Zootecnica International - English edition - 04 April - 2020

Zootecnica International – April 2020 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze

Dietary xylanase improves growth performance and cost savings in broiler chickens fed a corn-soybean based diet Dynamics and patterns of the egg industry in the Emerging Market Countries between 2007 and 2017 Development of coccidial vaccinal immunity is not impaired by feeding oregano essential oil

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2020

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EDITORIAL Coronavirus (COVID-19), as everyone knows, has caused serious loss of life and significant economic damage, and we are dealing with a still unpredictable enemy.

Cyclically, over the centuries, other far more serious pandemics have occurred and among these we could include wars. Although causes may be different, they all have common matrices namely cultural and social regression. When man too quickly loses sight of the profound values of ​​ life and respect for others then problems arise. COVID-19 has caught us unprepared.

The alarmism and panic spread by incorrect communication lit the fuse of an unprecedented economic recession.

In this, the period of necessary “seclusion”, the few people moving through the streets of the cities show fear and mistrust in their looks and these same looks were probably there during the plagues of previous eras. The progress of the modern era, the evolution of Science and Technology seem not to have been enough to give us the inner awarenesses that help to overcome difficult moments. Unfortunately, the rapid development of technology has not been matched by an adequate culture. For example the widespread attitude of demanding everything immediately distracts from thinking that man’s biorhythms are the same as they were thousands of years ago and are not those of a Ferrari car or of a high speed train. Biorhythms were already well known to ancient Eastern civilizations who founded their balance on the harmony of their inner energies.

Cultural decay of recent decades have caused the alienation and loss of this harmony that involves individuals and society. Among the many causes of this recession, excessive consumerism and the much acclaimed globalism played a role. The topic is undoubtedly complex and would require more space.

Events such as that of “coronavirus” make us reflect. Basically, I feel optimistic in believing in man’s ability to recover, particularly in critical moments, those fundamental inner energies to truly aspire to a new better era.

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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................. 10 REPORTAGE Chicken proteins thought to cause immune exhaustion................................... 14

FIELD REPORT Bacteriological study of the egg shell of laying hens housed in cage and floor................................................................................ 16 Antimicrobial stewardship. The path to least resistance................................... 18

DOSSIER

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Evaluation of a novel slow-growing strain for chicken meat.............................. 22

FOCUS Dietary xylanase improves growth performance and cost savings in broiler chickens fed a corn-soybean based diet........................................... 26

MARKETING Dynamics and patterns of the egg industry in the Emerging Market Countries between 2007 and 2017................................................................. 28

TECHNICAL COLUMN

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Prevention and control of biofilm in water line systems as part of biosecurity protocols.................................................................................. 34

MANAGEMENT Graded levels of stocking density for turkeys toms.......................................... 40

NUTRITION Hydroxy-selenomethionine can improve productive performance and egg quality of laying hens in the late phase of production.......................... 44 Phytic acid reduction in canola and camelina meals........................................ 45 Performance of broilers fed diets with high and low net energy but similar metabolisable energy.................................................................... 46

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VETERINARY SCIENCE Pulmonary Nocardiosis in turkey poults.......................................................... 50 Development of coccidial vaccinal immunity is not impaired by feeding oregano essential oil..................................................................... 54 Practical methods for assessing ILT vaccine take............................................ 58

MARKET GUIDE................................................................................... 60 EVENTS................................................................................................... 63 INTERNET GUIDE................................................................................ 64

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Critical issues facing the feed sector The 13th annual International Feed Regulators Meeting (IFRM) organized by the International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF) in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) brought together feed industry representatives and government officials from around the world to discuss critical issues facing the feed sector with IFIF and the FAO. food safety, while meeting the global demands for food sustainably.”

“The success of this meeting is a proof that FAO efforts to facilitate dialogue between the public and private sector are worthwhile,” said Daniela Battaglia, Animal Production Officer, Animal Production and Health Division of the FAO. Ms. Battaglia added “Feed operators can valuably contribute to make the livestock and food sectors more responsible and sustainable and to achieve other important goals such as food security, public health, and animal health and welfare. The IFRM is an important opportunity to exchange ideas among stakeholders from around the world and to coordinate our efforts towards common goals.”

Other topics discussed at the 13th IFRM included updates on the revision of the IFIF FAO Feed Manual “Good practices for the Feed Industry” and the FAO/WHO report on Hazards associated with animal feed, as well as a session on the work of the International Cooperation for Convergence of Technical Requirements for the Assessment of Feed Ingredients (ICCF), which aims towards convergence of technical requirements specific to feed additive/ ingredient authorization across regions.

“I am delighted we had a record number of participants from across the world and from key regulatory bodies join us at the 13th IFRM. This meeting, yet again, proved to be an important opportunity for the global feed industry and feed regulators to discuss key issues for the feed and food chain, including key feed regulatory updates and changes, an update on Codex Alimentarius work with relevance to feed, as well as a session on the implementation of Biosecurity measures at feed mill level in different regions,” said Dr. Daniel Bercovici, IFIF Chairman.

Dr. Bercovici added “This dialogue is an important example of the private sector collaborating with the FAO and regulators from around the world and we believe that only by working together can we continue to ensure feed and

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About the IFRM The International Feed Regulators Meeting (IFRM) organized by the International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF) in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) provides an opportunity for regulators and feed industry professionals from across the globe to exchange their thoughts and discuss concrete ideas for providing safe feed and food in a sustainable manner around the world.

For more information: ifif.org/our-work/project/international-feed-regulators-meeting-ifrm.

- worldwide news -

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Coronavirus, VIV MEA 2020 postponed VIV MEA management team has decided to postpone VIV MEA 2020 to August 31st – September 2nd, 2020 in Abu Dhabi due to the situation report #39 from the WHO published on February 28th in which the risk assessment for the regional level as well as the global level changed from high to very high. This decision has been taken after careful consideration and in the interest of exhibitors and visitors and, above all, to protect the health of all attendees.

Despite the fact that the UAE remains open for travel and has employed the strictest medical and hygiene protocols the majority (>75%) of the exhibitors agreed that the postponement of the event is the best solution and have therefore confirmed the decision to move their participation.

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

Test offers fast insight into chicken immunity Gene activity in blood samples can be used to show individual chicken response against common diseases. Testing could help to breed for disease resistance and help manage disease.

A method to quickly, accurately evaluate disease response in chickens has been developed by scientists.

Samples from hundreds of chickens can be tested simultaneously using the cost-effective approach, developed by researchers at the Roslin Institute and the poultry breeding company Aviagen, to determine individual birds’ likely response to common chicken infections.

The system, based on blood immune cells tests, could help poultry breeders to breed for disease resistance and help manage disease for producers of the world’s most popular meat.

Researchers say their method could be applied to aid research into animals’ responses to a range of immune challenges. Researchers developed their method using polymerase chain reaction – an established tool that replicates samples of DNA to create sufficient material for testing. Samples exposed to microbes were replicated to determine their response.

to chicken immune response to viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites.

They tested whether exposure to microbes normally present on farms would trigger an increase or decrease in the genes’ activity, in order to fight infection. Researchers tested immune cells from blood samples from chickens living on farms and from birds raised in facilities designed to be free of disease.

The results showed that chickens in farm settings, which were exposed to more potentially harmful microbes, had higher expression levels of immune genes available for protein production.

This outcome indicated that the genes selected together with the method are useful for highlighting the immune response. Insights into birds’ likely response to disease could enable healthier, more productive flocks. The study was published in PLOS ONE. It was supported by Aviagen and the European Union Horizon 2020 programme.

Scientists used the approach to examine the behaviour of 89 genes that have previously been shown to be linked

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- worldwide news -

Source: The Roslin Institute

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

the 30 largest trade shows in the United States. IPPE is sponsored by the U.S. Poultry & Egg Association, American Feed Industry Association and North American Meat Institute.

There were 8,063 international visitors from 129 countries at IPPE. The largest group from a single country outside the U.S. was Canada with 1,176 visitors. The largest region represented included the Caribbean, Latin America, Mexico and South America with 3,334 visitors.

The 2020 International Production & Processing Expo – IPPE – had 31,504 animal food, meat and poultry industry leaders from all over the world in attendance, with an 8% increase in the number of buyers from last year.

“There was a great turnout for the 2020 IPPE. With four halls and extended networking opportunities, we expect the 2021 IPPE to provide even more economic value for attendees and exhibitors,” remarked the three organizations. In addition to complementing the exhibit floor, a week-long schedule of education programs helped drive attendance and provided information to industry professionals on the latest issues. This year’s educational lineup featured 200-plus hours of sessions, ranging from meat and poultry quality, biosecurity as it pertains to foreign animal disease, processing for antibiotic-free production, and a multilingual program focused on broiler and layer production and processing issues affecting Latin America.

A total of 1,377 exhibitors showcased their latest technology and solutions, with more than 573,000 square feet of exhibit space. IPPE is the world’s largest annual feed, meat and poultry industry event of its kind and is one of

Next year’s International Production & Processing Expo will be held Jan. 26 – 28, 2021, at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta. Show updates and attendee and exhibitor information are available at www.ippexpo.org.

View of Atlanta

2020 IPPE, a strong show

VICTAM and Animal Health and Nutrition Asia 2020 postponed to July 2020 The management teams from the VICTAM Corporation and VIV worldwide have decided to postpone VICTAM and Animal Health and Nutrition Asia 2020 in Bangkok to July 9 – 11, 2020 due to the situation report #39 from the WHO published on February 28th in which the risk assessment for the regional level as well as the global level changed from high to very high.

This decision has been taken after careful consideration and in the interest of exhibitors and visitors and, above all, to protect the health of all attendees. The organizers assessed that the actual situation will not guarantee the quality of the exhibition and will not create enough business opportunities for their exhibitors and visitors

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under the current circumstances. Eighty percent of the exhibitors also agreed with organizers that the postponement of the event is the best solution and have therefore confirmed the decision to move their participation to July 2020, trusting that the situation will improve during the next few months.

VICTAM and Animal Health and Nutrition Asia 2020 is thus re-scheduled in July 9-11, 2020. The objective remains the same, which is to realize the total animal feed and health event organized by VICTAM and VIV. For more information, please visit the official websites: www.victamasia.com or www.vivhealthandnutrition.nl.

- worldwide news -

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Gene linked to bone strength in egg-laying hens Bone strength in chickens that produce eggs could be improved thanks to discovery of a key gene. Bones in chicken wings vary in strength owing to gene differences.

New insights into factors that affect bone strength could improve the health of hens that lay eggs.

which was known from previous studies to be linked to risk of bone fractures.

Scientists have discovered a gene linked to bone quality, in a finding that could inform selective breeding. It could lead to better health in hens that lay eggs, which are at risk of osteoporosis.

They studied generations of hens, looking at the level of activity in genes and the strength of the hens’ bones. The team was able to pinpoint a key gene, named cystathionine beta synthase (CBS), which was associated with better quality bones. Hens with a particular version of the gene had bones with raised mineral content and cross-linking of collagen protein, suggesting that these factors may be important for the differences in bone quality.

The discovery, from a team of scientists including from the Roslin Institute, confirms the importance of a key biological molecule for healthy bones and may be relevant for other species, including humans.

Generational study

The study, published in Genetics Selection Evolution, was carried out in collaboration with scientists in Sweden, Spain, Germany, Czech Republic and China.

Researchers looked in detail at a region of chicken DNA,

Source: The Roslin Institute

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COMPANY NEWS

Cobb-Vantress introduces a new Male and updated management guides and supplements si, vice president of research and development at Cobb. “We’ve seen the Vantage male provide significant advantages in feed conversion, growth rate and livability at heavier weights. On top of that, we saw excellent results in breast yield and evisceration yield.”

Vantage™ Male: New North American Vantage™ Male offers improved feed conversion and weight gain North American poultry producers working in the big bird debone market have a more efficient, easier-to-manage male coming online this summer: The Cobb Vantage™ male. Cobb-Vantress, Inc. introduced the new product – the company’s first new male since 2017 – at the 2020 International Production & Processing Expo (IPPE) in Atlanta.

“Cobb developed the Vantage male to be an outstanding performer in the big bird market,” said Dr. Mark Cooper, managing director of global genetics at Cobb. “We’ve taken into consideration ease of management and coupled that with market-leading growth rates and outstanding feed conversion ratios while keeping meat quality top of mind with this new release.”

The Vantage is a package-only male primarily designed to cross with the Cobb700™ female. Field results have consistently shown decreased feed conversion and increased body weight gains for birds over 8.5 pounds. The stature of the broiler will be taller and deliver more robust legs.

“We understand our customers rely on Cobb to provide superior, industry-leading genetics,” said Dr. Aldo Ros-

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The Vantage male is easy to manage and has demonstrated hatch improvements. The Vantage matures faster than the CobbMV™ Male and exhibits a larger comb.

With similar meat quality performance, the Vantage delivers superior meat quality over the competition. The fillet dimensions of the Vantage crossed with the Cobb700 female lend themselves to prime cuts and less trim.

- company news -

COMPANY NEWS

“Our commitment to meat quality really shines through with the introduction of the Vantage male,” adds Dr. Rossi. “We’re committed to starting at the beginning of the process and delivering better uniformity, less trim and more valuable yield. Couple that with the advantages the Vantage brings to the table and you have premium meat quality and texture that ultimately can help impact the bottom line.”

Cobb’s commitment to meat quality doesn’t stop with superior genetics. Cobb offers customers a 360-degree evaluation — looking at their operation from hatchery to processing – to help make meat quality and texture work for an operation’s bottom line.

prove the delivery and efficacy of vaccines from hatchery to farm, ultimately helping to optimize flock performance and immunity.

“Our vaccination guide includes detailed information on vaccine preparation, storage, and delivery of vaccines at multiple sites of inoculation and several ages,” said Dr. Nicholas Anthony, technical content manager at Cobb. “We’ve also included animal welfare tips to provide our customers with methods and strategies to vaccinate flocks in a manner that promotes the best animal welfare outcomes.”

New Management Guide and Supplements Cobb-Vantress has also announced seven new or updated management guides and supplements. The updates and new introductions help expand upon Cobb’s commitment to providing customers with the latest recommendations based on breed performance, current scientific knowledge and practical field experience from around the world.

Included in the updated offerings are: • Vantage™ Male Supplement • Vaccination Management Guide • Cobb500™ Grandparent Male Management Supplement • Cobb700™ FF Breeder Supplement • Cobb700™ SF Breeder Supplement • Cobb700™ Broiler Performance and Nutrition Supplement • CobbMV™ Male Supplement

Additionally, the team created a new resource: the Cobb500 Grandparent Male Management Supplement, which provides information Cobb customers may use for their Cobb500 Grandparent operations, including general management guidelines for rearing and production, promoting and sustaining fertility, and performing grading and selection.

“Customers use Cobb’s resources to help obtain the full genetic potential of our family of products,” said Cody Polley, Director World Technical Support at Cobb.

“We regularly review and update our resources to keep our customers up to date with the latest information available. We’ve even expanded our team to continue to develop this important content.”

All management guides and supplements are housed on Cobb’s website and mobile application (Cobb Connection), and include recommendations for grandparent stock, parent stock and broilers. Additional guides cover hatchery, vaccination and processing procedures. Topic-driven white papers, technical articles and a full range of performance charts are also available.

The most extensive work was done to the Vaccination Management Guide, which was outfitted with animal welfare tips and redesigned for ease of use in the field.

Cobb tailored the guide to help field personnel with the proper use and administration of poultry vaccines. This resource offers standard operating procedures to im-

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To access these resources, visit www.cobb-vantress.com/resource.

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COMPANY NEWS

Bell & Evans and Marel share the same values of Bell & Evans’ 100% rule is that they’re fully committed to premium and organic chicken. Moving the bar higher than US regulations, Bell & Evans is the real US pioneer in organic chickens. It even has the world’s first organic-certified, animal welfare focused chicken hatchery. In June 2019, Bell & Evans fully transitioned to its new ‘Das Klassenbester’ chicken, a higher-welfare, grade A breed of broilers, which completely replaced the existing breed of chickens.

Humane treatment

Marel will equip Bell & Evans’ greenfield poultry processing plant with ‘European style’ systems and solutions

US premium poultry producer Bell & Evans and Marel have concluded an important agreement to build a stateof-the-art processing facility. For Marel, the construction of the greenfield poultry plant in Fredericksburg, Pennsylvania is one of the largest transactions to date. It is remarkable that the two companies have very similar values which definitely tighten their partnership. The new greenfield plant will certainly boost the sales of organic chicken products. Marel will fully equip two processing lines, each with a capacity of 140 bpm, prepared for 175 bpm.

“It is through partnerships with companies like Bell & Evans that we realize our vision of transforming the way food is processed,” says Roger Claessens, Executive Vice President of Marel Poultry. “Bell & Evans is known to add maximum value to the entire chain, by maintaining highest production quality from egg to end product. The company recognizes that only a strong partnership, covering the entire processing line can raise the quality of poultry processing to the same high level. We’re happy that Marel can contribute to this final link in their value chain.”

100% Rule “At Bell & Evans, we believe that if you’re committed to do the right thing, you should commit 100%. We call it the 100% Rule,” says owner Scott Sechler. An important part

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Chicken well-being is a priority in Bell & Evans’ 100% Rule. Like Marel, Bell & Evans focuses on animal well-being during transport from farm to harvesting plant. Its farms are located less than an hour’s drive, on average, from the processing facility and chickens are transported in state-of-the-art live bird transportation systems. Bell & Evans thrives to handle its chickens with the utmost care, so they partnered with Marel to purchase its entire ATLAS automated transport system. This system eliminates the use of forklifts and minimizes stress during unloading by reducing noise, light, sound and movement to offer a smooth transition from the trailer into its Slow Induction Anesthesia (SIA). Bell & Evans first introduced SIA in 2011 and humane anesthesia was again high on the priorities for the new processing plant. It was, therefore, an easy decision for Bell & Evans to opt for multistage CAS SmoothFlow anesthetization.

Air chilling Another key point of difference for Bell & Evans is 100% Air Chilling. Other US poultry processors produce chlorinated water chilled chicken or use a mix of water and air chilling. Since 2005, the company has utilized 100% Air Chill for 100% of its chicken production, a unique first in the industry. It’s the company’s way to transform US food processing and provide another level of quality to the consumer. It’s not surprising that Bell & Evans partners with Marel, for decades the authority in air chilling with a large technical patent portfolio.

After 100% Air Chill, products are distributed and cut-up in a Marel ACM-NT line, including a Q-Wing solution for

- company news -

COMPANY NEWS

wing part selection. Unique to the US are the automated in-line thigh and drumstick deboning systems, already an upcoming trend in Europe. “In fact, we’re a European-minded company that’s located in the United States,” says Sechler.

Traceability from farm to fork Bell & Evans also commits 100% to traceability. The traceability process in the new Fredericksburg facility is unique to the US. Right from the moment of entering the processing plant until packaging, each chicken can be traced back in the process down to which flock and

which farm it came from. Marel’s food processing software Innova not only ensures this traceability program but will also connect all solutions throughout the plant, collect and analyze data and offer Bell & Evans plant staff the information they need to run highly efficient operations.

“Marel is the only company in the world that has all the pieces figured out and in place together to offer a truly remarkable poultry processing system that I’m proud to use in our new harvesting plant,” says Sechler.

New collaboration between Pelbo and Innovo tise,” Pelbo Sales Director Mr. Fabio Gualtieri explains.

“With this partnership, our customers can rely on Moba for all their needs in further egg processing, both now and in the future.” The new collaboration with Innovo will increase Pelbo’s expertise in handling large egg processing projects, expand its workforce to run more projects at the same time, and provide customers with better support during the development of these projects. Also, the product portfolio of the Pelbo brand will expand to include: On the left Leopoldo Peschi, Innovo Sales Director; on the right Fabio Gualtieri, Pelbo Sales Director

Moba announces that Pelbo, one of its subsidiaries in Brugherio, Italy, has partnered up with Innovo, an innovative Italian-based company that develops, manufactures, and installs pasteurization plants for food producers.

This new collaboration will allow Pelbo to further expand its activities in the industry. The experienced Innovo team consists of professionals who have worked for a major company in the pasteurization sector. They are led by Mr. Leopoldo Peschi, a seasoned professional in the egg processing trade. By teaming up with Innovo, Pelbo will be able to offer state-of-the-art technologies and add value to the sector.

• Turnkey projects with plate and/or tubular egg pasteurizer for plain, high-viscosity, or ESL products; • Pasteurization by radiofrequency; • Liquid egg concentration line for both albumen and whole egg; • Egg powder processing line; • Centrifugal separator for egg white clarification; • SCADA, the innovative handling and supervision system that integrates the egg-breaking line up to the filling system.

Moba Group Sales Director Mr. Paul de Schouwer is excited what this new cooperation will bring Moba-Pelbo: “Pelbo and Innovo will take egg processing to the next level and move the industry into a new era by using innovative technologies.”

“Our aim is to bring innovation and new technologies to the egg processing industry with major technical innovation thanks to the combination of both companies’ exper-

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©nvcbr.org

REPORTAGE

Chicken proteins thought to cause immune exhaustion Two chicken proteins that may be involved in immune regulation of cancerous cells and viral infection, named Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) and Programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), have been characterised for the first time by scientists at The Pirbright Institute.

They demonstrated that the protein structures and interactions were highly similar to those in humans and other animals, where activation of these proteins is known to cause immune cell ‘exhaustion’ and prevent the immune system from destroying infected cells. Their work will provide the basis for the development of immunotherapy treatments that block the pathway, which could revive immune cells and enable them to clear infection.

The PD-1/PD-L1 pathway is well understood in humans and its role in chronic viral infections is well established, but little research has been carried out on these proteins in birds. In a study published in Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, Pirbright scientists characterised the chicken PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins (chPD-1 and chPD-L1) and determined that their predicted structure and interactions were similar to that of humans and other species, suggesting that they

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- reportage -

REPORTAGE

have the same ability to suppress immune responses.

They also generated the first specific antibodies against chPD-1 and chPD-L1, which will allow researchers to examine the interactions and effects of these proteins more closely.

In humans, PD-1 is found on the surface of immune cells, particularly T cells. Healthy cells in the body display a PD-L1 receptor and when this binds to PD-1 it inactivates the immune cell, preventing it from destroying healthy tissues. Cells infected by viruses usually remove their PD-L1 receptors, triggering T cells to attack and halt the spread of infection.

However, some viruses increase the number of PD-L1 receptors displayed by the infected cell, preventing its destruction and allowing the virus to continue replicating. Chronic viral infections can lead to T cell exhaustion, where T cells that react against the specific virus become non-functional.

“Demonstrating that this pathway exists in birds will help us to establish how the poultry immune response deals with viral infections”, said Professor Venugopal Nair OBE, Head of the Viral Oncogenesis group. “We are confident that the similarity of chPD-1 and chPD-L1 proteins to those in other species means that they are also involved in suppressing the poultry immune system.”

“Our next steps will be to investigate the role of chPD-1 and chPD-L1 pathways during infection and how viruses such as Marek’s disease virus manipulate the pathway to evade destruction, allowing the virus to remain latent in the infected cell and cause diseases such as cancer.

This could help us to create immunotherapies that revive T cells from their exhausted state and allow them to deal with infection. Although the antibodies we created did not prevent interaction between chPD-1 and chPD-L1, we hope further research will result in antibodies that block this pathway and can help to alleviate economically important poultry diseases,” added Professor Nair.

This research was supported by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), part of UK Research and Innovation (UKRI), and the Royal Society International Collaboration Award for Research Professors.

Source: The Pirbright Institute

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FIELD REPORT

Bacteriological study of the egg shell of laying hens housed in cage and floor I. A. CarreraA, J. A. QuintanaA, C. RosarioA, and J. C. Del RíoB A Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México B

Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

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Eggs from 10 commercial brands were selected in different types of housing: cage and on the floor (free of cage) obtained from 4 supermarket chains to compare them in the bacteriology laboratory of the Department of Medicine and Bird Husbandry of the FMVZ of the UNAM, in order to determine the presence of Enterobacteria in shell.

Shell washes were performed with PBS in a sterile environment, to then place 1 ml of the wash in nutritious broth. They were sown in Agar Bilis Red and Violet. The samples were stained with Gram, 3% KOH and biochemical tests (TSI, urea, citrate, LIA, SIM and ornithine)

- field report -

FIELD REPORT

for identification. The genera most frequently present in eggs of hens on the floor were: Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundi, and Enterobacter aerogenes.

Introduction Poultry farming in Mexico is constantly growing due to an increase in the human population, which in turn is reflected in a growth in the consumption of chicken and egg. The preference of poultry products for the population is due to the fact that they are low-cost, healthy and high-quality food.

Data from the National Union of Poultry Farmers indicate that poultry farming represents 63.8% of livestock production where 6 out of 10 people include poultry such as chicken, eggs and turkeys in their diet. It is estimated that there is a per capita consumption of 23.2 kg. of eggs.

The egg is one of the foods of high-quality animal origin for its excellent source of proteins, amino acids, minerals and vitamins. It is formed by three main structures: yolk (33%), albumin (58%) and shell (9%). It has chemical and physical barriers that protect it naturally against contamination by microorganisms.

Contamination of the shell has different origins, but the main one is the lodging system of the hens, due to the type of egg collection. The conventional cage system allows to obtain a clean egg since at the time of oviposition it slides thanks to the slope (10%) that the cages have, in exchange for the cage-free system a dirty egg is obtained because the egg remains in the nests, leaving it exposed to contamination by feces. This type of cage-free housing system can favor shell contamination and cause foodborne diseases.

The World Health Organization (WHO) mentions that unhealthy foods are the most common cause of diarrheal diseases and that each year 550 million people are ill, of which 220 million are children under 5 years of age.

At present, there is a tendency for consumers to acquire free-range chicken eggs, which is why a greater vigilance of this type of production is necessary in order to avoid foodborne diseases.

Materials and methods For the development of this study, lots of eggs of hens

were analyzed on the floor (free of cage) and in a cage of ten different egg brands acquired from different selfservice stores.

The present study was carried out in the Laboratory of Bacteriology, Department of Medicine and Animal Husbandry of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, UNAM. The technique described by Dr. Gentry was used to identify the presence of Enterobacteria in the egg shell.

Self-sealing (sterile) bags were used and nine mL of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) was added to each bag.

The egg was rubbed (through the bag) for two minutes to suspend surface materials. The egg was then expelled from the top of the bag.

One mL of the solution was taken, placed in nutritious broth and subsequently incubated for 24 h. With a bacteriological loop, a sample of the nutrient broth tube was obtained to be sown on MacConkey agar and incubated for 24 h. This process of seeding was carried out repeatedly on MacConkey agar until the colonies were purified.

To determine the morphology of the colonies, smears and 3% KOH test were performed. Once the results were obtained, it was determined at which samples the biochemical tests were performed (TSI, Urea, Citrate, LIA, SIM and Ornithine), and the isolated microorganisms were identified.

Results The presence of E. coli was identified in two chicken egg brands in a cage. In the hen egg brands on floor (free of cage), E. coli, Citrobacter freundi, Enterobacter aerogenes were found.

Discussion The results obtained coincide with that reported by Loaiza et al. 2011 that mention that it is necessary to incorporate to the food industry different tests for the identification of pathogenic microorganisms that can be a source of foodborne diseases.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 68th Western Poultry Disease Conference

- april 2020 -

17

ŠFreedomRangerHatchery

ŠConsumerReports

FIELD REPORT

Antimicrobial stewardship. The path to least resistance

S.W. Page Advanced Veterinary Therapeutics, Newtown, NSW, Australia D.J. Trott Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Australia

18

Antimicrobial resistance is now accepted as a global public health priority and an important emerging animal health issue.

Antimicrobial use contributes to the selection of antimicrobial resistance and consequently only necessary high quality use of antimicrobial agents is considered appropriate.

The Australian meat chicken and egg industries are historically low users of antimicrobial agents and recent surveys of antimicrobial resistance in bacterial commensal species isolated from meat chickens and the environment of laying sheds have revealed very low levels of antimicrobial resistance. Despite this very favourable position the implementation of formal and systematic antimicrobial stewardship plans will support the continued low frequency of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance.

- field report -

FIELD REPORT

Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the biggest threats to human and animal health today and all users of antimicrobial agents have a responsibility to ensure that these agents are only used when necessary.

The Australian poultry industry takes the issue of AMR very seriously and has a long history of developing and introducing initiatives to enhance infection prevention and control and to encourage restriction of antimicrobial use to essential situations. The codes of practice and guidelines introduced progressively since the 1980s have evolved into the antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) plans of the 2000s. AMS and good stewardship practice (GSP) concerns much more than just judicious or prudent use of antimicrobial agents. Indeed the current focus is on continuous improvement and ways to refine, reduce and replace antimicrobial use while maintaining the highest standards of bird health, allowing close alignment with the Australian and global strategies for AMR and antimicrobial use minimisation.

Antimicrobial stewardship The long history of conservative regulation and use of antimicrobial agents in the Australian poultry industry has resulted in the unique situation where many of the critically important antimicrobial classes used widely in poultry production outside Australia have never been available. For example, the focus of the British Poultry Council (BPC) AMS programme has been the reduction or elimination of the use of fluoroquinolones, third generation cephalosporins and colistin – all antimicrobial classes never approved for use in Australian poultry.

Thus Australian AMS programmes can focus on more advanced aspects of stewardship. However, the aims of Australian AMS coincide with those of the British and there is great confluence with the statement of BPC Chairman, John Reed, who concluded after reviewing the 2017 AMS programme that “our farmers and veterinarians need antibiotics in their toolbox to treat sick birds – zero use is not an option – and we will protect the health and welfare of our birds. We will safeguard the efficacy of antibiotics as part of sustainable food production, and we will continue to feed the nation”.

But what is AMS? One of the clearest descriptions is that provided by Guardabassi and Prescott who define AMS

as “the multifaceted and dynamic approaches required to sustain the clinical efficacy of antimicrobials by optimizing drug use, choice, dosing, duration, and route of administration, while minimizing the emergence of resistance and other adverse effects”. That AMS is multifaceted means that it is complex and involves many elements and requires clear thinking. The dynamic approach reflects the fact that, just like AMR, AMS is not a stationary practice; it is forever changing and the direction of change, especially that of continuous improvement, is guided by the multifaceted AMS team. Optimising drug use, choice, dosing, duration and route of administration is very challenging as it is inevitably not a fixed and predictable equation, it does not mean ‘one dose suits all’; each circumstance may require a different approach, which may also include no antimicrobial use. Minimising the emergence of AMR is a necessary and demanding goal, but one for which there is insufficient guidance.

Only by monitoring responses to treatment or non-treatment and undertaking surveillance of AMR can any insight into resistance minimisation be gleaned.

The 5R framework for AMS was developed to provide a systematic and comprehensive approach to AMS planning, implementation and monitoring to allow a potentially complex process to be both practical and effective.

The 5R include Responsibility, Review, Refine, Replace and Reduce. AMS is a continuous process with a goal of defining and applying best practice, AMR minimisation and optimal control of animal health. Good Stewardship Practice (GSP) describes the development, implementation and continuous improvement of the AMS plan (ASP).

The first Australian Veterinary Antimicrobial Stewardship AMS Conference was held in November 2018 and provided a comprehensive overview of the current situation (AVAMS 2018) and initiatives introduced by the various livestock industries as well as actions and plans in companion animal practice.

Antimicrobial resistance Supported by funding from the Australian Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, the Australian Chicken Meat Federation published the results of a national study of surveillance for AMR in enteric commensals and pathogens in Australian meat chickens. The study was comprehensive and followed international standards for design and analysis. Importantly, it was observed that

- april 2020 -

19

FIELD REPORT

resistance to antimicrobials considered of critical importance to human health was very low in commensal bacteria from Australian meat chickens – highlighting the effectiveness of past and present AMS initiatives.

Two examples demonstrate the stark contrast in resistance levels in Australia with those elsewhere, for example comparing results from Australia with those from the EU and UK. EFSA & ECDC published the European Union summary report on AMR in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2016. With respect to campylobacter, for the 3,117 Campylobacter jejuni isolates from broilers reported by 24 member states, the overall observed level of resistance to ciprofloxacin was 66.9% and to nalidixic acid was 61.7%. In the UK ciprofloxacin resistance was reported in 40.6% of C. jejuni isolates from broilers. These results contrast with those observed in the Australian study where only 14.8% of C. jejuni were found to carry ciprofloxacin resistance.

This low level of resistance was unexpected and the first report of such resistance in C. jejuni isolated from Australian poultry. Fluoroquinolones (FQ) (the class to which ciprofloxacin belongs) have never been approved for use in Australian livestock including poultry. The finding of FQ resistance is highly unlikely to be the result of FQ use in poultry, rather the appearance of this resistance may ultimately be found to have arisen in humans and subsequently transferred to poultry – highlighting the need for vigilance and the need for biosecurity to encompass poultry workers.

The second example of contrasts between resistances found in Australia and elsewhere relates to Escherichia coli. None of the E. coli isolates from Australian poultry demonstrated resistance to ceftiofur, colistin, florfenicol, chloramphenicol or gentamicin. Two isolates (1%) demonstrated reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin but these isolates were not considered clinically resistant. In the UK (VMD, 2017) resistance to the FQ ciprofloxacin was observed in 21.6% of E. coli isolates recovered from caecal contents of healthy broilers at slaughter. In the European Union, EFSA & ECDC reported “for broilers, the highest overall resistance levels observed in the reporting MSs were to the quinolones, i.e. nalidixic acid (59.8%) and ciprofloxacin (64.0%), and to ampicillin (58.0%), sulfamethoxazole (49.9%), tetracycline (47.1%) and trimethoprim (40.7%). Levels of resistance to the third-generation cephalosporins, cefotaxime and ceftazidime, were similar at 4.0% and 3.6%, respectively”.

20

A proof-of-concept AMR study of Salmonella isolates obtained from Australian layer shed environments has also been completed. The susceptibility of 307 isolates collected over the period 2015 to 2018 was assessed against a panel of 16 antimicrobial agents. Overall, a very low frequency of resistance was observed. Remarkably, 295 isolates (96.1%) displayed no evidence of phenotypic resistance to any tested antimicrobial, while 8, 1 and 2 isolates were respectively resistant to 1, 2 or 3 antimicrobial agents.

The enviable status of Australian poultry meat with respect to AMR was supported by the publication of McLellan who found no evidence of acquired multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria isolated from raw chicken drumsticks obtained from 30 retail outlets in Melbourne.

Conclusion The progressive introduction by the Australian poultry industry over many decades of infection prevention and control measures (including vaccination programmes and biosecurity initiatives), combined with high standards of husbandry, nutrition and environmental controls, and buttressed by a conservative regulatory system that has not permitted the approval in poultry of many antimicrobial agents now considered of critical importance in human medicine (including colistin, fluoroquinolones and 3rd and 4th generation cephalosporins), is undoubtedly a significant contributor to the low levels of AMR now evident in isolates from meat chickens and from layer environments.

However, complacency is not an option. Continued vigilance reinforced by AMS programs will help protect the rare environment of low AMR, allowing early identification of any changes in resistance status as alerts to investigate risk mitigation measures, or assurance of the effectiveness of production practices.

Acknowledgements: The authors have received funding from Agrifutures to develop an independent AMS verification system for ACM References are available on request From the Proceedings of 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

- field report -

FIELD REPORT

HUBBARD CONVENTIONAL the efficient choice!

EFFICIENCY PLUS

N EW

THE NEW STANDARD FOR EFFICIENCY

- april 2020 -

21

©Cobb

DOSSIER

Evaluation of a novel slowgrowing strain for chicken meat The slow-growing broiler (SGB) strain offers an alternative chicken meat choice, while appealing to the ‘niche’ market and attracting a premium price. SGBs have also been associated with improved leg health and lower mortality, making them a welfare-oriented alternate strain.

A.J.L. Lim, M.H.Y. Chan, W. Muir, P. Groves and M. Singh University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW

22

The aim of this study was to compare the SGBs with the conventional chicken breed Cobb 500 (Cobb), for their performance, immune response, leg health, digestibility of nutrients, productivity and meat quality, in an Australian context. Results showed that the SGB had longer standing times, higher thigh-drumstick and wing yields as well as darker and redder meat in comparison to the Cobb. However, the Cobb had better feed conversion ratios (FCR), higher antibody (IgM) production, higher apparent metabolizable energy (AME) and heavier breast yield.

- dossier -

DOSSIER

Introduction Since the 20th century when commercial poultry breeding first started, the growth rate of meat chickens has quadrupled, and their body structure has also changed dramatically especially with the enlarged size of the breast muscles. This is the result of a combination of selective breeding, efficient production systems, improved diets and veterinary care. It now takes about 38 days for day old fast-growing broilers to reach market live weights (~ 2.0-2.5 kg) in comparison to the year 1976 when it took 63 days. However, the fast growth rate of broilers has been associated with metabolic and skeletal disorders such as tibial dyschondroplasia, twisted legs, sudden death syndrome and ascites. In contrast to some countries, the only meat chickens available commercially in Australia are the fast-growing strains.

A slower-growing strain which, although it may only appeal to a specific market and attract a premium price owing to its higher production costs, environmental footprint and reduced carcass yield, will have the advantage of improved leg health and lower mortality rates. Moreover, there is a need to develop an SGB strain in an Australian context that would provide an alternative choice for chicken meat consumers. This study provides a better understanding of the productivity, feed efficiency, and meat quality of a candidate SGB strain.

Methods Eggs were obtained from a Cobb X New Hampshire cross and incubated. Hatched chicks (116) and 120 one-day-

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old Cobbs obtained from a commercial hatchery were vaccinated for Marek’s disease, infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease. The chicks were allocated into four mixed-sex pens for each breed, consisting of either 30 Cobbs or 29 SGBs, and were grown to a final weight of 2-2.2 kg live weight. Both breeds were reared on the same diet (starter: ME 12.10 MJ/kg, CP 20.2%, grower: ME 12.70MJ/kg, CP 18.7%, finisher: ME 13.05MJ/kg, CP 16.8%) based on the nutrient specifications for Cobb 500.

Mortality was recorded daily, and post-mortem analysis was conducted accordingly. The birds and feed were weighed on a weekly basis. At 21 days of age, 2 ml of blood was drawn from 2 SGBs and 2 Cobbs from each pen which were wing tagged, and subsequently injected subcutaneously with 0.25 ml of a 2% suspension of sheep red blood cells (SRBC) for an antibody response test.

According to the procedures of Groves and Muir, latency-to-lie (LTL) test was performed on 30 male birds for each breed when they reached the final weight, as an objective measure used to assess broiler leg strength. At the respective final weights for each breed, 6 male birds were randomly selected from each pen and housed in four metabolism pens for 48 hours collection of excreta to calculate the AME of the diet. A total of 40 broilers (20 female and 20 male) of each breed were randomly selected at their final weights for carcass analysis. A Konica Minolta chroma meter 400 was used to determined L* (lightness), a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) values for breast meat.

The ultimate pH was measured by placing the electrode of a portable pH meter on the outer side of the cranial

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- april 2020 -

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DOSSIER

Table 1 – The effect of genotype on the carcass characteristics of broilers.

Cobb

SGB

SEM

P-Value

Carcass weight, CW (g)

2025

1892

40.25

0.0219

Length of body (cm)

23.5

30.3

0.3447

<.0001

Width of body (cm)

18.8

17.6

0.2130

0.0001

Length of breast (cm)

17.9

18.8

0.1963

0.003

Width of breast (cm)

15.2

13.7

0.1446

<.0001

Length of shank (cm)

5.8

7.2

0.1180

<.0001

Length of thigh (cm)

9.8

12.3

0.1521

<.0001

Length of drumstick (cm)

9.4

12.9

0.1905

<.0001

Length of wing (cm)

23.1

29.0

0.3344

<.0001

Breast weight (% CW) (g)

21.7

13.9

0.1734

<.0001

2 thighs (% CW) (g)

10.9

11.5

0.1527

0.0081

2 drumsticks (% CW) (g)

9.6

12.0

0.1105

<.0001

2 wings (% CW) (g)

8.3

9.7

0.0844

<.0001

Heads (% CW) (g)

2.5

3.0

0.0465

<.0001

breast muscle. Drip loss is a measure of the water-holding capacity (WHC) of the meat product. The breast muscle used for drip loss evaluation was stored on a suspended net and removed, wiped and weighed on days 1, 3, 5 and 10 post-slaughter. Data were analysed with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat 18th edition, with breed as the main effect. A t-test was used to compare the means and considered to be significantly different if P<0.05.

Results On a weekly basis, body weight gain between the two breeds was significantly different (P<0.001) with the final weight of 2-2.2 kg achieved by Cobbs on day 32 and SGBs on day 55. The cumulative feed consumption on a weekly basis was also significantly different between the two breeds, with Cobbs consuming 76%

24

more feed as compared to SGBs on day 32 (P<0.001) although, SGBs overall consumed 24% more feed than Cobbs to reach the final weight.

SGBs, therefore, had a higher FCR at processing of 1.977 which was 0.536 points higher than the Cobbs (1.441). Cobbs had a significantly higher total anti-SRBC antibody titre of 13 in comparison to the SGB titre of 6 (P=0.05), and an IgM titre of 11, compared to 4 for the SGBs. The IgG titre of 2 for both breeds meant that neither produced anti-SRBC IgG. During the LTL test, Cobbs had a significantly shorter mean standing time (177.3 secs) as compared to SGBs (242.7 secs; P<0.01). The AME:GE of diets for Cobbs (0.79) was 2.60% higher than the SGBs (0.77; P<0.05).

The carcass characteristics of Cobbs and SGBs are presented in Table 1.

SGBs had significantly longer bodies and breast, whereas Cobbs had wider bodies and breast (P<0.01).

Significantly higher shank, thigh,

- dossier -

drumstick and wing length were observed in SGBs as compared to the Cobbs (P<0.001). Relative to the carcass weight, breast weight of Cobbs was significantly higher than SGBs, while the thighs, drumsticks, wings, and head were significantly heavier in SGBs (P<0.01). The crop, proventriculus, jejunum and ileum as well as the liver and abdominal fat pad were significantly heavier in Cobbs (P<0.05) as compared to the SGBs, which had significantly heavier gizzards, duodenum and caeca (P<0.001).

Cobb breast meat was paler as compared to the SGBs (L*=51.93 and 45.39 respectively) (P<0.001).

In contrast, the breast meat of SGBs was significantly redder (a*=2.64) and less yellow (b*=3.84) than the Cobbs (a*=2.08; b*=4.97) (P<0.05).

The ultimate pH of the breast for SGBs (5.74) was significantly lower than the Cobbs (5.88) (P<0.001), while the pectoralis major of SGBs had higher drip loss than the Cobbs (P<0.05).

Discussion Weight gain, feed intake and FCR were found to be significantly different between Cobbs and SGBs as supported by previous research.

Cobbs have been genetically bred for increased body weight and breast muscle yield, whereas the SGBs in the current study had a layer strain as one of its parents, thus diluting this genetic effect.

The difference in feed intake between the two breeds was related to the duration of rearing. In the current study, the Cobbs had a lower cumulative feed intake (3.04 kg per bird) as compared to the SGBs (4.03 kg

DOSSIER

per bird) (P<0.05). However, the daily feed intake at day 32 of Cobbs (0.790 kg/bird) was higher than the SGBs (0.726kg/bird). The fast growth rate of Cobbs leads to the rapid conversion of feed to meat. Further, SGBs have a slower growth but higher maintenance requirements due to their higher mobility, as seen in the longer LTL times reported in this study, thus affecting the feed efficiency.

The fast-growing Cobb strains had a stronger immune response (IgM) to the SRBC antigen as compared to SGBs. This is in agreement with earlier studies in turkeys, where selection for fast-growing strains altered the T cell subpopulations and the response of the humoral immunity to the SRBC antigen while also showing a decline in IgG antibody production. Genetic difference also affects the broilersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; immune response, with higher IgM titers to SRBC produced by meat chickens than layers.

SGBs have stronger legs than the Cobbs as fast growth rates negatively impact the leg strength and results in greater pressure being exerted on their immature bones.

According to de Verdal, chickens which possessed larger gastric compartments had more effective nutrient utilization. In the current study, Cobbs had higher proventriculus weight in comparison to the SGBs, possibly resulting in higher enzyme production and gastric secretions, subsequently improving AME utilization. Intensive selection for increased breast muscle yield in fast-growing Cobb leads to the reduction in the relative yield of other parts.

The higher wing and leg-quarter yield identified with SGBs can be explained by their increased activity and greater utilisation of their wings, promoting bone mass and supporting muscle mass. The heavier fat pad in Cobbs could be a consequence of faster growth as pro-

posed by Havenstein, where the selection for heavier broilers concomitantly promoted accumulation of fat.

The varying degree of redness of the breast meat seen between strains can be associated with the difference in slaughter ages with increase in the myoglobin content reported with age. The selection for increased growth rates and breast meat yield of Cobb broilers leads to diminished post-mortem glycolysis and higher ultimate pH. This may be due to the lowered glycogen content of Cobb breast muscle, thus, explaining the differences in breast muscle pH between the breeds. Berri suggested a strong negative correlation between breast muscle pH 24 hours post-mortem and drip loss, thus, accounting for the higher drip loss in SGBs. A poor WHC leads to lack of juiciness in whole meat and further-processed products.

Conclusion The main advantage of SGBs is the provision of an alternate chicken meat that is also welfare- oriented, as indicated by their longer standing time during the LTL, and would likely attract a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;nicheâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; market at a premium price.

However, with regards to their performance, carcass characteristics and meat quality, further research and refinement would be necessary in terms of breeding objectives and nutrient requirements to improve this strain.

Acknowledgements: research and technical support at the University of Sydney and the Birling Poultry facility is acknowledged.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

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- april 2020 -

25

FOCUS

Dietary xylanase improves growth performance and cost savings in broiler chickens fed a corn-soybean based diet The increased demand to reduce production costs, as well as concerns about the environment, have resulted in pressure on poultry producers to increase dietary energy utilisation and to improve feed efficiency.

R.S. Brito D.P. Hernรกndez

Usually, technologies such as exogenous enzymes that are supplemented in the diets have been one of the main pathways used to reach these goals. Xylanase is well known to produce positive effects on growth performance of birds fed diets based on non-starch polysaccharide (NPS) rich cereals, helping the birds to overcome the anti-nutritional effects of NSP by reducing the intestinal viscosity and improving energy digestibility. However, although cornbased diets are widely used in poultry in many regions, there is still a lack of information about the effect of xylanase on this type of diet.

Applied Animal Research Center, Mexico

The present xylanase has high activity on the insoluble portion of arabinoxylans, which are present in large quantities in corn and soybean; therefore, it could improve the release of the

M.L. Moraes, L. Lahaye, M.S. Vieira, Jefo Nutrition Inc. C. Boudry, Puratos, Brussels, Belgium

26

- focus -

FOCUS

nutrients from these grains. For this purpose, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of a bacterial xylanase on growth performance of broilers fed a corn-soybean based diet.

A total of 1,440 male broiler chickens Cobb 500 was allocated to floor pens from 1 to 42 d of age. The experiment followed a randomised designed, with 8 replicates of 60 birds for each one of the 3 treatments: standard diet (STD), diet with 150 kcal/kg reduction in metabolisable energy (RED) and RED diet + 100 g/t of Bacillus subtilis xylanase (RED+XYL; Jefo & Puratos).

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It was intended to create a substantial drop in the growth performance between the STD and RED treatments; therefore, the RED diets were formulated with an uplift greater (150 kg/kcal) than the recommended (80 kcal/ kg) when using this particular xylanase in corn-soybean meal-based diets. Average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were evaluated by feeding phase (1-21, 22-35 and 36-42 d of age). The feed cost per kg of live weight was calculated in the end of the trial considering the market price for the xylanase studied. The data were analysed by ANOVA and treatment means were separated by the Duncan test when P<0.05.

There was no effect of the treatments on ADFI. Birds fed the RED diet had the worst response for ADG and FCR from 14 d of age to the end of the trial (P<0.05). There was a reduction of 4.6% (P<0.05) on ADG of birds fed RED diet throughout the overall rearing period, compared to the STD diet.

However, the addition of the xylanase in the RED diet was effective in partially recovering the growth response (P<0.05; 49% for ADG and 45% for FCR), which is in accordance with the recommended uplift (80 kcal/kg).

The lowest cost/kg of live weight was observed for the RED+XYL diet (difference of USD 0.08 in comparison to the RED diet and USD 0.21 to the STD diet). The results showed that there is an opportunity to improve the average daily gain and feed conversion ratio of broilers chickens fed a corn-soybean based diets with reduced energy, when the diet is supplemented with the xylanase studied.

The addition of the enzyme in the reduced energy diets can be used to allow savings on feed costs.

Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s been 50 years since Zootecnica International started serving the poultry industry and professionals. Today the magazine is edited in three languages (English, Italian and Russian) and delivered monthly in 120 countries, reaching around 30.000 readers all over the world.

The target of Zootecnica International includes: farmers, egg producers, breeding companies, hatcheries, feed mills, poultry and egg meat processing companies.

Both magazine and website offer a broad overview on the poultry industry, providing in-depth news on international markets, business management, trends and practices in poultry, genetics, incubation, nutrition, veterinary and management.

zootecnicainternational.com

References are available on request From Proceedings of the 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

- april 2020 -

27

ŠFao

MARKETING

Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is scientific director of the WING at the Hannover Veterinary University and Prof. emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany

28

Dynamics and patterns of the egg industry in the Emerging Market Countries between 2007 and 2017

Part 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The development of egg production In the following part it will be analysed which impacts the dynamics in the laying hen inventories had on the development of egg production in the EMC.

- marketing -

MARKETING

The first part of the analysis showed that the laying hen inventory in the EMC increased by 1.2 billion birds between 2007 and 2017. It was a considerably faster growth than at the global level, indicating the important role of this country group in the dynamics of the global egg industry. A decisive role played Asian countries, in particular in Southern, South-Eastern and Eastern Asia.

The dynamics was obviously closely related to the development of the population and a growing middle-class with an increasing purchasing power. Not all EMC were able to expand their laying hen inventories. Political and economic problems as well as a changing legal basis for laying hen husbandry in the EU from 2012 on were the main steering factors behind the decline of the number of

Table 7 – The development of the population and of egg production in the EMC between 2007 and 2017 in comparison to the global dynamics (Source: FAO database; own calculations).

2007 Region

Population (mill.)

Egg production (1,000 t)

EMC

4,635.8

41,934

World

6,706.4

59,581

69.1

70.4

Share of EMC (%)

2017 EMC

5,146.6

54,661

World

7,550.3

74,489

68.2

73.4

Share of EMC (%)

“The first part of the analysis showed that the laying hen inventory in the EMC increased by 1.2 billion birds between 2007 and 2017. It was a considerably faster growth than at the global level, indicating the important role of this country group in the dynamics of the global egg industry. A decisive role played Asian countries, in particular in Southern, South-Eastern and Eastern Asia. The dynamics was closely related to the development of the population and a growing middle-class with an increasing purchasing power”

laying hens in several EMC. In the following part it will be analysed which impacts the dynamics in the laying hen inventories had on the development of egg production in the EMC. Egg production in the 37 EMC increased from 41.9 mill. t in 2007 to 54.7 mill. t in 2017 or by 30.3%. In the same time period, global egg production grew from 59.6 mill. t to 74.5 mill. t or by 25.0%. The EMC shared 85.3% in the growth of the global production volume. The faster increase in EMC resulted in a gain of 3.0% in their share in global egg production (Table 7).

A detailed analysis of the composition and ranking of the fifteen leading EMC in egg production reveals some remarkable changes (Table 8). There was no change in the ranking of the six leading countries, except that the Russian Federation and Brazil changed places. The following ranking and composition changed considerably,

however. Turkey surpassed Ukraine; Malaysia, which was not listed among the leading countries in 2007, ranked as number nine in 2017. Colombia climbed from rank fourteen to rank twelve, Pakistan from rank fifteen to rank eleven. Argentina, which was also not listed in 2007 ranked as number ten.

The share of several EMC in global egg production changed considerably in the analysed decade. Despite the increase of China’s egg production by 5.2 mill. t, the country lost 0.3% of its share in 2007 due to the remarkable increase of the production volumes in several other countries. The share of the five following countries grew from 17.3% in 2007 to 18.9% in 2017; India gained 1.6%, Turkey 0.3%.

Table 9 lists the fifteen EMC with the highest absolute and relative increase of their egg production between 2007 and 2017. The 15 leading countries contributed

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29

MARKETING

Figure 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Egg production in Emerging Market Countries in 2017.

Table 8 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The fifteen EMC with the highest egg production in 2007 and 2017 (Source: FAO database, own corrections).

2007

2017

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%) in global production

China

21,833

36.6

India

2,947

4.9

Mexico

2,291

Russia

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%) in global production

China

27,022

36.3

India

4,848

6.5

3.8

Mexico

2,772

3.7

2,122

3.6

Brazil

2,547

3.4

Brazil

1,779

3.0

Russia

2,484

3.3

Indonesia

1,175

2.0

Indonesia

1,527

2.0

Ukraine

807

1.4

Turkey

1,205

1.6

Turkey

795

1.3

Ukraine

887

1.2

Country

Country

Iran

703

1.2

Malaysia

858

1.2

Nigeria

553

0.9

Argentina

813

1.1

Poland

547

0.9

Pakistan

803

1.1

Korea, Rep.

544

0.9

Colombia

799

1.1

Thailand

539

0.9

Iran

782

1.0

Colombia

498

0.8

Korea, Rep.

715

1.0

Pakistan

479

0.8

Thailand

690

0.9

15 countries

37,612

*63.1

15 countries

48,752

*65.4

EMC

41,934

70.4

EMC

54,661

73.4

World

59,581

100.0

World

74,489

100.0

* sum does not add because of rounding

30

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MARKETING

Proven Product Performance

Hendrix Genetics is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading breeder and distributor of white and brown laying hens. Via our balanced breeding program we breed 1st Quality Hens that produce 1st Quality Eggs. Our laying hens have proven themselves to perform in traditional and alternative production systems under different climatic conditions. Different global regions have unique conditions and require a tailored solution. We offer a regional approach for each market by providing six different layer brands: ISA, Bovans, Dekalb, Hisex, Shaver and Babcock.

layinghens.hendrix-genetics.com layinghens@hendrix-genetics.com

- april 2020 -

31

MARKETING

87.8% to the total growth of the group of the EMC. The extraordinary position of China and India is obvious. The two countries alone contributed 7.1 mill. t or 55.7% to the growth in the EMC and 47.6% to the global increase. Ten of the fifteen leading countries were located in Asia which again documents the extraordinary dynamics in this continent.

©Quang Nguyen Vinh

The highest relative growth of egg production in the group of the EMC showed Bangladesh, Oman, Viet Nam and the United Arab Emirates. The four countries more than doubled their production volume. Very high relative growth rates were also to be found in Argentina, Malaysia and Chile. Besides the ten Asian countries also four Central and South American countries ranked among the fifteen leading EMC, indicating the ongoing dynamics of the egg industry in this sub-continent.

Table 9 – The fifteen EMC with the highest absolute and relative increase of their egg production between 2007 and 2017 (Source: FAO database; own calculations).

Highest absolute increase Country

1,000 t

Highest relative increase Country

%

Not all countries were able to expand their egg production. Table 10 lists the five EMC with a decrease of their production volume. Three of them were located in Eastern Europe. The negative trend is a result of the banning of conventional cages for laying hens in 2012 and the enforced transformation to alternative housing systems.

Table 10 – The five EMC with the highest decrease in egg production between 2006 and 2016; data in 1,000 t (FAO database).

Country

Absolute decrease (1,000 t)

Relative decrease (%)

Nigeria

43

7.7

Hungary

24

15.1

Bulgaria

18

24.6

China

5,189

Bangladesh

177.4

Czech Rep.

9

9.2

India

1,900

Oman

144.0

South Africa

5

1.2

5 countries

99

-

Mexico

480

Viet Nam

138.6

Turkey

410

Un. Arab. Em.

120.9

Malaysia

382

Argentina

83.7

Argentina

370

Malaysia

80.2

Russian Fed.

362

Chile

67.9

Indonesia

353

Pakistan

67.5

Pakistan

324

S. Arabia

65.9

Bangladesh

314

India

64.5

Viet Nam

309

Peru

61.2

Colombia

301

Colombia

60.6

Korea, Rep.

171

Israel

59.8

Peru

158

Qatar

55.7

Philippines

157

Egypt

53.7

15 countries

11,180

15 countries

-

EMC

12,727

EMC

-

World

14,908

World

-

32

The main results of the second part of this report can be summarized as follows. Parallel to the remarkable growth of the laying hen inventory, egg production in the 37 EMC showed an extraordinary dynamics.

When comparing the population growth with the dynamics in egg production, the parallel development is obvious. If India and some other EMC in Southern and South-Eastern Asia would be able to raise their per capita consumption of eggs to the level of China, such a dynamics would considerably change the present pattern of the egg industry in the EMC which is documented in Figure 2.

- marketing -

MARKETING

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33

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Prevention and control of biofilm in water line systems as part of biosecurity protocols Production animal facilities are facing new challenges in how to produce the same or greater amounts of animal protein without the use of intervention protocols that were previously available. One of the examples is the use of antibiotics in feed or water for the prevention or reduction of pathogenic bacteria. With this picture in mind, production animal managers and servicemen are reviewing the basic elements in their farms, such as water and its role as a potential source and/or persistence factor for bacteria.

This paper does not address the situations in which the microbiological quality of the water has been compromised from the beginning; rather, this paper addresses how drinking water line systems (DWLS) may contribute to the initiation, prolongation and persistence of a bacteria issue due to certain enabling factors that could potentially facilitate biofilm development.

R. Munoz Saba Neogen Corporation

34

Biofilm progressive development emerges over an inert surface such as the internal sides of the DWLS that are used inside a broiler barn. This substance proliferation will enable an appropriate media for bacteria and another contaminants proliferation. These new contaminants will become residents and sometime could multiply inside those surfaces and maintain protected inside those layers of polymeric substances. These new layers and contaminants on the new inner surface will limit the action of chemicals, such as the disinfectants.

- technical column -

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Introduction There are many factors that may enable or facilitate biofilm development such as: Corrosiveness This is one of the major contributors to biofilm development. Studies have shown that biofilms developed more quickly on iron pipe surfaces than on plastic PVC pipes.

Biofilms are difficult and practically impossible to eliminate from the surfaces in drinking water distribution systems due to the protection offered by the microbial self-produced extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix. This matrix protects microorganisms within biofilms from external adverse factors and fluctuations, including chemical disinfection.

Chemicals Besides the susceptibility of the material of the water pipe itself, another contributor could be the type of routine/daily products put through the drinking water line systems (DLWS) with the intention of reducing water bacteria contamination.

Some chemistries could prompt higher and faster corrosive effects, such as oxidative chemistries on iron or copper-based pipe surfaces.

Chlorine residues This includes levels that are insufficient for eliminating bacteria but are sufficient for creating a zone of tolerance that allows the persistence of bacteria such as the coliform. A water line system could experience coliform occurrences even when free chlorine residues average between 2 and 2.5 mg/L. Use of m-T7 medium, a technique that recovers injured bacteria, has shown coliform occurrence rates ranging between 10% and 40% — even during months when coliforms were not recovered on the standard m-Endo medium.

Other combined factors The penetration of free chlorine into a biofilm has been modeled and shown to be limited by its fast reaction rate.

Essentially, free chlorine is consumed by reaction-diffusion interaction with cellular biomass before it can react with the bacterial components of the film. Stewart and

colleagues demonstrated that free chlorine effectively did not penetrate alginate beads containing bacterial cells.

The corrosion of iron pipes can influence the effectiveness of chlorine-based disinfectants for the inactivation of biofilm bacteria. Therefore, the choice of pipe material and the accumulation of corrosion products can dramatically impact the ability to control the effects of biofilms in DWLS. This variation in corrosion rates is important because the corrosion products react with residual chlorine, preventing the biocide from penetrating the biofilm and controlling bacterial growth. The use of chlorine-based disinfectants under such conditions are very common in today’s animal production facilities.

And finally, certain products added into the water system Some additives and supplements that are used through DWLS may facilitate the development of biofilms because of their adjuvants, vehicles, pH fluctuations or other factors of inherent to its formulations. The frequent administration of these types of products by servicemen and production animal caregivers is another factor that might worsen or contribute to the building up of — or the predisposition towards — biofilms in water lines.

Biofilm-associated populations and characteristics Under field conditions, some of the biofilms reported have been associated with Gram-negative bacilli, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., and others. Parasites like Cryptosporidium could be trapped in biofilms. Although viruses and Cryptosporidium do not grow in biofilm, they can attach to biofilms after a contamination event. Therefore, it is important to thoroughly flush the distribution system to remove these organisms following a contamination event. An intensive monitoring and sampling study was performed in England during the seasons of 2012 and 2013 to accumulate information that may show patterns of seasonality and other potential influential factors over the microbial dynamics inside DWLS under chlorinated treatments. Samples were collected before and during flushing operations during a four months’ interval, 5 litters each. The detailed microbial analysis was performed using 16S rRNA Illumina MiSeq sequencing. This microbial profile (Figure 1) showed a higher tendency for biofilm formation on cast iron water line surfaces compared to plastic or PVC, as well as some evidence of a potential favorable effect of the warm

- april 2020 -

35

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Feb-13

Fr3 Fr2 Fr1

Oct-12

O2 O1 J3

Jun-12

CAST IRON

O3

J2 J1

Feb-12

Fb3 Fb2 Fb1

Feb-13

Fr3 Fr2 Fr1

Oct-12

O2 O1

Jun-12

J3 J2 J1 Fb3 Feb-12

PLASTIC

O3

Fb2 Fb1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Relative abundance (%)

seasons. It is important to highlight the Clostridia findings under this particular study, as Clostridia has historically been one of the most critical bacteria to deal with in poultry facilities; because of its difficulty to be removed from poultry farms and its increasing deleterious effect under reduced or none-antibiotic production programs.

Chlorine residue levels correlated negatively with Bacteroidetes and Sphingobacteriia and correlated positively with Clostridia. The positive correlation between Clostridia and chlorine can be explained by the known ability of this microorganism to form spores that are very resistant to chlorine and other disinfectants. These results confirm that biofilms provide an environment in which bacteria are protected from chlorine residue. An example of the inefficiency of chlorine in controlling biofilms is the high presence of mycobacteria in the plastic pipe samples.

36

80

90

100

Alphaproteobacteria Bacilli Actinobacteria Betaproteobacteria Mollicutes Gammaproteobacteria Proteobacteria unclassified No Hit Flavobacteriia Bacteria unknown Bacteroidia Cyanobacteria Firmicutes Acidobacteria Deltaproteobacteria Bacteroidetes Planctomycetes Clostridia Planctomycetia Spirochaetia Sphingobacteriia Epsilonproteobacteria Bacteria unclassified Anaerolineae Chlorobia Chloroflexia Cytophagia Holophagae Spirochaetes Synergistia Verrucomicrobiae Caldilineae Chloroflexi Deinococci Erysipelotrichia Fusobacteriia Gemmatimonadetes Negativicutes Nitrospira Opitutae Phycisphaerae Thermomicrobia Verrucomicrobia

Biofilm control, management and prevention These processes could be perform using various approaches, such as: mechanical action, the first line of defense for water lines is to perform systematic flushing of their internal surfaces as performed in other industries, such as clean-in-place (CIP) protocols. Flushing the water lines should be one of the routine protocols performed in order to reduce the slime that may develop between flocks, and also in long-living flocks, with modified protocols to reduce the risk of nipple drinkers clogging. Doing so avoids potential water restrictions, potential egg drops and/or negative effects in performance. The temperature of the water used to apply and flush the system could be also a potential beneficial component, because water temperatures between 20 °C and 32 °C could facilitate surfactant action in the surface to affect the superficial ten-

- technical column -

TECHNICAL COLUMN

sion and help to expose and break the biofilm community.

Second through the use of detergents; acid detergents have a powerful descaling ability in the internal surface of the water line. The properties of a lower pH solution could help to reduce the superficial tension of the biofilm and enable the degradation of the bio-slime material, thus making bacteria more susceptible to the environmental conditions and any chemicals added within the detergent formulations. Third by specific chemicals; some specific chemical principles that work for the immediate and gradual removal of biofilm formations, such as the combination of stabilized hydrogen peroxide and silver nitrate. This chemistry could be used in terminal disinfection conditions at the end of flock removal. Other chemical combinations, such as peracetic acid- based products plus stabilized hydrogen peroxide, have been demonstrated as highly effective in working against the removal of scale and biofilms â&#x20AC;&#x201C; at the same time lowering the bacteria log as disinfection properties. These chemical combinations could be used in the removal strategy of biosecurity interventions that address the reduction of the current layers of biofilm that have been developed. There are other chemicals, such as chlorine dioxide, that could be of use in constant dose controls, with on-demand usage based on a pre-settled dose calibration protocol. The precursor of chlorine dioxide is activated with an acid-based product delivered into the DWLS, followed by a change of water pressure when animals are drinking water. So, the activation will occur just when it is needed: on-demand. This final product will help to control and manage biofilm formation. Removing biofilm and reducing biofilm formation helps to manage the negative impact on the taste and odor of the water. Additionally, chlorine dioxide binds mineral elements, such as iron and manganese, that could cause taste and odor issues. These minerals have also been noted as fundamental precursors for bacteria growth. We are not going to discuss in this paper the role of chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant, but it has been demonstrated and reported in previous literature

Measuring protocols and metrics For the three-studies water consumption was evaluated, performance parameters, such as average body weight, feed conversion and mortality, and for study 3 percent of egg production and peak persistence was evaluated. For study 1 a comparison of antibiotic usage was done versus the historical of the same farms with previous flocks.

For study 2, a luminometer based equipment that detects adenosine triphosphate (ATP) was used to assess the potential amount of biofilm in 100cc of sampled water before and after water treatment. For study 3 a conductivity tool was used to evaluate the consistence of oxidation reduction potential (ORP) units to try to make sure that the water system was always between 600-800 milivolts (mv).

A CHEMetrics instrument was used as well to evaluate the free ClO2 available in the water line at the end of the drinking line, the goal was to achieve an average concentration between 1 to 2 PPM of free ClO2. The pH was also measure in a weekly basis, to verify any major variations.

Results Biofilm experiences Study 1: Reducing antibiotic usage The performance records of one poultry complex in the USA were collected between 2013 and 2015. Before installing a hydrogen peroxide/silver nitrate protocol for biofilm and water treatment, the farm was experiencing between 19 and 25 treated flocks per year, mainly due to enteric, respiratory and infectious processes associated with E. coli and other opportunistic bacteria. For the year 2015, farms from the same company and same broiler complex had to treat just six flocks from the entire year around. A very different bacteriological picture was achieved after the use of this protocol as part of the program to reduce antibiotic usage in the flocks (See summary of results in Figure 2).

Study 2: Reducing biofilm in water lines

Materials and methods Chemical products for water intervention Installation of a hydrogen peroxide/silver nitrate dosage system in the water lines in the farms for study 1 and 2. Installation of a chlorine dioxide (ClO2) on dosage demand water line system with two pumps to regulate ClO2 activation by an acid for study 3.

Seven different farms were involved in another study. Water samples were collected at the end of the water line from each of the seven farms before and after treating the water line with a hydrogen peroxide/silver nitrate protocol.

Five of the seven farms showed lower levels of biofilm after the treatment. The levels of biofilm were measured using a luminescent-based technology to detect adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The use of ATP luminescent readers

- april 2020 -

37

TECHNICAL COLUMN Farm 1 30

45 40

25

25

35

20

30

19

15

39.4

25 20

29.9

10

15

6

5

10

14.2

00

2015

2016

0 2013

2014 Antibiotc Used (kg)

5 0

Number of Times Treated

Figure 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Farm 1.

to support sampling of hard surfaces and/or water that may contain biofilm is very reliable, and it had shown high correlation with a lack of hygiene on surfaces.The results are expressed in Relative Luminescent Units (RLU) the higher the units, the higher the presence of contaminants, such as biofilm (See summary of results in Figure 3).

TF22 and TF37 before and after detergence 1,180

4,430

1,280 775

800

689

700 600

RLU

500 400

375

300 200

186 172

100 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Farms RLU of ATP before Treatment

RLU of ATP afterTreatment

Figure 3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; TF22 and TF37 before and after detergence.

Study 3: Improving below-average farms A commercial layer facility in the U.S. that started the adoption of water line treatment protocols between 2016 and 2017 experienced positive changes in different performance index. Some of the below- average company farms that struggled during the peak of production and the weeks of persistence of production (because of the numerous additional stress factors) were included as field treated populations. These farms were the first to show a dramatic change during those approximate 20 weeks of critical egg production. These farms previously fell 3%

38

to 4% below the average of egg production from overall company-accumulated parameters. During this critical period of 20 weeks, these farms were reporting an increased mortality associated with peritonitis and an overall increase of respiratory issues from their usual figures. Previous records of water consumption were compared between 2016 and 2017 in the same farms for the same time of the year, and it was found that water consumption was higher for those historical below-average farms, demonstrating that the palatability of the water was affected before by the scale and biofilm contents in the water lines and the water itself. The production performance during those 20 weeks became consistent and comparable to the average best-performing farms within the company, including average egg-mass and a reduced prevalence of peritonitis and respiratory issues associated with E. coli (personal communication, 2018).

Discussion Certain management practices currently used for drinking water line systems may lead to the increased risk of developing biofilms, and the problem can persist into the farm and contribute to the growth of resident bacteria. Biofilm formation could help to maintain bacteria associated with this type of community formation, creating a cycle of potential contamination for the entire production site.

Traditional disinfection practices have not demonstrated an efficient performance for the prevention and/or removal of biofilm in drinking water line systems. But new chemistries, like the ones mentioned in this paper, could prove to be part of more effective interventions and protocol practices for animal production facilities.

In addressing these types of challenges from drinking water line systems, there will be a high possibility of a reduced need for the use of antibiotics, because addressing these challenges should lower the level of bacteria within the biological animal production systems.

In commercial layer farms, as well as turkey farms, certain bacteria profiles may serve as indicators of water lines that face tough issues in regard to biofilm. An example of this is the frequency of finding Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 68th Western Poultry Disease Conference

- technical column -

TECHNICAL COLUMN

- april 2020 -

39

Graded levels of stocking density for turkey toms raised to 16 weeks of age K. Beaulac and K. Schwean-Lardner Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada

40

Stocking density can be one of the most important drivers of economic return; however it can greatly influence bird performance, health, and welfare. In regards to heavy turkey toms, there are few recent studies that take a comprehensive approach to stocking density.

- management -

Šthe conversation

MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT

40, 50, and 60 kg/m2) resulting in a total of 4 replicates per treatment. Birds were housed in large open rooms (6.71m x 10.06m) that were equipped with individual environmental controls. Air quality was monitored to assist in managing the ventilation to ensure consistent air quality across treatments. Body weight and feed intake were recorded at 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks of age. Mortality was recorded daily and flock uniformity was assessed at week 12 and 16. Health and welfare parameters were assessed at 12 and 16 weeks of age and included footpad lesion scoring, gait scoring, feather condition and cleanliness scoring, heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (H/L ratio), incidence of aggressive damage, and behaviour.

Results and discussion The results presented in these proceedings are for week 16 only. Bird performance (Table 1) was negatively impacted by increasing stocking density. Overall body weight gain from 0-16 weeks decreased linearly as stock-

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Introduction Increasing stocking density can negatively impact the environment (air quality and litter quality) which may in turn affect bird health. As a result, it is important to mitigate the effect of density on environment in attempt to remove any confounding factors. Past studies have reported negative effects of increasing stocking density on turkey tom performance, including body weight, feed consumption, and feed efficiency. Although less frequently evaluated, increasing stocking density has also been associated with poor gait scores, increases in footpad lesions and behavioural differences.

The aim of this study was to provide current, comprehensive data outlining the effects of graded levels of stocking density on turkey tom performance, health, and well-being.

Intra Hydrocare has a dual effect: It removes the bioďŹ lm and disinfects the drinking water. Safe and very effective!

Materials and methods The experiment took place in two trials consisting of 1,434 Nicholas Select turkey toms. Each trial consisted of 2 room replicates of stocking density treatments (30,

- april 2020 -

Tel: + 31 (0)413-354 105 WWW.INTRACARE.NL

41

MANAGEMENT

ing density increased (P=0.01). This decrease in body weight has been observed in previous studies with increasing stocking density. Feed consumption and feed efficiency were both negatively impacted by increasing stocking density within the last 4 weeks, however only feed efficiency was negatively impacted over the course of the entire trial (0-16 Table 1 – Impact of estimated final stocking density on turkey tom performance to 16 weeks of age.

Age (wk)

n

Estimated final stocking density (kg/m2) 30

40

50

SEM1

60

Regression Equation2

Regression P-value

R2

Body weight gain (kg) 12-16

4

6.19

6.06

5.94

5.73

0.070

0.01L

0.38

Y=-0.02x+6.66

0-16

4

18.72

18.65

18.49

18.07

0.098

0.01L

0.39

Y=-0.02x+19.43

Y=-0.03x+21.15

Feed consumption (kg) 12-16

4

20.34

19.54

19.47

19.25

0.186

0.04L

0.26

0-16

4

44.24

43.57

43.51

43.35

0.210

NS

-

Feed efficiency (feed gain mortality corrected) 12-16

4

3.20

3.21

3.27

3.35

0.027

0.03L

0.29

Y=0.51e -2x+3.03

0-16

4

2.29

2.29

2.31

2.35

0.010

0.02L

0.35

Y=0.20e -2x+2.22

Mortality and culls (%) 12-16

4

6.8

6.2

4.2

5.5

0.52

NS

-

0-16

4

14.1

12.6

10.2

13.4

0.84

NS

-

¹ = Standard error of the mean. ² = Regression considered significant if P≤0.05.

L=

Linear regression is significant.

42

- management -

MANAGEMENT

Average Score

5.0

Turkey tom behaviour (Figure 2) was impacted by increasing density, with resting (P<0.01, quadratic), standing 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0

% of birds in field of view

When evaluating health parameters, we observed an increase in footpad lesion score severity (P=0.02, linear) and in gait score (P=0.04, linear), as an indicator of lameness, as stocking density increased (Figure 1).

Footpad lesions and gait score have not been evaluated frequently in relation to increasing stocking density;

however some authors also observed a higher incidence of footpad lesions and poorer gait as stocking density increased in both hens and toms. In addition, both feather cover (P=0.01, linear) and feather cleanliness (P<0.01, linear) were poorer as stocking density increased at 16 weeks of age. The H/L ratio was not impacted by increasing stocking density at older ages (12 and 16 weeks).

% of birds in field of view

wks). Feed efficiency is not consistently affected by increasing stocking density, with certain studies showing no differences and other studies indicating significant decreases in feed efficiency. Total mortality (Table 1) and flock uniformity (not shown) was unaffected by increasing stocking density. While mortality was not significantly different in this study, two other studies have noted numerically high mortality in relation to high stocking density.

Resting

Standing

Walking

5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

Preening

Aggressive Pecking

4.0 Figure 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Impact of stocking density on turkey tom behaviour at 16 weeks of age.

3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

Gait Score (/5)

Footpad Lesion Score (/4)

Estimated Final Stocking Density (kg/m2) 30 40 50 60 Figure 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Impact of estimated final stocking density on average gait score and average footpad lesion score of turkey toms at 16 weeks of age. Gait score 0 is no impairment and score 5 is complete lameness. Footpad lesion score 0 is no external signs of a lesion and score 4 is greater than 50% of the footpad covered with necrotic cells.

(P=0.01, quadratic), walking (P=0.02, quadratic), preening (P=0.02, linear), and aggressive pecking (P=0.04, linear) differing by treatment. Birds housed at low stocking densities were more active and were seen resting less, however they also showed an increase in aggressive behaviours. Birds at moderate densities (40 and 50 kg/m2) were less active, less aggressive, and were observed more frequently resting and preening.

In conclusion, high stocking density, while economically beneficial, decreases bird performance and may pose a risk to bird health and welfare.

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www.pasreform.com pas2020_adv-Zootecnica-180x61mm.indd 1

25-02-2020 11:16

- april 2020 -

43

NUTRITION

Hydroxy-selenomethionine can improve productive performance and egg quality of laying hens in the late phase of production Due to the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population increase, egg production is expected to develop rapidly and, to increase egg production, the goal is to enhance laying persistency while maintaining egg quality. As they age, laying hens gradually decrease productivity and eggshell quality.

A total of 384 Dekalb Brown laying hens (average weight 1.86 kg) was randomly assigned to two treatments (12 replicates; 16 hens each). The two experimental diets were supplemented at 0.3 mg Se/kg feed supplied by either SS or OH-SeMet. Standard production parameters were recorded.

Egg quality traits analyzed included weight and percentage of albumen, yolk and eggshell, eggshell thickness, eggshell strength, Haugh unit and yolk color. Data were analyzed by Student t-test for independent samples (P<0.05).

A. Brito, D. Cavalcante, F. Perazzo Universidade Federal da Paraiba, Areia, Paraiba, Brazil M. De Marco, Y.G. Liu, J.G. Goncalves Adisseo France

44

Oxidative stress is an important factor of ageing and selenium (Se), being an essential mineral involved in several antioxidant processes, can play an important role influencing both laying performance and egg quality. Hydroxy-selenomethionie (OH-SeMet) has been proven to be a more efficient Se source than sodium selenite (SS) to improve poultry performance particularly in critical periods of their production cycle.

The aim of this trial was to evaluate the effects of OH- SeMet on productive performance and egg quality of laying hens from 50 to 70 weeks of age.

- nutrition -

OH-SeMet increased several production parameters compared with SS. Concerning egg quality traits, OH-SeMet improved eggshell thickness and strength as compared with SS. It can be speculated that improved eggshell quality could be linked with the higher Se concentration achievable with OH-SeMet in the shell and shell membrane.

Overall, dietary supplementation of OH-SeMet, by improving both production and egg quality parameters in laying hens from 50 to 70 weeks of age more efficiently as compared to SS, appears to be an effective potential solution to prolonging the production cycle of laying hens.

References available on request From the Proceedings of 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

NUTRITION

Phytic acid reduction in canola and camelina meals by fungal fermentation for potential broiler feeding O.O. Olukomaiya, W.C. Fernando, Y. Sultanbawa, Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia R. Mereddy, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Brisbane, Australia D. Zhang, X. Li, Poultry Science Unit, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Australia

Canola and camelina meals have been identified as alternative plant protein sources in place of soybean meal for animal feeding. The use of these protein sources at high inclusion levels is limited due to the presence of antinutritional factors such as phytic acid, glucosinolates, erucic acid, sinapines and tannins which have negative effects on production performance of broiler chickens.

Solid state fermentation is a preferred method for enriching agroindustrial residues since it offers several economical and practical benefits. Reports on the chemical composition of solid state fermented canola and camelina meals, and effects of fermented canola and camelina meals on nutrient digestibility and other performance parameters in broiler chickens, are limited. In a preliminary study, solid state fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae was conducted with the aim of reducing phytic acid contents in canola and camelina meals.

The effect of length of incubation on phytic acid content was investigated.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ATCC 38555) was cultured on yeast malt extract (YME) agar plates. Canola and camelina meals were obtained from a commercial feed mill. Solid state fermentation was conducted in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks. Before autoclaving, moisture content was adjusted to 50% with RO wa-

- april 2020 -

ter. Flasks with substrates were autoclaved at 121 °C for 15 mins, cooled to room temperature and inoculated with spore suspension containing 107 spores/ml. Flasks were incubated at 25 °C, and harvested after 3 and 7 days of fermentation. Fermented samples were oven dried at 60 °C for 2 days, milled and stored for chemical analysis. PH of the experimental samples initially reduced between day 0 to 3 and slightly increased between day 3 to 7. Phytic acid concentration was analyzed according to the modified colorimetric method of Gao et al. The fermentation process reduced phytic acid concentration by 25.7% (from 37.4 to 27.8 mg PA/g) in canola meal and 33.7% (from 36.8 to 24.4 mg PA/g) in camelina meal after 7 days of incubation.

Further research is ongoing to determine the chemical composition and in vitro enzyme activities of canola meal, lupin flour and camelina meal fermented with Aspergillus sojae and Aspergillus ficuum. Nutrient digestibility and performance studies will also be conducted to determine the suitability of these fermented products for broiler chickens.

Acknowledgment: the authors are sincerely grateful for the support of the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.

References are available on request From the 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium Proceedings

45

Šgapresurs.ru

NUTRITION

Performance of broilers fed diets with high and low net energy but similar metabolisable energy

S. Musigwa1, N. Morgan1, R. Swick1, P. Cozannet2 and S. Wu1 1

Animal Science, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, Australia 2

Adisseo France SAS

46

A semi-commercial scale feeding study was conducted to compare formulations of broiler diets based on predicted net energy (NE) and metabolisable energy (ME). It was hypothesised that formulating to NE may result in more efficient use of dietary energy, promoting optimal performance response in the birds. Dietary treatments contained higher or lower NE but with similar ME. Chickens fed the higher NE formulated diet had higher NE cost per weight gain (WG) and also higher productive energy (NEp) per body weight (BW) compared with birds fed the low NE diet.

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

This resulted in a poorer performance in the high NE birds, such as lower WG, higher fat pad weight and decreased thigh meat yields. The results from this experiment did not confirm a beneficial effect of formulating diet based on NE, most likely due to lower protein level in the NE diet coupled with only a small increase in the NE content of the diet.

The most important cost component of broiler feed relates to energy, as this may account for up to 75% of feed costs. Therefore, more accurate evaluation of feed energy in broiler production is imperative for environmental and financial reasons. The metabolisable energy (ME) system is currently the preferred measure for determining energy utilisation in poultry feed. However, this system does not give a complete picture of the amount of total energy actually available to the bird for maintenance, growth or production. It has been postulated that broiler feed formulation based on net energy (NE) may be more accurate and cost-effective than the current ME system, as has been shown in ruminants and pigs. However, this system has yet to be successfully assessed in poultry and is thus not yet ready for use in commercial poultry diet formulation. Researchers at UNE have developed the equations for predicting NE in diets using closed-circuit chambers, and these equations have been validated in a range of diets. A controlled large-scale experiment is, however, required to validate and confirm whether NE formulation is advantageous over ME based formulation.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a high NE diet is advantageous compared to a low NE diet with similar ME, based on bird performance and meat yield.

Two experiments were undertaken with commercial feather sexed Ross 308 chicks. Experiment 1 involved a NE study in sealed respiratory chambers, whereas experiment 2 involved a semi-commercial floor pen feeding study. In experiment 1, a total of 40 day-old chicks obtained from two different batches was randomly assigned into 2 runs of 10 closed-circuit respiratory chambers per run, with two birds per chamber (one male and one female). This ensured there were 10 replications per dietary treatment, with 2 birds per replicates. The two dietary treatments, based on wheat, corn and soybean meal, were formulated to contain similar ME values with one higher and another lower in NE, where crude protein (CP) and ether extract (EE) varied according to their contributions to NE as reported in Wu et al., (2018). Amino acid spectrum used was obtained using AminoChic 2.0

Table 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Composition and calculated major nutrients of grower-finisher diets (d14-d35).

Ingredient (%)

High NE Diet

Low NE Diet

Corn

42.9

10.0

Wheat Pollard

17.0

6.2

Full Fat Soybean Meal

14.9

5.0

Canola Meal Cold 11%

11.0

5.0

Wheat

5.0

40.2

Canola Oil

2.8

3.5

2

27.1

Dical Phos 18P/21Ca

1.197

1.237

Limestone

1.084

1.039

L-Lysine HCl 78.4

0.240

Na Bicarb

0.200

DL-Methionine

0.176

Mineral Conc. 1.0 kg/mt (0.1%)

0.100

0.100

Vitamin Conc. 0.7 kg/mt (0.07%)

0.070

0.070

Rovabio ÂŽ

0.005

0.005

Amount

Amount

ME Poultry (mj/kg)

12.97

12.97

NE Broiler (mj/kg)

9.82

9.64

Crude Protein (%)

19

24

Crude Fat (%)

7.50

6.36

d Arg pou (%)

1.09

1.45

d Lys pou (%)

0.99

1.12

d Met pou (%)

0.46

0.41

d M+C pou (%)

0.74

0.74

d Ile pou (%)

0.70

0.91

d Thr pou (%)

0.64

0.74

d Val pou (%)

0.79

1.01

Calcium (%)

0.80

0.80

Av. Phosphorus (%)

0.40

0.40

Soybean Meal

Advance

Calculated Major Nutrients

0.200

software. The high NE diet contained 19% CP and 7.5% EE. The low NE diet was formulated to contain 24% CP and 6.4% EE. A common starter diet was fed to all birds from d0 to d14 and the dietary treatments were introduced from d14 to d28. The NE run was undertaken from d25 to d28, during which total excreta were collected daily.

- april 2020 -

47

NUTRITION

Birds and feeds were weighed to determine body weight gain (WG), feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Additionally, oxygen bottles were weighed, KOH samples taken, and resulting oxygen consumed and CO2 produced were measured on a daily basis. Heat production was calculated using the modified Brouwer equation (Brouwer, 1965; McLean, 1972):

all birds from d0 to d14 and the dietary treatments from d14 to d35. The weight of birds and feed per pen were recorded weekly from d14 to d35 to determine WG, FI and FCR. On day 35, abdominal fat pad weight and meat yield was measured in three birds per pen, to evaluate carcass characteristics.

Table 2 shows that birds fed the high NE diet had reduced N intake (P<0.01) and retained N (P<0.05) per bird, while the N efficiency (ratio of N retained to N intake) was significantly increased (P<0.01). Other parameters were not statistical different (P>0.05), although respiratory quotient (RQ) tended to be increased by feeding the high NE diet (P=0.055).

Total heat (kcal) = 3.866 × O2 consumed (L) + 1.200 × CO2 exhaled (L) In experiment 2, diet formulations were the same as those featured in experiment 1. A total of 720 day-old chicks was randomly distributed into 72 floor pens. Birds

“The most important cost component of broiler feed relates to energy, as this may account for up to 75% of feed costs. Therefore, more accurate evaluation of feed energy in broiler production is imperative for environmental and financial reasons. The metabolisable energy (ME) system is currently the preferred measure for determining energy utilisation in poultry feed”

were reared according to Ross 308 standard and the mortality rate was less than 3%. The study had a 2×2 factorial arrangement; the assessed factors included dietary treatment (higher NE vs. low NE diet) and gender (male and female). Birds were randomly allocated to dietary treatments from d14 to d35, with 18 replicates of 10 birds per replicates. A common starter diet was fed to

As shown in Table 3, the high NE diet increased ME utilisation per g WG (P<0.05), NE utilisation per g WG (P<0.05) and productive NE (NEp) per g WG (P<0.01).

This diet also decreased (P<0.05) the WG and significantly increased (P<0.01) the fat pad weight. However, FCR, FI and breast yield were not affected (P>0.05) by dietary treatment. No dietary treatment by gender interac-

Table 2 – Net energy trial results between high and low NE diets with similar ME diet.

Factor

ME (MJ/kg)

NE (MJ/kg)

NE/ME (%)

RE/b/d (kJ)

Ni/b/d (g)

Nf/b/d (g)

Nf/Ni (%)

RQ

3.09a

63.7b

0.99

Low NE diet

15.02

11.43

76.1

758

4.85a

High NE diet

15.07

11.58

76.8

804

3.93b

2.77b

70.4a

1.01

0.10

0.09

0.0

35

0.15

0.09

0.0

0.01

SEM

P-value Diet

0.773

0.403

0.323

0.386

0.000

0.018

0.000

0.055

Run

0.033

0.161

0.513

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.721

0.125

Data are expressed as Means. Values within a row that do not share a common letter are significantly different (P≤0.05).

ME: metabolisable energy; NE: net energy; RE: retained energy; Ni: nitrogen intake; Nf: nitrogen fixed; RQ: respiratory quotient.

48

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

Table 3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Effect of high and low NE diets with similar ME on broiler performance from d14 to d35.

WG/b (g)

FCR (DM)

FI/b/d (g DM)

ME/WG (kJ/g)

NE/WG (kJ/g)

NEp/BW (kJ/g)

Fat pad (%)

Breast

Thigh

Low NE

1912a

1.43

130

21.41b

16.30 b

9.26b

0.76b

20.8

9.8a

High NE

1866b

1.45

129

21.84a

16.78a

9.90a

1.04a

20.9

9.4b

F

1769 b

1.48a

125b

22.33a

17.08a

9.89a

0.98a

21.2a

9.5

M

2010a

1.39b

133a

20.92b

16.00 b

9.27b

0.82b

20.4b

9.7

18

0.01

1

0.13

0.10

0.07

0.03

0.1

0.05

Factor

Diet

Gender

SEM

P-value Diet

0.017

0.084

0.531

0.036

0.002

0.000

0.000

0.608

0.000

Gender

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.212

Diet*Gender

0.145

0.147

0.988

0.150

0.160

0.204

0.310

0.518

0.133

Data are expressed as means. Values within a row that do not share a common letter are significantly different (Pâ&#x2030;¤0.05). WG/b: weight gain per bird over d14-35; FCR: feed conversion ratio as dry matter basis; DM: dry matter; FI/b/d: feed intake per day per day; ME: metabolisable energy; NE: net energy; NEp: energy available for productive purposes.

tion was observed for any of the measured parameters.

All measurements were lower in the females (P<0.01), except thigh yield which showed no differences (P>0.05) between males and females.

The results from this study illustrate an increase in NE utilisation per WG in birds fed diets high in NE, with approximately 3% higher cost of NE/BW compared to the low NE diet. This resulted in a comparatively increased NEp at approximately 6.5% in the birds fed the high NE diet. This was associated with significantly higher relative abdominal fat pad weight in the high NE diet birds, 27% heavier than for the low NE diet birds. In fact, the high NE diet contained a lower protein concentration (19% CP) while the low NE diet contained 24% CP. Adipose fat accretion is promoted by an increase in energy:protein ratio, as well as protein concentration lower than normal requirements, whereas an increase in CP leads to lean muscles and impaired feed efficiency. Therefore, the increased fat deposition in chickens fed the high NE diet may be explained by the fact that these chickens overconsumed feed (high feed consumption per g of WG compared with the low NE group) in an attempt to meet their protein requirements for sustaining their growth potential. By doing so, they consumed more energy which increased fat deposition. However, this finding is not supported by the results of MacLeod (1990), who reported that the control of energy intake takes priority over AA intake. The lean carcass observed in the low NE diet fed

birds is in agreement with the findings of Leeson et al.

(1996), who reported that birds deposit less carcass fat when there is either a decrease in energy intake or an increase in protein intake. In this study, the growth rate of the high NE diet birds was approximately 2.5% lower than those fed the low NE diet. The poor performance in birds fed the diet with low protein concentration is consistent with earlier findings and might suggest a deficiency of non- essential AA, such as glycine.

The results of this study illustrate that feeding chickens diets with high NE but low CP yielded negative results which does not confirm a beneficial effect of formulating diet on only NE. This is apparently due to the substantial difference in CP concentration, yet only slightly higher NE. As the NE value of feed is affected by the CP and EE content of the ingredients, the dietary composition has to be adjusted to achieve different NE level. This may be an issue for formulating diet based on NE and consideration needs to be taken to minimise nutrient deficiency for such formulation. Therefore, further study on NE validation using diets with limited change of CP levels should be considered to make sure all diets have equal growth performance, possibly by change of fat level.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

- april 2020 -

49

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Pulmonary Nocardiosis in turkey poults Nocardiosis is an opportunistic, noncontagious, pyogranulomatous or suppurative disease of domestic animals, wildlife and people. In domestic animals, it causes mastitis, pneumonia (granulomatous lesions in lungs), abscesses and cutaneous lesions.

Peter Gazdzinski Cuddy Farms Ltd.

50

Nocardia species are aerobic actinomycetes that belong to order Actinomycetales which comprises a complex group of pathogens like Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium. They

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

are refractory to conventional treatment. Nocardia are widely distributed in the soil, organic material, fresh water, salted water, dust and other environmental sources.

In domestic animals at least 30 species of Nocardia have been described as responsible for various syndromes.

were brooded on pine shavings. At five days mortality reached 7.2%

Nocardiosis is considered an uncommon disease in animals and people, however reports of animal nocardiosis have increased worldwide. This organism has rarely been isolated from domestic poultry. There were only reports of isolation from ducks, pigeons (Swayne 2013) and parrots. Chickens are susceptible to experimental infection after oral or intraperitoneal inoculation. In the present paper, a first case of Nocardiosis in turkey poults has been described.

After first week mortality was declining without medication and at the end of second week was at 9.5%. The sick birds were depressed and some showing respiratory distress. The sister flock of hens from the same hatch brooded on different farm had no disease problem and mortality was at normal level. Post-mortem examination has been done on 15, 5 day-old poults. Ten poults had a striking lesion in lungs and kidneys. Lungs were congested with multiple grey granulomas. Kidneys had large pale areas distinct from normal tissue. Livers and spleens were congested. The other 5 poults had lesions consisted with starvation.

Case history and diagnostic analyses

Bacteriological examinations

A flock of 12,000 toms, from commercial farm reported increased mortality in the first week of brooding. Poults

Lungs and livers were cultured on standard media of blood agar, McConkey and Sabouraud agar. After 48

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hours there were only single colonies of E.coli. Longer incubation time was not performed.

Histopathology In lungs there were multiple large areas of necrosis and inflammation within the pulmonary parenchyma with central cores of necrosis, inflammatory cell debris and fibrin exudation surrounded by poorly defined rims of macrophages and multinucleated giant cells. Within parabronchi were extra macrophages, multinucleated giant cells, proteinaceous fluid and fibrin. Occasional small vessels contained fibrin and thrombi. There was moderate congestion of the lung peripheral to the granulomas. In kidneys there were large areas of necrosis and inflammation surrounded by macrophages and multinucleated giant cells.

Lung sections stained with Gram Stain showed numerous filamentous branching bacteria within granulomas.

These bacteria did not stain consistently with the Gram Stain.

The PAS stain sections of pulmonary granulomas did not have any fungal hyphae. On modified acid fast FITE stain there were visible long filamentous bacteria but not all were visibly and strongly stained.

PCR testing and 16 S rRNA sequencing Scrolls of lung granulomas were collected for PCR testing and sequencing. The PCR testing and sequencing showed that the bacteria belonged to Nocardia. The sequencing revealed that the isolate has 100% identity to two species Nocardia farcinica and Nocardia otitidiscaviarum. These two species are closely related.

Discussion To date in the literature, there have not been descriptions of any cases of Nocardiosis in turkeys. There is only one paper (Okoye 1991) describing experimental infection of chickens with N. asteroids and N. transvalensis. Ten-day old chicks infected orally and intraperitoneally were susceptible to infection. The clinical signs (depression, gasping) were most severe in the birds infected peritoneally.

Three out of 10 chickens died. In our case the infection was self-limiting. Mortality stopped after 3 weeks with-

52

out medication. One can speculate that infection was by inhalation due to contaminated shavings. Nocardia are quite resistant to medication and the drugs of choice are Sulfonamides with long periods of treatment.

We were not able to isolate these Nocardia species using standard media and 48 hrs incubation time. In the literature they recommend very long incubation up to 2 weeks at temperature 37 – 43 °C, since the growth of Nocardia spp in culture media is slow (Merck Manual, Pal 1997, Lerner 1996). The second attempt to isolate Nocardia by culture was not possible since the samples were not available.

Histopathological sections were stained with Gram stain and Fite’s modified acid fast stain. These methods only partially stained the investigated bacteria. According to Lerner about 50% of Nocardia spp is not stained by Gram Stain method in spite the fact that they are gram positive bacteria. Also 60% of Nocardia sp. does not stain with modified acid fast method.

The demonstration of Nocardia farcinica and Nocardia otidiscaviarum causing pneumonia is important finding.

Results of the mouse pathogenicity studies showed that N. farcinica is very pathogenic (Lerner 1996). It is therefore advised that pulmonary nocardiosis in turkeys should be differentiated from other respiratory diseases like aspergillosis and pulmonary streptococcosis by employing standard microbiological techniques.

References Lerner P.I., (1996) Nocardiosis. Mt. Sinai Medical Center, School of Medicine, Cleveland Ohio.

Okoye J.O.A, Gugnani H.C., Okeke C.N., (1991) - Experimental Infection of chickens with Nocardia asteroids and Nocardia transvalensis. Avian Path. 20:17- 24.

Pal M., (1997) - Nocardia asteroides as a cause of pneumonia in a buffalo calf. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int.Epiz. 16 (3) 881-884.

Swayne D.E., et al. (2013) Other bacterial diseases. - Diseases of Poultry 13th Ed. Pp 1023.

The Merck Veterinary Manual (2014) Overwiew of Nocardiosis.

From the Proceedings of the Turkey Science and Production Conference

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!

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VETERINARY SCIENCE

Development of coccidial vaccinal immunity is not impaired by feeding oregano essential oil Coccidial vaccination is an alternative to medication programmes, although vaccination can lead to impaired performance.

Summary The objective of this study was to determine the effect of co-administration of an oregano essential oil (OEO) product in feed and an attenuated Eimeria vaccine on performance and D. Harrington1, G. Mathis2 and W. Wakeman¹ ¹ Anpario plc, Worksop, UK ² Southern Poultry Research Inc, Athens, GA, USA

54

immunity of vaccinated birds. A total of 1,750 Cobb broilers was randomly allocated to 5 treatment groups (7 replicates/treatment 50 birds/replicate): CON – salinomycin (66 g/t); VACC – HatchPac Cocci III (Merial, USA) single dose Day 0; OEO – OEO (300 g/t); OEOD10 - OEO (300 g/t) from Day 10; SAL/OEO – salinomycin (66 g/t), OEO (150 g/t).

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Birds in OEO, OEOD10 and SAL/OEO were vaccinated on Day 0 with the anticoccidial vaccine. With the exception of VACC and OEOD10, in-feed treatments were fed the entire study, 0-42 days. Birds were reared in floor pens on clean litter. Litter samples were collected weekly for oocyst enumeration. On Day 21, 5 birds/pen were moved to cages (35 birds/treatment, 7 replicates) and challenged orally with a mixed Eimeria infection.

Coccidia-free birds were used as a positive control (POS) (5 birds/cage, 7 replicates). Birds were fed an untreated ration for the challenge phase. On Day 27 birds were euthanised, weight recorded and coccidial lesion scored (LS). Coccidia were detected in the litter of SAL from 10 days indicating contamination. Body weight gain in VACC was significantly lower than SAL/OEO; all other treatments did not differ significantly. Feed conversion ratio was significantly higher in both VACC and OEOD10 versus SAL and SAL/OEO while VACC, OEO and OEOD10 did not differ significantly. Lesion scores were significantly lower in all treatments versus POS while LS in SAL and SAL/OEO was significantly higher than VACC. Oocyst enumeration profile demonstrated a peak in VACC on Day 21 that was absent in all other treatments. In conclusion, the inclusion of OEO in poultry feed from Day 0 or Day 10, either alone or in combination with salinomycin, and fed to birds vaccinated with an attenuated Eimeria vaccine on Day 0 had no adverse effect on the development of coccidial immunity.

The combination of OEO and salinomycin significantly lowered Day 0-42 FCR versus birds receiving vaccine or OEO alone. The use of OEO in combination with an Eimeria vaccine or an ionophore offers another potential tool in the management of coccidiosis.

bird performance. Oregano essential oil (OEO) based products have demonstrated compatibility with coccidial vaccines, although determination of immune status following challenge was not determined.

The objective of the study was to determine the effect of a commercial oregano essential oil product on the development of immunity following vaccination with an attenuated coccidial vaccine.

Method A total of 1,750 Cobb 500 male chicks was allocated to 6 treatment groups, with 7 replicates per treatment as per Table 1. Each replicate (experimental unit) comprised 50 birds. Feed and water were available ad libitum. Feed rations were corn/soya-based and free of all medication with the exception of treatment 1. Feed for all other treatments contained the test material as per Table 1. On Day 0, all birds in treatments 2-5 received a single dose of Eimeria vaccine, HatchPak Cocci III (Merial, USA) via hatchery-spray. Birds were reared on earth floor pens on 10 cm deep clean litter (wood shavings) until Day 42. Average body weight gain was determined on Day 28 and 42 and FCR calculated. Mortality was determined daily and European Production Efficiency Factor (EPEF) calculated. Litter samples were collected weekly from each pen and the number of oocysts enumerated via salt flotation.

Table 1 – Experimental design.

Treatment

Inclusion

Details

Duration (days)

SAL

66 g/tonne

Salinomycin

0-42

Coccidial vaccination

Introduction

VACC

-

HatchPak Cocci III

0

✔

Management of coccidiosis has traditionally been via medication or vaccination. Anticoccidial programmes typically comprise a chemical and an ionophore component. Ionophores are under increasing regulatory and consumer scrutiny for their antimicrobial activity. Coccidial vaccines comprise Eimeria strains that are either attenuated (typically via repeated passage) or non- pathogenic or unmodified strains of field isolates. Coccidial vaccines have been proposed to restore anticoccidial drug sensitivity to circulating Eimeria populations in a poultry house.

However, coccidial vaccines have been shown to impair

OEO

300 g/tonne

Oregano essential oil*

0-42

✔

OEOD10-42

300 g/tonne

Oregano essential oil*

10-42

✔

SAL/OEO

66 g/tonne

Salinomycin

0-42

✔

150 g/tonne

Oregano essential oil*

*Orego-Stim (Anpario plc, UK)

For immunity assessment, 5 birds were randomly selected from each pen on Day 21 and transferred to wire-floor

- april 2020 -

55

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Data were analyzed by ANOVA using Minitab v14 (Minitab Inc, USA) and statistical significance declared at P≤0.05.

Results There was no significant effect of treatment on Day 28 body weight gain, EPEF or mortality (Table 2).

Bodyweight gain on Day 42 in VACC was significantly lower than SAL/OEO, 2.420 and 2.586 kg, respectively. All other treatments did not differ significantly from VACC

7000

Sal Vacc OEO OEOD10 SAL/OEO

6000

Oocyst (103)/g litter

cages, 7 cages/treatment. Each bird was challenged orally with 1 ml of mixed Eimeria (~100,000 oocysts E. acervulina, ~75,000 E. maxima and ~50,000 E. tenella). A separate group of birds which were naïve and coccidian-free (5 birds/cage, 7 cages) were also inoculated and acted as a positive control group (POS) for the immunity assessment only. On Day 27, all birds were euthanised and scored for coccidial lesions according to the system of Johnson and Reid (1970).

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 7

14

Body weight gain (kg)

or SAL/OEO. Feed conversion ratio was significantly higher in both VACC and OEOD10 versus SAL and SAL/OEO, while FCR in OEO, OEOD10 and VACC only differed numerically. Feed conversion ratio in OEO (1.718) was also significantly lower versus SAL/OEO (1.663). The average lesion score in POS was significantly higher than all other treatments. Additionally, the average lesion score in VACC was significantly lower than SAL and SAL/ OEO, 1.34, 1.68 and 1.71 respec-

FCR*

Mortality

EPEF

Average lesion score

28

42

Day 28

Day 42

0.630

2.555ab

1.467b

1.683bc

15.0

307

1.68b

VACC

0.617

2.420 b

1.507a

1.755a

10.7

293

1.34c

OEO

0.622

2.477ab

1.494ab

1.718ab

12.9

299

1.47bc

OEOD10

0.608

2.506ab

1.551a

1.733a

7.9

317

1.65bc

SAL/OEO

0.645

2.586a

1.488b

1.663c

13.6

320

1.71b

POS

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.6a

SEM

0.0105

0.0195

0.0055

0.0074

1.18

5.3

0.041

Sognificance (P)

0.866

P<0.05

P<0.01

P<0.01

P>0.05

0.477

P<0.01

SAL

28

35

42

tively but VACC only differed numerically from OEO (1.47) and OEOD10 (1.65). SAL/OEO, SAL, OEO and OEOD10 did not differ significantly.

A peak in litter oocyst counts was observed in OEO and OEOD10 on Day 14 followed 7 days later by a peak in VACC on Day 21 (Figure 1).

The peak in oocyst counts observed in OEO and OEOD10 were approximately 60-70% lower than VACC. Litter oocyst counts continued to increase in SAL/OEO from Day 7 until the end of the study. Coccidial contamination in SAL was detected on Day 14 and oocyst counts continued to increase until peaking on Day 35.

Discussion

*FCR corrected for mortality. Column data having different superscripts are significantly different (P≤0.05)

56

Day

Figure 1 – Weekly litter oocyst counts.

Table 2 – Zootechnical performance.

Treatment

21

- veterinary science -

The inclusion of a commercial OEO product did not interfere with the development of immunity following vaccination with an attenuated coccidial vaccine as determined by lesion scores. Body weight gain in birds fed OEO was numerically but not statistically higher than vaccinated birds without OEO. Similarly, some authors did not demonstrate a performance benefit in birds vaccinated with the coccidial vaccine Li-

VETERINARY SCIENCE

vacox and fed essential oils of laurel leaf, oregano and lavender. Oregano essential oil has been shown to lower oocyst counts in the litter from vaccinated birds but not stop oocyst recycling completely, as was observed in the current study. In the current study, OEO fed to birds 10 days after vaccination did not significantly affect performance or immunity. Indeed, FCR and body weight gain were numerically better than VACC despite poorer performance at 28 days, suggesting performance recovery due to compensatory growth. OEO is known to improve immune and antioxidant status in addition to balancing the microbiota, biological processes known to be important in the host response to Eimeria infection. The combination of OEO and salinomycin appeared highly effective at inhibiting coccidial recycling in litter with a minimal impact upon the development of coccidial immunity. Furthermore, such a combination also appeared to have a positive impact on performance. Some authors did not report any synergy between OEO and monensin in E. tenella challenged birds, despite using 24 ppm OEO versus 15 ppm in the current study.

However, presentation of the OEO in their study was substantially different from the mineral carrier used in the current study. A comparison with salinomycin in the current study was difficult due to contamination of the treatment group (most likely from the earth floor). In conclusion, the inclusion of OEO in poultry feed from Day 0 or Day 10, either alone or in combination with salinomycin, numerically improved the performance of birds vaccinated with an attenuated Eimeria vaccine on Day 0 with no adverse effect on the development

of coccidial immunity. The use of OEO in combination with an Eimeria vaccine or ionophore offers another potential tool in the management of coccidiosis.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

- april 2020 -

57

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Towards practical methods for assessing ILT vaccine take S.W. Walkden-Brown¹, S. Williamson², S.M. Sharpe², P.F. Gerber¹, S. Ralapanawe¹, M. Ahaduzzman¹, Y. Gao³, P.J. Groves4 ¹ Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia ² Birling Avian Laboratories, Bringelly, NSW, Australia 3 Zootechny Pty Ltd, Austral, NSW, Australia 4 Poultry Research Foundation, School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia

58

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an ongoing problem in meat chickens in important production areas of Australia.

In response to outbreaks, live vaccines are typically administered at 7-14 days of age in drinking water via nipple drinkers which may not provide optimal contact with susceptible tissues. The efficacy of vaccination is not routinely assessed. As part of a series of experiments investigating the kinetics of ILT virus (ILTV) in meat chickens after water vaccination via nipple drinkers, we investigated different sampling methods for assessing ILTV genome copy number (GC) by qPCR to assess flock status.

The study included 8 flocks (sheds) of meat chickens in Sydney and surrounding areas. The flocks were vaccinated with the Serva strain of ILT vaccine in drinking water at 7-14 days of age (doa) according to the normal protocol for the farm. Individual tracheal swabs from 4070 birds, and 2-6 dust samples from settle plates were collected at 4, 7-8, 12-13 and 25-26 days post vaccination (dpv). In some flocks, a subset of 10 birds from which the tracheal

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

swabs (TS) were collected also had cloacal (ClS), conjunctival (CoS) and/or choanal cleft (CCS) swabs collected and in one flock, a faecal sample was collected. ILTV GC has been reported at high levels in faeces and dust under experimental conditions. DNA was extracted from the various samples and subjected to the ILTV specific qPCR to determine GC described by Roy et al. (2015).

ILTV GC was readily detectable in all sample types but in faeces this was sensitive to the method of DNA extraction. There was wide variation in the proportions of TS positive in the post vaccination period with poor initial “take” of vaccine in 3 of the 8 flocks. This poor take was reflected in low ILTV GC in dust samples at 7-8 dpv suggesting that this could be a useful population level measure of vaccine take. With regard to individual bird measures, CCS provided very similar results to TS both in terms of numbers of birds positive (80% concordance) and in terms of viral load (Linear regression R² 0.58, P<0.001). Virus took longer to appear in CoS but were detectable for longer. ClS and faeces had lower sensi-

tivity of detection of infection, but this was confounded by extraction method.

The results of this study indicate that CCS are a more practical, and less invasive method of detecting ILTV in individual chickens than TS. CoS are also less invasive than TS but risk eye injury and have reduced sensitivity at 4 dpv. Faeces are more difficult to collect and they and ClS and have drawbacks associated with extraction method. At a population level, dust samples offer promise as a marker of vaccination success, being able to differentiate in this study between farms with poor and adequate vaccination takes. Being able to assess this in a single, stable, easily collected and transported sample at 7-8 dpv makes assessment of vaccination take a practical consideration in commercial meat chicken flocks. Testing the utility of these alternative measurements under a wider range of conditions is warranted.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium

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