.4

44.6

9.2

1.4

NSW

Coarse

38.39

0.01

0.08

0.02

0.01

1032.9

52.1

7.3

0.0

QLD

Fine

38.22

0.01

0.21

0.02

0.02

363.9

93.2

19.1

0.0

QLD

Coarse

36.82

0.01

0.20

0.03

0.02

2458.2

387.1

10.7

3.1

VIC

Fine

37.74

0.01

0.27

0.03

0.02

869.4

124.4

17.1

11.8

VIC

Coarse

37.91

0.01

0.24

0.03

0.02

668.4

111.2

11.8

0.4

VIC

Fine

34.70

0.01

0.40

0.05

0.03

6812.2

177.8

18.7

0.0

QLD

Fine

38.48

0.01

0.22

0.01

0.01

104.3

10.8

12.9

0.0

QLD

Fine

38.48

0.01

0.19

0.02

0.01

106.8

8.5

12.9

0.0

QLD

Coarse

38.31

0.01

0.24

0.02

0.01

81.2

11.5

14.2

0.0

QLD

Fine

38.15

0.01

0.23

0.01

0.01

55.8

7.1

13.1

0.0

NSW

Fine

38.30

0.01

0.08

0.02

0.01

893.8

78.3

5.1

0.0

SA

Coarse

36.90

0.01

0.36

0.05

0.02

2841.6

275.5

4.2

0.9

SA

Coarse

37.70

0.01

0.31

0.02

0.01

1668.3

248.8

3.6

6.9

SA

Fine

37.95

0.01

0.29

0.02

0.02

2027.9

294.6

3.9

0.5

SA

Coarse

37.92

0.01

0.26

0.02

0.01

1891.6

248.0

3.9

0.0

QLD

Fine

38.74

0.01

0.22

0.02

0.01

258.9

64.3

13.9

0.0

QLD

Fine

38.71

0.01

0.22

0.01

0.01

205.4

61.7

12.3

0.0

QLD

Coarse

38.69

0.01

0.20

0.02

0.01

485.3

85.2

15.9

0.0

TAS

Coarse

0.4

32.01

0.03

1.25

0.04

0.01

5000.6

262.9

239.1

Mean

37.27

0.01

0.34

0.03

0.02

1645.5

223.3

21.4

1.6

Max

38.74

0.03

1.58

0.05

0.03

6812.2

1596.7

239.1

11.8

Min

32.01

0.01

0.07

0.01

0.01

55.8

7.1

3.6

0.0

Range

6.73

0.02

1.51

0.04

0.02

6756.5

1589.6

235.5

11.8

18

- dossier -

DOSSIER

Table 2 – Mean particle size of Australian coarse limestone samples used in poultry diets.

Source

Particle Size (Dgw)

Std dev (Sgw)

NSW

2663.94

1301.82

NSW

1488.79

547.42

QLD

1821.03

640.04

VIC

1548.48

801.94

QLD

1868.67

769.1

SA

902.61

1108.9

SA

2587.02

835.29

SA

760.08

814.2

QLD

2109.35

895.03

TAS

821.5

1643.72

Mean

1657.15

935.75

Max

2663.94

1643.72

Min

760.08

547.42

Range

1903.86

1096.30

was 38.7% and the lowest was 32.0%. This represents a difference of 6.7% and may lead to inadequate Ca being provided in the diets if book values are used.

Of the other analysed minerals, variable amounts of Fe, Mn and Mg were also detected. Concentrations of Fe ranged from 55.8-6812 mg/kg, Mn ranged from 7-1596 mg/kg and Mg ranged from 0.07-1.58%. The negative effects of high amounts of divalent cations in diets on phytate destruction and phytase efficacy are well established. However, the effects of excess Fe and its role in the proliferation of pathogenic microbes are perhaps less widely known. The mineral composition results presented herein support the recommendation to closely manage limestone inclusion and account for variations in mineral composition when formulating.

The mean particle size distribution of the Australian limestone samples surveyed are shown in Tables 2 and 3. As expected, there is considerable variation in mean particle size and distribution. Particle size alone is thought to be highly correlated with in vitro solubility and generally, may be useful for this purpose. However, mean particle size does not entirely explain differences in limestone solubility. For example, of the coarse limestone samples, instances of lower solubility at 30 minutes were not correlated with particle size. In fact, the limestone sample with

- december 2023 -

19

©Mangimi Checcarini ricerca ed analisi

DOSSIER

Table 3 – Mean particle size of Australian fine limestone samples used in poultry diets.

Source

Particle Size (Dgw)

Std dev (Sgw)

NSW

333.39

261.43

NSW

354.15

254.86

QLD

451.98

219.4

TAS

426.24

641.77

SA

203.61

229.72

QLD

507.63

225.54

SA

312.1

413.49

NSW

355.05

243.59

NSW

168.59

145.53

QLD

128.72

60.44

VIC

298.57

296.01

VIC

213.84

309.36

QLD

719.53

422.05

QLD

61.28

39.31

QLD

680.69

458.19

NSW

186.58

157.7

SA

124.2

98.73

QLD

424.14

216.53

QLD

458.2

221.35

Mean

337.29

258.68

Max

719.53

641.77

Min

61.28

39.31

Range

658.25

602.46

the highest particle size was more soluble at 30 minutes than other samples with lower particle sizes. Comparing the rates of solubility between coarse and fine limestone samples also revealed that some fine limestone samples had lower overall solubility at 30 min compared to some coarse samples. These findings concur with those reported by Kim et al., (2019).

Limestone quality: Digestible Ca recommendations Despite the voluminous amounts of research published that have investigated dietary Ca concentrations required for optimum growth and performance, there has been no general agreement on what the appropriate concentrations of dietary Ca should be and, importantly, little information exists on digestible Ca recommendations. The concept of formulating poultry diets using available or digestible Ca values is not a new concept. Yet somewhat quizzically, Ca stands alone in poultry nutrition for it remains one of, if not the only, nutrients formulated using total dietary values. Even calcium’s nutritional partner, P, is formulated to digestible or available values. For Ca to remain being formulated to a total dietary concentration belies the importance of calcium to the bird as well as the potential for dietary Ca to have antinutritive effects.

100 90 80

Solubility %)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

20

30

90

150

Time (min)

Figure 1 – Solubility (%) over time of coarse limestone samples used in Australian poultry diets.

Several reasons exist that have undoubtedly contributed to the lack of digestible Ca recommendations, perhaps most notably the inextricable link with P, which makes it difficult to accurately determine digestible Ca requirements. Other reasons cited include the lack of digestible Ca values for common raw materials used in poultry feeds, as well as discrepancies in analysed Ca values.

These same authors also reference the challenges in interpreting digestible Ca value between research groups

- dossier -

DOSSIER

100 90 80

Solubility (%)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 5

15

30

Time (min)

Figure 2 – Solubility (%) over time of fine limestone samples used in Australian poultry diets.

The need to formulate diets close to birds’ nutrient requirements is not a new concept; however, as the poultry industry moves toward refining formulations to more accurately reflect their requirements, more information pertaining limestone and Ca are required. Historically, Ca has been over supplied in broiler diets. This is perhaps a

product of its relatively inexpensive cost (relative to other raw materials) as well as the objective to provide adequate Ca for bone mineralisation. However, this view only considers the benefits of Ca and does not account for the antinutrient effects of excess Ca. The data presented herein supports the findings of other published work that shows considerable variation in limestone mineral composition and solubility profiles. These may have an impact on Ca digestibility and may need to be considered when formulating. Anwar et al. (2016) showed in birds fed diets containing 0.9% total Ca from one of three different limestone sources had differing Ca digestibility coefficients (0.54-0.61) and in the review by Walk et al. (2021) it is suggested that the variability in Ca digestibility from limestone may be influenced by particle size, solubility as well as the in vivo assay methodology. Formulating to digestible Ca will need to account for these considerations.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the APSS 2023

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FOCUS

Some common issues of the first week in brooding turkey poults Turkey poults are very sensitive to environmental conditions and any uncomfortable situation very quickly leads to a problem and even sometimes a disaster. Any issues in the early ages, especially in the first week, will impact the genetic potential of the birds, thus the economic efficiency of the cycle.

Mortality and any health issues in the first few days are usually caused by either the breeder farm, hatchery, transportation, the receiving farm or a combination of them. It is obvious that breeder flocks which are not in a good condition will produce weak poults and such poults are more likely to have a high mortality rate in the hatchery and during the first week of brooding.

For commercial farms, laboratory testing (M.g., M.s., S.p., etc.) of day-old poults are very important to determine the root cause(s).

Dr. Makan Hooshangi (DVM) Veterinarian – Turkey Management Specialist

22

The hatchery-origin causes are mainly due to incorrect incubator settings or hygiene issues.

Some of the most common problems in turkey day-old poults are unhealed navel (black button/bruised navel), dehydrated legs (red hocks), and loss of appetite and high mortality in the first week, etc. Poor transportation conditions, including hygiene of the container, careless driving, low or high temperature of the container, etc., can also cause various problems. Nev-

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FOCUS

©M. Hooshangi

ertheless, some issues are caused by a poor brooding situation. A good receiving condition can even cover the breeder or hatchery-origin problems. In this article, we will give a brief overview of some of these issues.

Low water consumption Aside from water quality measures and chlorine levels of the water, one of the most common mistakes in brooding is water temperature. Water that is too warm or too cold is not desirable for the poults and they will drink as much water as they need initially. Therefore, attention must be paid to water temperature. Drinkers should be placed far enough from the heat source so that they do not become too warm. In a brooding ring with a brooder at the center, the best area for the drinkers is around the ring and 30 cm away from the ring surroundings. Note that the best temperature for the drinking water is 10-15 °C, so place the water tank in a suitable place to not let it get very hot in summer, nor too cold in winter.

Fill the drinkers up with water just enough for 6-hour to prevent the water from heating up. Check the drinkers every hour for the first few days. It is common that wood shavings get into the drinkers. Clean them to let the poults to have better access to the clean water. To

IPPE - december 2023 -

23

FOCUS

prevent shavings from getting into the drinkers, you can use special drinkers or simply place a cement mosaic tile under the drinker to raise the drinkers by 2-3 cm above the shavings. This will also make it easier for the poults to drink.

Low feed consumption

house bedding. It is very important to prewarm the house 48 hours before receiving the poults, especially in cold seasons. A hygienic and warm bedding at poult placement has a great influence in the birds’ welfare and further health situation. Yolk sac infection can cause dramatic damages to the birds. Even the surviving poults would not have a normal growth.

High incubation temperatures or low temperatures during the waiting period in the hatchery can cause loss of appetite during the first week. Good brooding management can greatly improve the situation. A warm and soft bedding (usually a 7 cm thick, high-quality wood shaving), the right temperature, a suitable brooder heater, high-quality water and feed, low disturbance after the placement, etc. are among the tasks improve the poults’ situation during the first hours after the placement.

Feed temperature is an important factor in poults feed intake. Very cold or very warm feed is not attractive to the poults. Therefore, the feeders should be refilled at certain intervals so that the feed does not remain there and become too warm. High levels of salt or sodium in feed, poor quality of oil or fat used in feed, moldy feed or ingredients, and some other issues with the feed quality should be considered when troubleshooting low feed intake. When it is too hot or too cold, the poults will not eat. Correcting the temperature (and RH%), taking into account the poults’ behavior and activity, should be the first step. Generally, in all conditions, it is important to find the problem and eliminate the main cause. Then you can use supportive care such as administering B vitamins, feed appetizers, etc.

Remember that feed consumption during the first week is a very important key factor for a successful cycle. However, it is crucial to monitor it carefully from the very first day.

Yolk sac infection Although the first thing that comes to mind about yolk sac infection is the hatchery issues, the most common cause is the low temperature during transportation or of the

24

©M. Hooshangi

Poor poults that are dehydrated or fatigued are too weak to adapt to the new environment and find the drinkers or feeders. Therefore, it is important to release the poults close to the feeders and drinkers at placement. Using supplements containing electrolytes, glucose, betaine, phosphorus, and B vitamins could significantly improve the situation under such conditions.

Cloaca prolapse Cloaca prolapse is very common in turkey poults when the feed’s crude fiber level is low especially when wheat or maize gluten meal is used. It usually appears after 72 hours and if not dealt with quickly, many poults will be affected. These poults will stop eating and there will be lots of weak and dehydrated poults which are usually pecked by the others. That is the beginning of a disaster, named cannibalism! It is important to quickly separate the affected poults and keep them in the hospital ring, and correct the feed formula by increasing the CF (crude fiber) level.

Meanwhile using B-vitamins, vitamin C, Vitamin A, and probiotics would help quick intestinal recovering.

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FOCUS

Cannibalism In general, cannibalism has been defined as a behavior in poultry when they are stressed by a poor management practice. Turkey poults are inclined to cannibalism. I believe that is because they are very curious and they take in information through their beaks. High light intensity, any nutritional imbalance, high temperature, low humidity, any colored spots on other poults, etc. can encourage turkey poults to start picking and when it becomes a habit, you will be in trouble! Therefore, it is very important to pinpoint and eliminate the underlying cause of the problem as soon as possible.

First, find and solve the causing issue and then try to calm down the

flock. Usually, decreasing the light intensity and a two-day administration of Aspirin + Vitamin C should help calm the flock.

Pendulous crop Although the cause is not well known, it seems that hyperphagia can be a trigger. One of the experienced colleagues, Mr. Georges Le Quentrec (Aviagen Turkeys France), believes that can start in the first week because of the feed’s physical qualities.

I have also experienced that the high temperature and low humidity during the first week can start the issue, too.

In short, any excessive expansion of the crop can cause this problem because of either overconsuming feed,

or drinking too much after a big feed intake.

As many other issues, prevention is the key. Control environmental conditions such as temperature and RH%, fresh and high-quality feed and water should always be provided, and do not forget the risk of aflatoxins in feed! B vitamins are very important in the digestive system health. I always use vitamin supplements in the first week as the consumption/costs is nothing comparing with the great results.

Splayed legs Turkey poults are very prone to leg injuries. Some injuries are physical, such as getting the foot stuck in the

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grooves of the hatcher’s basket or during the transportation (some because of an unsuitable bedding in the poult box which cannot provide an appropriate leg support during the transportation and some because of careless driving), and others may be due to nutritional deficiencies in the breeder flock. Unfortunately, almost all these injuries are irreversible. What we can do is only preventing the injury in the rest of the flock. Among the measures in this direction, we can mention providing a suitable bedding (soft and warm), prescribing vitamin supplements especially group B vitamins and vitamin D as well as mineral supplements that contain appropriate amounts of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, etc. It is obvious, though important to repeat and keep this in mind that a well-balanced feed is crucial and supplements cannot compensate for the nutritional deficiencies.

Under-target weight Any issues during the first week such as diseases, low consumption of feed/water, etc. would lead to under-target weight poults. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the initial factors such as feed and water consumption from the beginning and in case of any unpleasant changes look for the cause(s) and try to solve the problem as quickly as possible. However, if you have an under-weight flock at the end of first week, reassure that the causing issue(s) has been solved and try to provide a calm environment and clean, fresh, and appropriate feed and water in clean feeders and drinkers. You may need to shift to the next feed formula a bit later to compensate the low weight gain of the first week.

Turkeys’ size differs dramatically as they grow. Therefore, it is essential to provide drinkers and feeders fit to their size and age. Moreover, the height of drinkers and feeders is very important, something which many farmers ignore.

When combined, little points would have great impacts and ignoring them can lead to a big failure.

26

Non-uniform flock This usually happens in breeder flocks as a turkey breeder flock may come from different GP flocks with different ages and obviously the size and weight of each group of poults would be different. In this case, if the difference is too much, you can divide the poults at the age of 6 weeks into different weight groups and use higher CP (crude protein) feed for the smaller poults or adding B-complex supplement in their drinking water if possible.

Nonetheless, in commercial farms where you have separated the male and female poults or you have weighed them separately, and the weight uniformity is not good, that means you should reconsider your house management to find the causing problem. Such investigation can range from the physical qualities of the feed or feeders’ performance to the number of poults per feeder or the height of feeders and drinkers.

It also happens when there had been a health issue in the first days such as yolk sac infection of CRD. In this case, I recommend separating the retarded poults and rear them separately. Depending on the severity of the health issue, some poults can recover and some cannot due to damages to the vital organs such as kidneys, or cardiovascular system.

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BRICS expansion: what does this mean for the poultry industry?

At their meeting this year in August in South Africa, the current five BRICS member countries decided to admit six more countries on January 1st, 2024.

These are Egypt, Argentina, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. With this expansion, the new grouping aims to create a political and economic counterweight to the West. This paper will examine what this means for the world poultry industry.

Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is Prof. Emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany

leading economic power, accounting for 17.8% of global value added alone. It has a share of 60.6% in the gross national product of BRICS+. All other member countries fall far behind. It can be assumed that China will decisively determine the further strategies of the alliance in the future. There are great differences in terms of value added per person and thus in purchasing power. Based on the extensive oil and gas reserves, the United Arab Emirates and S. Arabia occupy a top position. The gap to the next three countries, which are still above the world average, is considerable. In comparison, the value added per person is very low in India and Ethiopia. They expect to benefit from the merger in terms of economic development and trade relations.

High shares in the global production of poultry meat and eggs A comparison of the shares of BRICS+ in world production of poultry meat and eggs with those of the EU (27) and the USA in 2021 shows the strong position of the group (Table 2).

Since the grouping has not yet given itself a new acronym, it will here be referred to as BRICS+.

Population and economic power of the BRICS+ The planned enlargement will increase the population of the grouping by 414.3 million and bring it to 3,677.3 million, which corresponds to 46.0% of the world population.

Of this, China and India alone will account for 2.8 billion or 35.7%. As can be seen from Table 1, China will be the

28

Breaking down the BRICS+ shares by country (Figure 1), the special position of China and Brazil in poultry meat production becomes obvious. Together, they accounted for 28.2% of world production in 2021, more than twice that of the EU (27) and 11.4% more than the USA. They accounted for 68.5% of BRICS+ production volume. It should be emphasised that S. Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, which have a high demand for poultry meat, produce only small quantities domestically.

BRICS+ contributed 38.5% to the global production of chicken meat, the most important poultry product. Again, China and Brazil held the two leading positions. Together

- marketing -

MARKETING

they accounted for 24.1% of world production, more than double the EU (27) and 7.0% more than the USA. They accounted for 62.3% of total production in the group. All other countries were far behind. Which role the member countries of BRICS+ played in world trade with poultry meat is examined in the next section.

In 2021, BRICS+ contributed 52.0% to the global production of shell eggs, with China alone accounting for 33.9%. Only India, Brazil and Russia had considerable production volumes. Together, the three countries accounted for 14.5% of global production, almost double that of the USA and the EU (27). Because shell eggs cannot be frozen, the volume traded is far below that of the USA and the EU (27). The BRICS+ countries played a prominent role in the production of duck and goose meat.

As can be seen from Table 3, this is solely due to China’s large production volumes. Only small quantities were produced in the other member countries. Regarding turkey meat, the contribution to world production was much smaller, with only Brazil achieving a considerable share of 20.5%. In the other countries, only small quantities or no turkey meat were produced, which is due to the low per capita consumption.

Large differences in shares of world trade in poultry meat and eggs The shares of BRICS+ countries in exports and imports of poultry meat and eggs in 2021 showed large differences (Table 3).

The high share in poultry meat exports is mainly due to Brazil’s role in chicken meat trade. There, as can be seen from Figure 2, it represent-

ed 28.2% of the world exports. The USA, which ranked second in world trade of this meat type, was only slightly below the EU’s share (27).

Shell eggs were mainly traded within the EU (27). Here, the USA and the BRICS+ countries had almost equal shares. However, a detailed analysis would show that the trade flows differed significantly.

Chicken meat was mainly imported

by China, the United Arab Emirates, S. Arabia, South Africa and Russia.

Together they accounted for 24.0% of world imports. The volume of egg imports was low for the reasons already mentioned. A total of only about 211,000 t were imported by the BRICS+ countries, of which 93.8% were accounted for by the United Arab Emirates, Russia and S. Arabia.

All other countries, apart from Iran, imported only very small quantities, in some cases less than 1,000 t (Figure 3).

Summary and outlook The preceding analysis could show

that the expansion of BRICS will lead to an even stronger position of the group in the world poultry economy. In 2021, the BRICS+ countries accounted for more than half of the world’s egg production, over 41% of poultry meat and 38.5% of chicken meat. The degree of regional concentration within the grouping was very high. China and Brazil dominated in poultry meat, and China and India in eggs.

The BRICS+ countries accounted for almost one-third of global trade with chicken meat in 2021, but this was mainly due to Brazil’s high export volume. The shares of the other countries were comparatively low, with only China, Russia and Argentina each accounting for more than one percent of global exports. The share of the BRICS+ countries in global chicken meat imports was much lower with 25.1%. China had the top position here, followed by S. Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, South Africa, Russia and Iran.

Because shell eggs cannot be frozen, comparatively small quantities

Table 1 – Population and gross national product of the BRICS+ countries (2022) (source: UN, World Bank).

Population (mill.)

Gross National Product (billion US-$)

Gross National Product (US-$ per person)

Country

Population

Share (%)

Country

GNP

Share (%)

Country

US-$

China India Brazil Russia Ethiopia Egypt Iran S. Africa Argentina S. Arabia UAE

1,425.9 1,417.2 215.3 144.7 123.4 111.0 88.6 59.9 45.5 36.4 9.4

17.9 17.8 2.7 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.1

China India Russia Brazil S. Arabia Argentina UAE Egypt S. Africa Iran Ethiopia

17,963 3,886 2,240 1,920 1,108 633 507 477 406 389 126

17.78 3.84 2.21 1.90 1.09 0.62 0.50 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.12

UAE S. Arabia Russia Argentina China Iran Brazil S. Africa Egypt India Ethiopia

87.729 59.065 36.485 25.505 21.476 18.075 17.822 15.905 15.091 8.379 2.812

BRICS+

3,677.3

46.0

BRICS+

29,655

29.36

BRICS+

-

World

7,975.1

100.0

Worls

101,003

100.00

World

20.646

Italics: new member countries

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29

MARKETING

Table 2 – The share of the BRICS+ countries in the global production of duck, goose and turkey meat in 2021; data in 1,000 t (source: FAO data).

Duck meat Country

Goose meat Country

Turkey meat

Production

Share (%)

Production

Share (%)

Production

Share (%)

China India Egypt Argentina Brazil Iran South Africa

4,823.0 44.0 41.8 9.9 6.9 2.8 1.2

77.8 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.1 <0.1 <0.1

China Egypt Iran Argentina South Africa

4,277.0 14.4 2.6 0.5 0.5

97.7 0.3 0.1 <0.1 <0.1

Brazil Argentina Egypt South Africa Iran

Country

572.6 34.6 20.9 5.7 4.8

20.5 1.2 0.7 0.2 0.2

BRICS+

4,929.6

79.5

BRICS+

4,295.0

98.1

BRICS+

638.6

22.8

World

6,201.6

100.0

World

4,377.0

100.0

World

2,792.4

100.0

Italics: new member countries Poultry meat production

World

Total: 138.0 mill. t

17.2% 11.0%

58.7%

BRICS+ countries

0.1% 0.1%

3.3% 2.7% 1.7% 1.4% 1.7% 0.1% 1.4% 0.7%

China Brazil Russia India Argentina Egypt Iran South Africa S. Arabia Ethiopia UAE Others

Total: 57.0 mill. t

1.6% 3.4% 3.5%

China Brazil Russia India Argentina Egypt Iran South Africa S. Arabia Ethiopia UAE

41.8%

4.1% 4.1% 6.5% 8.1%

26.7%

0.1%

Chicken meat production

World

Total: 121.6 mill. t 12.1% 12.0% 3.8%

61.3%

3.0% 1.9% 1.6% 1.8% 1.6% 0.7% 0.1% 0.1%

China Brazil Russia India Argentina Egypt Iran South Africa S. Arabia Ethiopia UAE Others

Egg production

World

Total: 47.1 mill. t

0.1% 1.9% 4.1%

China Brazil Russia India Argentina Egypt Iran South Africa S. Arabia Ethiopia UAE

31,2%

4.2% 4.7% 4.9% 7.8%

31,1%

9.8%

BRICS+ countries Total: 45.0 mill. t

Total: 86.3 mill. t

33.9%

48.0%

BRICS+ countries 0.2%

7.8% 3.8% 2.9% 0.9% 1.0% 0.1% 0,4% 0,6% 0.1% 0.5%

China India Brazil Russia Argentina Iran South Africa Egypt S. Arabia UAE Ethiopia Others

14.9% 65.3%

7.4% 5.6% 2.0%

China India Brazil Russia Argentina Iran South Africa Egypt S. Arabia UAE Ethiopia

0.9% 1.7% 0.1% 1.2% 0.8% 0.1%

Figure 1 – The shares of the BRICS+ countries in the global production of poultry meat, chicken meat and eggs and within the BRICS+ group in 2021 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).

30

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were traded. The BRICS+ countries shared only 8.0% in global exports and 10.0% of imports. China, Russia and Brazil led in exports, the United Arab Emirates, Russia and S. Arabia in imports. The countries on the Arabian Peninsula were attractive markets for both chicken meat and shell eggs. Regional concentration was also very high for imports of chicken meat and shell eggs. The United Arab Emirates and China accounted for 63.3% of the group’s chicken meat imports; the United Arab Emirates and Russia for 81.2% in shell egg imports.

In their long-term forecasts, the US Department of Agriculture and the OECD-FAO assume that both egg and poultry meat production will show high absolute and relative growth rates in the coming decade.

Development is likely to be particularly dynamic in emerging and developing countries, which are forecast to account for nearly 81% of the increase in production of shell eggs and 79% of that of poultry meat. Of the projected increase in egg production from 92.5 million mt to 103 million mt, only about 2 million mt are expected to come from the industrialized countries and 8.5 million mt from the emerging and developing

MARKETING

Table 3 – The share of the BRICS+ countries in the global trade with poultry meat, chicken meat and shell eggs in 2021; data in % (source: own calculations based on FAO data).

Country

Poultry meat

Chicken meat

Shell eggs

BRICS+

28.5

32.9

10.0

EU (27)

24.2

26.1

50.2

USA

20.6

24.3

9.4

BRICS+

19.7

25.1

8.0

EU (27)

24.2

18.1

47.0

USA

0.9

0.5

0.2

Exports

Imports

countries. In Asia, production will increase by 7.3 million mt. China and India together will account for 4.5 million mt. World production of poultry meat is expected to increase by 19.7 million mt, in Asia alone by 10 million mt and in Latin America by 4.5 million mt.

Production in the industrialised countries is expected to increase by 4 million mt, and by 15.7 million mt in the

emerging and developing countries. The OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook expects world trade in poultry meat to increase from 15.7 million mt, the average in 2020-2022, to 16.5 million mt, or by 5.1%.

While only a little change is expected in the trade volume of industrialized countries, an increase from 8.2 million mt to 9.0 million mt is forecast for developing countries. Latin America and Asia will account for roughly equal shares.

Poultry meat imports are predicted to increase by nearly one million mt. Of this, developing countries will account for 720,000 mt. Imports from African countries will increase by about 500,000 mt, those from Latin American countries by 200,000 mt. No projections are provided on the development of world egg trade.

Data sources and supplementary literature FAO Database https://www.fao.org/faostat/en.

OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032 https:// www.oecd.org/publications/oecd-fao-agricultural-out-

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31

MARKETING Chicken meat exports

World

Total: 4.9 mill. t

BRICS+ countries Total: 14.9 mill. t

Brazil China Russia Argentina UAE South Africa S. Arabia Iran India Egypt Ethiopia*

85.5%

3.8% 3.5%

28.2% 67.8%

0.9% 3.2% 0.1% 2,0% 0,8% 0.1% 0.1%

0.1% 0.3% 1.1% 1.3%

0.1% 0,6% 0.3% 0.1% 0.1%

Chicken meat imports

World

Brazil China Russia Argentina UAE South Africa S. Arabia Iran India Egypt Ethiopia* Others

Total: 14.5 mill. t

BRICS+ countries Total: 3.6 mill. t

China UAE S. Arabia South Africa Russia Iran Egypt Argentina Brazil Ethiopia India Others

10.1% 5.5%

74.9%

4.1% 2.4% 0.8% 1.6%

23.0%

China UAE S. Arabia South Africa Russia Iran Egypt Argentina Brazil Ethiopia India

16.5% 9.5% 6.3%

40.3%

3.3%

0.7% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Figure 2 – The shares of BRICS+ countries in global chicken meat exports and imports in 2021 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).

Egg exports

World

BRICS+ countries Total: 0.2 mill. t

Total: 2.1 mill. t China Russia Brazil India UAE South Africa S. Arabia Egypt Ethiopia Iran Argentina Others

92.1%

3.2%

18.4%

13.0% 10.2% 10.0%

40.1%

4.1%

0.8%1.5%

2.7%

0.3% 1.0% 0.1% 0.8% 0.2%

1.5%

Egg imports

World

China Russia Brazil India UAE South Africa S. Arabia Egypt Ethiopia Iran Argentina

BRICS+ countries Total: 0.2 mill. t

Total: 2.1 mill. t

89.5%

4.6% 3.5% 0.1%

1.3%

0.1% 0,1%

0.5% 0.1% 0.1%

UAE Russia S. Arabia Iran South Africa Brazil India Ethiopia Argentina Egypt China Others

34.3%

12.6% 46.7% 5.9%

UAE Russia S. Arabia Iran South Africa Brazil India Ethiopia Argentina Egypt China

0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Figure 3 – The shares of BRICS+ countries in global egg exports and imports in 2021 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).

32

- marketing -

look-19991142.htm.

USDA: Agricultural Projections to 2032 https://www.ers.usda. gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=105852.

Windhorst, H.-W.: The role of BRICS countries in global egg production and trade. In: Zootecnica International 37 (2015), no. 6, p. 20-25.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Patterns and dynamics of global egg and poultry meat trade. Part 1: Egg trade. In: Zootecnica International 44 (2022), no. 2, p. 22-28.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Patterns and dynamics of global egg and poultry meat trade. Part 2: Poultry meat trade. In: Zootecnica International 44 (2022), no. 3, p. 24-27.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Patterns and dynamics of global egg and poultry meat trade. Part 3: Chicken and turkey meat trade. In: Zootecnica International 44 (2022), no. 4, p. 36-40.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Patterns of the poultry industry in the MEA region: Part 1. Egg production and trade. In: Zootecnica International 44 (2022), no. 7/8, p. 30-33.

Windhorst, H.-W.: The remarkable dynamics of the global poultry industry: 50 years in retrospective. Part 1 – Global egg production and trade. In: Zootecnica International 45 (2023), no. 6, p. 20-28.

Windhorst, H.-W.: The remarkable dynamics of the global poultry industry: 50 years in retrospective.

Part 2 – Global poultry meat production. In: Zootecnica International 45 (2023), no. 7/8, p. 24-33.

Windhorst, H.-W.: The remarkable dynamics of the global poultry industry: 50 years in retrospective.

Part 3: Global poultry meat trade. In: Zootecnica International 45 (2023), no. 9, p. 22-31.

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NUTRITION

Investigation of the impact of a blend of a triple strain probiotic on performance and gut-brain axis

I.C.L. Almeida Paz1, J.C. Bodin2, P. Doyle3 and C. Culley3

To ensure productivity of poultry farming, the intestinal health of chickens, among other factors, must be considered to achieve maximum nutrient absorption and utilisation for the animals to develop properly. Nonetheless, with the reduction or ban of the use of performance-enhancing antimicrobials on a worldwide basis, the quest for products able to modulate the intestinal microbiota of birds has intensified.

1 Universidade Estadual Paulista,

Julio De Mesquita Filho, Brazil 2 Chr. Hansen Animal & Plant

Health and Nutrition, APAC Singapore 3 Nutriment Health Pty Ltd,

Australia

34

Introduction Enzymes, organic acids, prebiotics, symbiotics and probiotics stand out among additives that enhance performance by acting on the intestinal microbiota. In poultry farming, Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Bifidobacterium and Enterococcus bacteria are commonly used as probiotics to support intestinal health and performance. An ever-present concern under these intensive

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

conditions is the behaviour and welfare of birds. In human health, the study of the microbiota-gut-brain axis has advanced greatly in recent years as investigators seek to understand the interaction of probiotic strains and cognitive functions. Therefore, for poultry production, evaluations of probiotics have been investigated to determine potential beneficial impact for both performance indexes and broiler welfare. Welfare parameters such as LTL, approximation test and serotonin plasma concentrations were described to be relevant bird behaviour and well-being indicators. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) is a known neurotransmitter critical for the development function of the central nervous system and a good indicator of well-being status.

Material and methods 1600 male broilers (Aviagen AP95) were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups (50 birds per

replicate, 8 reps). Four treatments were applied, HAL (Halquinol at 75mg/kg feed), NC (negative control group with no AGP, no probiotic, no blend of essential oils or organic acids, PRO (mix of probiotic strains at 500g/T feed), consisting of B. subtilis (DSM 32325), B. subtilis (DSM 32324) and B. amyloliquefaciens (DSM 25840), and OA&EO (blend of benzoic acid and thymol, eugenol, piperine at 300 g/T feed). The same nutritional profile was used for the dietary treatments during the different feeding phases. Broilers were fed from age day 0 to 42.

Feed intake, body weight, feed conversion ratio and mortality (%), were collected on a weekly basis. At 42 days of age the birds were submitted to 2 well-being tests using an LTL test and approximation test. For the LTL test, a plastic container measuring 75 × 50 × 20 cm was filled with 3 cm of water at room temperature, where 6 chickens were placed at a time. A digital stopwatch recorded the time the birds took until the first attempt to lie down.

The test was interrupted if the bird was still standing after 370 s. For the approximation test, an assessor entered

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NUTRITION

Results and discussion As presented in Table 1, daily feeding of PRO and OA&EO resulted in significant improvements in final body weight and EPEF corrected for mortality (P<0.05) compared to Table 1 – Body Weight (g), FCR, Mortality (%) and EPEF results by treatment group at 42 days of age.

Body Weight (g)

Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)

Mortality (%)

EPEF

HAL

3103 c

1.52 a

1.71

478 c

NC

3086 c

1.51 a

1.79

478 c

PRO

3209 a

1.48 b

2.57

503 a

OA & EO

3168 b

1.51 a

2.00

489 b

P-values

0.001

0.001

0.522

0.023

Treatment

a,b,c means within column not sharing a common suffix are signifi-

cantly different at P<0.05.

36

the NC and HAL groups. FCR was significantly lower in birds fed the PRO treatment compared to those fed any other treatment. Treatment had no significant impact on mortality rate (%). Latency to lie for both gait scores 0 and 1, representing 90% of the birds, is shown in Figure 1. The group fed PRO demonstrated a significantly longer standing time in the LTL test compared to those fed NC, HAL and OA&EO, suggesting these birds had a better resilience to stress and better leg health status.

Minutes

the pen and, after 3 min, extended his or her arms and counted how many animals could be touched. At 42 days of age, gait scoring was measured using a three-category system (0: No obvious signs, 1: Obvious signs, 2: Severe signs). Plasma concentrations of serotonin were measured at 40 days of age using a Serotonin/hydroxytryptamine 5-HT Elisa kit. Samples were collected from 8% of broilers in each treatment. Data were analysed using SAS 9.2 program, using ANOVA and Tukey’s test (P<0.05) for parametric data and Chi-Square or Fisher’s exact test (P<0.05) for non- parametric data.

4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00

P = 0.033 CV (Coefficient of Variation) = 3.43%

4.29a P = 0.011 CV = 4.25%

3.10b

2.59a 2.17b

3.28b

2.20c

3.10b

1.20c

Gait score 0 HAL

1.48c

Gait score 1 NC

PRO

OA & EO

Figure 1 – Results for latency to lie (LTL) test (in minutes and seconds) by treatment group for broilers with Gait 0 and 1 scores.

Figure 2 shows that, in the approximation test evaluation performed on birds with Gait 0 score, after 3 min in pens, the % of birds touched by the assessor was significantly higher for broilers fed with PRO than for the groups fed with HAL, NC and OA&EO treatments which exhibited lower % of birds touched by the assessor.

In parallel to the LTL and approximation tests, plasma serotonin levels measured at 40 days of age and results

- nutrition -

% of birds touched/assessor after 3min

NUTRITION

14 12 10

P = 0.001 12.67a 10.92b

11.25b

8

8.25c

6 4 2 0

Gait score 0 HAL

NC

PRO

OA & EO

Figure 2 – Results of approximation test results expressed in % of birds touched by the assessor after 3 minutes in a pen (for broilers with score Gait 0) per treatment group.

are presented in Table 2. Birds receiving the mix of triple strains probiotic (PRO) exhibited a significantly higher level of plasma serotonin (P=0.001) in comparison to HAL, NC and OA&EO treatments.

Table 2 – Measurements of plasma serotonin (5-HT) levels in broilers per treatment group at 40 days of age.

Treatment

Serotonin (5-HT) µg/ml

HAL

91 c

NC

100 c

PRO

402 a

OA & EO

316 b

P-value

0.001

CV(%)

1.86

a,b,c means within column not sharing a common suffix are signifi-

cantly different at P<0.05.

In conclusion, the birds fed daily with treatment PRO had better feed conversion, better growth and consequently, better production efficiency factor as compared with birds receiving treatments HAL, NC and OA&EO. Concurrently, the birds’ well-being significantly improved when the PRO diet was provided. Significantly improved scores in the LTL and approximation tests indicates that those birds tended to be more calm and resilient to stress. Significantly higher levels of plasma serotonin (µg/ml) at 40 days of age for broilers fed the PRO treatment, support the positive impact of the PRO treatment on performance and well-being parameters of broilers.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2023

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37

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Update on Marek’s disease: current situation and future perspectives In the keynote lecture presented at the XXII World Veterinary Poultry Association Conference, Isabel Gimeno speaks about Marek’s disease virus and evaluates the two syndromes that have the most economical relevance in the field, MDV-induced immunosuppression (MDV-IS) and MDV- induced tumors (MD).

1. Evolution of MD and MDV Isabel M. Gimeno, North Carolina State University

38

Marek’s disease (MD) was first described in 1907 by Joseph Marek. The disease is initially described as a polyneuritis affecting only old chickens with no economic relevance. It was at the end of 1950’s when MD became one of the major threats to the emerging poultry indus-

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

try. MD was not just an inflammatory disease anymore but it also became neoplastic. Furthermore, it affected young chickens and mortality was very high. Control of MD was essential for the development of the nascent poultry industry. The first vaccines against MD were developed in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, and they were a great success not only to control MD but from the research perspective. They were the first vaccines against a tumor disease in any species, and they were extremely efficacious. However, vaccines only control against the development of the disease but not against infection and transmission. It is considered that the lack of sterilizing immunity is one of the major factors for the increased in virulence of the etiological agent, Marek’s disease virus (MDV).

MDV is an alpha-herpesvirus of the Genus Mardivirus that includes three different species, Gallid alphaherpesvirus 2 (formerly known as serotype 1 MDV or MDV-1), Gallid alphaherpesvirus 3 (formerly known as serotype 2 MDV or MDV-2) and Meleagrid herpesvirus (formerly known as serotype 3 or HVT). Because the most commonly terms to refer to those species in the industry are MDV-1, MDV2, and HVT, I will use this nomenclature in this paper.

MDV-1 includes all oncogenic MDV strains and their attenuated forms. Several pathotypes have been described within MDV-1 based on the ability to overcome vaccine immunity. They are mild (m), virulent (v), very virulent (vv) and very virulent plus (vv+). The change from m to v was the cause for the first shift in the disease observed at the end of 1950’s. The change from v to vv caused outbreaks in HVT vaccinated flocks in 1980’s. Finally, the change from vv to vv+ caused outbreaks in HVT+SB-1 or even in CVI988 vaccinated flocks at the end of 1990’s.

Besides of inducing tumors in vaccinated chickens, highly virulent MDV-1 have developed other features and are capable of causing a variety of syndromes, including acute transient paralysis, lymphodegenerative syndromes, panophtalmitis, arteriosclerosis, and severe immunosuppression. In this manuscript, I am going to evaluate the two syndromes that have the most economical relevance in the field, MDV-induced immunosuppression (MDV-IS) and MDV- induced tumors (MD).

but in some cases they might overlap. Those phases correspond with the early cytolytic infection that occurs in the lymphoid organs few days after infection (Early MDVIS), reactivation of the virus after a period of latency (Late MDV-IS/R), and development of tumors (Late MDV-IS/T).

In each of these phases, the virus is capable of causing immunosuppression by various mechanisms.

Early MDV-IS

After a chicken is infected by the respiratory route, the virus is carried to the lymphoid organs, probably by dendritic cells and macrophages. In chickens lacking maternal antibodies, MDV- 1 can be found in bursa, spleen, and thymus as early as 3 days and replication peak between 4-6 days. After that, the virus enter latency and it is difficult to detect. During the massive replication of the virus in the lymphoid organs, there is destruction of lymphocytes by apoptosis and subsequent lymphoid organ atrophy. Furthermore, surviving lymphocytes are impaired in their ability to proliferate due to the presence of suppressor macrophages; and there is a severe humoral and cellular immunosuppression. Maternal antibodies protect to some extent of the initial damage to the lymphoid organs. However, such protection is partial when challenge virus are vvMDV, and very much reduced when it is vv+MDV. Early MDV-IS is difficult to diagnose in the field since lymphoid organ atrophy can be induced by other agents (infectious bursal disease virus, chicken infectious anemia virus, mycotoxins…). However, MDV should be considered in the differential diagnosis, especially if it appears in broiler chickens flocks that are not vaccinated against MDV.

2. MDV-IS MDV-IS is very complex and can be divided into three different phases that might not be related to each other

- december 2023 -

39

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Late MDV-IS/R

Late MDV-IS/R occurs during the second cytolytic infection (3-4 weeks), when the virus reactivates from latency. In addition to destruction of cells, the virus causes a strong dysregulation of the immune responses. This is the most difficult phase of MDV-IS to study because it is not related to lymphoid organ atrophy nor to tumors. We developed a model to study it under laboratory conditions using the ability of MDV to jeopardize protection conferred by vaccines against infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT-MDV-IS model).

Using this model, we were able to demonstrate that vv+, but no other pathotypes, were capable of blocking the ability of CEO vaccines to protect against a challenge with a virulent ILT. Furthermore, none of the conventional vaccines (CVI988, HVT+CVI988, HVT+SB-1, SB-1) administered in ovo or at hatch, alone or in revaccination protocols, were able to fully protect against late MDV-IS/R induced by vv+MDV; even though some of those protocols protected very well against tumors. In our studies, only an experimental vaccine rMd5Δmeq was capable of protecting against both late MDV-IS/R and tumors. Because we do not have methods of diagnosis or control, this is by far one of the most challenging consequences of MDV at present.

Late MDV-IS/T

Late MDV-IS/T occurs when tumors have developed. Since tumors require virus reactivation, the secondary cytolytic infection (and Late MDV-IS/R) may overlap with the development of tumors (and Late MDV/IS/T). The CD4+ T cell sub-

40

sets are the main cells transformed.

Tumor can cause immunosuppression by several mechanisms. MDV transformed cells can adopt a regulatory T cell (Treg) phenotype and produce the cytokine transforming growth factor beta (TGF-). This cytokine can inhibit proliferation of T cells and interfere with effector T cell function. MDV transformed cell lines suppressed lymphoproliferation and downregulated CD28, an important costimulatory molecule for T cell activation. Furthermore, MHC-I is downregulated on MD tumor cells following viral reactivation and PD-1 and both of its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2 are expressed in MDV-induced lymphoma. Detection of MDV-induced tumors is enough to confirm MDV-IS late (T).

In the same way, protection against MDV-induced tumors will guarantee protection against MDV-IS late (T). Details on how to diagnose and control MDV-induced tumors can be found in section 3.

Implications in the field

The immunosuppression ability of MDV, and how it is controlled, depends greatly on the pathotype and the age of the chickens at the end of their production cycle. In broiler chicken farms with vMDV challenge, even if they are not vaccinated against MD, MDV-IS might not occur.

If the challenge is vvMDV but chick-

ens are properly vaccinated against MDV-induced tumors, MDV-IS will not occur either. However, even if they are properly protected against tumors by vaccination, they will suffer of late MDV-IS/R if the challenge virus is a vv+MDV. The different scenarios are shown in Table 1.

Future studies

It is critical to understand the mechanism by which vv+MDV can induce immunosuppression in chickens that otherwise are protected against MDV-induced tumors. Evaluating how rMd5Δmeq protects against late MDV-IS-/R will aid to develop methods of diagnosis and control that are very much needed.

3. Marek’s disease virus induced tumors Diagnosis. Several neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases need to be considered in the differential diagnosis of MD-induced tumors. Comprehensive step-by-step guidance on how to approach differential diagnosis of poultry diseases have been published. In the present paper, we will focus mainly on those diseases that can be confused with MD and they are summarized in Figure 1.

MD diagnosis requires a multistep approach. At the farm level, epidemiological information (age, vaccina-

Table 1 – Effect of MDV pathotype on MDV-IS and methods of control.

Challenge

Early MDV-IS

Late MDV-IS/R

Late MDV-IS/T

v

Maternal antibodies protect

It does not exist

Vaccination protects

vv

Vaccination protects

It does not exist

Vaccination protects

vv+

Vaccination protects

Exist – traditional vaccination protocols do not protect

Vaccination protects

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

tion status), clinical signs, and gross lesions can suggest, and sometimes even confirm, a diagnosis. However, laboratory techniques are often needed for confirmation. Histopathology would be the first step to confirm that indeed the tumors are lymphomas. If histopathology does not give the diagnosis, or if it is not possible to do histopathology, other assays such as real time PCR or immunohistochemistry would be necessary.

A critical concept in the diagnosis of MD is that the presence of oncogenic MDV does not imply MD. Since vaccines do not protect against infection, most (if not all) commercial chickens are exposed to oncogenic MDV at some point. Therefore, it is critical to differentiate between latently infected infections and development of tumors.

<14 weeks

Nerve enlargement

Visceral tumors

MD

MD

Peripheral neuropathy

Acutely transforming retroviruses

Real time PCR Histopathology

>14 weeks

Nerve enlargement &Visceral tumors

Nerve enlargement

MD

Real time PCR Histopathology Immunohistochemistry

Visceral tumors

MD

Nerve enlargement &Visceral tumors

bursal tumors

MD

MD

Peripheral neuropathy

ALV

REV

Neuritis (REV)

REV

REV

Spontaneus

Spontaneus

Real time PCR Histopathology

MD ALV

Real time PCR Histopathology Immunohistochemistry

Figure 1 – Diagnosis chart for the differential diagnosis of tumor diseases.

evaluated either in the spleen or in the feather pulp by qPCR. The percentage of chickens with detectable levels of the vaccine will depend on the vaccine protocol used (vaccine or vaccines used and age of administration) and will not provide information on the protection status. However, it will provide a good estimation on how the vaccine was handled and administered.

MD vaccines takes 5-7 days to provide the optimum level of protection. However, in commercial farms, challenge often occurs within the first few days.

Monitoring of an outbreak

Investigating the causes for a MD outbreak is critical to ensure proper control of the disease. A flow chart of the recommended steps is shown in Figure 2. Once MD diagnosis is confirmed, it is critical to conduct an auditing at the hatchery to ensure that vaccines are administered properly.

MD vaccines are extremely labile and most of the “vaccine failures” are due to problems in the storing, handling, or administration of the vaccine. It is important to remember that MD vaccines are unstable suspension of cells and majority of the cells in a vial are non-infected. Loosing even a small percentage of the cells might result in reduced titers.

Evaluating in vivo vaccine replication at 7-10 days of age can confirm if the vaccine was properly administered. Vaccine replication can be

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VETERINARY SCIENCE

“Today, we have the right tools to diagnose and control MDV- induced tumors. However, we lack methods for the diagnosis and control of vv+MDVinduced MDV- IS. Studies to understand the mechanisms by which vv+MDV can cause immunosuppression in chickens properly protected against tumors and to evaluate how rMd5meq protect against MDV-ISlate/R are critical to establishing diagnostic criteria and control strategies”

Auditing at the hatchery Failed

Vaccine replication in chickens Real time PCR-feather pulp at 7-10 days

Bad

Improve protocols at hatchery

Good

Low titers of vaccine: Vaccine titration Interaction with other vaccines given at the same time

Early infection: high load of oncogenic MDV at 7 days (real time PCR) More virulent strains: pathotyping (ADOL) Coinfection with other IS diseases (ie. CIAV)

Evaluate vaccine Protocols Figure 2 – Dissection of a MD outbreak.

To rule out early challenge, it is possible to monitor load of oncogenic MDV DNA either in spleen or feather pulp in samples collected at 7 days. Chickens positive for oncogenic MDV at 7 days is a clear evidence of early challenge; and will strongly point to a biosecurity breach as the cause of the outbreak. Monitoring oncogenic MDV DNA load at later ages (21 days onwards) can be used to determine if the vaccination program is protecting against

42

Control

MD control is based on genetic resistance, proper biosecurity, and adequate vaccination. Vaccines are more efficient in resistant lines of chickens. No matter how good a vaccine is, it will not confer its optimum protection if challenge occurs too early. Therefore, even though vaccination is the cornerstone of MD control, genetic resistance and biosecurity should not be ignored. Excellent reviews on the role of genetics and biosecurity on MD protection has been published. In the present paper, I will mainly focused on the type of vaccines and the methods to enhance vaccine- induced protection.

Type of vaccines. There are several classification of MD vaccines. They can be divided into cell- associated (frozen in liquid nitrogen) or cell-free (lyophilized), based on the serotype (MDV-1, MDV-2, and HVT), and conventional vs recombinants. In this paper, we will use the latter classification.

MD outbreak Passed

the existing challenge. It has been demonstrated that, as early as 21 days, it is possible to divide chickens into three categories (negative, latency, or tumors) based on the load of oncogenic MDV DNA in the either feather pulp or blood. The percentage of chickens falling into the category of tumors by qPCR at 3 weeks correlates (r= P<0.05) with the development of gross tumors at 8 weeks of age.

Conventional vaccines. This category includes attenuated MDV-1 strains (i.e. CVI988), naturally non- oncogenic MDV-2 strains (i.e. SB-1 and 301B), and naturally non-oncogenic HVT. All of them can be cell-associated but only HVT can be cell-free; albeit protection is lower than the cell-associated HVTs. Administration of MDV-2 and HVT simultaneously results in enhanced protection named protection synergism. Such synergism does not occur between CVI988 and HVT, although combining those strains is a common practice in the poultry industry. In general, broiler chickens are vaccinated with HVT while birds with longer life cycles (i.e. breeders and layers) are vaccinated with a combination of MDV-2 and HVT, CVI988, or a combination of CVI988 and HVT. The efficacy of MD vaccines depends greatly on the B haplotype and hence combination of various vaccines might result in a better protection of a flock.

Recombinant vaccines. Developing of recombinant vaccines against MD started in the early 1990’s. However, it has been in the last 15 years that recombinant vaccines

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Table 2 – Pros and cons of the use of rHVTs. PROS • Little or no interaction with maternal antibodies • In ovo administration is safe • Worldwide use (broilers) • Little or no horizontal transmission • Long-lasting immunity

CONS • Expression of insert depends on replication of rHVT - Cell-associated vaccine - HVT replication is affected by dose, route of vaccination, and combination with other MD vaccines • Can interact with other HVTs • Protection against MD is limited • Only can express 1-2 inserts

Table 3 – Pros and cons of the use of vaccines with REV LTR insertion.

PROS

CONS

• Good protection against tumors when early challenge with vv+MDV

• Some strains (not all) causes atrophy of bursa and thymus in chickens lacking maternal antibodies

• Can be used as a vector for bivalent recombinant vaccines • Replicates very well in chickens

or combination of HVT with other MD vaccines followed by day of age vaccination with either bivalent vaccines or CVI988. In ovo administration of HVT results in strong activation of innate and cellular immunity at hatch, so chickens will develop enhanced immune responses to the second vaccine. The use of adjuvants with MD vaccines was explored in the past and it is still a focus of research. In the early 1990’s, an activator of macrophages accemanan was licensed to be used in combination with MD vaccines although its use was not widely accepted.

In recent times, efforts to develop novel adjuvants suggest that adjuvants of TLR-3 and TLR-21 might enhance protection against MD.

4. Future perspectives

• It has an LTR of REV- important for diagnosis based on PCR • Monitoring vaccination in FP at 7 days do not work (lymphoid organs at 5-6 days of age)

became commercially available and widely used by the poultry industry. All recombinant vaccines currently in use are cell- associated. There are two type of commercial recombinant vaccines against MD, vector vaccines using HVT as backbone (rHVT) and chimeric vaccines that are MDV strains with the insertion of the long terminal repeat (LTR) of the reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV).

The pros and cons of those vaccines are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. In addition, there are many other experimental recombinant vaccines and further details can be found in excellent reviews .

Methods to enhanced vaccine-induced protection. Several strategies can be used to enhance the protection conferred by vaccines: in ovo vaccination, revaccination, and use of adjuvants. In ovo vaccination has numerous advantages over day-of-age vaccination. It is fully automatized reducing labor and human errors, allows administration of the vaccine 3 days before hatch, confers high levels of protection against early challenge, and hastens the development of the immune system of the chickens.

Revaccination can enhanced protection conferred by either of the vaccines used as long as both vaccines are administered before challenge and the second vaccine is more efficient than the first one. The ideal revaccination protocol would include in ovo vaccination with HVT

Because none of the MD vaccines available confers sterilizing immunity, MDV will likely continue evolving. Two approaches could be taken to control the newly emergent strains. The ideal situation is stop MDV evolution by finding vaccines that either block infection at the point of entry or stop transmission from the feather follicle epithelium. Developing of vaccines inducing sterilizing immunity against a herpesvirus has shown to be very challenging.

However, a better understanding on MDV infection in the lung and in the feather follicle epithelium might aid in this aspect. A second approach would be to control the novel syndromes associated to highly virulent strains. Our studies on MDV-IS demonstrate that as MDV becomes more virulent, it also becomes more immunosuppressive.

Today, we have the right tools to diagnose and control MDV- induced tumors. However, we lack methods for the diagnosis and control of vv+MDV-induced MDV- IS. Studies to understand the mechanisms by which vv+MDV can cause immunosuppression in chickens properly protected against tumors and to evaluate how rMd5meq protect against MDV-IS- late/R are critical to establishing diagnostic criteria and control strategies. Based on our preliminary information, blocking or minimizing reactivation of MDV in lymphocytes might help in controlling not only tumors but also MDV-IS. Novel technology to evaluate pathogenesis of MDV as well as to develop vaccines might be instrumental in the control of MD in the future.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of XXII World Veterinary Poultry Association 2023

- december 2023 -

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