Zootecnica International - English edition - 07/08 July-August - 2020

Zootecnica International – July/August 2020 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze

The Champions League of the chicken meat producing countries Effect of the type of diet and the addition of humic substances as growth promoter in broiler chickens Mycoplasma Synoviae, a technical update

7/8 2020

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EDITORIAL The cycle of history of which we are both creators and witnesses continually creates new societies. The emergence of contemporary socio-political alignments such as we observe all over the world originates new needs within many countries. The rapid translation of needs into rights is a source of confrontation between conflicting religious and political ideologies.

Indeterminism, a philosophic concept holds that will is free and that deliberate choice and actions are not determined by predictable events. How many of the new needs have been created artificially cannot be ascertained, but resultant upheaval in the social structure has proven destructive in recent time. Just selection of rights from among needs presumes equality.

History shows that man is subjected to inevitable inequality at any stage in the development of new social structures. This is significant in assessing the relevance of needs, rights and civic responsibility in advanced societies.

The crisis of values is a major cause of confusion and distrust that prevails. The current situation in Europe imposes an obligation to define true needs and corresponding rights in relation to new ideologies and political alignments. A balance between pragmatic and emotional aspects of the social transformations is required.

We are all participants in the changes that are taking place around us and our positive influence can facilitate harmonious transitions in economic and political alignment.

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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 8 FIELD REPORT

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Mexico, gut health improving feed additive improves yellow skin pigmentation in broilers fed AGP-free diets..................................................... 10 FEFAC response to farm-to-fork and biodiversity strategies............................. 14

DOSSIER Pathogenesis of egg infections by Salmonella and the implementation of preventive measures.................................................... 16

FOCUS Reaching the genetic potential....................................................................... 20

MARKETING The Champions League of the chicken meat producing countries.................... 22

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TECHNICAL COLUMN Intra Chickpaper: double grip prevents legs to slip.

Less injury leads to higher efficiency and welfare............................................ 28

MANAGEMENT Best practice in biosecurity............................................................................ 32 Targeted approaches to achieving good litter quality....................................... 36

NUTRITION Effect of the type of diet and the addition of humic substances as growth promoter in broiler chickens........................................................................... 38

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Effects of yeast and its derivatives on meat yield and hematological indices of broiler chickens challenged with Salmonella lipopolysaccharide....... 42

VETERINARY SCIENCE Mycoplasma Synoviae, a technical update..................................................... 46

MARKET GUIDE.................................................................................52 INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................56

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Poultry researchers presenting their latest findings During the 2020 International Production & Processing Expo (IPPE), six researchers presented their findings from recently completed research projects funded by the U.S. Poultry & Egg Association and its Foundation as part of the TECHTalk sessions offered during the expo. and attacks mainly upper respiratory organs and the reproductive systems with losses in production and misshapen or poor-quality eggs. “It takes around one year to attenuate one of this viruses, and five years for a vaccine to come to market,” said Jackwood.

Dr. Armitra Jackson-Davis, with the Department of Food and Animal Sciences at Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University, provided information on a research study called, “Inactivation of Campylobacter jejuni In Vitro and on Artificially Inoculated Chicken Skin by Organic Acids Alone or Combined with Yucca Extract.”

She discussed how they looked at ways to reduce contamination of chicken skin during processing. The research found that adding Yucca extract to organic acids significantly reduced the levels of Campylobacter on

Jenny Houlroyd, with the Safety, Health and Environmental Services at Georgia Tech Enterprise Innovation Institute, presented research findings on “A Pilot Study of Exposures to Peracetic Acid-Based Disinfectants Among Poultry Processing Workers.” She described the research conducted using three different sensors and discussed the considerable variation and lack of precision between tested methods related to exposure of peracetic acid. Houlroyd stated, “Interpret the results with caution. Keep numbers regarding the time, location and distance from the sources, and listen to the symptoms of employees and inspectors.”

As part of his research findings on “Improved Methods for the Control of Variant Strains of Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV),” Dr. Mark Jackwood, with the Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health at the University of Georgia’s College of Veterinary Medicine, gave an overview of the virus with its characteristics and challenges. He mentioned that the virus is caused by a coronavirus that is highly contagious

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Jenny Houlroyd, with the Safety, Health and Environmental Services at Georgia Tech Enterprise Innovation Institute presenting research findings during her TECHTalk session at the 2020 IPPE

chicken skin compared to organic acids alone when used as an immersion treatment.

During his update on Blackhead research, Dr. Robert Beckstead, with the Prestage Department of Poultry Science at North Carolina State University, remarked

- worldwide news -

WORLDWIDE NEWS

ease include a hunched posture and sulfur colored droppings. Histomonas also causes ulcerations and inflammation of the ceca and necrosis of the liver. Beckstead remarked, “When turkeys get infected with the disease, they tend to flock together, and the disease is transmitted.”

Dr. Mark Jackwood, with the Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health at the University of Georgia’s College of Veterinary Medicine presenting research findings during his TECHTalk session at the 2020 IPPE

Dr. Elizabeth Bobeck, with the Department of Animal Science at Iowa State University, discussed “Validating Current Broiler Welfare Auditing Programs and Advancing Enrichment,” and Dr. Amit Morey, with the Department of Poultry Science at Auburn University, reviewed his research findings on “Developing and Validating a Bioelectrical Impedance Index for Rapid Detection of Woody Breast Fillets.”

that Blackhead disease is caused by Histomonas meleagridis and causes 100% mortality in turkeys and 30% in chickens. He mentioned that the signs of Blackhead dis-

All of the researchers’ presentations have been made available on USPOULTRY’s YouTube channel and can be viewed at www.youtube.com/USPOULTRY.

MPF cancels face-to-face event; moves forward with Virtual Trade Show & Convention in August Out of an abundance of caution and concern for the safety and health of its attendees and exhibitors, the Midwest Poultry Federation (MPF) announces that its in-person convention, re-scheduled for July, is cancelled. Instead, MPF will offer a complete virtual trade show and conference online on August 12-13, 2020.

MPF’s leadership team met several times to weigh its options and then brought the full board together to make the decision, which was unanimous.

Said MPF President Greg Nelson: “Given the current COVID-19 situation and the unknowns surrounding large gatherings, we cancelled the in-person convention in the best interest of the health of everyone involved in the show. We are, however, excited to announce the 2020 MPF Convention will move forward with a fantastic virtual platform.”

and chat with speakers, and even visit a networking event to interact with other attendees in real-time.

“While we are disappointed we won’t be able to bring our attendees and exhibitors together face-to-face this year, we are very excited about showcasing all the MPF Convention has to offer virtually,” said Nelson. “Watch our website as well as our social media pages on Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn for all the details to come.”

The virtual platform will showcase MPF’s education content and foster connections between exhibitors and attendees – all within a very robust, 3-D graphical experience where attendees will visit company booths in the Exhibit Hall, take in education sessions

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

Innov’Space 2020 still on agenda While cancelling the fair, SPACE organizers still want to hold highlights on the dates of SPACE 2020 (from 15 to 18 September) to continue to fulfill their commitments to their exhibitors and visitors with Innov’Space 2020.

Through the Innov’Space distinction, the Show is a showcase for innovation and a real commercial asset that has been highlighting the know-how of companies to livestock farmers for 25 years. Aware of the importance of the label for the farmers and all livestock professionals who are on the front line to feed their countries, and for SPACE exhibitors who constantly innovate SPACE organizers are committed to maintain Innov’Space 2020 to support them. The award-winners list will be revealed on September 15th, the date on which SPACE 2020 was supposed to open its doors at Rennes exhibition centre, in France.

Applications will be studied by a Jury independent of SPACE organization. It will select the products, equipment or services providing a significant innovation and will classify them in two categories (one or two stars) based on the level of interest for breeders or end users.

Innov’Space 2019 prize winners

VIV MEA postponed to 2021 The international event VIV MEA – which was planned in Abu Dhabi for August 31–2 September 2020 – has been postponed to 22–24 November 2021.

COVID-19 is disrupting the business around the world much longer than predicted. While there is uncertainty about the re-activation of international travel, there is also concern about the general health.

Postponing the event to November 2021 is the most responsible decision to take. The postponement allows the organizer to deliver – together with all parties involved – the mission to stage strong, high value-adding events for and with the industry.

In November 2021, the 3rd edition of VIV MEA will take place in Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., again at the ADNEC facilities. This much awaited event will finally offer the opportunity to connect the Middle East and Africa markets with the top suppliers from the world, from Feed to Food.

Meanwhile, all industry professionals are invited to con-

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nect with the VIV worldwide network on VIV Online 24/7, WWW.VIV.NET. The organizer looks forward to seeing you at VIV MEA 2021.

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Image: Fotolia - © Minerva Studio

WORLDWIDE NEWS

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COMPANY NEWS

Cobb Europe names Matthew Wilson as Sales and Technical Director cialist with Cobb’s World Technical two decades with Cobb, serving in Team at the company’s headquarters in Siloam Springs, Arkansas, in the United States.

“I am thrilled to be able to welcome Matthew back to our Cobb Europe team,” said Roy Mutimer, Managing Director of Cobb Europe. “He knows the complexities of our market and is someone that is well respected by customers and colleagues alike. He will be a strong addition to this growing market.”

Cobb Europe announced that Matthew Wilson is the new Sales and Technical Director for Europe, Middle East and Africa. Wilson returns to Cobb Europe from his most recent role as broiler and ventilation spe-

Wilson graduated from Mellows College Galway in Ireland with a diploma in poultry production. He is a poultry industry veteran with a nearly 30-year career focusing on broilers, with roles spanning both sales and technical services. Wilson has spent

both Europe and on a global scale.

In his new role, Wilson will lead Cobb Europe’s highly experienced sales and technical team, support distributors in the region, and work with customers to provide them the industry’s best genetic package and unmatched technical support.

“Matthew’s knowledge, passion, experience, and drive will be instrumental in helping us achieve future success in this region,” added Mutimer. “His expertise adds another layer to our already passionate and dedicated leadership team.”

First steps in feeding machines for insects by VDL Agrotech

Tim van Heertum, Project Engineer VDL Agrotech

A new project for a feeding machine for insects has been started by VDL Agrotech as the search for new protein sources as an alternative for existing protein such as meat and soy is increasing. Insects are a good alternative, as they are full of protein.

Increasing demand: Market interest in insects for food (human food), but especially for feed (animal food) is increasing. For animal feed, there

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is a demand for live larvae for the poultry sector and insect oil for piglet and turkey feed. In order to meet the increasing demand, it is necessary to upscale the production capacity.

Insect breeding requires a lot of manual labor: Feeding insects is labor intensive, as in most cases this is now done manually. Mechanization and automation is necessary to achieve higher production volumes and to keep the cost price attractive.

Development of a feeding machine: Last January, Tim van Heertum started as project engineer at VDL Agrotech. Tim mainly focuses on the development of feeding machines for insects. “Insect breeders have the main expertise of insect breeding in the insect industry. They

- company news -

often know exactly what they desire because of their many years of experience. Close cooperation with the various parties ensures the correct input for the development of the feeding machine. Each breeder uses his own feed curves, which creates variation in volumes, recipes and feeding times. This requires a customized customer solution. That is something we are specialized in at VDL Agrotech. We have many years of experience in feeding machines for pigs and poultry. We can use this knowledge for the insect market,”says Tim van Heertum of VDL Agrotech.

COMPANY NEWS

www.cobb-vantress.com/broilerZP8 - july/august 2020 -

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FIELD REPORT

Mexico, gut health improving feed additive improves yellow skin pigmentation in broilers fed AGP-free diets A Trouw Nutrition research trial conducted in Mexico has shown that a gut health improving additive (Presan®-FY), containing a synergistic blend of organic acids, medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs), patented alkyl esters of MCFA’s, target release butyrates and a phenolic compound, improved skin pigmentation of broilers fed antibiotic growth promoter (AGP)-free diets.

Trouw Nutrition research group

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Broiler production in Mexico is more than 300 million broilers per cycle (UNA, 2018) and the country’s marketplace poses some unique marketplace demands. Skin pigmentation is a key consideration in the Mexican marketplace, accounting for a significant portion of broiler meat sold in wholesale and retail sectors. As pigmentation is widely considered an indicator of a bird’s health status and meat quality, yellow skin color also correlates with producer economics. Pigmentation isn’t merely a matter of appearance, but presents economic consequences as a price penalty is imposed when pigmentation levels are not achieved. Beyond achieving yellow skin pigmentation in their flocks, Mexican poultry farmers continue to shift toward reducing antimicrobials in poultry production. With these trends in mind, Trouw Nutrition researchers evaluated a gut improving feed additive’s effectiveness at supporting broilers’ yellow skin pigmentation and antibiotic-free production.

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FIELD REPORT

Production environments and gut health can affect pigment absorption Management practices, a broiler’s health status and diet composition can all interfere with pigmentation uptake and expression in broilers. In production environments using no or reduced levels of antibiotics, achieving required skin pigmentation levels can be particularly delicate due to gut health challenges. As Necrotic Enteritis (Clostridium perfringens) and/or coccidiosis damage the intestinal mucosa and thereby interfere with the absorption of pigments from the intestine, both conditions can result in broilers’ sub-optimal skin color, posing a threat to profitability.

Trial design and diet formulation reflect Mexican production practices Trouw Nutrition researchers in collaboration with Integracion Y Desarrollo Agropecuario S.A. (INDEPESA) evaluated the effect of Presan® -FY on skin pigmentation under typical Mexican rearing conditions, but without AGPs and coccidiostats. A total of 2,700 Ross 308 male broilers were divided into 6 treatments of 9 replicates with 50 birds each.

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Treatments were arranged in a factorial 3x2 design, with the first factor being the yellow pigment level (60, 85 and 110 ppm of Xantophylls). The second factor was the presence or absence of Trouw Nutrition’s gut health improving additive. Xantophylls (yellow pigment) and canthaxanthin (red pigment, 3 ppm) were added to the grower (11-28 days) and finisher (29-46 days) phase diets. Diets were based on yellow corn and soybean meal and adjusted to different growth phases. No AGP or coccidiostats were added to diets. Birds were vaccinated on the farm according to local standard practices and with a commercial live coccidiosis vaccine. In vivo skin pigmentation was measured in 27 birds per treatment. Intestinal morphology was measured in the duodenum and the intestinal absorptive area was calculated.

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In a challenged condition without AGPs, skin pigmentation can be improved Results showed the gut health improving additive significantly improved yellow skin pigmentation by 1.33 (+8.1%)

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- july/august 2020 -

www.jpe.org

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FIELD REPORT

Table 1 – Duodenal morphology results by the effect of presence or absence of Presan®-FY in broilers at 43 days of age.

Treatments

Villi lenght, µ

Villi width, µ

Crypt depht, µ

# of villi /mm2

Absorptive area**, mm²

Negative control

952.7 b

78.6 b

215.8

30.7

7.22 b

Presan ® -FY

982.0 a

84.7 a

223.7

30.6

7.99 a

Probability

0.001

0.001

0.166

0.860

0.001

** Absorptive area = (Villi length * Villi width * π) * number of villi / 1,000,000 Where absorptive area means that for each mm² of internal duodenal wall, there are X mm² of villi surface. Villi lenght measured in µ; villi width measured in µ; π=3.1416; number of villi per mm²; 1 mm² = 1,000,000 µ².

and 2.92 (16.5%) b* units when compared to birds in the negative control treatment at days 43 and 46 respectively (P<0.001, Figure 1).

Figure 2 — Effect of the interaction of gut health improving additive and different xanthophylls (yellow pigment) levels on in vivo broiler skin pigmentation at day 46. Bars with different letters (a,b) within treatments are different (P<0.001).

Figure 1 — Effect of presence or absence of gut health improving additive on in vivo broiler skin pigmentation at day 43 and 46. Bars with different superscripts (a,b) within treatments are different (P<0.001)

In the trial, only the gut health improving additive treatments achieved the highest in vivo skin yellowness at day 46 (P<0.001, Figure 2).

Remarking on the study, Trouw Nutrition Global Product Manager Yvonne van der Horst stated “While further research is required to understand the effects of Presan ® -FY on pigment absorption, the improvements in skin yellowness shown in the study are presumably associated with its positive effect on gut integrity.” She noted previous research studies have shown a synergistic effect of gut health improving additive ingredients on improved intestinal morphology.

In the Mexican trial, broilers fed the feed additive blend showed an increase in villus length and width compared to the negative control group. This effect led to a great-

er intestinal absorptive area, meaning nutrients – in this case, pigments – could be better absorbed. Intestinal morphology analysis showed that inclusion of the gut health improving additive significantly increased the intestinal absorptive area by 0.77 mm2 (+11%) per mm2 of internal duodenal wall (Table 1).

The trial results suggest adding the gut health improving additive can help producers lower the levels of xanthophylls (yellow pigments) from 110 ppm to 85 ppm while achieving similar pigment levels in broiler skin and also delivering gut health improving properties.

“With the inclusion of this gut health improving additive both pigment absorption and nutrient absorption will be improved, which will result in an improved growth performance,” said van der Horst. “This trial in Mexico will help producers striving to meet various market demands across a variety of production environments. The findings from this trial once again show it is possible to meet markets’ unique demands and achieve AGP-free production goals while supporting birds’ gut health.”

*Gut health improving additive inclusion in starter, grower and finisher diets respectively

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- field report -

FIELD REPORT

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FEFAC response to farm-to-fork and biodiversity strategies

©southsaskfarmer.com

FIELD REPORT

FEFAC welcomes the EU Commission’s willingness to strengthen food security at both global and EU level and the resilience of EU agriculture and food systems in its communication on FTF & Biodiversity.

The EU feed industry has proven its capacity to secure essential feed and food supply chains for the provision of products of animal origin to EU consumers during the COVID-19 crisis, under very challenging conditions and in close cooperation with key supply chain partners and the EU Commission.

FEFAC fully agrees with the Commission analysis of the central role of the Common Agricultural Policy as the key policy delivery mechanism to provide safe, sustainable and affordable food to EU Consumers. As world leaders in animal nutrition efficiency, FEFAC shares the high level of ambition of the EU Commission to meet climate change targets, providing opportunities for EU agriculture and livestock production by providing incentives to produce “more with less”.

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No food system can be sustainable without the production of farm animals, due to their essential role in transforming low value human inedible feed materials into high-value nutritious food via milk, meat and eggs to consumers. At the same time farm animals provide highly valued organic fertilisers to arable crops, making them a key component of sustainable food systems based on the Circular Economy principles. The feed industry’s role is to provide optimised animal nutrition, reduced nutrient losses, improved animal health and welfare and increasing environmental performance of animal production systems, via precision feeding systems and the adoption of new technologies.

FEFAC is however deeply concerned about the potential adverse impact of some of the key policy orientations in-

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FIELD REPORT

cluded in the FTF and Biodiversity strategy setting conflicting targets which may actually reduce the EU’s food production capacity. They therefore stress the importance of a thorough inception impact assessment, prior to any specific legislative measures, in line with better regulation practices. This approach will be crucial to ensure policy coherence at EU and national level, in particular regarding the EU’s objective to raise the production and competitiveness of home-grown vegetable proteins.

The EU feed industry has not waited for the FTF Communication in developing new tools for its members and livestock farmers to increase the sustainability and competitiveness of feed and livestock production. It has developed an LCA based methodology for measuring the environmental performance of compound feed (the PEFCR Feed for Food-Producing Animals), validated in 2018 by DGENVI and EU 28 Member States.

The FEFAC Soy Sourcing Guidelines have made a significant contribution to facilitate the transformation of the EU soy supply chain. A new module on deforestation-free soy supplies is currently under preparation. FEFAC mem-

ber companies are offering tailor-made animal nutrition solutions to reduce the need for therapeutic antibiotics at farm level, as part of a farm animal health & welfare management system.

FEFAC President Nick Major: “The EU feed industry is a key driver for the development of sustainable food systems for farm animals and aquaculture. We therefore share some of the overall objectives of the FTF/Biodiversity communication on sustainable food systems. We do however fear that conflicting policy targets and measures announced in the EU Commission communication, may actually undermine the EU’s food production capacity and global leadership role in developing resource efficient sustainable and circular food production systems. We do fully support the new priority setting on food security, resulting from the lessons of the COVID-19 crisis and would strongly recommend to carry out in-depth inception impact assessment before taking any specific legislative measures, preventing any “unintended consequences” by denying farmers access to proven technology, without providing tangible, effective alternatives.”

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DOSSIER

Pathogenesis of egg infections by Salmonella and the implementation of preventive measures â&#x20AC;&#x201C; First Part Salmonella is one of the most important zoonotic bacterial pathogens, mainly caused by consumption of contaminated food products, and is of global importance. Strains from the serotypes Enteritidis and Typhimurium are most important for human food poisoning, and the former are highly associated with egg consumption. efficacy of control methods and programs.

Live and attenuated vaccines are in use and these give partial protection against intestinal and internal organ colonization, and egg contamination.

Epidemiology of Salmonella infections Most Salmonella strains belong to non-host specific or broad-host range serotypes, and thus can colonize the gut of many animal species, including humans. In contrast to host-specific serotypes that cause septicemia and severe disease (typhoidal serotypes), the broad-host range serotypes are asymptomatically colonising the host in most cases, but can cause diarrhoea when high numbers of bacteria are orally take up at once, as is the case in human food poisoning (non-typhoidal serotypes).

F. Van Immerseel and R. Ducatelle Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke

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Salmonella is an invasive bacterial genus and colonizes the gut of chickens, and systemically spreads to internal organs, including the reproductive tract, potentially leading to egg contamination. Monitoring programs are essential to assess the prevalence of infected flocks and detect changes in prevalence and are important to evaluate the

- dossier -

Salmonella is one of the most important zoonotic bacterial pathogens, mainly caused by consumption of contaminated food products, and is of global importance.

The global burden of gastroenteritis due to Salmonella has been studied by various authors. Majowicz et al. (2006) estimated the global number of Salmonella cases to be around 1.600 million cases per year.

An estimation of the global and regional disease burden by the World Health Orga-

DOSSIER

nization shows non-typhoidal Salmonella to cause highest numbers of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) of all foodborne pathogens. DALYs are defined as the sum of the years of life lost due to premature mortality in the population and the years lost due to disability for people living with the health condition or its consequences.

While many serotypes can be transmitted to humans due to contaminated meat products (mainly chicken and pork, but also cattle, fish and other sources), eggs are the main food vehicle for human infections.

As an example, in the European Union in 2017, more than 50% of the human cases were egg-derived (37% egg-derived, 17% derived from bakery products). The other 50% was derived from various sources such as mixed food products (13%), meat products (8%), poultry meat (2.2%), porcine meat (4.5%), and to a lesser extent cheese, dairy, vegetables and fish (EU data, 2017). Interestingly, about 50% of all cases are caused by strains of the Salmonella serotype Enteritidis, and 25% by serotype Typhimurium strains (of which 8% are monophasic variant strains).

The other 25% is caused by a variety of serotypes, including Salmonella Infantis (2.5%) (EU data, 2017). It is striking that, for many of the serotypes that are important for human food poisoning, there is an association with specific food sources. Salmonella Enteritidis is of particular importance because it can spread to the reproductive tract and contaminate eggs. A worldwide egg-associated salmonellosis pandemic started in the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;70s and is currently fading away in many countries, thanks to huge efforts of policy makers and the poultry industry. This pandemic has been specifically caused by the serotype

Enteritidis. Due to its preferential association with hen eggs, combined with the way humans tend to store (room temperature), handle and eat (uncooked) eggs, Salmonella Enteritidis had and still has a major impact on human health. Strains from the serotype Typhimurium are associated with many sources, including porcine, cattle, turkey and chicken meat, but also eggs.

Strains from the monophasic variant of serotype Typhimurium are specifically associated with food poisoning cases and outbreaks after porcine meat consumption. In addition to the human infections caused by the 2 predominant serotypes, Enteritidis and Typhimurium, also many other serotypes can cause human gastroenteritis. These are mainly derived from meat sources, and the nature of the serotypes depends on the geographical location, and changes during time. Serotypes such as Hadar, Infantis, Paratyphi B, Heidelberg, Minnesota and many others can be derived from poultry meat. Strains from Salmonella Newport associate with turkey meat (EU data, 2017). A specific trend is the spread of clonal lineages of certain serotypes that are often multidrug resistant, in poultry.

A meta- analysis of Ferrari et al. (2019) on the global epidemiology of Salmonella shows that there are some serotypes that are colonizing poultry worldwide (Enteritidis, Typhimurium, Infantis, Hadar, Kentucky), while there are serotypes that are specifically associated with certain regions (eg. Heidelberg in the Americas, Mbandaka in Europe). Oceania is an exception as Enteritidis, Hadar and Kentucky are not an issue (recently Enteritidis entered however), while serotypes such as Sofia and Kiambu are specific for this region.

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DOSSIER

The pathogenesis of Salmonella infections in poultry Chickens usually are infected by oral uptake of bacteria from the environment. Salmonella bacteria are able to survive gastric acidity and can pass the stomach to reach the intestinal tract of the animal. The caeca are the predominant colonisation sites. The bacteria can adhere to and invade caecal epithelial cells, by rearranging the actin cytoskeleton of the epithelial cells in such a way that bacteria are engulfed by ruffles on the host cell membrane, resulting in uptake by the epithelial cell. This process of invasion is mediated by a type three secretion system, encoded by genes of the Salmonella pathogenicity island I, and is essential for caecal colonisation. Immune cells are attracted to the gut wall and the macrophages may take up bacteria penetrating through the caecal mucosa.

This is the start of the systemic phase of the infection as Salmonella bacteria can survive within and replicate in these macrophages. These cells spread the bacteria to the internal organs, such as liver, spleen, ovary and oviduct, where the bacteria can be found in large numbers. All this is serotype and strain dependent, and some strains are more invasive than others while others are less or not efficient in persistent caecal or organ colonisation. Shedding can occur intermittently. Contamination of poultry meat can thus be caused by contamination in the slaughterhouse when faecal material or gut content (or internal organ material) is contaminating the carcasses during the slaughter process (for example evisceration, defeathering).

Eggs can be contaminated either externally (on the shell) or internally. Shell contamination is caused by contamination during or after lay, because faecal material or Salmonella bacteria present in the environment contaminate the outer shell. Internal egg contamination can be caused

by Salmonella bacteria that are transported through the eggshell after shell contamination.

In addition, internal egg contamination can be caused

by Salmonella bacteria that are incorporated in the forming egg during passage in the oviduct. Salmonella can colonise the oviduct after systemic spread and thus contaminate the egg components, depending on the site of colonisation (magnum, egg white; isthmus, shell membrane). While all Salmonella serotypes, to a greater or lesser extent depending on the serotype and strain, are able to colonize the gut and internal organs, Salmonella

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Enteritidis is far more capable of persisting in the oviduct as compared to other serotypes. In addition, Salmonella Enteritidis strains have been shown to be superior in egg white survival. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) structure and multi drug resistance efflux pumps have been shown to be involved. The egg white is very antibacterial (high pH, a variety of antimicrobial proteins and peptides) and is capable of killing most bacteria, including most Salmonella serotypes, but Enteritidis strains are rather resistant. These characteristics of Salmonella Enteritidis explain its success in contaminating and infecting humans.

In addition, Salmonella Enteritidis is not growing in egg white, but only staying alive and thus no sensory or visual changes occur in the contaminated eggs. Consumers are thus not alerted.

Monitoring and control programs Monitoring programs are of utmost importance in a global strategy of controlling Salmonella, because they assess the prevalence of infected flocks (or even the within-flock prevalence, depending on the method used) and detect changes in prevalence, as well as the serotype distribution, clonal spread, etc. They can also be used to evaluate the efficacy of control methods and programs.

Periodic testing using bacteriological detection methods is the most widely used method, but serological methods can also be of value. Bacteriological testing methods are often based on excretion of Salmonella, and thus have inherent problems with sensitivity because infected chickens shed Salmonella intermittently. This can partly be overcome by using mixed faecal samples so that faecal material of many animals is analysed. The within-flock prevalence can however also be low and, if only a low number of animals shed Salmonella, this method will most likely often not detect these infections. Mostly, if a number of samples is analysed and 1 sample is positive, the flock is considered to be Salmonella positive. This positivity is thus not giving information about the actual number of infected animals and the colonization level in the animals.

The analytical methods used to detect Salmonella are based on enrichment of the samples for Salmonella and plating of the enriched material on different selective media, often followed by serotype identification. The frequency of the sampling depends on the animal type (breeders, layers, broilers) and the production stage

- dossier -

DOSSIER

(e.g. pullets vs layers). Often the frequency is higher for breeders as compared to layers, because these animals can contaminate the whole production chain by vertical transmission. As an example, under EU legislation (2160/2003), sampling and detection of all Salmonella serotypes with public health significance should be done according to the following schemes: • breeding flocks: day-old, 4 weeks, 2 weeks before transport to the laying unit and every 2 weeks during lay; • laying hens: day-old, 2 weeks before transport to the laying unit and every 15 weeks during lay; • broilers: before transport to the slaughterhouse.

In addition to bacteriological detection, also antibody responses in serum can be used to monitor the Salmonella status of a flock. Antibody detection tests are available in ELISAs and typically detect either O antigens (LPS) or H antigens (flagelllin). While bacteriological detection methods have a higher chance of detecting positive animals in the early period post-infection due to higher excretion, serological tests can detect positive animals a long-time post-infection and do not detect antibodies in the early post-infection period due to the dynamics of antibody production after infection.

Not all animals, however, generate an efficient antibody response, and also here the number of samples to be taken is not easy to calculate, and this depends on the actual minimal to be detected within-flock prevalence and the accuracy that is defined beforehand. Both methods thus have advantages and disadvantages.

Salmonella Enteritidis and Typhimurium. All birds from these flocks must be slaughtered or destroyed, even the day-old chicks. Eggs derived from these birds that are still present in a hatchery, also have to be destroyed or treated as described above. Another specific requirement is that eggs must not be used for human consumption as fresh table eggs unless they originate from a commercial layer flock subject to a national control programme. Moreover, eggs originating from flocks with unknown health status, suspected of being infected or from infected flocks may only be used for human consumption if treated in a manner that guarantees the elimination of all Salmonella serotypes with public health significance. The use of control methods on the farms can be made obligatory, depending on the Salmonella status of the flocks, or even the Salmonella status of the flocks in a region.

End of first part References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2020 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

How safe is your water?

Although control tools are available to reduce Salmonella colonisation, there needs to be a general strategy on the control methods to be used and defining the situations in which specific measures need to be implemented, but also on the actual consequences of finding Salmonella positive samples. For example, for breeding flocks this can mean that the hens need to be eradicated when certain Salmonella serotypes are detected.

For layers and broilers, the finding of certain serotypes could imply that the eggs or meat have to be treated in a way that kills the bacteria before the food is marketed.

For example, in the EU (Regulation 2160/2003) in case of an infection with Salmonella Enteritidis or Typhimurium in breeding flocks, non-incubated hatching eggs should be destroyed or used for human consumption following treatment in a manner that guarantees the elimination of

Intra Hydrocare has a dual effect: It removes the biofilm and disinfects the drinking water. Safe and very effective!

- july/august 2020 -

Tel: + 31 (0)413-354 105 WWW.INTRACARE.NL

19

FOCUS

Reaching the genetic potential

©Hendrix Genetics

The genetic potential of laying hen breeds is continuously improving due to genetic selection and a balanced breeding program. Genetic improvements are seen across a wide array of traits that Hendrix Genetics’ geneticists select on, from egg production, egg quality to bird behavior.

Balanced breeding

Teun van de Braak Product Manager Hendrix Genetics layinghens.hendrix-genetics.com

20

Hendrix Genetics’ breeding philosophy is well-known: breeding the long-life layer. The company is selecting and breeding laying hens that can be kept for longer egg production periods with every new generation delivered to the market. Selection is based on many traits, which all need to go in the desired direction. Birds can only be successfully kept longer when they can keep up their productivity, maintain a good health and body condition, and produce eggs that can still be classified as 1st quality. An ever-increasing number of flocks of white egg layers (e.g. the white leghorns) have proven themselves to produce over 500 eggs per

- focus -

hen housed in a time span of 100 weeks.

But steady progress is also seen in the brown egg layers, a clear trend is seen that also with brown laying hens, flocks are kept longer and longer. For a brown egg layer, it is a bigger challenge to keep them longer compared to a white egg layer. One should not forget that they are centuries apart from each other. The birds do not only look different, but they are different from each other in their genetic architecture, resulting in a different response to selection. Brown egg layers do have their clear benefits, one of these is the higher egg size compared to the white leghorns. Resulting in a comparable or higher egg mass output despite fewer eggs being produced.

Achieving the birds’ genetic potential Breed choice, production houses, equipment, management, feed supplier and flock health, all have significant impact on the performance of your flock. Managing a flock of laying hens is nowadays a highly specialized business requiring significant investment to stay up to date with the latest regulations on animal health and welfare.

Laying hen breeding is even more specialized as more and more traits are added to the breeding programs, to ensure that Hendrix Genetics laying hens perform in a wide variety of egg production systems: from enriched colony group cages, all the way up to barn and organic. Exploitation of the genetic potential requires constant research in nutrition and management systems to en-

FOCUS

sure that the limiting thresholds have not yet been reached. Results differ between, pullet rearers, housing systems, feed companies and many more. By joining forces in applied research with partners from the global egg industry the company tries to optimize their management recommendations and advises to customers.

Gaining insight in the birdsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; genetic potential In order to understand your birds better, you must look at the data the birds are providing to you. Even though we do not speak the same language, your laying hens are able to tell you a lot daily! By having a closer look to the daily figures, you can catch the early alerts and the

investigation what the possible reason(s) for the drop can be, you are ahead compared to a situation when it is too late, e.g. when you are recording sudden increases in mortalities. A data collection tool will help you to store and analyze the data of your flock, besides it will be easier for the veterinarian, feed supplier and distributor of your birds to assist you with the right support to tackle the challenge.

Data insight allows you to identify these opportunities in which you can even further improve the performance of your flocks, you can more accurate compare and benchmark your current flocks with your previous ones, and it can help you with making management decisions based on performance instead of emotions.

Data insight will tell you how much

Chart: by visualizing the data of your flock, you are better able to follow their performance.

early warning that your flock is giving to you. Sudden drops in water and feed intake are among the early warnings that indicate that your flock is getting into trouble. By directly anticipating on these and starting an

of the genetic potential is exploited (comparing to the breeds standard) and the additional value that you can gain by adapting the management. It will also help you to compare your results to those of your colleague farm-

- july/august 2020 -

ers in the industry, and to learn from each other by sharing best practices.

Proven product performance By sharing your data with the distributor of the birds, breeding companies are better able to define, and if needed to adjust, their breeding goals based on the actual product performance in the field combined with the industry needs. Next to that they can adjust their technical support to be as relevant as possible to help you achieving the full genetic potential out of your flock of laying hens. Only proven product performance will give you trust in the breed used, the feed supplied, and the management applied.

Product and management interventions that have proven to be successful on your farm, will lead to maximize the value generated out of your farm.

Generating and understanding this value and the steps that are available to you which you can take in order to maximize this value is crucial for your business and allows you to continue to invest in sustainable egg production.

In conclusion, a thorough understanding of your flock, and the daily data they generate, is the key to assess the genetic potential of your flock, and the additional value which could be gained by management decisions. Sharing your results with your distributor and breeding company will help them in fine tuning the breeding goals and further increase the genetic response to selection, besides it will help to provide you with the right technical service. Taken this all together will help to optimize the value that you can generate out of your flock.

21

MARKETING

The Champions League of the chicken meat producing countries Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is scientific director of the WING at the Hannover Veterinary University and Prof. emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany

22

The global poultry industry has shown a remarkable dynamics over the past decades in egg as well as in meat production. In this paper will be analysed the development of chicken meat production in the 18 leading countries (CLC) between 2008 and 2018. The number of considered countries is consciously oriented towards the number of clubs in major sports leagues.

- marketing -

MARKETING

Pattern of global poultry meat production In 2018, 127.3 mill. t of poultry meat were produced worldwide, of this 111.3 mill. t or 87.4% was chicken meat (Table 1). Because of the dominating role of chicken meat, the analysis will focus on this meat type.

Table 1 — Global poultry meat production in 2018, by meat type (Source: FAO database).

Meat type

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

111,267

87.4

Turkey meat

5,901

4.6

Duck meat

4,465

3.5

Goose meat

2,646

2.1

Other meat

3,019

2.4

127,298

100.0

Chicken meat

Total

Table 2 — The share of the CLC in the chicken meat production of the continents in 2018 (Source: own calculations based on FAO data).

Continent

Production in the CLC (1.000 t)

Share (%) of the CLC in the total production 30.5

5,748

1,755

Asia

40,036

31,909

79.7

N. America

24,203

22,905

94.6

C. and S. America

24,160

20,159

83.4

Europe

18,649

6,293

33.7

Oceania

1,471

-

-

114,267

*83,022

72.7

Africa

World

From the data in Table 2 one can see that the share of the CLC in the chicken meat production of the continents

Total production (1,000 t)

*sum does not add because of rounding

differed considerably. While they contributed 97.4% to the production volume in North America, it was only 30.5% in Africa and 33.7% in Europe. The contribution was

- july/august 2020 -

23

MARKETING

Table 3 — The 18 CLC in chicken slaughter in 2008 and 2018 (Source: FAO database).

also very high in Central and South America and in Asia. The detailed analysis at country level will be able to document the degree of the regional concentration.

Remarkable dynamics in chicken slaughter In 2018, 4.4 billion people or 57.1% of the global population lived in the 18 CLC with the highest number of chicken slaughter. Of these countries, eleven were located in Asia, three in the Americas, three in Europe and one in Africa.

Between 2008 and 2018, global chicken slaughter increased from 53.6 mill. to 68.8 billion head or by 28.4%. In the CLC it grew from 37.9 to 48.4 million head or 27.6% (Table 3). The lower relative growth rate in the group of the CLC indicates a fast growth also in other countries.

To the absolute increase of chicken slaughter by 10.5 billion head, China contributed 2.3 billion head or 22.3%, Russia 1.3 billion (12.0%), Indonesia 1.1 billion (10.3%), India 954 mill. (9.1%) and Brazil 806 mill. (7.7%). Together, the five countries shared 61.4% in the growth of the CLC and 42.3% in the global increase. It is worth noting that in the USA the number of slaughtered chickens grew by only 75 million head or 0.9%. The low rate is a result of continuously increasing slaughter weights of the broilers.

The highest relative growth showed Pakistan with 125.3%, followed by Turkey (98.9%), Russia (95.2%) and Myanmar (84.7%).

A comparison of the composition and ranking of the countries reveals

24

2008

2018

Slaughter (mill. head)

Share (%)

USA

9,075

16.9

China

10,137

14.7

China

7,800

14.6

USA

9,161

13.3

Brazil

5,466

10.2

Brazil

6,272

9.1

Indonesia

1,904

3.6

Indonesia

2,971

4.3

India

1,599

3.0

Russia

2,577

3.7

Mexico

1,513

2.8

India

2,553

3.7

Russia

1,320

2.5

Iran

1,885

2.7

Iran

1,305

2.4

Mexico

1,813

2.6

Columbia

1,011

1.9

Myanmar

1,343

2.0

Thailand

921

1.7

Thailand

1,280

1.9

South Africa

897

1.7

Turkey

1,229

1.8

Un. Kingdom

823

1.5

Pakistan

1,167

1.7

France

796

1.5

Un. Kingdom

1,137

1.7

Japan

732

1.4

Philippines

1,136

1.7

Philippines

728

1.4

Korea, Rep.

1,005

1.5

Myanmar

727

1.3

South Africa

1,000

1.5

Germany

647

1.2

Malaysia

876

1.3

Canada

611

1.1

France

836

1.2

18 CLC

37,905

70.7

18 countries

*48,376

*70.3

World

53,571

100.0

World

68,785

100.0

Country

Country

Slaughter (mill. head)

Share (%)

*sum does not add because of rounding Table 4 — The 18 CLC in chicken meat production in 2018 (Source: FAO database).

2008 Production (1,000 t)

Country

2018 Share (%)

Country

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

USA

16,994

21.0

USA

19,568

17.1

China

10,735

13.3

Brazil

14,915

13.1

Brazil

10,216

12.6

China

13,958

12.2

Mexico

2,581

3.2

Russia

4,543

4.0

Russia

2,001

2.5

India

3,591

3.1

India

1,884

2.3

Mexico

3,338

2.9

Iran

1,565

2.0

Indonesia

2,544

2.2

Argentina

1,400

1.7

Japan

2,250

2.0

Japan

1,369

1.7

Iran

2,187

1.9

Indonesia

1,350

1.7

Turkey

2,157

1.9

South Africa

1,328

1.6

Argentina

2,069

1.8

Un. Kingdom

1,259

1.5

Malaysia

1,766

1.5

Thailand

1,158

1.4

South Africa

1,755

1.5

Turkey

1,088

1.3

Un. Kingdom

1,750

1.5

Spain

1,082

1.3

Myanmar

1,729

1.5

France

1,049

1.3

Thailand

1,727

1.5

Canada

1,041

1.3

Columbia

1,593

1.4

Columbia

1,011

1.3

Peru

1,582

1.4

18 CLC

59,110

*73.1

18 CLC

83,021

*72.7

World

80,840

100.0

World

114,267

100.0

*sum does not add because of rounding

- marketing -

MARKETING

some remarkable changes. In 2018, Japan, Germany, Canada, and Columbia were no longer members of the 18 CLC. Turkey, Pakistan, the Republic of Korea and Malaysia replaced the four countries. The USA lost its top position to China. Russia surpassed India, Iran and Mexico. Myanmar climbed from rank 16 to rank 9. An even wider jump made Turkey from 20th to 11th rank. South Africa remained in the list of the 18 CLC but lost five ranks.

Extraordinary dynamics in chicken meat production As the composition of the 18 CLC in chicken meat production differed from that in slaughter, the population also changed. In 2018, 4.6 billion people lived in the 18 CLC, sharing 58.8% in the global population. Nine of the 18 CLC were located in Asia, six in the Americas, two in Europe and one in Africa.

Between 2008 and 2018, chicken meat production increased by 33.4 mill. t or 41.3%, in the 18 CLC by 23.9 mill. t or 40.5% (Table 4). Similar to chicken slaughter, the relative global growth in chicken meat production was higher than in the CLC, resulting in a decrease of the regional concentration from 73.1% to 72.7%. Obviously, production in other than the CLC was also very dynamical. Of all animal products, chicken meat production grew fastest (see Windhorst 2019). The lack of religious barriers, the strong position in fast food restaurants and the excellent feed conversion were the main steering factors behind the success story of this meat type.

In 2018, the six CLC located in America shared 51.9% in the overall production of the CLC, the nine Asian countries 38.4%, the two European countries 7.6%, and South Africa, the only African country in the group, 2.1%.

To the absolute increase of the chicken meat production in the 18 CLC by 23.9 mill. t, Brazil contributed 4.7 mill. t (19.7%), China 3.2 mill. t (13.5%), the USA 2.6 mill. t (10.8%) and Russia also about 2.6 mill. t (10.6%).

It is worth noting that Brazil and China shared almost exactly one third in the production growth. The highest relative increase showed Russia (127.0%), Myanmar (120.3%), Turkey (98.3%) and India (90.6%). While Turkey produced more than the domestic demand and exported chicken meat, the growth in the other countries was mainly a result of the increasing domestic demand.

- july/august 2020 -

25

MARKETING

The extraordinary dynamics in Myanmar, it had a parallel in egg production, was caused by investments of the Thai CP group. The company installed vertically integrated companies according to systems in Thailand. Russia expanded its chicken meat production very fas to compensate the decrease in pig meat which resulted from the outbreaks of African Swine Fever.

Table 5 — Average slaughter weight of chickens in the 18 CLC in 2018, data in kg (Source: own calculations based on FAO data, own additions).

Country Japan

2018 2.8

USA

2.7

Argentina

2.4

Brazil

2.4

A comparison of the composition and ranking of the leading countries in 2008 and 2018 shows some interesting changes. In 2018, Spain, France and Canada were no longer members of the top group. They were replaced by Malaysia, Myanmar and Peru.

Peru

2.1

Malaysia

2.0

Columbia

2.0

Russia

1.8

Turkey

1.8

Mexico

1.8

The USA was able to defend its first rank but lost 3.9% of its former share. Brazil surpassed China and could increase its contribution to global chicken meat production by 0.5% while China lost 1.1%. Russia surpassed India and Mexico and gained 1.5%. India was also one of the winners with an increase of 0.8%; on the other hand, Mexico lost 0.3%. A wide jump made Malaysia from 19th rank in 2008 to 11th rank ten years later.

South Africa

1.8

Un. Kingdom

1.5

Thailand

1.5

China

1.4

India

1.4

Myanmar

1.3

Iran

1.2

Indonesia

0.9

18 countries

1.7

World

1.7

Slaughter weights differed considerably A comparison of the development of the average slaughter weights of chickens between 2008 and 2018 shows that they increased from 1.51 kg to 1.60 kg, in the 18 CLC from 1.55 kg to 1.71 kg. A trend towards higher birds is obvious. Table 5 shows considerable differences between the countries.

Higher slaughter weights document the consumer preference of cut up parts over whole birds (Japan, USA, Brazil). Lower slaughter weights resulted from the preference of whole birds in meals but also from slow growing local breeds in less developed countries (India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand).

of the consumers of cut up parts over whole birds. This is not the case, however, in several less developed countries.

The main winners in the documented dynamics in chicken meat production were Brazil, Russia, Turkey, India and Indonesia. The USA and China could also increase their production, but they, nevertheless, lost shares in the global production.

Data source and suggestions for further reading FAO database: www.faostat.org.

Summary The dynamics in global chicken meat production between 2008 and 2018 was reflected in the development in the 18 CLC. The relative growth of the production volume in these countries reached 40.5%, only 27.6% in contrast in chicken slaughter. This indicates a trend towards higher average slaughter weights and the increasing preference

26

Windhorst, H.-W.: Globale Dynamik von Geflügel. Weltweite Analyse der Jahre 2006 bis 2016 in der Geflügelfleischerzeugung. In Fleischwirtschaft 99 (2019), Nr. 2, S. 30-32.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Die Zeichen stehen auf Wachstum.

Analyse des Handels der vier wichtigsten Geflügelfleischarten im Jahr 2017. In: Fleischwirtschaft 100 (2020), Nr. 3, S. 21-24.

- marketing -

MARKETING

Proven Product Performance

Hendrix Genetics is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading breeder and distributor of white and brown laying hens. Via our balanced breeding program we breed 1st Quality Hens that produce 1st Quality Eggs. Our laying hens have proven themselves to perform in traditional and alternative production systems under different climatic conditions. Different global regions have unique conditions and require a tailored solution. We offer a regional approach for each market by providing six different layer brands: ISA, Bovans, Dekalb, Hisex, Shaver and Babcock.

layinghens.hendrix-genetics.com layinghens@hendrix-genetics.com

- july/august 2020 -

27

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Intra Chickpaper: double grip prevents legs to slip

Less injury leads to higher efficiency and welfare

Marc Spackler, MSc Robbert van Berkel, MSc www.intracare.nl info@intracare.nl

28

Splayed legs in chicks is a condition that occurs in newly hatched chicks. It is caused by a weakness or injury in the tendons of the feet and legs. When evident at hatch, the causes may be due to a poor chick position inside the egg or an improper incubator temperature.

The most common cause for day-old chicks is when a brooder floor is too slippery and the young baby chickâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s legs slip, causing tendon injury in the legs.

The surface of Intra Chickpaper is specially developed with more texture, to give the chick an optimal grip with its feet.

- technical column -

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Splayed legs can involve one leg, although typically it affects both, and causing them to extend outward to the sides of the chickâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body. The severity ranges from mild to severe, and often may take a couple of weeks until it becomes obvious.

There are a number of different reasons why chicks can develop splayed legs, such as fluctuations during incubation (high humidity or any temperature fluctuations), hatching-related (too high or low temperature of the incubator during hatching) or an inadequate diet for breeders.

However, the main cause of a development in chicks after hatching is a slippery floor surface, particularly in their first few days. It may be that a chick with slightly crooked toes cannot stay balanced properly resulting in the development of splayed legs, but more commonly it will be caused by a smooth slippery surface. When the condition is so severe that the chicks are unable to walk, it puts them at high risk of starvation.

It has been estimated that 2-6% of all broilers display some observable signs of skeletal problems, while many more will be affected in a less visible way.

During the first period chicks require a floor surface that provides them with adequate traction to move around, otherwise it causes their legs to slide out from underneath them and prevents them from developing their leg muscles and tendons properly.

Anti-slip ensures stability and safety from the start The number one priority, when choosing bedding, is providing enough support for proper leg and feet development in your chicks. Chicks grow fast, and if they have a firm ground to walk on without slipping, it supports to prevent permanent leg and feet issues.

In humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s everyday life also several measures have been taken to prevent slipping accidents. For example, toddlers that just started making their own first steps on laminate or tile floor can be helped tremendously with anti-slip socks.

Also the anti-slip mat in the shower is a clear example of a household aid that increases the friction between 2 surfaces.

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- july/august 2020 -

29

TECHNICAL COLUMN

The degree of friction between 2 contact surfaces can be expressed as the friction coefficient. For an object standing on a surface when the object is not sliding, this is called the “static friction coefficient (µ)”.

When a chick walks around its body is moving forward and a force is applied on the feet. The ground underneath the feet counteracts this force by providing friction and thereby prevents the chick to slip. The “pull force” is the force needed to make an object start moving when standing still and can be measured by a pulling force-meter.

Static friction coefficient = friction between 2 contact sufaces (red layer between chicken feet and floor)

Pull force = the force needed to move the object (= day-old chickof 45 gram)

Figure 1 – Visualises the static friction coefficient and pull force.

Thus, a high static friction coefficient between chicken feet and the floor means the ground is better able to oppose the forces of a moving chick, and will therefore result in a lower risk of slipping. As examples, the friction coefficient of a ski on snow is at 0.14 and for silk on silk 0.23, while for a horse-

Pull force (in gram) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Plastic

Craft paper Newspaper Chickpaper Chickpaper Chickpaper Power Regular Strong

Graph 1 – Shows the values for the static pull force for 6 different surfaces.

oped roughing of Intra Chickpaper provides the chicken legs an optimal grip. The static friction coefficients for the Intra Chickpapers are relatively high (on average at 0.56), while Plastic, Craft paper and Newspaper are lower in a range around 0.27. The graph with pull forces shows that Intra Chickpaper requires a relatively high force of around 25 gram to shift the chick from its place. The other 3 floor types Plastic, Craft paper and Newspaper already start moving around a force of 12.5 gram. Surfaces such as craft paper, plastic or newspaper should better not be used in the brood-

“In general leg abnormalities probably cause more economic losses than any other single abnormality in the chicken house” shoe on concrete it is much higher at 0.67 and a car tire on dry asphalt is even 0.72.

In Table 1 below the static friction coefficient and in Graph 1 the pull force of 6 different surfaces are compared mutually. These surfaces are: Plastic, Craft paper, Newspaper and the 3 types of Intra Chickpaper: Power, Regular and Strong.

The chicken’s weight, as test object, was standardised at 45 gram. The graphs clearly show that the specially develTable 1 – The values for the static friction coefficient for 6 different surfaces respectively.

er. On these surfaces the chicks don’t get sufficient grip.

Furthermore they do not well absorb the first droppings of urine and manure, tend to get packed and mouldy as well.

Based on a new innovative technology the surface of Intra Chickpaper has been developed with optimal texture. It has been roughed to meet the important criteria to give the chicken feet and legs an optimal stability, grip and safety. It can be concluded that upon using Intracare’s Chickpapers there is at least a 2 times lower risk on slipping compared to newspaper, craft paper and plastic.

Static friction coefficient (µ) Plastic

0.22

Craft paper

0.27

Newspaper

0.33

Intra Chickpaper Power

0.50

Intra Chickpaper Regular

0.56

Intra Chickpaper Strong

0.61

30

Figure 2 – Day-old chicken stable on Intra Chickpaper and a microscope photo of Intra Chickpaper clearly showing the rougher surface.

- technical column -

TECHNICAL COLUMN

YOUR TURNKEY SOLUTION. HIGH QUALITY SINCE 1963

Our reliability and efficiency have enabled us to be internationally recognized over the years.

Our poultry sheds are manufactured with the best materials by offering better living environment for the animals.

Our equipment provide a high level of productivity and durability.

Our 50 years of history.

Our quality stands in the detail - Since 1963.

Thanks to all our worldwide customers.

SPEROTTO S.p.A. - POULTRY SHEDS AND EQUIPMENT - july/august - 461700 - Fax +39 0444 461710 Via Luigi Galvani, 6 - 36066 Sandrigo (VI) Italy Tel2020 +39 0444 info@sperotto-spa.com - www.sperotto-spa.com

31

MANAGEMENT

Best practice in biosecurity

How to effectively manage and reinforce best practice in biosecurity on broiler farms This article examines best practice in broiler production, focusing specifically on biosecurity. How do farms promote robust biosecurity when sites can vary so much in size, operational capacity, and budgetary allowance?

Biosecurity is widely understood as a critical part of effective poultry production within the industry, with effective management preventing the spread of external disease which, if not stopped, can severely impact a farm’s bottom line.

This is summed up well by Daniel Dring, Poultry Welfare Officer at PD Hook Group, who urged poultry farmers to take biosecurity seriously at the 2015 UK Poultry Health and Welfare Group (PHWG) AI roadshow in Perth, Scotland: “You shouldn’t underestimate the cost of an outbreak.

It can be anywhere from £500,000 to £10m. You, as the producer, pick up the cost for secondary cleansing and disinfection and face not being able to operate for a significant period of time.”1 1 www.fwi.co.uk/livestock/poultry/health/uk-bird-flu-costs-hit-50m-poultry-health-roadshow-told

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Biosecurity is a broad term, so much so that it risks being unspecific. What does it mean for the individual grower?

According to Neal Samet, Product Manager at Livetec Systems, it’s essential that poultry farms take the time to occasionally refresh themselves on its basic principles. “Too often we have seen the devastating impact of disease on farms,” says Neal. “We have to make sure strong biosecurity runs through the farm at all levels, not just in the sheds, to avoid the tragedy of an outbreak. Taking the time to review your farm setup goes a long way towards doing so.”

Critical points Detailed plans for biosecurity are created based around critical control points. All farms have these principle zones that are designed to control movement, and allow for the enforcement of strong biosecurity measures.

The division of these can be seen in the Diagram 1. Each blue box represents control points between the zones.

Diagram 1 – Critical Points. Each blue box represents control points between the zones. The rings each denote a different zone of risk, from green (low risk) to the central orange zone (high risk). Each control point has specific reinforcements that can be established for stronger biosecurity.

Farm Gate Perimeter Control Point (PCP) As the main access to the farm, this is ground zero for most threats. However, each farm’s layout is different, making it unlikely that the PCP can act as the first biosecurity control point. Regardless, some universal measures can establish best practice for biosecurity, even at this point. All visitor and staff cars should be parked in this first area, and signs placed instructing delivery drivers, or visitors to the Poultry Unit, who they should contact, where they should sign in and where the biosecurity control point is located. If there is more than one entrance, these should be locked and not permit any visitors.

Internal Ancillary Area Biosecurity Control Point (ACP) This should be the singular point of access to the Poultry Unit on the farm. Only essential vehicles (such as feed wagons) and personnel should be allowed in the area. There should be separate pedestrian and vehicle control points, where entrants change into site boots, sign in and, if possible, shower. Vehicle entry should be via concrete with a wash-water collection system. A clean and dry place should be provided for changing boots and overalls, in addition to washing and disinfecting equipment and vehicles.

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MANAGEMENT

Shed Entry Live Bird Control Point (LBCP)

This diligence should extend to employees too. All employ-

The floor surface must be kept clean at all times, with no rubbish or clutter. Regular cleaning must be performed on both sides of the barrier. All visitors should wear overalls over their outside clothing and, if possible, wear hair nets and wash their hands using provided facilities. A barrier system of at least 30 cm with a seat should be provided for changing from site boots to shed boots. Site boots should never touch the shed side floor nor should shed boots ever touch the site side floor. The above diagram breaks down the farm into manageable areas, allowing us to better understand how a possible disease could pass through a farm, and how best to prevent it.

“Starting from PCP through to the Live Bird Area, which points along the way will your biosecurity measures halt a disease in its tracks?” asks Neal. “Where are your weak points? Consider your biosecurity from the outside in. Imagine a delivery driver comes to the farm who is unknowingly contaminated. From PCP through to the Live Bird Area, mark areas of improvement and implement changes. The investments are worth it – weak biosecurity ultimately costs the farm much more.”

ees should avoid potential contaminants. This includes poultry at home (parrots fall under this classification), visits to parks, zoos and pet stores and taking part in game shoots.

Biosecurity must always come first and form an ingrained part of your business’ working culture.

At every possible occasion, farms should be made unattractive to rodents and pests. This means keeping areas tidy, cleaning up any feed spills, controlling weeds, and never leaving old machinery or rubbish lying around the site.

Similarly, cleansing and disinfection is important practice for robust biosecurity. “Under practical farming conditions site sterilization is impossible,” says Dr Amro. “However, every measure which helps reduce the risk of infection is worthwhile. Sound biosecurity makes it more likely to obtain successful breeder production results.”

Technological advances have made strengthening overall biosecurity a simpler process for poultry farms, including on site cameras, boot tagging, and remote control access.

Naturally, these require financial investment, and may not be accessible to all farms. Even simple technology, like coded door locks, can go a long way to preventing unauthorized

Managing risk effectively

access to biosecure areas.

The work does not stop at control points. As Dr Hosam Amro, Senior Manager Technical Service at Cobb Europe, puts it: “Farm sanitation is key to establishing and maintaining a healthy breeder flock. The first step is a multifaceted cleaning plan which includes a rigid set of principles, good husbandry and management practices as well as a clear employee understanding of the importance of the cleaning process.”

Planning for the future If there is a breach in biosecurity and your farm is compromised, how do you deal with it? Poultry farms can be hit hard by disease, but it’s important not to wait until disaster strikes.

Instead, be proactive and develop a contingency plan for mitigating the damage and getting your business turned

Poultry farms must adopt a holistic and proactive approach to biosecurity that encompasses every level of their farm, from employee behaviour through to surroundings and contingency planning.

around as speedily as possible.

“Every poultry farm has levels of risk to manage,” says Neal.

“Having visibility and knowledge into your operations – and those areas in which you’re likely to be vulnerable – is key.

For example, best practice would include establishing a 3 kilometre radius away from risks like other poultry units, pig units, public rights of way, and bodies of water or wetlands that could attract wild birds. Without proper oversight, these areas can go unnoticed and weaken an otherwise secure biosecurity programme.”

have a plan for what to do if an area is compromised. Plan

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“Every element should be planned for,” adds Neal. “Biosecurity is the strongest safeguard we have, but no farm is infallible. Taking protective measures can limit outbreaks but for the worst but do all you can to ensure it never happens.”

“The smallest thing can bring disease onto a farm. Creating a robust biosecurity strategy from the outside in is essential for keeping your flock healthy and business thriving. Take a step back, review your current practices and make the necessary improvements. You are your own best line of defence when practicing strong biosecurity.”

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Targeted approaches to achieving good litter quality • Approximately 55% is deposited into the litter in the form of faeces.

• Litter humidity is a function of ambient air humidity.

• The ideal air humidity inside the shed should be between 50 & 65%.

Other management factors include: • Raw materials: Good litter materials should be dry, absorbent, and friable, provide insulation and be free from contaminants. Wood shavings and chopped straw are commonly used litter materials for turkeys. A comparison of litter materials is shown in Table 1.

Turkeys spend their life in close contact with litter material. The aim is to establish and maintain good, dry litter conditions and an environment free from dust to reduce footpad dermatitis, respiratory stress and carcass downgrades.

Whilst health, nutrition and genetics play important roles in achieving good litter quality, there are many practical management techniques to control litter moisture content to promote bird welfare and achieve good commercial performance.

Management factors influencing litter quality Turkeys are responsible for most of the water in a poultry house. For every kg of feed a turkey eats it will drink approximately two kilograms of water. Most of this water ends up in the air or litter of the house.

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• Approximately 45% of the water is exhaled into the air as water vapour.

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• Litter depth and floor insulation: Fresh litter should be used for each crop to prevent re-infection by pathogens.

When using wood shavings, litter depth should be at least 6–8 cm for summer placements and 10 cm for winter placements. Where underfloor heating is used, litter depth can be reduced. Litter should be spread evenly throughout the house and smoothed to level within the brooding rings.

• Stocking density: National laws must be observed. It is important not to exceed the number of birds the housing quality, the climate and local management conditions may tolerate.

• Temperature and humidity: Litter humidity can be managed by modifying house temperature, heating, ventilation rate, addition of new litter and spray cooling systems.

• Ventilation: Ventilation systems need to be managed to be even throughout the house. Air entering the building should arrive warm and dry on the turkeys and litter.

• Lighting: An even light distribution ensures a good spread of the turkeys, helping to achieve even litter quality. The

MANAGEMENT

correct light intensity will stimulate bird activity and encourage them to work the litter.

• Drinker management: Use the correct number and type of drinkers. Set drinker height and water level correctly.

It is important to avoid the litter becoming wet and caked in the first week of life. The objective is to have the bird’s feet completely clean and dry. This can be achieved by: • Routinely moving feeding and drinker equipment to different positions if possible.

• Remove wet or caked litter and move and mix up the remaining litter.

• Adding fresh litter material and mixing with the older litter.

As the birds get older, the management of the litter must continue as a routine: • Raise the lines of feeders and drinkers as the turkeys grow.

• Work the litter often (i.e. every day or every time there is a need) to avoid the formation of crusty or wet areas especially around drinker and feeder lines or add new litter material.

• Wet areas of litter means that the intervention has come too late and regular litter management must become more frequent.

Drinker management • Have the right number and kind of drinkers.

• Set the correct height of the drinkers (for bell drinkers this should be at the shoulder level of the birds).

• Set the right level of the water in the drinkers (birds should drink without problems and not be required to spend too much time at the drinker to be satisfied).

• Clean and disinfect the drinkers often.

• Move the drinkers regularly (bell kind) avoiding the formation of typical “donuts”.

Management of nipple type drinkers The height of the drinker lines should be set correctly: • Not too low as birds may move or damage the drinkers with their body.

• Not too high as birds will rely too much on the plate and cause water leakage.

• Be aware that the slope of the floor in the shed can affect pressure and water distribution. The drinker lines must be level even if the floor is not.

Chopped Straw.

Ventilated wood shavings.

• Ensure the lines are set the correct distance from feeders and lateral walls (minimum 2 metres).

Control ventilation Optimal management of the ventilation system through heater, fan and inlet adjustment will remove excess moisture, ammonia and dust and provide an environment in which litter can be managed and the health of the turkey’s feet and respiratory system can be enhanced.

Table 1 – Characteristics of different materials used as litter.

From 1 = Low To 5 = High

Cost

Insulating Capacity

Dustiness

Workability

Absorbent Capacity

Entire Straw

1

4

1

1

1

Chopped Straw*

2

5

2

3

1-2

Defibred and Chopped Straw

3

5

3

3

2

Ventilated Wood Shavings*

4

5

2

4

4

Sawdust

3

3

5

3

5

Cocunut Fibre

5

2

1

2

2

Cocunuts Midollo

5

3

5

4

5

Rice Hulls

2

2

2

5

1

(*Most commonly used litter materials).

Dust Litter can sometimes create problems associated with high levels of dust. This is quite typical in summer or even in specific areas during winter where the humidity can be very low. At these times: • Choose the right litter material. Sawdust can be very dusty, but straw can reduce it.

• Cool the turkeys using water spray systems, which helps to control dust and increase humidity.

• Adjust ventilation; an excess of ventilation causes a decrease of environmental humidity (and of litter moisture), with a consequent increase in the formation of dust.

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S. Gómez-Rosales A,B, M. L. Angeles A, L. H. López-Hernández A, Y.R. López-Garcia A, A. Domínguez-Negrete B A National

Center of Disciplinary Research in Animal Physiology, National Institute of Research in Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock, Mexico B

Faculty of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Mexico

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Effect of the type of diet and the addition of humic substances as growth promoter in broiler chickens In recent years, humis substances have been tested as growth promoters in animal production and are one of the promising options to face the globally ban of antibiotics in feeds.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the productive parameters, carcass yield, histopathology and microbiology of the small intestine and liver in broilers fed diets added with an extract of humic substances (EHS) and with low and high fiber content (LF and HF).

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Introduction In veterinary medicine, humic substances (HS) have been used as antidiarrheal agents, pain relievers, immunomodulators and antimicrobials, after the recommendations of the Veterinary Committee of the European Medicine Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products (EMEA, 1999). Humic substances are part of humus-soil organic matter, and are compounds arising from the physical, chemical and microbiological transformation (humification) of biomolecules. Approximately 80% of the total carbon in terrestrial media and 60% of the carbon dissolved in aquatic media are made up of HS; hence they are a complex mixture of many different acids containing carboxyl and phenolate groups.

In broiler chickens and laying hens, growth-promoting effects of HS when supplemented in the feeds or drinking water have been documented. In broiler chickens, improvements in body weight, feed conversion, ash content of the tibia, ash retention and digestibility, as well as reduction in crypt depth and increased length of the villi of the jejunal mucosa due to the inclusion of HS have been reported. Most of the HS tested in poultry are commercially available or purified products. It is well known that wormcomposts originating from animal manures are also good sources of HS. In a previous study, it was found that the addition of an extract of HS (EHS) from a worm compost reduced the mucosal permeability and the bacterial translocation to

DRINKERS

TRANSPORT CAGES

the liver of broiler chickens experiencing feed restriction; the feed restriction model was used to cause intestinal inflammation. These responses were not observed in non-challenged broilers or under in vitro conditions. One of the proposed mechanisms of action of HS is related to their ability to create protective layers over the epithelial mucosal membrane of the digestive tract against toxic and bacterial contaminated substances. Whether this mechanism is involved in the enhanced growth through the reduction of the microbial load and lesion scores in broilers added with HS is unknown. The objective of this study was to evaluate the productive parameters, carcass yield, histopathology and microbiology of the small intestine and liver of broilers fed with low fiber (LF) content and high fiber (HF) content diets and added with an EHS.

Materials and methods The isolation and extraction of the EHS from worm compost was performed as described by Maguey-Gonzalez et al. in 2018. A group of 240 Ross 308 male broilers were allocated in holding cages (30 cm wide x 38 cm deep x 37 cm height) providing 1140 cm2/bird from 21 to 42 d of age. Cages were arranged in batteries and were provided with gas heaters, equipped with a plastic feeder and a cup waterer.

Birds were randomly assigned to three treatments: PC) Positive control added with bacitracin methylene disalicy-

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late as antibiotic growth promoter (AGP) and salinomycin as anticoccidial drug (AC); NC) Negative control without AGP and AC drug; EHS) Same as NC) but added with 0.5% of EHS, and two set of diets with low and high fiber content (LF and HF). The LF diet was formulated with corn and soybean meal and the HF was formulated with corn, soybean meal, distillers dried grain with solubles and wheat bran. Feed and water were offered ad libitum throughout the experiment. Broilers were weighed at the beginning and end of the trial to calculate the daily weight gain (WG, g/d). Feed offered and refused was registered to calculate the daily feed intake (FI, g/d). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was estimated by dividing the FI between the WG. At the end of the trial, all broilers were killed and the carcass and breast were weighed.

For measurement of microbiota, digesta from the jejunum and ceca were taken as well as liver samples from six broilers per treatment. The total mesophilic bacteria (TMB) were determined using the standard plate count method. Counts of viable E. coli in the samples were conducted by plating serial 10-fold dilutions onto MacConkey agar plates. Counts of viable Lactobacillus (LAC) in the jejunum samples were also conducted using lactobacilli medium III agar plates. The E. coli and LAC plates were incubated for 24 h, both under aerobic conditions.

Colonies on each agar plate were expressed as colony-forming units per gram (log10 CFU/g). In the jejunum samples, the total fungi and yeast were also cultured on Sabouraud glucose agar with chloramphenicol and incubated at 37 °C for 48 h.

One-cm samples from the duodenum, lower jejunum and liver were taken from six broilers per treatment for histopathologic evaluations; the tissues were stained and the histopathological changes were observed under light microscope by an experienced avian veterinarian who was blind to treatment allocations. Based upon severity of the lesions, a score of 0 (no lesions), 1 (mild lesions), 2 (moderate lesions), 3 (severe lesions) or 4 (extremely severe lesions) were recorded for each chicken. The total number of lesion scores were recorded per each tissue per treatment. Additionally, the severity of lesion, from 0 to 4, was calculated as the sum of lesion scores in the three tissues (duodenum, jejunum, and liver).

The results were subjected to ANOVA. The number of lesions and severity of lesion scores were transformed to log10 before the analysis.

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Results and discussion The FI was higher (P<0.05) in NC- and EHS-fed broilers compared to broilers fed the PC diet.

The higher FI in EHS-fed broilers do not agree with previous results in which no effect or reductions on the FI have been reported in broiler chickens fed different products containing HS. In EHS-fed broilers receiving a LF diet, the lowest FCR was observed, which closely resembles the lower FCR reported by other authors when HS were supplemented either in the feeds or in the drinking water of broiler chickens.

On the other hand, EHS-fed broilers assigned to a HF diet showed higher FCR, which could be attributed to the higher intake of NSPs, which increases digesta viscosity and reduces the dietary digestibility contributing to undesirable fermentations in the intestine. This effect was probably aggravated due to the colloidal properties and the ability of HS to form aggregates within solutions.

The TMB and E. coli counts were lower (P<0.01) in the jejunum and ceca of PC broilers compared to NC and EHS-fed broilers; the TMB and E. coli in jejunum and ceca were similar between NC and EHS broilers. These results do not agree with previous reports based on in vitro and in vivo assays in which different sources of HS showed antimicrobial activity against many human pathogenic bacteria, as well as inhibition of S. aureus, Candida, E. coli and S. Enteritidis.

It was also reported that broiler chickens fed diets with HS showed lower E. coli counts in the intestinal content.

Opposite to this, the coliforms and E. coli counts in the caecum were not affected in broilers added with humates.

In the liver, the E. coli counts were not different among treatments; but the TMB counts were similar in broilers fed the LF diet, whilst in broilers fed the HF diet the TMB were higher in EHS compared to PC broilers (Interaction of treatment and type of diet, P<0.01). This finding is also opposite to the lower bacterial translocation found in the liver of broilers fed a HS extracted from the same worm compost as the EHS used in the present study.

The LAB counts were higher in PC and NC compared to EHS-fed broilers (P<0.05). In previous studies, a lack of response or increased LAC counts were reported in broilers supplemented with HS. The fungi were similar among treatments but the yeast were lower in EHS- com-

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pared to NC-fed broilers, while yeast in PC broilers were intermediate.

the EHS did not reduce the overall lesions compared to the PC and NC groups.

The number of lesions in duodenum were highest (P<0.05) in broilers receiving the EHS and were lowest in NC broilers, whereas in the jejunum the lesions were highest (P<0.05) in PC broilers and were lowest in EHSfed broilers. In liver, the number of lesions were higher (P<0.05) in NC broilers compared to PC and EHS-fed broilers; no differences in the lesion number were observed between PC- and EHS-fed broilers.

Regarding the diet effect, it was found that the final body weight, FI, WG, and the breast and carcass weight were higher (P<0.05) in LF-fed broilers; however, the TMB and LAB counts, the number of lesions in liver and the frequency of score 3 lesions were higher (P<0.05) in HF-fed broilers. When chickens are fed alternative ingredients such as distillers dried grain with solubles and wheat bran that are high in non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs), poor performance and unmanageable litter conditions caused by sticky droppings are observed. High dietary NSPs increases the digesta viscosity and reduces the digestibility and contributes to undesirable fermentations in the intestine and, hence to higher bacterial counts and bacterial translocation to the liver. Higher digesta viscosity was also reported in broilers fed a source of HS fed a LF diet; from this finding it was expected that broilers on the EHS treatment and fed a HF diet would show impaired growth responses, higher microbiological counts and higher lesion scores in all tissues. This assumption was only supported by the higher TMB counts in the liver of EHS-fed broilers receiving a HF diet.

These findings do not agree with the microbiological analysis in which the PC broilers had reduced TMB and E. coli counts in duodenum, jejunum and liver compared to EHS-fed broilers. The results of the severity of lesion, indicates that there were no statistical differences among treatments in the frequency of score 0, or no lesions, based in the sum of lesion in the duodenum, jejunum, and liver.

The frequency of score 1 (mild lesion) was higher (P<0.05) in NC broilers compared to PC and EHS-fed broilers. The frequency of score 2 (moderate lesions) was higher (P<0.05) in EHS-fed broilers compared to PC and NC broilers. The frequency of score 3 (severe lesions) were higher (P<0.05) in PC- compared to NC- and EHSfed broilers. Score 4, extremely severe lesions, were not detected in any tissue.

One of the proposed mechanisms of action of HS is related to the ability to create protective layers over the epithelial mucosal membrane of the digestive tract against toxic and bacterial contaminated substances; however, the results of the number and severity of lesion do not support this suggestion because the supplementation of

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In summary, the addition of the EHS in broiler chickens fed a LF diet improved the FCR, but did not reduce the counts of TMB and E. coli in jejunum, ceca and liver nor diminish the number and severity of lesion in duodenum, jejunum and liver.

References available on request From the 68th Western Poultry Disease Conference Proceeedings

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E.U. Ahiwe¹, M. Alqahtani1, M.E. Abdallh¹, E.P. Chang¹, H. Gausi¹, H. Graham² and P.A. Iji13 ¹School of Environmental & Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, Australia ²AB Vista Marlborough, Wiltshire, SN8 4AN, UK ³College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Fiji National University, Koronivia, Fiji

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Effects of yeast and its derivatives on meat yield and hematological indices of broiler chickens challenged with Salmonella lipopolysaccharide The present experiment was designed to determine the effects of yeast and its derivatives on meat yield and hematological indices of broiler chickens challenged with Salmonella lipopolysaccharide, a component of Salmonella bacterial cell wall.

Eight diets based on maize and soybean were offered to 432 Ross 308 broiler chickens in a 35 days experiment. Each dietary group had six replicates having nine birds each. The eight

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

treatments groups consisted of a negative control (NC) (without supplementation and not challenged); positive control (PC) (without supplementation + LPS challenged); whole yeast + LPS challenged (WYC); yeast cell wall + LPS challenged (YCWC); yeast glucan + LPS challenged (YGC); yeast manno-protein + LPS challenged (YMPC); zinc bacitracin + LPS challenged (ZNBC); Salinomycin + LPS challenged (SalC). All yeast treatments were included at 2 g/kg diet while zinc bacitracin and Salinomycin were included at 0.03 and 0.05 g/kg diet, respectively.

At d24, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and counts of eosinophils, neutrophils, basophils, red blood cell, hemoglobin and platelets were not significantly affected (P>0.05) by LPS challenge.

Birds in the PC group had approximately 25% (P<0.05) increase in the white blood cell (WBC) count compared to birds in the NC group. However, supplementation with WYC, YCWC YGC, YMPC, and ZNBC, resulted to a lower (P<0.05) WBC count compared to birds in the PC group. Birds in the SalC and PC groups had similar (P>0.05) WBC counts. Relative to birds in the NC group, birds in the PC group had increased (P<0.05) lymphocyte and monocyte counts of 20% and 26%, respectively.

The WYC, YCWC, YGC, YMPC and ZNBC-supplemented groups had lower (P<0.05) lymphocyte count of 12% and monocyte count of 13%, compared to birds in the PC group. However, it was observed that birds in the SalC group had similar lymphocyte and monocyte counts to birds in the PC group. Dressing %, the weight of breast, thighs and drumsticks at d35 were depressed by LPS inoculation by approximately 14, 21, 14 and 3.5% (P<0.05) in the PC group compared to the NC group. However, supplementation with WY, YCW, YG, YMP, ZNB and Sal in the challenged groups improved (P<0.05) the dressing %, weight of the breast, thighs and drumsticks relative to the PC group. This present study shows that whole yeast and its derivatives can improve meat yield of broilers and, through its effect on white blood cell, lymphocyte and monocyte counts, may be associated with an amelioration of stress induced by Salmonella lipopolysaccharide in broiler chickens. This study also shows that autolyzed yeast, yeast cell wall, and its enzymatically hydrolyzed components when supplemented at 2g/kg diet may serve as a suitable alternative to in-feed antibiotics in broiler production. The non-therapeutic use of antibiotics in animal feed has been banned in some regions of the world and there are restrictions on the use of some products

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ŠExplore yeast

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in other countries, including Australia (APVMA, 2017).

This has led to a search for alternatives to antibiotics for use in poultry production. Yeasts and their by-products have been identified as potential alternatives to antibiotics. In a recent study, we demonstrated the positive effect of dietary supplementation with yeast and its derivatives supplemented at different levels of inclusion on healthy broiler chickens. In the current study, we tested the efficacy of whole yeast, yeast cell, yeast glucan and yeast mannoprotein in protecting broiler chickens that were challenged with a lipopolysacharide (LPS) extract from the cell wall of Salmonella Typhimurium, a gram-negative bacterium.

Exposure of healthy chickens to LPS has been shown to induce immunogenic response, non-specific inflammation and toxicity, leading to stress, poor body weight gain and reduced meat yield. Furthermore, Xie et al. (2000), reported that LPS challenge increased white blood cell (WBC), lymphocyte (LYM) and eosinophil (EOS) counts and several other hematological indices in broiler chickens.

The author suggested that the increase in these hematological parameters may be part of the reason for the stress and poor performance observed in birds treated with LPS. Yeast and several prebiotics have been reported to ameliorate the effect of stress on different

44

parameters of broiler chickens. However, to the best of our knowledge, research on the effect of yeast and its components on meat yield and hematological indices of broilers challenged with Salmonella lipopolysaccharide is scarce. Hence the need for this study.

Materials and methods Eight diets based on maize and soybean were offered to 432 Ross 308 broiler chickens from d0 to d35. Each dietary group had six replicates having nine birds each.

The eight treatment groups consisted of a negative control (NC) (without supplementation and not challenged); positive control (PC) (without supplementation + LPS challenged); whole yeast + LPS challenged (WYC); yeast cell wall + LPS challenged (YCWC); yeast glucan + LPS challenged (YGC); yeast manno-protein + LPS challenged (YMPC); zinc bacitracin + LPS challenged (ZNBC); Salinomycin + LPS challenged (SalC). All yeast treatments were included at 2 g/kg diet while zinc bacitracin and Salinomycin were included at 0.03 and 0.05 g/kg diet, respectively. Except for the NC group that was only inoculated with 3 ml (0.9% saline suspension), birds in the other groups were inoculated with 3 ml LPS (made up as 100 Âľg/ml in 0.9 % saline) intraperitoneally on days 13, 15 and 17.

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Results and discussions The results showed that, at d24, the mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, and counts of eosinophils, neutrophils, basophils, red blood cell, haemoglobin and platelets were not significantly affected (P>0.05) by LPS challenge. Relative to birds on the NC group, birds in the PC group had approximately 25 % (P<0.05) increase in the white blood cell (WBC) count. However, supplementation with WY, YCW YG, YMP, and ZNB to the challenged group led to a lower (P<0.05) WBC count relative to birds in the PC group.

Birds in the SalC group had similar (P>0.05) WBC counts to birds in the PC group. Compared to birds in the NC group, birds in the PC group had increased (P<0.05) lymphocyte and monocyte counts of 20% and 26%, respectively. The WYC, YCWC, YGC, YMPC and ZNBC-supplemented groups had lower (P<0.05) lymphocyte count (12 %), and monocyte count (13%), compared to birds in the PC group. However, it was observed that birds on the SalC group had similar lymphocyte and monocyte counts to birds in the PC group. Wang et al. (2016) also observed that live yeast could alleviate LPS-induced inflammation, haematological indices and stress in broilers at d27.

Dressing %, the weight of breast, thighs and drumsticks at d35, were depressed (P<0.05) by LPS inoculation by approximately 14, 21, 14 and 3.5 % in the PC group compared to the NC group. However, the dressing %, weight of the breast, thighs and drumsticks was improved (P<0.05) in the WYC, YCWC, YGC, YMPC, ZNBC and SalC groups relative to the PC group. This observation is in agreement with the findings of Faithi et al. (2012), who concluded that yeast culture supplemented at 1.5 g/kg improved carcass yield and humoral immunity of broilers under the stress of challenge with Newcastle disease.

The results of the present study show that supplementation with whole yeast and its derivatives can improve meat yield of broilers and, through its effects on white blood cell, lymphocyte and monocyte counts may be associated with an amelioration of stress induced by Salmonella lipopolysaccharide in broiler chickens. It can also be concluded that autolyzed yeast, yeast cell wall, and its enzymatically hydrolyzed components at 2g/kg diet may serve as a suitable alternative to in-feed antibiotics in broiler production.

Acknowledgement: Research was funded by AB Vista UK References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2019 Autralian Poultry Symposium

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Mycoplasma synoviae, a technical update Mycoplasma are the smallest free-living organisms both in size and number of genes, and unlike many other bacteria, they do not have a cell wall.

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ly in adverse environmental conditions like high ammonia, cold temperatures and dust.

MS-infected birds may be more reactive to live NDV and IBV vaccinations. MS has been implicated in the pathogenesis of E. coli-induced egg yolk peritonitis in layers.

There are two Mycoplasma species, Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and Mycoplasma synoviae (MS), which cause disease in chickens. MG is generally the more pathogenic species and causes major economic losses. MS is more widespread and is a common pathogen on multi-aged commercial layer farms.

Introduction Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) strains vary widely in their ability to cause disease, with many strains appearing mild. More pathogenic MS strains can produce significant respiratory disease, egg production loss, and joint infections in susceptible birds.

MS may not always be the primary pathogen and often occurs as a mixed infection with other respiratory pathogens, particularly Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Chronic respiratory disease from these mixed infections can become significant, particular-

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Clinical signs Mycoplasma synoviae in chickens commonly occurs as an infection of the upper respiratory tract and may present with slight rales (respiratory sounds) but is typically unnoticed (subclinical). With some strains of MS, there may be a progression from the acute to the chronic phase when the infection spreads to the joints (Images 1a, 1b).

Colonization of the joint tissue produces inflammation of the synovial membranes and tendons (exudative tenosynovitis), eventually resulting in lameness. Hock (tibial metatarsal) joints and foot pads are the primary areas involved, but other joints and the keel bone bursa may also be affected. This form can be seen in flocks as young as 4 weeks, but typically presents shortly after transfer of mature pullets to the laying farm (Images 2a, 2b).

Effect on egg production If the flock is exposed to MS during the rearing period, usually there is little effect on egg production. Flocks challenged during the laying period may experience a reduction in egg production and less collectable eggs. The egg production curve in a MS-positive flock can have a “rollercoaster” appearance, especially in flocks on a program of periodic antibiotic feed treatment.

Tenosynovitis resulting in lameness can fur-

VETERINARY SCIENCE

ther negatively affect egg production due to poor mobility to feed, water, and nests.

Effect on Eggshell Quality Recently, MS strains with oviduct tropism have emerged in commercial layers. Flocks infected with these strains of MS are observed with increased numbers of broken and cracked eggs. A characteristic eggshell defect on the apical end (pointed end) of the egg can be observed (Images 3a, 3b). The eggshell surface 2 cm from the apex of the egg is rough, with thinning and translucency described as glass eggs. Scanning electron microscopy shows that these eggshells lack the mammillary knob layer and part of the palisade layer.

Transmission Many avian species can carry and propagate MS, including chickens, turkeys, and most wild birds, especially Passeriformes (perching and songbirds). Horizontal

transmission of MS between birds occurs by direct contact with respiratory secretions, resulting in slow spread through the flock. The rate of spread through the flock is 1–4 weeks and largely dependent on the pathogenicity of the infectious strain, housing type, and environmental conditions. In general, mycoplasmas have a slow progression through a facility, but eventually will infect all birds in the flock. Not all infected birds will develop clinical signs of MS. Infected birds remain potential shedders, and even with antibiotic treatment the flock will likely remain infected and be lifelong carriers.

Vertical transmission is an important factor in the spread of MS. When a parent flock becomes infected, the highest rate of shedding occurs 4–6 weeks post infection.

Thereafter, the rate of vertical transmission to chicks usually decreases and may become intermittent, coinciding with periods of stress. Due to vertical transmission, most hatcheries around the world will depopulate breeder flocks if they become MS positive to avoid transmitting MS to commercial chick customers. Parent stock flocks are tested every 2-4 weeks to ensure if a flock turns positive,

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all eggs from that flock can be pulled from incubators or egg storage to ensure Mycoplasma free chicks.

Using hatching eggs from MS-positive breeder flocks is highly discouraged. If MS-positive parent flocks must be utilized, then the progeny should be hatched separately, and the destination farm isolated. Antibiotic treatment of the chicks for the first 2 weeks of life may also be indicated and increased monitoring is helpful.

MS can persist and remain infective for 2–3 days on feathers and various materials such as cotton, rubber, and wood.

Mycoplasma can be carried in the human nose. Its small size and weight allow it to be carried up to 8 km (5 mi) in the air on dust or dander particles. Work done on synthetic hair showed survival times of up to 9 days. Mycoplasmas can survive longer in water, soil, and in egg material.

Incubation period Incubation following contact exposure is typically 11–21 days. Chicks that are infected by vertical transmission typically show clinical signs of MS within a few days after hatching.

Images 2a, 2b — The foot is another common site for MS-induced tenosynovitis. Other joints and the synovial sac at the tip of the keel bone can also be affected.

Diagnosis Diagnosis of MS is based on observing clinical signs of respiratory disease and lameness. The clinical picture of the respiratory disease produced by MS is like that of other respiratory pathogens. The joint swelling and synovitis lesions produced by MS are like those produced by other bacteria like Staphylococcus. Apical eggshell abnormalities, when present, are suggestive of MS involvement. Finally, laboratory confirmation of MS infection is required for a definitive diagnosis.

Laboratory The focus on testing for Mycoplasma synoviae is different depending on the type of flock. For commercial

Images 1a, 1b — Swelling of the distal tibiotarsal joint (hock joint) due to tenosynovitis and exudate caused by certain strains of Mycoplasma synoviae. These lesions typically lead to lameness.

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birds, the goals are to see if vaccination was successful, when the flock seroconverts naturally, or to see if a negative flock status is maintained.

For all of these flocks, serological tests are more common to use. In parent stock flocks, because the goal is to remain negative, more sensitive and specific tests are recommended.

As a result, PCR is becoming the favored test, as the time for detection is more rapid and more accurate.

The common serological tests include serum plate agglutination test (SPA, RPA), hemagglutination inhibition (HI), and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), all of which measure MS-specific antibodies of different types. SPA detects IgM antibody, found 3–5 days after infection and can persist for up to 80 days. HI and ELISA detect IgG antibody, typically found 7–10 days after infection, which can persist for up to 6 months. All serological tests for MS may show a low level of false positive results. False positives are most commonly observed in young chicks and birds vaccinated with an oil-emulsion 2–4 weeks prior to the serum test. Serological tests should therefore only be utilized for screening purposes, and positive results must be followed by isolation or PCR testing for confirmation.

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Images 3a, 3b â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Apical eggshell defect caused by certain strains of Mycoplasma synoviae. The apical end of the eggshell (pointed end) becomes thin and more porous, resulting in fewer collectible eggs.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is becoming the preferred method to confirm MS infection in a flock. The test detects MS-specific DNA, which implies the MS organism was in the bird at the time of sampling. MS-specific PCR tests have high sensitivity and specificity. The test only takes a few hours to obtain a result and will detect MS infection before serological tests are able to pick up a positive. Due to this, many parent stock farms are now using PCR sampling for screening purposes. For this it is important to sample a minimum of 25 birds. The best samples should be taken from the birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s choanal cleft and/ or synovial membranes. An additional benefit to PCR testing is that specific DNA probes have been developed to differentiate MS field and vaccine strains. Culturing MS is most successful from acutely affected birds, becoming more difficult as the infection progresses. Samples include affected respiratory organs (trachea, air sacs, lungs, and sinuses). Should the birds display lameness, the affected synovial membranes and any exudate can be sampled.

Isolation of mycoplasma requires special culture media and technique taking several days for a result.Immunofluorescence tests on mycoplasma colonies is a rapid and reliable method of identification of MS.

Treatment In vitro antibiotic testing has shown MS to be sensitive to several antibiotics including aivlosin, tylosin, tiamulin, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, lincomycin, kitasamycin, enrofloxacin and danofloxacin. Repeated field use of any antibiotic increases the chance for bacteria to develop resistance; therefore, it is important to determine the sensitivity of the isolate(s) to several antibiotics before making an antibiotic selection for treatment. Antibiotic selection should always be made based upon local regulations and under the guidance of a veterinarian.

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Treatment of existing tenosynovitis is often unrewarding, as lameness occurs from irreversible scarring and inflammation of the synovial tissues and tendons. High doses of antibiotic are often required for the flock to respond on a meaningful level. Short, high-dose intervals of medication are preferred over long-term medication, as this increases the risk of developing resistance.

There is some field evidence that positive flocks can be treated into a fully negative status with high doses of continuous antibiotics together with strict biosecurity practices.

Effective biosecurity measures An analysis of the potential risks for introduction and spread of the disease should be carried out on each farm and procedures put in place to minimize this risk.

Some examples would include: • avoid multi-aged laying farms where older infected flocks can infect younger flocks. Remember that previously infected flocks will intermittently shed MS for their entire life; • distance from neighboring poultry should be maximized; • no poultry other than the current flock(s) should be allowed on the premises and employees should not have any interaction with poultry when not at work; • interaction with neighboring poultry should be prevented; • disinfect vehicles and equipment at point of entry of farm and/or site;

tamination. The antibodies developed in response to the MS vaccine appear to play a critical role in preventing infection. If there is an infection, the antibodies may help aid the recovery from a MS field challenge. Vaccinated flocks that encounter MS field strain show lower levels of infection (PCR field strain positives) compared to naïve flocks.

In addition, these vaccinated flocks have shown the ability to recover and even eliminate the field MS strain some weeks post challenge with the aid of medication, whereas the naïve flocks remain MS field positive.

For live vaccination to be effective, the birds must receive the vaccination before exposure to field strains. If early exposure is suspected or anticipated, it is advisable to protect the flock with prophylactic antibiotic treatment until the flock can be vaccinated.

Keep in mind that antibiotics should be withdrawn for an appropriate period (at least 7 days) before attempting to use live MS vaccine.

The MS-H vaccine requires eyedrop vaccination for best results. The vaccine is not stable at room or refrigeration temperatures and must be frozen at <-70 °C. Vaccination is often avoided by commercial producers because the vaccine has special requirements for storage and preparation. While these vaccine traits pose a challenge, with proper preparation, the process can be very successful.

The additional cost of vaccination should be considered, but costs to medicate an infected flock and the potential losses in production often far outweigh the cost of vaccination.

• personnel use of shower facilities for staff; • provide personal protective clothing and footwear which is cleaned and remains on farm; • use hygiene practices like washing and disinfection of hands between houses/barns; • control pests (wild birds and rodents) and prevent access to the poultry facilities; • dispose of mortality in an effective, timely manner; • use of solid floors and walls make cleaning and disinfection easier and more effective.

Vaccination Live MS vaccine reduces the shedding of pathogenic MS, which in turn decreases the level of environmental con-

50

Important points concerning the live MS-H vaccine • Application is accomplished by eye drop as early as 3 weeks of age; • immunity develops 3-4 weeks post vaccination; • the vaccine must be stored below -70 °C; • humoral antibody response to MS-H vaccination is relatively low and variable; • antibiotic at any time during the life of the flock after administration of the vaccine will reduce the efficacy, as it will kill the vaccine strain replicating in the respiratory tract; • the vaccine can be co-administered with other live respiratory vaccines; • the vaccine does not survive outside the bird but can spread horizontally to other birds in close contact; • no reversion to virulence; • the vaccine is not transmitted vertically and does not colonize the oviduct; • the vaccine strain can be differentiated from field strains by PCR testing utilizing an MS-H-specific probe.

- veterinary science -

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