Zootecnica International - English edition - 03 March - 2021

Zootecnica International – March 2022 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze

Monitoring the turkey incubation process to ensure the best results Effects of beta glucans in poultry health and nutrition Obtaining the most benefit from an anticoccidial sensitivity test

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2022

The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.

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EDITORIAL Reading a review on the book The Coming Boom by Herman Kahn made me reflect. Kahn was an American mathematician and futurologist. His book, written over fifty years ago, reports conversations, conjectures, calculations, hypotheses that could make one consider him more as an imaginative novelist rather than a mathematician.

In the enunciation of the first question that he ask himself, he writes: “Why am I an optimist? Because we are coming out of a great transition and instead of a post-industrial society, there may be a super-industrial society. The demographic expansion curve has reached its peak and a season of less balance between availability and need, between demand and the means to satisfy is coming; a society in which needs, lifestyle, social organization and above all values ​​will be redefined”.

There is no doubt, his theory shows great optimism. “Well-being”, said Kahn, “will be a different thing, with fewer privileges”. He foresaw that at least 70% of the world’s populations would be involved in this new era. According to the author, the fulcrum of the super-industrial society is centered on the “new technology induced by three sources: computers, conquest of space, new materials”.

He saw in new materials one of the most important keys to true development. His optimism about him did not diminish even when the discussion turned to the energy problem, as he was convinced that new sources of energy would be available within a few decades.

For Kahn “self-confidence and spiritual values are ​​ the means to salvation”. He envisioned the future as a fairly narrow tunnel; in order to cross it, he suggested a disciplined and rigorous behaviour. “If anyone was tempted to blow up the tunnel, it would be a serious mistake. We would all be stuck, but I believe that in the end the image of what is waiting on the other side will win”.

In the context of our post-modern, post-industrial, ‘post-Covid’ era, it is useful to confront the thoughts of an optimist like Kahn - perhaps a little too rigorous and Calvinist - but an excellent futurologist, even if his views may seem a bit rigid to us.

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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS.......................................................................... 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................ 8 REPORTAGE

FAO published a report on animal nutrition strategies to reduce the use of antimicrobials in animal production............................................................. 10

20

DOSSIER

AAT’s CHEGGY as a tool for in ovo sex determination of chicken layer embryos. A largescale field study........................................... 14

FOCUS

Monitoring the turkey incubation process to ensure the best results................. 20

MARKETING

Patterns and dynamics of global egg and poultry meat trade Part 2 – Poultry meat trade............................................................................ 24

32

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Identification of broiler poultry house dust components using chemical and physical analysis............................................................. 28

MANAGEMENT

Formulating layer diets beyond the least-cost model....................................... 30

NUTRITION

Effects of beta glucans in poultry health and nutrition...................................... 32 A Box-Behnken assessment of fishmeal and sorghum inclusions in broiler diets................................................................................................ 38

44

VETERINARY

Obtaining the most benefit from an anticoccidial sensitivity test....................... 44

PROCESSING

The importance of broilers' uniformity............................................................. 50

MARKET GUIDE.................................................................................52 UPCOMING EVENTS.......................................................................55 INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................56

WORLDWIDE NEWS

U.S. Soybean meal delivers solutions for poultry Based on testing, research and quality analysis, soybean meal from the United States delivers nutritional solutions. The U.S. Soybean Export Council breaks it down with easyto-read fact sheets. translate into better animal performance, reduced diet costs, reduced formulation challenges, increased sustainability and ultimately provide superior value to those producers who feed it in their poultry rations.

These benefits are outlined in a series of factsheets, based on testing, research and quality analysis.

The factsheets showcase: • whole soybean quality; • soybean meal consistency; • processing conditions; • amino acid digestibility; • energy; • correlation between quality and nutritional value.

The U.S. Soybean Export Council showcased the nutritional and quality advantages of U.S. Soy for poultry producers at the International Production & Processing Expo (IPPE) in Atlanta, Ga.

animal and aquaculture nutrition meal. “Buyers should focus on the characteristics that impact the nutritional value of the total diet, including animal performance, and not just the ingredient cost,” Knupp shares.

“While soybean meal is one of the most used feed ingredients in poultry nutrition, what many people don’t know is that the comprehensive value of soybean meal is determined by a combination of quality factors, which vary by origin,” says Courtney Knupp, USSEC director of

When collectively considering soybean quality factors, the U.S. soy has less damage to whole soybeans with less moisture, better soybean meal processing conditions, improved levels of digestible amino acids and greater energy compared to soy of other origins. These benefits

4

- worldwide news -

USSEC is a dynamic partnership of U.S. Soybean producers, processors, commodity shippers, merchandisers, allied agribusinesses, and agricultural organizations; and connects food and agriculture industry leaders through a robust membership program. USSEC is farmer-funded by checkoff funds invested by the United Soybean Board, various state soybean councils, the food and agriculture industry, and the American Soybean Association’s investment of cost-share funding provided by U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS).

For more information about U.S. Soy and poultry production, visit: ussoy.org/category/animal-feed/ or contact Courtney Knupp at CKnupp@ussec.org

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Global egg industry faces optimistic economic outlook for 2022 Rabobank’s Nan-Dirk Mulder, in November’s IEC Business Insights webinar, explored the "Global Economic Outlook for the Egg Sector" sharing his insights into the opportunities and challenges which could impact the egg sector in 2022 and beyond.

Capturing a worldwide perspective of the egg industry, Nan-Dirk reflected on factors affecting the current market, offering expert predictions for operations, distribution and investment in the year ahead: “2021 has been a globally tough year, and for next year we see some recovery in line with the reopening of global economies.”

©Mrsiraphol - Freepik.com

In his latest "Global Economic Outlook for the Egg Sector", Nan-Dirk, Senior Analyst Animal Protein at Rabobank, began by summarizing the global market changes experienced by the egg industry in 2021. He highlighted a range of disruptive factors, including Covid-19, increases in feed pricing, availability of materials, Avian Influenza (AI), and African swine fever (ASF).

In light of these factors, Nan-Dirk presented his expectations for the year ahead, illustrating a journey from market disruption, through a steady recovery, and into a new investor reality in the longer term.

The ongoing pandemic continues to be a key challenge faced by egg businesses, despite growing vaccination rates. Nan-Dirk summarized: “it is a lot about managing the volatility in the market, so if you look into 2022, expect from the market side that there is a bumpy economic recovery. Covid-19 is still going to be there and can create volatility in markets.”

He highlighted long-term predictions for Covid-19 impacts on investments, including wet market reduction, an increase in online food distribution, a continuation of remote working, and more focus on local retail. One of the key areas affected by the pandemic is distribution. Nan-dirk explained that, as a result of Covid-19, there has been a global shift in demand, with an increase in at-home consumption and retail, rather than food service. He added that there has also been a sharp increase in home deliveries, with most countries seeing a doubling of online food distribution.

In addition, the egg industry is experiencing ongoing high and volatile feed costs, which are not expected to change in the near future. Nan-Dirk explained that globally low

stock levels will keep prices up, with wheat appearing to be the most concerning feed source for 2022.

Furthermore, Avian Influenza (AI) continues to disrupt the egg sector worldwide, with recent new cases arising in Europe, North-East Asia and South-East Asia. As well the ongoing pandemic and high feed prices, AI will be a “big topic for the coming months”.

Despite these disruptive factors, Nan-Dirk predicted a positive future for the global egg industry, concluding: “I can be optimistic about the market outlook for 2022, where I think the market growth will likely be faster than supply growth – this could support prices and margins in global markets.”

Offering his expert insight into the near future, he advised that although conditions are improving, businesses should expect to have to manage the volatility and shifts in distribution, and may have to fine-tune their focus to adapt to the changing conditions.

- march 2022 -

Source: www.internationalegg.com

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

2022 IPPE was highly productive The 2022 IPPE, the world’s largest annual poultry, meat and animal food industry event, had almost 22,000 registered attendees.

The quality of the traffic in the Expo halls, enthusiasm from attendees and exhibitors in reconnecting with their colleagues, and participation in the educational offerings made for a highly productive 2022 International Production & Processing Expo (IPPE). A total of 1,121 exhibitors showcased their latest technology and solutions, occupying more than 500,000 square feet of exhibit space. IPPE is the world’s largest annual poultry, meat and animal food industry event of its kind and is one of the 30 largest trade shows in the United States.

“The level of energy at the 2022 IPPE was extremely exciting, especially considering these past two challenging years. As we heard from many attendees and exhibitors, IPPE exceeded their expectations,” commented IPPE show organizers. IPPE is sponsored by the U.S. Poultry & Egg Association, American Feed Industry Association and North American Meat Institute. “While we recognize that not all of our industry colleagues could be with us this year, the optimism felt from attendees proved there is a strong need for fostering personal relationships and professional development. So, we hope to see them again at next year’s IPPE.”

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The 2022 IPPE had almost 22,000 registered attendees from the poultry, meat and animal food industry. Despite the challenges of travel, approximately 21% of registered attendees were international, representing 110 countries.

As in previous years, Latin America had the strongest international presence, representing 51% of international registrants.

In addition to complementing the exhibit floor, a weeklong schedule of education programs helped drive attendance and provided information to industry professionals on the latest issues. This year’s educational line-up featured 120-plus hours of sessions, ranging from regulatory issues pertaining to the animal food industry, animal agriculture sustainability, market trends, and a multilingual program focused on broiler and layer production and processing issues affecting Latin America.

Next year’s International Production & Processing Expo will be held January 24–26, 2023, at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta.

Show updates and attendee and exhibitor information are available at ippexpo.org.

- worldwide news -

WORLDWIDE NEWS

- march 2022 -

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COMPANY NEWS

Aviagen applies latest technology to give customers and internal teams best of both worlds for in-person and remote support Aviagen® teams in Asia Pacific, Latin America and North America have combined their talents to create a new hybrid platform for heightened customer service and internal flock management.

The new solution is made possible by a combined package of the latest in bonded cellular networking, mesh Wi-Fi, Augmented Reality (AR) headsets, specialist software and other technology.

Thus, through live-streaming capabilities, for example, customers will be able to bring Aviagen experts virtually to the farm, hatchery, or any area of their facility where they need help on a pressing issue.

“Being there for our customers to ensure their continual success is our number one priority, and this new suite of tools is meant

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- company news -

as a complement to the world-class support our customers get from their local teams.

Thus, they could have immediate remote access to our array of specialists, both local and global, in addition to regular face-toface personal support,” explained Aviagen CEO Jan Henriksen.

The end goal – Strengthening customer service As a result of the new virtual solution, no matter where they are located on the globe, poultry producers can have the opportunity

COMPANY NEWS

to receive rapid advice on performance improvements and solutions to their daily challenges, directly from Aviagen’s team of global specialists in genetics, veterinary service, nutrition, flock management, incubation and hatching, and more.

This solution optimizes organizational efficiency by providing on-the-spot answers to pressing issues within a poultry operation.

“Aviagen is passionate about continually improving our service to customers,” explained Aviagen President of North America Marc de Beer. “While AR and Virtual Reality (VR) headsets are largely associated with gaming and entertainment, we have found an ideal application in business, which will elevate our support efforts by providing the perfect complement to one-on-one care and collaboration from our local Aviagen customer teams.”

“We are committed to leveraging the latest and most advanced technology to champion the success of our customers,” added Rafael Monleon, Business Manager for Asia Pacific. “Our new solution will enable our Aviagen

experts opportunities to collaborate with customers in remote locations, resulting in faster solutions to challenges and best-practice advice to optimize their operations.”

“We are happy to maximize the effectiveness of our customer service team by putting to use technology to further expand their abilities. These advanced tools demonstrate our innovation, not just as a breeding company, but also as a technology business,” concluded Ivan Lauandos, President of Aviagen Latin America.

An added bonus – Increasing internal efficiency and collaboration Aviagen will also use this technology to improve information and idea sharing, as well as training for its internal teams located in Asia Pacific, Latin America and North America. In fact, the company has already started applying this innovation internally, and will introduce it to customers in early 2022 based on a structured region by region roll-out.

Giordano Poultry Plast's 60th anniversary This year marks the 60th anniversary of the Giordano Poultry Plast S.p.A. Malaysia. 95% of the group’s production is exported to more than 65 countries. On the occasion, the company logo was updated and a celebratory video was prepared.

Here the link for the video: https://youtu.be/Qy337erGOqU

The company designs, manufactures and distributes professional poultry equipment, through its production sites and distributors spread across five continents. The headquarters of the company are located in Italy, in Caraglio (CN), where more than 80 people are employed, the production subsidiaries are in Mexico, Argentina, Egypt and

Giordano Poultry Plast S.p.A. Via Bernezzo, 47 – 12023 Caraglio, Cuneo, Italy Tel: +39 0171 619715 – Fax: +39 0171 817581 Email: info@poultryplast.com Website: www.poultryplast.com

- march 2022 -

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REPORTAGE

FAO published a report on animal nutrition strategies to reduce the use of antimicrobials in animal production FAO’s publication helps producers use nutritional strategies to reduce the use of antibiotics in their farms. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an increasing threat to both human and animal health, and has reached concerning levels in many parts of the world.

The World Health Organization (WHO) published the Guidelines on Use of Medically Important Antimicrobials in Food-Producing Animals. These include antibiotics, which are defined as naturally occurring, semi-synthetic or synthetic substances with bacteriocidal or bacteriostatic properties at concentrations attainable in vivo. Antibiotics used in human medicine are categorized as ‘important’ - ‘highly important’ or ‘critically important’. Amongst those classed as critically important to human medicine, there are antibiotics such as aminoglycosides, third- and fourth-generation

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- reportage -

REPORTAGE

cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, glycopeptides, macrolides, certain broad-spectrum penicillins and colistin, all of which are also used with food-producing animals.

Antibiotics are used in animal production as growth promoters (AGPs) and to prevent and treat disease. Van Boeckel et al. (2015) estimated that in 2010, 63,151 tonnes of antibiotics were used in animal production across 228 countries. The authors predict that antibiotic consumption will rise by 67 percent by 2030, and nearly double in Brazil, Russia, India and China, if no additional restrictions on their use are adopted. The WHO thus recently recommended avoiding the use of medically important antibiotics for growth promotion or for prevention of infectious disease that have not yet been clinically diagnosed in food-producing animals, and limiting the use of appropriate antibiotics to the treatment of animals that have been clinically diagnosed with an infectious disease within an herd (WHO, 2017a). The European Commission already decided to ban all AGPs in animal production in 2006.

The preventive and therapeutic use of antibiotics prescribed by veterinarians increased in the first years after the ban. However, countries such as Denmark and the Netherlands responded quickly by implementing additional measures. This included adopting very strict policies for the use of antibiotics, including a ban on the use of medicated feed, and adopting best practices in animal husbandry, nutrition and health care. This multifactorial and multi-stakeholder approach has led to a significant reduction in antibiotic use, whilst maintaining high productivity and animal welfare.

In the United States, the new Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD), implemented on January 1, 2017, restricts the use of all antimicrobial products deemed important to human health for livestock applications. Specifically, such products can no longer be used for growth promotion purposes, and can only be used in feed when a veterinarian, supported by diagnostic procedures, identifies a specific infectious disease and prepares a VFD. Some antibiotics which are not used in human medicine can still be used

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REPORTAGE

tions critical to host defence and disease resistance, with maintaining animal health.

The scope of FAO’s publication is to provide guidance for animal nutrition strategies and options that can contribute to a healthy gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in swine, poultry and ruminants, and that will support the defence system of the host during critical transitions, when the risk of health disorders is significantly higher. An improved GIT health in birds can in decrease the need to use antibiotics. Hatching and the two to three weeks post-hatch is a high-risk period in broiler chickens, because the young bird still has to develop a large part of their immune defence system. It is thus not surprising that antibiotic use for enteric problems is relatively high in young animals.

Dietary intervention, via feed or drinking water, is a viable option for promoting gut or GIT health and preventing or reducing the need for antibiotics, especially during the critical transition periods.

for growth promotion purposes. A recent report prepared by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported that the sale and distribution of medically important antimicrobials decreased by 33 percent from 2016 to 2017 and by 43 percent from 2015 to 2017 (FDA, 2018). A similar approach was adopted in Canada on December 1, 2018, though no information on its impact on antimicrobial use is yet available.

The restricted use of antimicrobials is on the agenda worldwide. Producers are adopting best practices in biosecurity, health care, animal welfare, genetics, farm management, feed handling and animal nutrition to the extent feasible from a practical and economical perspective, as well as an animal welfare point of view. In general, such measures focus on reducing infection pressure in the environment and increasing the animals’ disease resistance and resilience.

Minimizing stress, both social and environmental, well-targeted tailor-made vaccination schemes and, last but not least, health-promoting diets will contribute to disease resistance. Animal nutrition is concerned not only with the provision of the proper amount of nutrients needed for various bodily functions, such as reproduction and growth, but also, given its influence on the func-

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The other main application of antibiotics is in the prevention and treatment of respiratory disorders. Biosecurity, vaccination and climate control are the more obvious routes to reducing the risk of respiratory infections. However, recent information suggests that there is an important interaction between the gut and lung in host defence.

It now appears possible that improving host defence in the gut through nutrition may contribute to higher resistance to respiratory infections.

The FAO’s publication focuses mainly on dietary strategies aiming to reduce the risk of enteric health problems during critical transition periods where antibiotic use is relatively high. The principles of host defence mechanisms that can be influenced and supported by animal nutrition are discussed. The main tools available for diet formulation, and feed and drinking water management are described. Finally, the report discusses in more detail the practical application of dietary tools during critical transition periods in the lives of swine, poultry and ruminants, with an emphasis on the species categories for which antibiotic use is highest.

Information on publication: Smits, C.H.M., Li, D., Patience, J.F. and den Hartog, L.A. 2021. Animal nutrition strategies and options to reduce the use of antimicrobials in animal production. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 184. Rome, FAO.

- reportage -

Here you can find the full document, https://doi.org/10.4060/cb5524en

REPORTAGE CHOOSE HOW YOU WANT

TO ENJOY It’s been 50 years since Zootecnica International started serving the poultry industry and professionals. Today the magazine is edited in three languages (English, Italian and Russian) and delivered monthly in 120 countries, reaching around 30.000 readers all over the world.

The target of Zootecnica International includes farmers, egg producers, breeding companies, hatcheries, feed mills, poultry and egg processing companies.

Magazine and website offer a broad overview on the poultry industry, providing in-depth news on international markets, business management, trends and practices in poultry, genetics, incubation, nutrition, veterinary and management.

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- march 2022 -

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DOSSIER

CHEGGY and STUNNY unit at Hy-Line Italia

In ovo sexed eggs

AAT’s CHEGGY as a tool for in ovo sex determination of layer chicken embryos A largescale field study Germany has as first European country stopped by law culling of male day-old chicks from 1st January 2022 onwards. In February 2022, the French Ministry of Agriculture issued a decree that will ban the killing of male day-old chicks with effect from 2023. As third, the Italian parliament voted and approved the amendment to end the killing of day-old male chicks in the layer industry by the end of 2026.

Anke Förster, Laura Zumbrink, Jörg Hurlin Agri Advanced Technologies, Germany

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To avoid the long-standing practice, in ovo sex determination is the most important alternative, besides rearing of the male chicks and breeding dual-purpose lines. For almost 20 years several approaches to determine an embryo’s gender are objects of research. The spectrum ranges from gene editing and influencing the sex ratio to various analytical methods of

- dossier -

DOSSIER

the allantoic fluid (hormone or DNA analysis) and optical methods (spectroscopy). To be applied commercially an in ovo sex determination technique must be accurate and secure, but also robust, cost-effective, and fast enough to meet the requirements of modern hatcheries (Kaleta and Redmann, 2008). One currently market-ready method for in ovo sex determination is hyperspectral imaging as described by Göhler et al. (2017). Based on the sexual dimorphism in plumage color in brown egg strains, this technique detects differences between brown female and yellow-white male chicks non-invasively through the intact eggshell with high accuracy on day 13 of incubation. A fully automated system with high throughput of hatching eggs (“CHEGGY”) was developed and installed in several commercial hatcheries, as announced in Zootecnica International 11/2020. Sexing and hatchability results are collected regularly in a database and were used in this study for a largescale field survey of the applicability and accuracy of the system in commercial hatcheries to optimize operation and find impact factors on its success.

The technology Hyperspectral imaging was used to detect the embryo’s gender at day 13 of incubation. This technique captures three-dimensional pictures by measuring radiation intensity simultaneously at each pixel of a sample: two dimensions are representing spatial information and one dimension represents spectral information of the whole spectrum (Bellon-Maurel and Gorretta, 2014). Based

on the sex-linked gold/silver factor used in brown-laying genetics, males have silver/white and females a gold/ brown plumage (Malone and Smyth, 1979; Smyth, 1990; Damme and Hildebrand, 2002).

Once the first feathers are pronounced, embryonic color sexing using hyperspectral imaging can be performed (Göhler et al., 2017). Inside a closed measuring chamber, a defined number of hatching eggs is illuminated from below with halogen lights, while a hyperspectral camera captures the image of the eggs. Using a specified algorithm that is based on a parametric model, the computer automatically detects clear eggs (unfertilized and early dead) as well as the sex of embryos inside. Eggs with female embryos are placed back to the setter trays and are incubated until hatch, whereas clear eggs and eggs with male embryos are sorted out. To ensure that the male embryos do not perceive pain during termination of the development, AAT has developed a new innovative stunning method for embryos in the second third of the incubation. In the “STUNNY” unit, two electrodes on the pole sides penetrate the hatching eggs and the embryo is anesthetized by electrical current (Zumbrink et al., 2020; von Wenzlawowicz, 2021). This is followed by utilization as a high-quality protein source in pet and livestock feed.

Database of the present study In this study, which was presented at the 14th Poultry Research Days in Tours, France, data of 49 hatches of one commercial hatchery in Brittany, including five different breeds and 22 breeder flocks between 24 and 67 weeks

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DOSSIER

of age were evaluated. In total, 1.61 Mio eggs were sexed, where egg age ranges between 3 and 20 days and embryo age at sexing between 325 and 334 hours of incubation.

Number of eggs set, hatched females and males per hatch were used to calculate the variables of interest: • % Sexing error = number of hatched males / all chicks hatched, as a measure of the accuracy of the technique • % Total hatch = number of all chicks hatched / number of eggs set, as a measure for hatchability • % Hatch of transferred eggs = number of chicks hatched / number of eggs further incubated after sexing, as a measure for hatchability after sexing • % Female hatch = number of female chicks hatched / number of eggs set, as a production parameter of economic interest • Hatching eggs (HE) / fem = 1 / % female hatch, as a production parameter of economic interest As possible influencing factors on sexing accuracy, the independent variables “breed” and “age of breeder flock”, “average egg age at setting” (storage days), “embryo age at sexing” (hours of incubation), and “% rejected eggs” (=clear eggs as detected by CHEGGY) were evaluated using descriptive statistics. Location parameters, measures of variation of and correlations between variables were calculated with Stata and Excel statistic package. Regression analysis plots are used to visualize influencing factors on the accuracy of the hyperspectral sexing technique. Level of significance was set at p <0.05.

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Sexing error and influencing factors Table 1 shows the number of hatches and eggs per breed as well as the average of sexing accuracy (% sexing error) and hatchability (% total hatch of all eggs set) within breed.

Table 1 – Number of hatches per breed and average hatchability and sexing error.

Breed

N hatches

N eggs set

% total hatch

% sexing error

Lohmann Brown

22

657.939

39.1%

4.4%

Hy-Line Brown

18

726.472

40.6%

3.8%

Brown Nick

4

158.400

43.2%

4.3%

ISA Brown

4

62.541

35.1%

3.5%

Novogen Brown

1

3.300

38.6%

4.1%

Total

49

1.608.652

39.6%

4.1%

Since % female hatch is influenced by % sexing error (with higher sexing error % female hatch decreases, relatively; this does not mean that hens are lost, absolutely), % total hatch of eggs set is more suitable to judge hatchability and possible technical loss. Hatchability of the eggs after handling is high (91.4%95.4%), which indicates a very low technical loss of the sexing technique and handling of the eggs. The average sexing error ranges between 3.5% and 4.4%, showing a good applicability in different brown breeds.

Biological and technical factors like breed or age of flock were assumed to be the main contributors to the success of in ovo sex determination. As data are taken from a commercial hatchery, the number of entries per breed is unbalanced and the vast majority of data related to two breeds only. Differences in sexing errors between breeds are not significant, indicating that the technique of Hyperspectral Imaging is applicable in different brown egg strains (Table 2).

Table 2 – Specific population parameters for two breeds. % sexing error

% hatch of eggs set

HE/fem

Hy-Line

LB

Hy-Line

LB

Hy-Line

LB

18

22

18

22

18

22

Average

3.8%

4.4%

40.6%

39.1%

2.57

2.73

Std dev

2.0%

1.5%

2.9%

4.8%

0.19

0.45

Min

1.2%

1.4%

35.7%

24.8%

2.31

2.33

Max

8.5%

7.4%

44.7%

46.4%

2.91

4.33

Median

3.0%

3.9%

40.9%

39.9%

2.55

2.61

N

The correlation between flock age as well as embryo age and % sexing error is very low (r=0.05 and r=0.08 resp.), while correlation between egg age (duration of storage before setting) and % sexing error is higher (r=0.5; see Table 3 and Figure 1). This positive correlation indicates that with longer storage before setting more sexing errors must be expected.

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DOSSIER

early mortality influences the light intensity in the measurement chamber, which is causing more errors due to saturation (Figure 2).

Figure 1 – Regression of egg age on sexing error.

The positive correlation between % rejected eggs and % sexing error (r=0.24) is not a biological, but a technical factor: a higher number of clear eggs or eggs with

Figure 2 – Regression of % rejected group* on sexing error. *clear eggs and early dead as detected by CHEGGY

Table 3 – Correlation between variables (all breeds). % sexing error % sexing error

% hatch of transfer

% hatch of set

% fem hatch

HE/fem

% rej. group

breed

breeder flock age

egg age

1

% hatch of transf.

-0.48

1

% hatch of set

0.03

0.47

1

% fem. hatch

-0.12

0.54

0.99

1

HE/fem

0.18

-0.54

-0.96

-0.98

1

% rej

0.24

-0.25

-0.55

-0.59

0.56

Breed

-0.13

0.22

-0.06

-0.04

0.02

0.28

1

Flock age

0.05

-0.30

-0.49

-0.49

0.47

0.54

-0.09

1

Egg age

0.50

-0.69

-0.14

-0.21

0.23

-0.04

-0.46

-0.10

1

Embryo age

0.08

0.12

0.23

0.21

-0.21

0.09

0.12

0.02

-0.06

DRINKERS

embr. age

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DOSSIER

which makes this technique significant less expensive than other methods and, most importantly, is more environmentally friendly. Combined with a high throughput of 20.000 eggs/hour compared to 3.000-4.000 eggs/hour in other techniques, CHEGGY is highly sustainable and efficient solution in the market to avoid chick culling. Additionally, the STUNNY unit enables hatcheries to integrate the stunning of embryos in the egg in compliance with animal welfare during the second-third of incubation.

The fully automated technique is based on a newly researched method and offers high throughput rates with maximum effectiveness simultaneously. Currently, the CHEGGY and STUNNY systems are already in use in Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Austria and Spain.

Eggs during measurement

Breeder flocks of an age between 25 and (at least) 67 weeks can be sexed by Hyperspectral Imaging with consistent low levels of males (sexing errors). An embryo age of 324 and 335 hours is optimal for sexing. The impact of deviation would need further studies including a wider range of incubation hours as well as older breeder flocks.

Comparison of the results in this study with data of other in ovo sexing techniques is not possible, since up to now no such surveys are published or available.

Conclusion In summary, Hyperspectral Imaging is an important methodology to avoid the killing of day-old males in an animal welfare and environmentally friendly manner. After more than 12 months experience with the fully automated, high throughput system, assured statements and recommendations can be made for commercial hatcheries to achieve best results. With optimum conditions, a sexing accuracy of 98.8% can be achieved (average sexing error rate 4.1%). Average female hatchability of eggs set was 38.0%, compared to 41.9% expected. Due to this small detrimental effect of the sexing technique on female output, only a small additional demand of hatching eggs is necessary (8% more hatching eggs).

The procedure is non-invasive, keeping the eggshell intact. Based on differences in the measured light spectra, an algorithm classifies the gender. In addition to sex determination, unfertilized eggs are also identified and sorted out at the same time. The hyperspectral measurement technology does not require expensive consumables,

18

References Bellon-Maurel, V., Gorretta, N., 2014. NIR Hyperspectral Imaging for Food and Agricultural Products. In: Infrared and Raman Spectroscopic Imaging. Salzer, R., Siesler, H.W. (editor), John Wiley & Sons, Weinheim, 295-338.

Damme, K., Hildebrand, R.A., 2002. Geflügelhaltung (1st edition). Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart.

Göhler, D., Fischer B., Meissner, S., 2017. In-ovo sexing of 14-day-old chicken embryos by pattern analysis in hyperspectral images (VIS/NIR spectra): A non-destructive method for layer lines with gender-specific down feather color. Poult. Sci., (96), 1-4.

Kaleta, E.F., Redmann, T., 2008. Approaches to determine the sex prior to and after incubation of chicken eggs and of day-old chicks. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 64, 391-399.

Malone, G.W., Smyth, J.R., 1979. The Influence of the E, Co and / Loci on the Expression of the Silver (S) and Gold (s+) Alleles in the Fowl. Poult. Sci., 58(3), 489-497.

Smyth, J.R., 1990: Genetics of plumage, skin and eye pigmentation. In: Poultry breeding and genetics. Crawford, R.D. (editor), 109-167, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Von Wenzlawowicz, M., 2021. Investigation report on the effectiveness of a system for stunning male embryos within the egg. Available at: https://www.agri-at.com/images/ flyer/Investigation_Report_BSI_Stunning_Chicken_Embryos.pdf.

Zumbrink, L., Brenig, B., Foerster, A., Hurlin, J., Von Wenzlawowicz, M., 2020. Electrical anaesthesia of male chicken embryos in the second third of the incubation period in compliance with animal welfare. Europ. Poult. Sci., (84), 1-11.

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FOCUS

Monitoring the turkey incubation process to ensure the best results Incubating turkey eggs is often considered to be more challenging than incubating broiler eggs, yet, in essence, the basic principle of success is the same in both turkey and broiler hatcheries. Continuously monitoring the incubation process is crucial to understand what the embryo inside the egg is experiencing and to ensure incubation success. This article highlights four key points a turkey hatchery should closely monitor to reach excellent hatchability and poult quality.

Key points for turkey egg incubation

Dr Nick French, Independent Poultry Incubation Expert

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There are some differences between turkey and broiler eggs. First, turkey eggs generally take 28 days to incubate compared to the 21 days of broiler incubation. Second, turkey eggs are larger than broiler eggs: While the average egg weight of a broiler egg through production increases from 50 to 70 grams, the average turkey egg weight

- focus -

increases from 79 to 97 grams. Third, most but not all - broiler breeder flocks worldwide are naturally mated whereas the vast majority of turkey breeder flocks are artificially inseminated. Consequently, fertility tends to be higher in turkey eggs, particularly towards the end of production.

Even though there are species-specific considerations to manage, the starting point always is what the embryo experiences during incubation. A turkey hatchery

FOCUS

should closely monitor four key points to understand what the embryo inside the egg is experiencing and to ensure incubation success. The following sections each focus on one of these key points.

• However, as the embryo starts to grow larger and larger, it produces more and more metabolic heat.

Around mid-incubation, the metabolic heat level exceeds the level of heat loss through evaporative cooling. By the end of incubation, the internal egg temperature exceeds the micro-environmental air temperature by approximately 0.5 °C.

Incubation temperature

• The difference between the internal egg temperature and the macro-environmental air temperature (= temperature measured near the machine sensor and indicated on the incubator controller) is assumed to be even bigger than 0.5 °C, depending on the machine layout and the airspeed over the egg. To avoid overheating of the eggs and reduced incubation results, it is therefore important to continuously monitor and control the internal egg temperature, especially during later phases of incubation, because the temperature increases as the embryo grows.

Of all the parameters that determine incubation success, temperature is the most important one; more specifically, the temperature experienced by the embryo inside the egg. Below graph shows the temperature inside a turkey egg, the temperature on the surface of the eggshell and the incubator air temperature approximately 10 mm from the egg (= micro-environmental air) when turkey eggs are incubated at a fixed machine temperature of 37.5 °C: • During the first 11 days of incubation, the internal egg temperature is slightly lower than the microenvironmental air temperature because of evaporative cooling. The embryo is still small, so it produces little metabolic heat.

The internal egg temperature is of paramount importance… But how to monitor this parameter? An import-

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ant finding illustrated by the graph is that the eggshell temperature closely follows the internal temperature.

Hence, the eggshell temperature is routinely used in commercial incubation to pragmatically estimate the internal temperature. For both turkey and broiler eggs, the consensus is that the optimum eggshell temperature during incubation is around 37.8 °C (100 °F). When the eggshell temperature deviates from the optimum, incubation performance is at risk.

eggs require more volume of air passing over each egg, both between the eggs on the tray and between the trays themselves. This is important to allow more air volume to pass over the eggs and remove the surplus heat. Increasing the egg density on the trays or reducing the spacing between the trays can have adverse effects on performance, even if the cooling capacity of the machine has been increased, as this will reduce the heat exchange efficiency between egg and air.

Incubator humidity Eggs lose water during incubation. This water loss is needed to generate a sufficient air cell space for the embryo to inflate its lungs after internal pipping. The humidity level of the air surrounding the eggs determines the rate at which they lose water and, as a result, lose weight. The higher the humidity, the lower the rate of water loss (weight loss). The air cell can end up being too small when eggs do not lose enough water. So, the lungs of the embryo cannot fully inflate, and the poult will not be able to obtain enough oxygen for the hatching process, leading to an increased number of embryos pipping, but not hatching. On the other hand, too much water loss can cause embryo dehydration. An increased number of early dead germs can be an indicator for this.

Figure 1 – Temperature of a turkey egg incubated at a fixed incubator air temperature of 37.5 °C; temperature measured inside the egg (symbol: white square), on the surface of the eggshell (symbol: black star) and incubator air temperature approximately 10 mm from the egg (symbol: black square).

Source: Nick French, Poultry Science, 1997.

There are several ways to monitor the eggshell temperature. For spot checks you can use a standard ear thermometer used to measure the human body temperature.

However, performing the temperature measurements will ultimately interrupt and disturb the process. For continuous monitoring without interrupting the process, you can use data loggers with surface temperature probes. With this method, there are also some things to consider. The data loggers will help to record the temperature and visualise the data, but they will not actively steer the temperature control in the machine.

As turkey eggs are larger than broiler eggs, the larger turkey embryo will also produce more metabolic heat, typically around 15% more at the end of incubation than a broiler embryo. Therefore, it is crucial that turkey incubators have proportionally either increased cooling capacity or reduced egg capacity to compensate for the increased metabolic heat production. Even more importantly, turkey

22

Studies have shown that the best hatch results are obtained when a turkey egg loses between 10 to 12% of the fresh egg weight by day 25 of incubation. This can be monitored by weighing the trays at set and at transfer and calculating the percentage of water loss following the breeder’s guidelines.

Ventilation Ventilation is crucial in the control of the incubation temperature and incubator humidity. Incubators need to be properly ventilated to supply the embryo with oxygen (O2) and to allow the produced carbon dioxide (CO2) and evaporated water to escape. Some incubator types also depend on ventilation to cool the eggs. The level of ventilation should be sufficient to meet the embryo’s requirement to breathe. However, it is also important not to over-ventilate. In general, the fresh air brought into the machine is cooler and dryer compared to the air inside the machine. This means the more air is brought in, the

- focus -

FOCUS

more difficult it becomes to maintain the required humidity and keep a uniform temperature within the machine without local hot and cold spots.

If ventilation is required to supply O2 and remove CO2 only, then measuring CO2 levels within the machine can be used to properly control the ventilation levels.

Incubation time The correct incubation time is essential to give turkey poults the best possible start in post-hatch life. A common issue is that poults are held in the hatcher for too long in an attempt to make each egg hatch. This can lead to high mortality and uneven early growth on the farms. Knowing what to pay attention to can make the difference.

The behaviour of turkey poults at take-off is a good indicator to quickly identify issues. In case the poults were held in the hatcher for too long, you can expect to see

very noisy and active birds that have little yolk reserve left. Their legs are very thin due to dehydration. In addition, the hatcher baskets are stained with dark green meconium. On the other hand, if incubation time was correct, you can expect to see calm and quiet poults that stand up. Around 5% of the poults might have a wet nape (back of the neck), but no poults are entirely wet. The debris in the hatcher baskets is clean with only a few meconium stains.

In summary The basic principle of success is the same in both turkey and broiler hatcheries. Continuously monitoring the incubation process is crucial to understand what the embryo inside the egg is experiencing and to ensure incubation success. We need to use the egg to tell us what to do.

This is an essential part of achieving the best performance in our hatcheries.

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MARKETING

Patterns and dynamics of global egg and poultry meat trade Part 2 – Poultry meat trade In June 2021, FAO published an update on global trade data for 2019. This makes it possible to present an overview on the patterns and dynamics of global egg and poultry meat trade.

In a first paper (Zootecnica International 2/2022), egg trade was analysed, the second paper will deal with poultry meat trade, a third will focus on chicken and turkey meat.

Patterns of poultry meat production at global and continent level Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is Prof. Emeritus of the University of Vechta and visiting Professor at the Hannover Veterinary University, Germany

24

A short overview on the development of global poultry meat production between 2009 and 2019 and the share of the continents will be given to better understand the following analysis of the dynamics and patterns of poultry meat trade.

Between 2009 and 2019, global poultry meat production increased from 94.7 mill. t to 131.6 mill. t or by 39.0%. The dynamics in poultry meat production was a result of the fast increase of chicken meat production. Figure 1 shows the parallel development in the analysed decade.

- marketing -

MARKETING

Table 1 – The share of exports in poultry meat production at continent level in 2019 (source: own calculations based on FAO data).

140

[mill. t]

105

70

35

0

Production (1,000 t)

Continent

2009

2010

2011

2012 2013 Chicken

2014 2015 Poultry

2016

2017

2018

2019

Figure 1 – The parallel development of chicken meat and poultry meat production between 2009 and 2019 (design: A.S. Kauer, based on FAO data).

Figure 2 documents the high regional concentration in production. Asia contributed 37.8% to the global production volume, followed Central and South America with 20.7% and North America with 18.5%.

Poultry Meat Production Total: 131.6 mill. t

Share of exports in production (%)

Africa

6,567.8

99.8

1.5

Asia

49,782.1

3,158.7

6.3

N America

24,361.3

3,931.7

16.1

CS America

27,309.6

4,582.9

16.8

Europe

22,062.0

8,123.6

36.8

Oceania

1,564.7

65.7

4.2

131,647.2

19,962.5

15.2

World

Remarkable growth in poultry meat exports and imports Global poultry meat trade showed a remarkable dynamics between 2009 and 2019. Figure 3 displays the development of the export and import volumes between 2009 and 2019.

5,0%

20

1,2%

37,8%

Africa Asia Europe N America CS America Oceania

[mill. t]

15

20,7%

18,5%

Exports (1,000 t)

10

5

0

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013 Export

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Import

Figure 3 – The development of poultry meat exports and imports between 2009 and 2019 (design: A.S. Kauer, based on FAO data).

16,8%

Figure 2 – The share of the continents in global poultry meat production in 2019 (design: A.S. Kauer, based on FAO data).

In 2019, almost 20 mill. t or 15.2% of the global poultry meat production was exported. Table 1 documents the situation at continent level. The highest share showed Europe with 36.8%. It has to be considered that the high percentage is a result of the inclusion of the intra-EU (27) trade. North and Central and South America exported almost the same percentage of their production. The export share in Asia was much lower with 6.3% because of the high domestic demand in most countries. Only a few countries, for example Thailand, were able to export because of the surplus of production over domestic consumption.

Global poultry meat exports increased from 14.6 mill. t in 2009 to 19.9 mill. t in 2019 or by 37.1%, imports from 13.4 mill. t to 17.9 mill. t or 33.6%. With the exception of 2015, it was a continuous growth. The wide gap between the export and import volumes is surprising. As it was documented for all years, it does not seem to be a statistical error.

Remarkable differences in poultry meat exports and imports at continent level An analysis of the continent’s share in poultry meat exports and imports reveals remarkable differences (Fig-

- march 2022 -

25

MARKETING

ure 4). In exports, Europe and the Americas together contributed 83.4% to the global export volume, Europe alone 40.7%. The value includes the considerable intra-EU (27) trade. The high shares of North as well as Central and South America are due to the leading chicken meat exporting countries Brazil and the USA.

Exports

Total: 20.0 mill. t

0,7%

Africa Asia Europe N America CS America Oceania

Imports

12,6%

35,1%

Share (%)

4,132.4

20.7

USA

3,767.1

18.9

Netherlands

1,763.5

8.8

Poland

1,609.0

8.1

Thailand

1,188.9

6.0

Germany

770.1

3.9

China

646.3

3.2

63.1

3.1

Turkey

534.7

2.7

France

457.6

2.3

10 countries

15,482.8

*77.6

World

19,962.5

100.0

*sum does not add because of rounding

10,8%

38,9%

Figure 4 – The share of the continents in global poultry meat exports and imports in 2019 (design: A.S. Kauer, based on FAO data).

The pattern of poultry meat imports differs considerably from that of exports. With a share of 38.9%, Asia ranked in first place, followed by Europe with 35.1%. Together these two continents shared 74.0% in the global import volume.

It is worth noting that North America played only a minor role in imports, different from Central and South America.

A closer look at the situation at country level will show that Mexico was one of the leading poultry meat importing countries in 2019.

26

Exports ( 1,000 t)

Brazil

Belgium

0,7%

1,9%

Africa Asia Europe N America CS America Oceania

Country

53,1%

Total: 17.9 mill. t

In 2019, the ten leading countries in poultry meat exports shared 77.6% in the global exports. Table 2 lists the ten countries and their contribution to the global export volume.

Table 2 – The ten leading poultry meat exporting countries in 2019 and their share in global exports (source: FAO database).

20,6%

25,7%

Considerable differences in the regional concentration of poultry meat exports and imports at country level

For years, the USA had been the leading poultry meat exporting country before they were surpassed by Brazil in 2015. It is worth noting that of the ten leading countries five were members of the EU (27). A remarkable growth of their export volumes in the analysed decade showed Poland and Turkey. Poland’s exports increased from 350,000 t in 2009 to 1.6 mill. t in 2019 or by 360%, a result of the fast expansion of production, partly financed by foreign capital. Poland’s exports decreased by about 7% in 2020 due to the impacts of the Avian Influenza outbreaks from 2019 on (Smietanka et al. 2020), causing import stops by several countries. In addition, the Covid-19 pandemic reduced the domestic demand as well as the exports to several EU member countries. Turkey’s export volume grew by almost 420,000 t and reached 535,000 t in 2019, an increase by 360%, too. The main countries of destination were Islamic countries in Western Asia.

The regional concentration in poultry meat imports was much lower than in exports as can be seen from the data in Table 3. The ten leading poultry meat importing countries shared only 48.1% in the global import volume. This

- marketing -

MARKETING

indicates that many countries were not able to meet the growing demand by domestic production.

Table 3 – The ten leading poultry meat importing countries in 2019 and their share in global exports (source: FAO database).

Country

Imports ( 1,000 t)

Share (%)

Japan

1,328.7

7.4

Mexico

1,038.8

5.8

United Kingdom

977.2

5.4

Germany

922.1

5.1

Hong Kong

828.5

4.6

Netherlands

811.0

4.5

China

795.3

4.4

Un. Arab. Emirates

698.6

3.9

Saudi Arabia

655.3

3.7

France

580.4

3.2

10 countries

8,635.8

*48.1

World

17,948.8

100.0

Americas. The regional patterns of exports and imports at continent level differed considerably. In exports, Europe was in the leading position, followed by Central and South America; in imports, Asia and Europe ranked in the top two positions. The regional concentration at country level was much higher in exports than in imports. While only a limited number of countries showed a high surplus over their consumption, a larger number of countries was not able to meet the growing demand by domestic production.

This explains the comparatively high share of the export volume in global production.

According to the FAO-OECD Agricultural Outlook, global poultry meat consumption will increase by about 15 mill. t between 2020 and 2030, and reach a volume of 136 mill. t. To this, Asia will contribute 7 mill. t, Central and South America 2.7 mill. t, Africa 2 mill. t, North America 1.2 mill. t and Europe 1 mill. t. Brazil, the USA and several EU (27) member countries will profit most from this dynamics and strengthen their positions in poultry meat trade.

* sum does not add because of rounding

A closer look at the composition and ranking of the ten leading countries reveals some interesting insights. Japan and Mexico ranked in the two top positions, both imported over 1 mill. t of poultry meat in 2019. The per capita consumption in these countries differed considerably, however. While in Mexico the per capita consumption of poultry meat was as high as 34 kg, it reached only 14 kg in Japan. Poultry meat and eggs are the main protein source for the Mexican population while in Japan poultry meat is not highly valued because of its low fat content. The ranking of the two EU (27) member countries, Germany and the Netherlands, is surprising at first sight. Both countries imported high-value products, such as breast filets, and besides high-value products exported large amounts of low-value products such as wings and legs, which could only be sold in small amounts in their domestic markets.

Besides Eastern Asia, Islamic countries in Western Asia were important markets. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab. Emirates invested extensive amounts of capital, however, to increase their domestic production of broiler meat and reduce their dependence on imports.

Summary and perspectives Between 2009 and 2019, poultry meat was the fastest growing meat type. Production increased by 37 mill. t or 39%. In 2019, 15.2% of the production was exported, mainly from European countries and countries in the

Data sources and suggestions for further reading Beck, M.: MEG-Marktbilanz Eier und Geflügel 2020. Bonn 2020.

FAO database. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en.

FAO-OECD Agricultural Outlook. https://stats.oecd.org.

Smietanka, K. et al.: Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N8 in Poland in 2019-2020. In: Journal of Veterinary Research 64 (2020), no. 4, p. 469-476. https://doi. org.//10.2478/jvetres-2020-078. (Retrieved: 7. 6. 2021) Windhorst, H.-W.: The Champions League of the chicken meat producing countries. In: Zootecnica International 42 (2020), no. 7/8, p. 22-26.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Contrasting world of poultry production.

In: Fleischwirtschaft international (2020), no. 3, p. 8-10.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Regional concentration in global poultry meat production. An overview at continent level. In: Zootecnica International 42 (2020), no. 12, p. 24-27.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Top positions lose shares. Higher slaughter weights and increased slaughter numbers boost world poultry market. In: Fleischwirtschaft international 2021, no. 1, p. 39-41.

Windhorst, H.-W.: The red-white-shift in global meat production. In: Zootecnica International 43 (2021), no. 5, p.

32-37.

- march 2022 -

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TECHNICAL COLUMN

Identification of broiler poultry house dust components using chemical and physical analysis Dust found in poultry housing is a complex substance most likely comprised of a mixture of excreta, feather, feed and bedding material.

Exposure to poultry dust can impair the health of both poultry and poultry farmworkers as it serves as a medium for survival and spread of pathogenic microorganisms and inhalation of respirable particles and toxins (Just et al. 2009; Viegas et al. 2013).

It has also proven useful as a population level sample material for tracking pathogen incidence and assessing vaccination efficacy (Walkden-Brown et al., 2013; Ahaduzzaman et al., 2019).

M. Ahaduzzaman, L. Milan, C.L. Morton, P.F. Gerber and S.W. Walkden-Brown University of New England, Armidale, NSW Australia

28

Given these aspects, it is important to better understand the composition of poultry dust and the potential impacts on bird and human health. The composition of dust in each shed, and each batch, can vary and be expected to change over time. This study was therefore designed to determine

- technical column -

whether chemometrics (the application of multivariate statistical techniques to chemical analysis data) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) could be used to determine the ratio of different originating materials in dust samples.

To enable us to predict the source components of dust, individual materials comprising poultry dust (feed, excreta, feathers and bedding) as well as defined mixtures of the materials, were analysed to establish their elemental character. Settled dust collected late in the batch (35-49 d) from 28 broiler flocks were also tested for comparison. Total chemical elemental concentrations (C, N, Al, B, Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, S, Se and Zn) were determined using combustion and inductively coupled plasma

TECHNICAL COLUMN

SEM imagery of weekly dust samples collected from an experimental flock between 7 and 35 days of age revealed that the contribution of excreta to dust increased with age from 60% at 7 d to 95% at 28 d (P<0.001). The proportion of bedding and feed in dust declined from 22% and 12% respectively at 7 d, to low levels (2% and 1%, respectively) after 21 d while the contribution of feather material remained rather constant throughout (5-9%).

This study demonstrates that excreta provides the bulk of the material in poultry dust samples with bedding, feed and feather material providing lower proportions. The relative contributions of these materials varies with age of birds at dust collection.

Additional research is required to determine the health and diagnostic implications of this variation.

References Ahaduzzaman M., Groves P.J., Sharpe S.M., Williamson S.L., Gao Y.K., Nguyen T.V., Gerber P.F. & Walkden-Brown S.W. (2019) Vet. Microbiol. 108545.

Just N., Duchaine C. & Singh B. (2009) J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 4: 13.

Viegas S., Faísca V.M., Dias H., Clérigo A., Carolino E. & Viegas C. (2013) J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A. 76: 230-239.

Walkden-Brown S.W., Islam A., Groves P.J., Rubite A., Sharpe S.M. & Burgess S.K. (2013) Avian Dis. 57: 544-554.

From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2021

© Petersime 2022 - All rights reserved.

optical emission spectrometry (ICPOES) analyses and a chemometrics approach was applied to predict the contribution of source material in defined mixtures and dust samples.

SEM was also used to characterise the particulates in dust samples and to validate the chemometrics results. Excreta was found to be the main component (>50%) of late batch (>35d) broiler dust samples, both by SEM imagery and chemometric analysis.

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MANAGEMENT

Due to the high cost of feed for poultry, there is continuous pressure to formulate ‘least-cost’ diets that meet nutritional requirements. However, the main aim of any commercial enterprise is usually to maximise profits with the resources or inputs available.

A.F. Moss1, G. Parkinson2, T.M. Crowley3,4 and G.M. Pesti1 1 School

of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351, Australia 2 Livorno Consulting, Brunswick, Victoria, 3056, Australia 3 Poultry Hub Australia, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351, Australia 4 School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, 3217, Australia

30

The increasingly dynamic nature of egg supply and volatility of egg price in Australia has reinforced the need for a more sophisticated approach than the total reliance on least-cost ration formulation alone for the evolution of the sector. Increased flexibility during uncertain times may give the layer industry greater opportunity and capacity to cope with market fluctuations.

Thus, least-cost and max-profit feed formulation models were compared in a practical simulation to demonstrate the differences between these feed formulation strategies.

The requirements for amino acids are an expensive constituent of diets and hold important implications for egg size; thus this

- management -

example will focus on methionine (Met) levels in layer diets.

A feed formulation exercise was completed using example data sourced from industry and that published within the literature. The response of feed intake, egg weight and percentage production and egg mass of caged white egg layers 52-58 weeks of age to diets containing five graded true digestible Met levels (0.6, 0.48, 0.37, 0.25, 0.13%) was sourced from Bregendahl et al. (2008); with 0.48% dietary Met level standard for industry diets formulated to nutrient requirements via least-cost. These data were used to model the response of layers to Met over the six week period (52-58 weeks of age).

©Mikhail Nilov

Formulating layer diets beyond the least-cost model

MANAGEMENT

Economic data was sourced from industry (4th quarter 2019, $AUD). Diets were formulated using EFG Software (2020) and data were modelled in Microsoft ® Office Excel (2016). All diets were iso-energetic and formulated to the same digestible lysine concentration (0.91%), keeping all other amino acids (except Met) constant in a ratio to digestible lysine. Profit over the six week simulation was calculated via the following equation; Profit = egg sale + spent hen sale – diet cost – packaging cost – pullet cost – other cost The greatest profit of $34,830 over the 6 week simulation may be achieved with the 0.6% dietary Met level with a diet cost of $465 per tonne. The 0.6% dietary Met level cost $4 more per tonne than the standard 0.48% dietary Met level, but generated $186 more profit due to the reduced feed intake compared to the 0.48% methionine diet (egg production of hens offered 0.6 and 0.48% dietary Met was equal).

Present least-cost feed formulation uses requirements which are based on optimal biological performance, and may not necessarily optimise profits. This restricts the options that nutritionists and poultry managers have to navigate difficult economic times. Therefore, max-profit approaches use production and market data in addition to least-cost feed formulation to formulate diets by more economically sustainable means; giving increased flexibility, opportunity and capacity for the Australian poultry industry to cope and thrive under market challenges.

Acknowledgements: the authors would like to acknowledge and thank Australian Eggs for funding this project and for their guidance, encouragement and support.

References

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Bregendahl K., Roberts S., Kerr B., Hoehler D. (2008) Poultry Science 87: 744-758.

EFG Software (2020): http://www.efgsoftware.net/poultry-programs/broiler-growth-model.

From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2021

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31

NUTRITION

Effects of beta glucans in poultry health and nutrition

©Moy Park Poultry Development House

The poultry production industry has seen astonishing improvements over the past several decades as evidenced by increased growth rates and improved feed conversion efficiency. We can now produce bigger and faster growing birds with far less feed than imagined even 20 years ago. These improvements can be attributed to a combination of genetics, nutrition, farm management and disease management. Genetics ultimately limit the maximum potential growth performance of the birds, while nutrition, farm management and disease management can each impact how close to the genetic potential the birds can achieve on a given farm. This paper addresses the rapidly evolving field of disease management and the new tools that producers can use to improve the health and thus performance of their animals.

Increasing role of immune modulators in poultry production

Geoff Horst, PhD, Kemin Industries, Inc. Des Moines, Iowa, USA

32

Antibiotics and specifically antibiotic growth promoters (antibiotics used prophylactically for disease prevention and modest growth enhancement) have made a significant contribution to some of the performance gains in recent decades. While the exact mode of action of these drugs is still not completely understood, the potential impacts on promoting antibiotic resistance is becoming more apparent and thus their usage is being phased out across many

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

regions of the world. As some of these antibiotics are being removed from the market, producers are now taking a more comprehensive approach to disease management including improved biosecurity at the farm, expanded vaccination programs and inclusion of feed additives that improve gut health and immunity. This last group of products, loosely called immune modulators, include probiotics, peptides, and various carbohydrate molecules that interact with the animal’s immune system to help it fight infections and/or manage inflammation caused by infections.

Background on beta glucans Beta glucans, and specifically, beta-1,3-glucan, are polysaccharides that are widely recognized as potent immune modulators (Barsanti et al., 2011). When animals are exposed to beta glucans either orally, through the skin or even intravenously, the immune system detects the specific pattern of glucose monomers connected through beta-1,3 linkages (Figure 1) as a pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP), which triggers a cascade of immune system responses. Evolutionarily, this makes sense because many pathogenic organisms including fungi, yeasts and bacteria have beta-1,3-glucan incorporated into their cell walls/membranes.

• increased immune cell activation: Chae et al. (2005); Guo et al. (2003); Lowry et al. (2005); • increased vaccine antibody titers: An et al. (2007); Horst et al. (2019); • reduced impact of bacterial infection by Salmonella and E. coli: Chen et al. (2008); Lowry et al. (2005); Huff et al. (2006); • improvements in intestinal health following coccidiosis infection: Cox et al. (2010); • improved growth rate and feed conversion efficiency: An et al. (2007); Chae et al. (2005); Cox et al. (2010); Moon et al. (2016); Morales et al. (2009); Zhang et al.

(2008).

A complicating aspect of the prior art is that beta glucans are a ubiquitous class of molecules produced by a wide array of organisms ranging from bacteria, yeast, fungi, seaweeds, plants and algae. Each class of organisms produces vastly different forms of beta glucan with different linkage patterns (e.g. linear beta-1,3 linkages with or without beta-1,6 side branches, Figure 1). Furthermore, commercially-available beta glucans range in purity from a few percent up to over 95% purity. Most of the research on beta glucans in animals has been conducted with yeast beta glucans, which have been commercially available for over a decade. However, most of these products are still a mixture of beta glucans and other yeast cell wall components so it is difficult to parse out the effects of the beta glucan alone.

Some species of Euglenoids (protists) produce beta glucan granules (paramylon) to store excess energy similar to the way some plants store energy in starch granules.

These small (1-3 micron) granules are composed of nearly pure linear beta-1,3-glucan strands arranged in a triple-helix crystalline format, similar to a tightly bound ball of yarn (Figure 2).

Figure 1 – Linear beta-(1,3)-D-glucan (top) and side-branched beta-(1,3;1,6)-D-glucan (bottom).

Researchers have taken advantage of this known immune response to beta glucans by attempting to “prime” the immune system of animals before challenging them with a specific pathogen, disease, and/or stressful environmental condition. Notable positive results in poultry studies include:

Figure 2 – Two Euglena gracilis cells packed with beta glucan (paramylon) granules (left), SEM image of a paramylon granule.

- march 2022 -

33

NUTRITION

Paramylon mode of action Paramylon appears to modulate the innate (cellular) immune system of animals in the same fashion as other forms of beta glucan containing linear beta-1,3-glucan as reviewed extensively by Chan et al. (2009) and Barsanti et al. (2011) (Figure 3).

Figure 3 – Simplified mode of action for immune modulation by beta glucans.

Paramylon granules transit into the small intestine where immune cells (dendritic and macrophage cells) actively capture and phagocytose the granules (Figure 4).

Figure 4 – Mouse macrophage cell (stained red) after phagocytosing fluorescent stained Euglena beta glucan granules, SEM of macrophage cell (blue arrow) actively phagocytosing beta glucan granules (red arrows).

These immune cells then start to “prime” the immune system by releasing both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (Figure 5) as well as chemokines that help recruit more immune cells to the gut (Figure 6). After priming, many facets of the innate immune response are enhanced including increased natural killer cell activity, foreign particle phagocytosis rates and oxidative burst potential. As a result, with the innate immune system “primed” the animal should be better prepared for fighting potential pathogen infections.

34

Figure 5 – Increasing doses of euglena beta glucan (A=control; B=25 ppm; C=100 ppm; D=1000 ppm) in the diets of mice leads to increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFa), antiinflammatory cytokines (IL-10) and chemokines (MIP1a).

Applications to poultry production Birds on a farm are exposed to a nearly constant threat of disease from a wide range of viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic organisms. Biosecurity is a key strategy for reducing some of the disease pressure but it is not a fail-safe system. Vaccines are also a great strategy for controlling many common diseases, but we still do not

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

Figure 6 – Mouse intestinal sections after 7 days of oral dosing of paramylon. Increased green and red color indicates higher density of immune cells recruited into the villi.

have vaccines for many of the remaining commercially-important diseases, especially many bacterial diseases. Antibiotics can also be highly effective for controlling an outbreak but there is a global shift away from using antibiotics prophylactically. Therefore, immune modulators like beta glucan, that prop up an animal’s own innate immune system, can be an important tool for helping to manage disease, especially for very young birds that do not have a fully-matured immune system and during times of immune suppression caused by environmental stresses (e.g. heat, cold, ammonia) or biological stress (e.g. live vaccines).

Example 1: Coccidiosis challenge Levine et al. (2018) conducted a series of experiments to test whether dosing Euglena beta glucan into the diets of broilers could help mitigate the effects of a severe coccidiosis challenge. Briefly birds received diets that were amended with a range of euglena beta glucan levels (25-100 ppm). On day 14, the birds were challenged with an oral gavage containing a mixture of three Eimeria species (E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella) which are known to cause coccidiosis in broilers. Lesion scores were assessed on day 20 in addition to gut immune histology and performance metrics (growth rate, feed conversion, mortality).

In the first experiment, the birds that received feeds supplemented with beta glucan showed a significant increase in immune cell density in the gut, which was also

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35

NUTRITION

correlated with reduced lesion scores. This is a particularly interesting finding since it is known that the Eimeria parasite can actually trick the host into perceiving that there is no infection and thus reduce immune cell density in the gut which allows secondary infections to take hold.

In the second experiment, the beta glucan treated birds showed significantly improved feed conversion efficiency during the challenge period (day 14-20). Together, these results suggest that modulating the bird’s own immune system can have a drastic impact on a commercially-important gut health disease like coccidiosis.

Example 2: Dirty litter challenge (multiple disease stressor) Since birds are exposed to many potential pathogens simultaneously, we tested whether using a beta glucan immune modulator could reduce the impacts of a severe, multi-pathogen stressor on broilers in a 42-day pen trial.

Briefly, the birds were fed a control diet (antibiotic-free), or the control diet amended with 50 ppm of Euglena beta glucan for either the first 28 days or over the full 42 days of the trial. On day five, all of the birds were challenged by introducing untreated dirty litter into the pens from the last production cycle which contained E. coli, Clostridium and Eimeria spp. In both of the beta glucan treated groups, the birds had significantly improved growth rates and feed conversion efficiencies (Figure 7), presumably because the birds were able to fight the infections more efficaciously when primed with the treated feeds.

The fact that the birds given beta glucan for only the first 28 days performed similarly to the birds dosed for the full term of the trial suggests that, in this case, there was no extra benefit to continued usage of the immune modulator during the final two weeks.

Figure 7 – Growth and feed conversion efficiency for broilers challenged with multiple diseases in recycled litter. Beta glucan dose level was 50 ppm.

Conclusions Beta glucans and other immune modulators have begun to show promise as another useful tool for livestock producers to improve the health of their flock. While we are still in the early stages of fully understanding how to best use immune modulators like beta glucans, there are a few general patterns developing: 1. young animals are especially in need of innate immune support since their immune system is still developing; 2. immune modulators can only help improve performance metrics if the flock is underperforming due to wasting energy or suffering mortality/morbidity from disease pressure. If a flock is already performing very well, then the scope for improvement by an immune modulator will be small; 3. immune modulators may be helpful during vaccination periods by both helping prime immune cells that are also active in the humoral (antibody) immune system as well as helping to mitigate some of the setback that can occur from live vaccines.

References are available on request

36

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

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NUTRITION

A Box-Behnken assessment of fishmeal and sorghum inclusions in broiler diets

S.P. Macelline1, 2, P.V. Chrystal1,3, M. Toghyani1,2, P.H. Selle2, S.Y. Liu1,2 1 School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 2 Poultry

Research Foundation, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, 2570, Australia 3

Baiada Poultry, Pendle Hill, NSW2570, Australia

38

The objective of this study was to investigate the impacts of starch and protein digestive dynamics on broiler growth performance using Box-Behnken response surface design.

The design consisted of three factors: sorghum, fish meal, crude protein each at three levels. The Box-Behnken design established that crude protein and fish meal inclusions influence weight gain and feed intake where maximum weight gain (2157 g/b) and feed intake (3330 g/b) were observed in birds offered 190 g/kg crude protein diets. Fish meal inclusions linearly compromised FCR which was more evident in 190 g/kg CP diets.

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

The inclusion of 175 g/kg fishmeal, essentially at the expense of soybean meal, in sorghum-based broiler diets was shown to improve weight gain by 12.1% (1260 versus 1124; P<0.001) and feed conversion ratio by 8.13% (1.299 versus 1.414; P<0.001) from 15 to 28 days post-hatch.

The dietary treatments had an average crude protein (CP) content of 222 g/kg in this study. Slowly digestible starch has been shown to advantage broiler performance and the digestion rate of sorghum starch is very considerably slower than wheat starch under in vitro conditions.

Differences in starch digestion rates across various feed grains are probably not as pronounced in broiler chickens; nevertheless, starch digestion rates in broiler chickens offered wheat-based diets have been shown to be 56.0% more rapid (0.117 versus 0.075 min-1; P<0.025) than their sorghum-based counterparts where a number of feed grains were compared. There is real interest in the development of reduced-CP for broiler chickens as their adoption would promote sustainable chicken-meat production. Interestingly, the partial replacement of soybean meal with alternative rapidly digestible sources of amino acids, namely whey protein and non-bound (crystalline, synthetic) amino acids, in wheat-based diets have been shown to enhance broiler performance. This, and similar outcomes, emphasise the potential of starch and protein digestive dynamics to manipulate the growth performance of broiler chickens to advantage. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to assess the impacts of fishmeal and sorghum inclusions in diets based on wheat and soybean meal with three dietary CP levels via a Box-Behknen response surface design. The three dietary CP levels were 190, 210 and 230 g/kg, fishmeal was included at 0, 50 and 100 g/kg essentially at the expense of soybean meal and sorghum was included at 0, 150, and 300 g/kg at the expense of wheat.

protein regimes. The Box-Behnken design comprises three factors at three levels (Table 1).

Table 1 – Experimental factors and levels used in the Box-Behnken design.

Factors

Level (-)

Level (0)

Level (+)

X1: Sorghum inclusion (g/kg)

0

150

300

X 2: Fish meal inclusion (g/kg)

0

50

100

190

210

230

X3: Dietary CP (g/kg)

Thirteen diets based on wheat and soybean meal were formulated to have the same digestible lysine (10 g/kg) and metabolizable energy (13.0 MJ/kg). The diets were cold-pelleted and contained xylanase but not phytase. Dietary compositions and nutrient specifications are shown in Table 2. Birds were offered the same wheat-soybean meal based commercial starter diet (with coccistat, xylanase and phytase) from day 1 to 13 post-hatch and weight gains, feed intakes and FCRs were determined from 14 to 35 days post-hatch. The R 3.5.3 software program was used to plot the surface responses of growth

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Material and methods This feeding study was conducted in compliance with the guidelines of the Animal Ethics Committee of The University of Sydney. A total of 390 off-sex 14-days old male broilers (Ross 308) were randomly distributed into 65 battery cages each of 6 birds (13 treatments × 5 replicates).

The cumulative variance of average body weights was maintained at 1.02% between cages. Fishmeal (CP=600 g/kg, Menhaden) and sorghum served as alternative protein and starch sources, respectively, under three dietary

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NUTRITION

Table 2 – Composition and calculated nutrient specification in experimental diets (g/kg).

Diet 1

Diet 2

Diet 3

Diet 4

Diet 5

Diet 6

Diet 7

Diet 8

Diet 9

Diet 10

Diet 11

Diet 12

Diet 13

Wheat

Ingredients

392

301

692

608

492

328

392

525

272

276

578

569

502

Sorghum

300

300

-

-

150

150

150

150

300

300

-

-

150

Maize starch

8.69

-

14.9

-

-

150

-

7.50

-

117

-

128

-

Soybean meal

36.1

172

30.7

163

119

20.1

253

91.5

171

59.1

163

52.4

92.9

Canola meal

83.8

100

81.7

100

56.8

100

72.4

100

100

100

100

100

100

Fishmeal

100

-

100

-

100

100

-

-

50

50

50

50

50

Soybean oil

33.6

62.0

36.0

64.7

42.2

52.9

70.0

51.8

58.8

35.2

61.8

37.1

50.2

l-lysine HCl

2.47

3.08

2.48

3.13

0.48

3.30

1.19

5.27

0.73

4.28

0.76

4.32

2.82

d,l-methionine

1.52

2.05

1.25

1.76

1.00

2.25

1.58

2.43

1.27

2.48

0.97

2.23

1.59

l-threonine

1.13

1.06

1.23

1.16

0.33

1.84

0.32

2.06

0.20

1.91

0.29

2.02

1.14

l-tryptophan

-

-

0.02

-

-

0.28

-

0.11

-

0.19

-

0.22

-

0.09

0.14

0.27

0.32

-

1.24

-

1.37

-

1.23

-

1.43

0.19

l-arginine

2.66

5.55

2.35

5.16

3.17

3.23

6.11

5.12

4.22

4.36

3.83

4.04

3.75

l-isoleucine

0.25

0.11

0.39

0.26

-

1.27

-

1.31

-

1.23

-

1.40

0.27

l-leucine

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.79

-

Glycine

4.33

0.47

3.90

0.04

2.48

5.88

-

2.03

0.74

4.19

0.28

3.80

2.18

-

0.79

-

0.77

0.73

-

1.51

-

1.14

-

1.12

-

0.37

NaHCO3

4.77

4.90

4.68

4.82

3.80

4.78

3.96

5.99

3.73

5.44

3.64

5.34

4.78

Limestone

4.94

1.74

5.04

11.8

4.89

4.78

11.7

12.1

8.01

8.39

8.10

8.47

8.34

-

12.4

-

12.3

-

0.36

12.5

13.0

5.44

6.71

5.38

6.68

6.00

l-valine

Salt

MDCPa Xylanaseb

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.10

Choline chloride

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

0.90

Celites

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

-

-

-

-

-

46.8

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Vitamin mineral px

Sand

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

Total non-bound AAs

12.5

12.5

11.9

11.8

7.47

19.3

9.20

19.7

7.15

19.9

6.13

20.3

11.9

ME (MJ/kg)

13.0

13.1

13.1

13.1

13.0

13.1

13.1

13.1

13.1

13.0

13.1

13.0

13.1

Crude protein

210

210

210

210

230

190

230

190

230

190

230

190

210

Nutrient specifications

Starch

440

377

440

377

400

428

340

427

360

462

358

463

406

Starch: protein

2.10

1.80

2.10

1.80

1.74

2.25

1.48

2.25

1.57

2.43

1.57

2.44

1.93

Calcium

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

8.25

Phosphorous

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

4.13

Lysine

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

Methionine + cysteine

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

7.40

Threonine

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

6.70

Tryptophan

1.90

2.14

1.90

2.11

2.20

1.90

2.42

1.90

2.34

1.90

2.32

1.90

2.01

Isoleucine

7.00

7.00

7.00

7.00

7.75

7.00

7.82

7.00

7.85

7.00

7.72

7.00

7.00

Arginine

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

10.4

Valine

8.00

8.00

8.00

8.00

8.00

8.84

8.71

8.00

8.95

8.00

8.79

8.00

8.00

Gly- equivalent

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

12.3

DEB

159

219

150

209

193

135

251

174

226

159

216

150

183

a

Mono-dicalcium phosphate; b Danisco (40000G)

All calculated amino acids are presented in digestible basis

40

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

Table 3 – Effect of dietary treatments on growth performance.

Diet

Feed intake (g)

Weight gain (g)

FCR

1

2883

1764

1.642

2

3160

2053

1.540

3

2783

1682

1.655

4

3144

2063

1.525

5

2889

1678

1.723

6

3158

1875

1.685

7

3128

2002

1.563

8

3270

2140

1.529

9

2934

1800

1.630

10

3129

1953

1.602

11

2901

1857

1.561

12

3267

2064

1.583

13

3024

1925

1.571

SEM

61.5

38.5

0.0278

performance parameters, which were fitted by predicted models only with significant terms. JMP Pro 14 was used to perform analyses of variance and to establish correlations when relevant and a 5% probability level was deemed to be significant.

Results The summary of growth performance results is shown in Table 3 and the mortality rate was only 1.28% during

the experimental period. Overall performance is comparable to 2019 Ross 308 male performance objectives for weight gain (1912 versus 1849 g/bird) and feed intake (3058 versus 2921 g/bird) and approached the FCR objective (1.601 versus 1.580). The response surface for weight gain is illustrated in Figure 1 where the following equation provides the best fit: Y=2981.783 – 43.425 X3 − 31.510 X2, (R2=0.736, P<0.001). Therefore, both fishmeal and CP had negative impacts on weight gain, irrespective of the inclusion level of sorghum.

Figure 1– The influence of fishmeal inclusion and dietary CP concentration on weight gain in broiler chickens from 14-35 days post-hatch.

However, in diets not containing any fishmeal the predicted maximum weight gain of 2157 g/bird was generated by the 190 g/kg CP diets. The response surface for feed intake as influenced by the fishmeal and CP factors is described by following equation, Y=13806.511 – 24.72 × X2 – 956.755 × X3 + 21.334 × X23, (R2=0.527, P<0.001).

However, dietary CP and sorghum inclusions did not influence FCR and increased fishmeal inclusions linearly increased FCR (Y=1.532 + 0.0137 × X2, R2=0.436,

R

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Discussion

Figure 2 – The influence of dietary CP concentration and fishmeal inclusions on feed intake in broiler chickens from 14-35 days post-hatch.

y = 1.755 - 0.0019x + 0.000018 (x -82.722)2 R² = 0.3311, P = 0.043

1.75

FCR, g/g

1.7 1.65 1.6 1.55 1.5

50

70

90

110

130

Figure 3 – Relationship of dietary non-essential amino acids and FCR from 14-35 days post-hatch.

P<0.001). Indeed, the sum of the listed amino acids was quadratically related with FCR, such that feed conversion deteriorated as their concentrations declined as illustrated in Figure 3. Apparent digestibilities of starch, protein and amino acids are being determined to confirm our conclusions.

Sorghum inclusions did not influence broiler growth performance; thus, the hypothesis that slowly digestible sorghum starch would improve growth performance was not established. The negative impact of fishmeal on broiler growth performance conflicts with the Sydenham et al.

(2017) findings; however, there were very real differences in the basal diets between the two studies such as CP levels, types of feed grain and non-bound amino acid inclusion. In addition, the quality of fishmeal can vary as a result of the rendering process. Interestingly, based on specified values, fishmeal inclusions reduced dietary concentrations of proline, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid and serine in diets. Therefore, it appears that fishmeal inclusions may have triggered deficiencies in certain non-essential amino acids.

Aviagen recommendations for Ross 308 broilers from 14 to 39 days post-hatch is 205 g/kg CP with 10.9 g/kg digestible lysine. Moreover, the transition from 230 g/kg to 190 g/kg CP improved weight gains and feed intakes by 9.5% and 8.2% respectively. This is an outstanding finding because reduced-CP diets will help sustain chicken-meat production. However, fishmeal inclusions in 190 g/kg CP diets had more adverse FCR effects than in the 210 and 230 g/kg CP diets. Significant correlation coefficients for fishmeal inclusions on FCR in 190 g/kg CP diets were r=0.810 as compared to r=0.654 and 0.614 in the 210 g/kg and 230 g/kg CP diets, respectively. Reduced-CP diets tend to be inherently deficient in non-essential amino acids; however, fishmeal inclusions may have exacerbated these deficiencies in 190 g/kg CP diets. This may be the possible reason for the pronounced impairment in performance of broiler chickens offered 190 g/kg diets containing fishmeal.

Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE190101364). This research was also supported by an Australian Government Research Training Programme Scholarship (International) which awarded to Shemil Priyan Macelline.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2021

42

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VETERINARY SCIENCE

Obtaining the most benefit from an anticoccidial sensitivity test

H.M. CervantesA,B and L.R. McDougaldB APhibro

Animal Health, Watkinsville, GA

BUniversity

44

of Georgia, Athens, GA

The poultry industry has been using the same anticoccidial drugs for the prevention of coccidiosis for several decades.

The last approval of a new anticoccidial compound in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration was in 1999 and currently no animal health company is actively working on developing new ones. In addition, in the United States, anticoccidials of the polyether ionophore class are considered antimicrobials and therefore cannot be used in the production of poultry raised without antibiotics like the ones bearing the labels “No Antibiotics Ever” (NAE) or “Raised Without Antibiotics” (RWA).

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

The production of poultry raised without antibiotics has skyrocketed in recent years due to concerns about the potential for transfer of antimicrobial resistance from poultry products to humans, relentless pressure from activist groups, consumer preferences and marketing campaigns. This has put the poultry industry in a difficult position as coccidiosis prevention must be achieved relying exclusively on the use of chemically-synthetized anticoccidials, the so-called “chemicals” and live vaccines.

Although with a few exceptions like nicarbazin that has been used successfully every year since 1955, chemically-synthetized anticoccidials are more prone to the development of resistance, and when resistance develops, control of coccidiosis becomes more difficult.

Coccidiosis control is an important factor in the prevention of necrotic enteritis (NE) which has emerged as a significant disease in poultry raised without antibiotics (1, 2), this may be due to partial resistance to chemical anticoccidials coupled with lack of antibiotic effect from chemical anticoccidials and no use of antimicrobials with good anticlostridial activity and ionophores. On the other hand, the use of live vaccines has also increased significantly in recent years paralleling the increase in the production of poultry raised without antibiotics. Even though live vaccines are effective when properly administered, they have to cycle several times through the intestines in order to produce immunity. As a result, mild intestinal lesions are produced and since no antibiotics with anticlostridial activity can be used in raised without antibiotics production; the use of live vaccines without antibiotics has more than likely played a role as well in the emergence of NE as a significant disease in poultry raised without antibiotics.

Anticoccidial sensitivity tests (ASTs) have been developed and used to predict the efficacy of anticoccidial drugs in the field (3, 4, 5). These tests can be very useful when properly conducted and interpreted. With the current trends in poultry production, ASTs are one of the most valuable tools available to producers to manage coccidiosis control successfully in the long term.

Introduction

“As the poultry industry grows a larger percentage of birds without ionophore anticoccodials and relies more on chemically-synthetized anticoccidials, ASTs can provide a very valuable tool to design more effective anticoccidial programs for the prevention and control of coccidiosis.

Maintaining efficacy of anticoccidial drugs to prevent coccidiosis is important to minimize the incidence of necrotic enteritis”

ferent farms from a production complex are tested under controlled conditions for sensitivity to various anticoccidial drugs with the purpose of predicting their efficacy in the field.

Why are ASTs important?

In order to optimize the selection of prophylactic medication in the field, knowledge about the sensitivity profile of the parasites in question is essential. AST is the best method currently available to assess and predict the efficacy of anticoccidial drugs against field isolates of Eimeria spp. in commercial broiler production. The importance of conducting ASTs for early detection of resistance or “reduced sensitivity” before flock productivity is adversely impacted has been emphasized by several researchers and field veterinarians (6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15).

ASTs are also used to determine anticoccidial efficacy in drug approval studies. They are a useful predictor of anticoccidial efficacy when local Eimeria spp. isolates are used by a commercial production complex and they are also useful to detect early changes in sensitivity to anticoccidial drugs.

What is an AST?

How is the sensitivity determined?

An AST is a laboratory test in which coccidia isolated from field samples (usually litter or droppings) from dif-

Sensitivity can be determined in various ways, some have suggested by comparing differences in body weight gain

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VETERINARY SCIENCE

between the treated group and the negative and positive controls (8), while others have suggested excretion of oocysts (3), an anticoccidial index (8) or body weight gain and feed conversion (10). However, since anticoccidial drugs are designed to prevent coccidiosis, according to L.R. McDougald (4), comparing percent reductions in lesion scores between treated and negative and positive controls is the most important parameter to detect changes in sensitivity. Therefore, although body weight gain, feed conversion ratio and livability are recorded for their economic importance, in this presentation, percent reduction in lesion scores will be the parameter used to assess sensitivity of field isolates of coccidia.

Sample collection and submission Before collecting samples, it is important to determine what anticoccidial drugs and what dietary inclusion rates will be used in the ASTs so that the laboratory ensures that they have all the anticoccidial drugs needed within the expiration period. It is also a good idea to mix all the treatment diets ahead of time and conduct drug assays for each treatment that includes anticoccidial drugs before the start of the ASTs to ensure that anticoccidials were mixed properly.

A very important part of an AST is the collection and submission of samples to the laboratory. This is important to preserve the viability of the oocysts present in the sample and to have a truly representative sample of the Eimeria spp. present in the production complex where the samples were collected. Since it is not possible, or necessary, to sample every house in a production complex, a number of samples (between 5 to 10) will suffice.

As stated by H.D. Chapman (7): “it is likely that the results for one farm will be similar to other farms within the same complex, providing the same drug programs have been employed.”

Litter or droppings samples should be collected from at least six locations in a zig-zag pattern from the brooder end of the house. If litter is collected it should be collected from the upper one-third of the litter and enough to fill a gallon container and if droppings are collected there should be at least 24 fresh droppings collected including intestinal and cecal droppings. To increase the probability of recovering enough oocysts to prepare the inocula from the first pass, samples should be collected from flocks that are between 21 and 28 days old.

46

The samples should be shipped to the laboratory where the ASTs will be conducted in a well-sealed cooler by overnight express delivery mail and a few ice packs should be included to prevent the samples from overheating during transport. Samples should be prevented from overheating but not allowed to freeze as both excessive heat and cold are detrimental to oocyst survivability.

Brief description of the text Inoculum

Upon reception of litter or dropping samples, these are mixed with feed and fed to coccidia-free broiler chicks kept in cages with wire floors. Droppings from these birds are collected from days four to seven, and the oocysts recovered, cleaned, sporulated, and titrated (~105 sporulated oocysts/mL). Once prepared the inoculum is stored under appropriate conditions until the day of the challenge.

AST

On the first day of the test, chicks are received from the hatchery and placed at random in coccidia-free floor pens with new shavings. They are fed a standard starter feed free of any anticoccidial compounds until day 12. On day 12, the chickens are assigned at random to each cage (usually eight per cage) and switched to their respective treatment diets. There are usually three to five replicates/ treatment. The chickens assigned to the negative and positive controls continue receiving unmedicated feed while the treated birds are fed diets containing the anticoccidials at the dietary concentrations to be tested in each treatment. On day 14, all chickens except the negative control are infected with the inoculum previously prepared from the litter or droppings samples and titrated to contain approximately 105 sporulated oocysts of mixed Eimeria spp./mL. The inoculum is administered by oral gavage with a graduated syringe. The inoculum usually contains a mix of Eimeria acervulina, E. maxima, and/or E. tenella. Also on day 14, all chickens are weighed by cage and the average weight per chicken calculated and used as the initial weight for the AST. At this time, the amount of feed administered to each cage is also recorded in order to calculate feed conversion ratio at the end of the test. On day 20, all the chickens in each cage are weighed again in order to calculate average body weight gain. Also on day 20, the remaining feed is weighed in order to calculate the feed conversion ratio for each treat-

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iosis prevention programs in which chemotherapy is the main means of control.

ment. At the same time, the chickens are humanely euthanized in order to remove the intestinal tracts and score the severity of the intestinal lesions induced by the coccidial challenge by the method of Johnson and Reid (16).

Interpretation

Based on the manuscript by L.R. McDougald (4), if lesion scores for any given region of the intestinal tract (upper, middle, lower or ceca) are reduced by 50% or more, the isolate is considered sensitive to the respective anticoccidial. If lesion scores are reduced between 49 and 30%, the isolate is considered intermediate in sensitivity to the respective anticoccidial. If the lesion scores are reduced 29% or less, the isolate is considered resistant to the respective anticoccidial.

48

Other considerations Even though an AST only lasts 20 days, samples must be submitted and passed in chicks to prepare the inoculum and then chicks must be ordered ahead of time, feeds mixed, and results summarized so in reality expecting results earlier than six weeks, and more than likely eight weeks, is not realistic. Ideally, a preliminary dose titration study should be conducted with the isolates in order to find the dose that will produce enough gross lesions and growth depression without mortality (this will add to the time in which results can be expected to be completed).

The most benefit from conducting ASTs is derived from testing samples from a complex at least once per year. Over time, a reasonable assessment of efficacy and resistance can be produced and used to design more effective coccid-

- veterinary science -

Likewise, for consistency it is better to use the same facility for ASTs. It is also important to submit representative samples ensuring they are not exposed to direct sunlight, excessive heat or cold and that they are shipped by express mail delivery to favor the survivability of the oocysts.

Remember that having to perform a second pass is undesirable as the proportion of Eimeria spp. in the original sample can change and give a false assessment of sensitivity.

Submission forms must be filled out completely noting the previous anticoccidial use history and detailing what anticoccidial drugs and dosages are to be tested.

Conclusion As the poultry industry grows a larger percentage of birds without ionophore anticoccodials and relies more on chemically-synthetized anticoccidials, ASTs can provide a very valuable tool to design more effective anticoccidial programs for the prevention and control of coccidiosis.

Maintaining efficacy of anticoccidial drugs to prevent coccidiosis is important to minimize the incidence of necrotic enteritis, which has emerged as a major disease in poultry raised without antimicrobials.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 70th Western Poultry Disease Conference - 2021

VETERINARY SCIENCE

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PROCESSING

The importance of broilers’ uniformity

Ing. Fabio G. Nunes Poultry Processing Consultant, Brazil fabio.g.nunes@hotmail.com

50

The interaction between the live production department and the processing plant across the global poultry industry is governed by an internal supplier-client relationship. Hence, to guarantee the satisfaction of the client - the processing plant the supplier - live production area - must do its best to secure the live birds delivered every day to the slaughterhouse fully comply with the client’s requirements for the raw material, therefore contributing to the optimization of the technical, economic, and commercial performance of the plant. Among the many requirements to comply with, the broilers’ uniformity is one of the most important for the plant.

- processing -

PROCESSING

The degree of automation of the poultry processing plants, in the stream of the increasing processing speeds, and growing labor shortage and costs, and the demand for more and more standard-sized chicken products have been growing around the world. In such a challenging scenario, the uniformity of the raw material – the live broilers – becomes a key prerequisite for the achievement of the optimum operational, technical, and economic performance of the plant.

Upon unloading, the uniform flocks ease and homogenize the live hanging and contribute to increase the consistency and accuracy of the electrical stunning and killer, hence preserving the animal welfare while protecting the quality and yield of the carcasses. Likewise, when running uniform flocks, it is easier to set the scalding parameters and securing a smooth and efficient picking, thus optimizing the yield, quality and presentation of the carcasses.

The automatic transfer of uniform birds to the evisceration line becomes smoother and more accurate compared to ununiform broilers, thus reducing carcasses rehanging and saving the labor involved in the operation. Likely precise and more homogeneous is the hock cutting, as well, which maximizes the yield and presentation of the legs.

“The higher the flock uniformity the lower the incidence of defects, contaminated carcass, and loss of edible giblets along the evisceration line. The water or air chilling of uniform flocks allow for shorter chilling cycle and greater consistency of the final temperature of the carcasses, thus lowering the operational cost while contributing to the safety of the products”

products, whose lower commercial value reduces the profitability of the daily production mix. Last, but not least, for boosting the overall plant productivity, broilers’ uniformity pulls operational costs down and business profitability and competitiveness up.

The higher the flock uniformity the lower the incidence of defects, contaminated carcass, and loss of edible giblets along the evisceration line. The water or air chilling of uniform flocks allow for shorter chilling cycle and greater consistency of the final temperature of the carcasses, thus lowering the operational cost while contributing to the safety of the products. For the same reason are superior the accuracy and consistency of the cutting and boning operations, thus resulting in either bone-in and boneless parts of better presentation, quality, and yield.

Uniform birds increase the proportion of whole carcasses and parts falling within the optimum commercial weight range, therefore minimizing the percentage of off-range

Uniform broilers do not come for grant, though! They are the product of an orchestrated and fine tunned work of multiple areas – parent stock, hatchery, and broiler farms – performed with one single common goal in mind – optimizing the uniformity of the flocks. The efficacy of this teamwork needs to be periodically validated, though, by monitoring as often as possible the distribution of the carcasses weight at the processing plant. The weight bell curve is then sent to live production personnel as to subsidize the fine adjustments of production practices.

Spinning this PDCA cycle continuously is key to allow the company to gradually achieve and maintain its desired level of uniformity of its broilers.

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www.agritech.it www.arionfasoli.com www.aviagen.com www.aviagenturkeys.com www.azainternational.it www.barbieribelts.com www.bigdutchman.de www.biochem.net www.carfed.it www.cobb-vantress.com www.codaf.net www.cortizootecnici.it www.dacs.dk www.eurotier.com www.facco.net www.fiem.it www.fieragricola.it www.fieravicola.com www.gasolec.com www.poultryplast.com www.gi-ovo.com www.hendrix-genetics.com www.hubbardbreeders.com www.hyline.com www.impex.nl www.intracare.nl www.jamesway.com www.jpe.org www.lubingsystem.com www.marel.com/en/poultry www.mbefabriano.it www.menci.it www.meyn.com www.moba.net www.mstegg.com www.newpharm.it www.officinevettorello.com www.omaz.com www.petersime.com www.prinzen.com www.reventa.de www.pasreform.com www.roxell.com www.skapoultryequipment.com www.socorex.com www.space.fr www.specht-tenelsen.de www.sperotto-spa.com www.tpi-polytechniek.com www.val-co.com www.valli-italy.com www.vdlagrotech.com www.vencomaticgroup.com www.incubatricivictoria.com www.viveurope.nl

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Art Direction & Layout Laura Cardilicchia – elleciwebstudio.com Printed Nova Arti Grafiche, Florence

English Edition Year XLIV March 2022

VIV Russia, Moscow: Stand: 33.B4 Hall 8

TRADITIONAL

ECS XL

Chicken egg tray

Duck/Turkey egg tray

GI-OVO |

www.gi-ovo.com | sales@gi-ovo.com | +31(0)88-030 89 00

SPECHT is everywhere where hens are!

• Rearing in aviary system

• Layers in Varia-System

• Rearing in cages

• Group cage system (enriched cage)

L

ORIGINA

estock eco and liv friendly

ORIGINAL

• Feeding system

®

• Layer battery

• Egg belt

• Cage floor

POULTRY EQUIPMENT

GmbH & Co. KG

• Manure drying system

Dassendaler Weg 13 • D-47665 Sonsbeck (Germany) Telefon +49 (0) 28 38 912-0 • Telefax +49 (0) 28 38 27 91 info@specht-tenelsen.de • www.specht-tenelsen.de

• Egg collecting system