Zootecnica International - English edition - 02 February - 2021

Zootecnica International – February 2021 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze

Coccidiosis control in broiler breeders with the use of vaccines The forgotten world: the egg industry in the least developed countries Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza, a technical update

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2021

The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.

CODAF Poultry Equipment Manufacturers • Via Cavour, 74/76 • 25010 Isorella (Brescia), ITALY Tel. +39 030 9958156 • Fax: +39 030 9952810 • info@codaf.net • www.codaf.net

EDITORIAL Mortality and increased medication costs are two most obvious losses caused by diseases in broilers. But even greater economic losses may result from decreased growth, lowered feed efficiency, condemnations, culling, and lower quality of the final product. Not all broiler losses can be prevented but they can greatly reduced by following recognized principles of disease prevention and control. The disease problem may be looked upon as a constant struggle between the host and the invading organisms. The flock owner acts as a sort of referee, whose interests and sympathies are entirely with the host but who is too often helpless to do much more than watch a losing battle, while all his profit and some of his capital are hauled away to an incinerator or disposal pit.

If the poultry man is to avoid this unhappy circumstance, he must become, in effect, a health officer for his flock. He must plan and carry out a program of flock management which will turn the tide of battle always, or nearly always, in favor of the host.

There are three distinct approaches to such a program. The first is to adopt strict sanitary and quarantine procedures which will keep host and disease organisms apart. The second general method is to weaken the attacking agent so that it is unable successfully to invade the host and establish itself. The third method of approach is to strengthen the position of the host so that it is better able to withstand the constant onslaught of invading organisms of various kinds. This objective may be partially accomplished through natural means, such as breeding for increased resistance to specific diseases, improved nutrition which helps to insure the physical well-being of the broilers, and provision for clean and comfortable surroundings.

It may also take the form of purely artificial protections, such as vaccination.

In actual practice, all three methods of disease control are used, as well as occasional treatment for specific disease. As a general rule, medicinal treatment is ineffective, and dependence must be placed on other ways in attempting to reduce or prevent mortality.

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Suitable for fattening turkeys • Perfectly dry bedding • Simultaneous watering of 2 and more animals •

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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 8 COMPANY FOCUS Boost breeder performance through automated grading and vaccination......... 12

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DOSSIER Coccidiosis control in broiler breeders with the use of vaccines....................... 14

FOCUS Management best practices: small details can have the biggest impact............ 18

MARKETING The forgotten world: the egg industry in the least developed countries............. 22

TECHNICAL COLUMN

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First week management of turkey poults......................................................... 26

MANAGEMENT Considerations for effective vermin control...................................................... 32 Consequences of outdoor ranging on external and internal health parameters of hens from different rearing enrichments....... 36

NUTRITION Performance, intestinal morphology and antioxidant status of broilers fed oregano essential oil or an organic acid blend........................... 38 The role of dietary calcium in Necrotic Enteritis development and pathogenesis...................................................................... 42

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Effects of supplemental xylanase, cereal grain source, and age on caecal volatile fatty acid concentrations of broilers........................ 44

VETERINARY SCIENCE Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza, a technical update....................................... 46

MARKET GUIDE.................................................................................52 EVENTS.................................................................................................56 INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................56

WORLDWIDE NEWS

In memory of Mr. Camillo Pirovano On Tuesday 27th October 2020, at the age of 92, Mr. Camillo Pirovano, founder of the company AZA INTERNATIONAL S.r.l. and inventor of the cable feeding system, passed away.

Considered one of the forerunners of modern animal husbandry Mr. Pirovano, in 1961, profoundly revolutionized the ‘on farm’ transportation and distribution of feed thanks to the invention of the cable system, which consisted of a steel cable with moulded plastic discs that allowed feed to be transported for distances that were impossible up to then. The system was characterized by an extreme versatility of the routing, noiselessness and reduced dimensions.

Thanks to this idea and the success of the product worldwide, his company, which arose out of nothing in the 1950s, became one of the most influential realities in the modern animal husbandry sector. Camillo Pirovano has always been proud of his invention and has always affirmed: “Following up on my idea, which we immediately patented, of moulding plastic discs onto a steel cable it is rewarding to see how this concept of mine is esteemed and recognised throughout the world. I believe I can look back with satisfaction not only at the constant growth of the company, but also at the large number of imita-

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tions of the AZA cable system which can be seen as confirmation of the appreciation and validity of our product range. When one also takes into account our wide range of accessories, one can expect further affirmation of our standing to take place. Our great commitment in the search for new materials and ideas, our continuous experimentation and updating of our products make me look with confidence to the future and to the presence of my son and my collaborators, who actively contribute to the success of the company.”

Mr. Pirovano initially founded his company in Cernusco Lombardone, in the province of Lecco, and then expanded it in the 1990s to their current larger and more modern headquarters in Medolago in the province of Bergamo.

Over the years, his company has built a vast distribution network on all continents, which has been further strengthened in recent years, especially in emerging countries.

In the 90s, Mr. Camillo Pirovano realized that his cable system could

- worldwide news -

also be used in businesses other than just those of animal husbandry and he projected the company AZA INTERNATIONAL into the industrial sector, using its cable systems not only for the transport of feed, but also for moving industrial powders and granulates. The new business he created, initially called AZA INDUSTRY, grew very quickly thanks to the mechanical and aero-mechanical cable conveyors designed for very high hourly capacities. These systems required ever larger cables and increasingly specifically designed products. The industrial division was separated from the zootechnical side of the business at the end of the 90s, with the birth of the HiWay company, leader today in the automatic transportation of industrial granules and powders.

On the threshold of 2000 the management of the two companies passed into the hands of his son Paolo, who continues his father’s work today with due diligence.

Although retired, Mr. Pirovano never stopped visiting his companies. While devoting himself to his hobbies he was, until recently, seen almost daily passing through the production departments and the offices of his two companies, to make sure that everything was going well and to exchange a few words with his employees.

The two companies created by Camillo Pirovano will certainly have even more room to grow in the future and this fact has always been the satisfaction most dear to him.

WORLDWIDE NEWS

Feed additive promotes safer chicken for consumers Scientists and researchers from the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) have recently found that feeding baby chicks a special diet, rich in dietary supplements, can boost their immune systems when they are most vulnerable.

clear infections and stay healthy, resulting in a safe and wholesome product for the consumer.”

Christi Swaggerty, a food and feed safety research microbiologist at the USDA-ARS Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center in College Station, Texas, working with Italian research partner Vetagro, fed day-old chicks a supplemental diet blend of organic acids and botanicals.

Source: www.usda.gov

!SE W TA E N D

“We know from our previous research that boosting innate immunity helps the baby chicks to fight off important pathogens,” Swaggerty said.

Author: Scott Elliott, Agricultural Research Service Office of Communications in Research and Science.

For example, Salmonella can make baby chicks sick and may even cause their death, but Salmonella is also a leading cause of foodborne illness that makes millions of people sick each year.

Foodborne illness associated with common bacterial pathogens can cost upwards of $5 billion per year, when the lost wages of sick workers are factored in. Chickens that have lower levels of Salmonella will be less likely to pass along the bacteria in products that reach consumers, which will result in fewer cases of foodborne illness in humans.

2021 MIDWEST POULTRY CONVENTION

With rising concerns over antimicrobial resistance, Swaggerty’s team was driven to explore safe, natural alternatives to boost animal health. “Fewer and fewer antibiotics are used in animal agriculture, including poultry production,” she said. “We wanted to determine if a commercially available feed additive can boost the immune response of young chicks so they will be more able to fight off infections while their immune system has time to mature.”

Data suggest that feeding broiler chicks a diet supplemented with a blend of citric and sorbic acids, thymol, and vanillin both primes key immune cells to make them more functionally efficient and act as an immune-modulator to boost the inefficient and undeveloped immune system of young chicks.

“Chickens with an effective innate immune response will be able to quickly and efficiently react to a broad range of foodborne and poultry pathogens allowing them to perform to their potential,” Swaggerty said. “But, more importantly, an effective early response allows the birds to

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

Meat and Poultry Industry Russia 2021 VIV worldwide is pleased to announce upcoming edition of Meat and Poultry Industry Russia 2021, organized by Asti Group and powered by VIV worldwide. inary preparations and feed additives to end consumers.

All of them may get their questions answered right away from meat and poultry producers and suppliers. The exhibition is open to trade visitors, but its main goal is to help the domestic agri-food industry to maintain its vitality, and to gain a strong position in the global meat and poultry market, to set aside outdated schemes in marketing, distribution, promotion, and exchange experience with the best experts of the industry from abroad.

Discover “From Feed to Food” innovations in 20 thematic sections

This major international event covers the complete supply chain from Feed to Food, giving an overview of the Russian market and meat, pig and poultry products, attracting trade buyers from Russia, CIS countries, Middle-East and Europe. The exhibition will be held on May 25-27, 2021, at Crocus Expo Moscow (Russia). The event will once again bring together companies offering innovative solutions for feed milling, hatchery, live production, processing further processing, marketing and other activities joint by “From-Feed-to-Food” motto. Leading industry experts will discuss the most acute topics of agri-food industry development, the implementation of innovations into live production and optimizing processes for handling and logistics in agriculture business.

As always there will be arranged several areas for discussion and education programs - Summit and Seminars halls and a Round Table Area that successfully debuted in 2019.

International format For many years the event has demonstrated an increase in the number of attendees. In 2021 the organizers expect to welcome attendees and exhibitors not only from Russia and Europe, but also from South and North America, Southeast Asia and the Far East region. The event brings together a wide range of industry professionals, from manufacturers of agricultural products, suppliers of veter-

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The exhibition reflects the entire path of the product – right up to the moment it hits the table. The organizers have planned 20 thematic sections instead of the eight presented in previous years. And if some of them are already familiar to exhibitors and visitors, then new ones will become a discovery.

The updated concept of the event helps to uncover even deeper problems of the industry, which often require non-standard, innovative solutions in all sectors.

Hall 8 will have: high-protein feed; animal health and genetics; buildings and supplies; meat and poultry first and second processing equipment; sustainable animal protein production; digitalization and IT solutions for the agri-food complex.

Hall 7 will have: meat and poultry further processing equipment; food ingredients production; weighing systems and packaging equipment; warehousing and shipping/transportation; marketing and promotion; processed, pre-cooked and ready-to-eat food; promoting gastronomy among the nation.

Special Seminars zone within Thematic Pavilion for scientific and legal consultants, economists and financial advisors are being organized.

For more information: Asti Group Tel.: + 7 (495) 797 69 14 Email: info@meatindustry.ru - Website: meatindustry.ru

- worldwide news -

Image: Fotolia - © Minerva Studio

WORLDWIDE NEWS

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COMPANY NEWS

In Racedo’s industrial area, the Motta Group will establish the Calisa2 greenfield processing plant like an oasis, surrounded by planted trees

Calisa2 poultry processing plant is like an oasis Argentinian Motta Group wants to conquer shelves abroad with the Calisa brand.

The Motta Group, one of Argentina’s leading poultry companies, is investing more than 22 million dollars in the expansion and modernization of its processing operations. The Calisa2 greenfield project in Racedo is key to the Argentinian and South American poultry market. It will be like a production oasis, starting at 9,500 bph (158 bpm) and fully prepared for 15,000 bph (250 bpm) within two years.

Augusto Motta, son of founder Héctor Motta, explains, “Our existing plant no longer had any more options to grow. Furthermore, we wanted to separate the processing of broilers and layers. Our completely new Calisa2 plant is fully dedicated to broiler processing. It will allow us to increase production more than fourfold.

We therefore decided to install the whole Marel package, with full state-of-the-art technology.”

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State-of-the-art Marel is to supply the entire processing line from primary through secondary processing to batching and packing. With special emphasis on product presentation, the Motta Group focuses on accurate scalding, plucking and in-line tenderness processes. Marel’s solutions meet these needs in full. Calisa2 is making use of the latest Marel technologies for evisceration and giblet harvesting.

This is particularly important, as most Calisa whole birds are sold complete, stuffed with giblets packed in a bag.

Further Marel solutions can be found in the secondary process, such as SmartWeigher and IRIS weighing and grading devices, ACM-NT cut-up system, FHF-XB breast filleting and SensorX X-ray inspection. Up to batching, packing and palletizing products, Marel is involved. “All these Marel systems will help us manage future growth

- company news -

COMPANY NEWS

and maintain the highest standards of product presentation and taste.”

Big ambitions Today, Calisa1’s production is 2 million birds per month.

Calisa2 will increase this figure to 8 million. 60% of the products are produced for the domestic market and 40% for export to more than 20 countries in Latin America, Europe and Asia. Augusto Motta continues, “We already supply important supermarket chains such as Dia and quick service chains such as Burger King, Mostaza and Subway. With Calisa2, one of our most important challenges is to reach shelves abroad with our own brand and packaging. We have big ambitions to continue exporting to Canada, Africa, the Middle-East, China and also reach new markets.”

Sustainability Sustainability is a valuable asset for the Motta Group.

Augusto Motta says, “We are going to reduce our environmental impact. With the 26,656 poplars and pines to be planted on 34 hectares. We will create a natural lung in the town of Racedo. We will even generate a positive carbon footprint. We will use treated waste water for irrigating the trees in this project.” The Motta Group also commits itself to strict rules on food safety, biosecurity and animal welfare.

For more information: marel.com/poultry - calisa.com.ar

Latest Aviagen briefs on Coccidiosis Control in Broiler Breeders and Broilers available now • Effective brooding practices for achieving early immunity.

• Successful vaccine cycling.

Jose Bruzual explains: “Correct management and administration of vaccines, followed by adequate brooding practices, are key to effectively developing early chick immunity and strengthening the intestinal health of the flock.”

You can download your copy here:

Aviagen® has just released two Briefs entitled “Coccidiosis Control in Broiler Breeders with the use of Vaccines” and “Coccidiosis Control in Broilers with the use of Vaccines”.

These documents were written by Jose J. Bruzual, Senior Poultry Veterinarian, and Zoltan Marton, Regional Technical Veterinarian with the Global Veterinary Team. They provide production managers with a solid understanding of the process required for chicks to develop uniform immunity to coccidia through the use of coccidiosis vaccines. The information guides the reader through: • Proper vaccine handling, storage and administration.

• Broiler Document Cocci: eu.aviagen.com/assets/ Tech_Center/Broiler_Breeder_Tech_Articles/English/ AviagenBrief-Coccdiosis-Control-In-Broilers-2020-EN. pdf • Breeder Document Cocci: eu.aviagen.com/assets/ Tech_Center/Broiler_Breeder_Tech_Articles/English/ AviagenBrief-CoccidiosisControl-in-BroilerBreeders2020-EN.pdf In this number of Zootecnica International you can find the presentation of the Coccidiosis Control in Broiler Breeders with the use of Vaccines.

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COMPANY NEWS

New FlexBin – Light weight easy to handle synthetic hopper VDL Agrotech has developed a synthetic hopper - FlexBin - for the Valenta pan feeding system. The FlexBin only weighs 4.5 kg, making it a very easy to handle hopper.

Advantages of the FlexBin are: • Easy to handle synthetic funnel.

• Weighs only 4.9 kg (compared to 14.1 kg of the steel hopper).

• The contour of the feed is clearly visible in the FlexBin.

Optional accessories FlexBin: • Agitator for intake hopper, sometimes required to prevent feed from bridging.

• Stainless steel shielding grid with quick release

The FlexBin offers more advantages:

• Galvanized cover with handles.

• The 160 L impact resistant synthetic (HDPE) funnel can be removed directly with a bayonet fitting.

• Connection set to mount drop pipe to FlexBin.

• Solid corrosion resistant feed intake hopper with rigid galvanized intake tube for the end bearing and the feed line connection.

• Markings on the intake hopper where the hopper sensor should be placed.

The FlexBin (160 L) is available with a single and double outlet.

The FlexBin with both the single and double outlet has been extensively field tested at poultry farms in combination with the Valenta pan feed line. The maneuverability and low weight of the FlexBin are highly appreciated. The FlexBin is easy to handle. The fact that the contour of the feed is clearly visible in the transparent FlexBin is also considered a major advantage. The overall conclusion of the farmers was a very satisfactory performance of the FlexBin.

The FlexBin comes standard with: • Galvanized platform.

• Floor support for the single and double outlet.

• Height adjusters, allow easy adjustment of the winch heights.

• Mounting profile at the top of the funnel for fixation of the supply auger drop pipe and for easily lifting the FlexBin. • Stainless steel insert grid ø300mm to filter out large foreign particles.

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- company news -

For more information: www.vdlagrotech.nl

COMPANY NEWS

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COMPANY FOCUS

Boost breeder performance through automated grading and vaccination Agri Advanced Technologies has developed the Grady 3000, a broiler breeder grading machine to make the grading process more efficient. The vaccination procedure can also be combined meaning less stress on the birds.

Quick and easy to set, 2 persons for bird gathering, 2 persons for hanging, 2 persons for vaccinating.

Photo: Agri Advanced Technologies

Within breeder birds, there is always a natural variation of bodyweight, even at day-old.

Usually it should be quite low variation at placement (bird quality). When the birds grow, the variation within a flock will increase further due to the different responses of individual birds to factors such as vaccination, disease, differing competitiveness for food, etc. This increased variation reduces overall flock performance and makes flock management much more difficult.

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COMPANY FOCUS

Flock uniformity Every rearing manager knows that a uniform flock is much easier to manage than a variable one. Birds in similar physiological state will respond more uniform to management factors, and will be facing less competition – that is positive for the welfare of the individual bird and the flock. The purpose of grading, therefore, is to sort the flock into 2 or 3 sub-populations of different average weights (physiological state) so that each group can be managed in a way that will result in good whole flock uniformity at the point of lay.

In all breeder handbooks from the breeding companies it is recommended to do grading between 23 and 28 days of age, if you only do one grading. In the European and North American market, grading is not yet very common, because there is not enough labour available to this work.

Other markets like Latin America frequently grade their flocks (up to 5 times during the rearing period) with very good results in uniformity (>85%). It is well known in the business that grading has an effect on the uniformity and the performance. Hence labour should no longer be the limited reason not to do this work.

they only need to be handled once. With this machine the flock manager has the opportunity to grade flocks between 300g (0.66 lbs) and 2.5 kg (5.5 lbs), that means birds from 24 days of age until the end of the rearing period can be graded with the Grady 3000. The flocks can be automatically sorted into 2 or 3 subpopulations, depending on the current flock uniformity.

“Doing the vaccination together with grading gives us a huge advantage during rearing, resulting in enhanced uniformity. As welfare is of utmost importance, handling the birds only once is also a major benefit. Of course our work force utilisation benefits too,” states Csaba Ferenczi, Production Manager, Aviagen KFT.

Vaccination – www.agri-at.com/en/products/grady-3000

Great results in practice

SET up and Grading – www.agri-at.com/en/products/grady-3000

Automated grading process Agri Advanced Technologies GmbH has therefore developed the Grady 3000, a broiler breeder grading machine to make the grading process more efficient by automating the process. Only 4 people are needed to grade up to 3,000 birds per hour. Besides grading it is also possible to combine the process together with a vaccination procedure meaning much less stress for the birds because

Aviagen KFT bought the first machine in autumn 2018 and they have four Grady 3000 in operation today. “At first, we were a bit sceptical whether this equipment really could support our rearing programme as we already had good uniformity results and we were in a fortunate position to have enough people for the work. But after we evaluated the machine in our operation we immediately saw the benefits and our staff immediately adapted to the way of working with the machine. What is important to know is that the machine is only a tool; you need to learn how to work with it and how to manage graded flocks.

Grading only, with or without the Grady 3000, does not give you better rearing results on its own.”

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For more information: www.agri-at.com

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DOSSIER

Coccidiosis control in broiler breeders with the use of vaccines Coccidiosis is a disease of the intestinal lining, produced by the invasion of the mucosal cells by a very prolific protozoan parasite of the genus Eimeria. ials [NIA]). Today, however, more than 70% of breeder flocks globally are vaccinated at the hatchery. Coccidiosis vaccines are commonly used if they are available. The successful use of coccidiosis vaccines involves: • Proper handling, storing and administering the vaccine.

• Effective brooding practices.

• Successful vaccine cycling or recycling.

Vaccine handling, storage and administration Most vaccines are based on suspensions of live (viable) sporulated oocysts. They vary in the content of coccidia species, the number of oocysts, and strain pathogenicity. Coccidiosis vaccines can be originated from attenuated and non-attenuated strains.

The best place for coccidiosis vaccination is at the hatchery, where conditions are ideal for mass application, and there is usually better control over vaccination preparation and mixing.

When using a coccidiosis vaccine: This invasion results in the interruption of feeding and digestive processes involved in nutrient absorption. Coccidiosis control with the use of vaccines is achievable. The proper application and management of coccidiosis vaccines will protect against coccidiosis outbreaks and avoid concerns with performance, bird welfare and financial losses.

Clinical coccidiosis in breeders can be prevented by using anticoccidials in the feed (ionophores and non-ionophore anticoccid-

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- dossier -

• Never freeze coccidiosis vaccines because they contain live oocysts.

• Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for mixing the vaccine with a diluent.

• Ensure a uniform distribution of the vaccine via spray cabinet mist or gel droplets and ensure equal exposure of all chicks to live oocysts (use a dye if necessary).

• Provide birds with enough time and light intensity after vaccination in the hatchery to allow for preening.

DOSSIER

• Keep chicks comfortable in terms of temperature and relative humidity after vaccination.

• Allow chicks to dry and avoid exposing them to high airspeeds or drafts.

Ventilation Systems

There may be situations where coccidiosis vaccine application on the farm should be considered as either the only vaccine applied or as a revaccination. Vaccination on the farm can occur when vaccines cannot be administered at the hatchery or as a choice made by the customer for a better “take” on a particular species. On the farm, revaccination has been used to ensure adequate/uniform vaccine coverage and early oocyst cycling.

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A climate control system in a league of its own!

There are different commercially available vaccines for use in breeders. Most commercial vaccines available for breeder pullets include E. acervulina, E. tenella, E. necatrix, E. maxima, E. mitis, and E. praecox, or a combination of selected species.

Brooding practices When using a coccidiosis vaccine, achieving early and uniform immunity (within the first 3-4 weeks of a chick’s life) is essential for ensuring long-lasting protection. The development of immunity to coccidia requires several consecutive cycles or passes through the bird in the field.

The first exposure to the coccidia parasite occurs during vaccination, and the rest of the cycling process continues on the farm. Each cycle requires the ingestion of sporulated oocysts by the bird. The parasite invades and multiplies within the intestinal cells several times, and the cycle ends with the shedding of the unsporulated oocysts in the feces. Then, under the right conditions (oxygen, litter temperature of 26-30 °C (79-86 °F), and litter moisture of 25-35%), the oocysts sporulate in the litter, ready to repeat the cycle. Immature oocysts shed by the bird remain dormant in the litter until specific conditions allow their sporulation.

Several situations should be carefully managed during brooding to ensure full immunity can develop: • Managing the litter moisture and temperature requires close attention and is essential to the proper development of immunity to coccidia. Managing stocking density during the first three to four weeks is an excellent way to influence litter humidity and temperature for optimal intestinal development, coccidia sporulation and cycling. Brooding rings,

INNOVATION IN VENTILATION

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DOSSIER

brooding areas or partitions, particularly for breeders, are excellent ways to control the stocking density, feeder and drinker space.

• It is important not to release chicks too soon into areas where coccidia oocysts have not been shed, which can compromise the recycling and uniformity of the process and development of immunity.

• If covering the brooding area with paper and subsequently removing it, be sure to remove the paper before the chicks start shedding the vaccine oocysts (this usually starts five days after vaccination). Removing the paper later than day four after vaccination might reduce proper exposure to the vaccine oocysts shed by the birds and limit the cycling necessary for immunity.

Vaccine cycling/recycling It is essential to remember that coccidia must cycle in the bird 3-4 consecutive times for full immunity to develop.

The length and number of cycles depend on the Eimeria species infecting the chicken. In general, the Eimeria species cycle is between 5 and 7 days. Disruption in going from the first cycle to the second will cause some birds to start building immunity, while others remain naive to coccidia.

Poor uniformity of immunity increases the risk of coccidiosis outbreaks due to high numbers of oocysts infecting a naive population of chicks. The consequences of these outbreaks are significant; treatment with anticoccidials may be required; bird welfare and performance will be adversely impacted, leading to financial losses. Always contact your veterinarian to discuss any treatment if needed.

Early recycling of the Eimeria vaccine in the chick after vaccination.

• Excessively dry litter conditions prevent the sporulation of oocysts.

• Extremely wet litter conditions increase sporulation, which can lead to an excess of sporulated oocysts and lesions that resemble a coccidiosis outbreak.

Evaluate proper cycling in the field between 7 and 28 days with: • Necropsy observations of chickens in the field (avoid choosing sick birds).

Other conditions that disrupt uniform immunity:

• Collecting feces samples for oocysts counts (per gram of feces) by laboratory analysis to evaluate if cycling/replication occurs or if a problem with vaccine application exists.

• Disease challenges such as Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD), Marek’s and Chicken Anemia Virus (CAV) cause immunosuppression and result in excessive replication of the coccidia that may lead to coccidiosis breaks later in life.

• In antibiotic-free (ABF) or No Antibiotics Ever (NAE) production programs, the use of phytogenics, botanicals or plant extracts in the feed or water might be helpful in conjunction with the coccidiosis vaccine to try and modulate the cycling of the vaccine.

• Situations that lead to immunosuppression including stress, mycotoxins, cold brooding temperature, lack of feeder space, or marginal nutrition.

In conclusion, optimal management practices during the first 3-4 weeks of age after coccidiosis vaccination are essential to complement a good vaccine application in order to provide the best conditions for the coccidia to cycle and achieve long-lasting immunity against coccidia species.

• Supplements with anticoccidial properties given to chickens can impact the vaccine cycling and development of immunity.

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- dossier -

DOSSIER

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FOCUS

Management best practices: small details can have the biggest impact

Peter Gruhl Director, Global Customer Services & Support Hybrid Turkeys

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Raising turkeys is equal parts science and art. It involves precise measurement of various factors throughout the life of the flock. It also requires that farmers be able to look and listen to their flocks and sense when something is just…“not right”. On the scientific side, decades of experience show that adjusting the small details and investing time and effort at the beginning of life can have the biggest impact on total performance. What are these small details and how can you address them in your operation?

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FOCUS

Getting off to a good start Final flock performance can be influenced early in the production cycle.

It is important to get poults off to a good start, which includes maintaining the right environmental conditions, optimal health and nutrition.

Whether you have the most innovative and up-to-date equipment or have an older facility, a good start will set your flock up for success and requires investing time and attention into this key period. Small details during this time, that can make a world of difference, include temperature, gas and feed management.

Temperature management Before poults arrive, Hybrid recommends pre-heating the barn for 2448 hours before placement or up to 72 hours during extreme cold.

Optimal floor temperatures should be 32-35 °C (90-95 °F) across the feed and water space. The small detail that can make a huge impact is where you measure this temperature. If you measure temperature at standing height you are not gaining a very good indication of what the poults will feel. Hybrid recommends

testing temperature during brooding at bird-height or to test litter temperature to gain a better understanding.

When checking litter temperature, you should measure not only the surface temperature, but also the lower layer to evaluate if your pre-heating efforts will pay off when the poults arrive. You can check that the heat is built into the litter by measuring the top of the litter surface then push away about 2 cm of the litter and measure the lower layer. There should only be a 0.5 °C (1 °F) dif-

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ference between the top and lower layer. This is important as when the birds arrive the litter will be pushed around, and you want to ensure consistent temperature to keep the poults comfortable.

Since poults are not able to regulate their internal temperature during the first days of life, it is very important to ensure their environment is warm enough to provide comfort for them to move around and find feed and water. As mentioned above, the brooding environment should have

19

FOCUS

Hybrid performance guidelines and those flocks that were delayed feed by 1 day were below the guidelines, thus setting a delayed foundation for growth. The trial also found that 7-day mortality can increase up to 1% in flocks not on feed right away.

Bird comfort and access to feed can have a big impact on a flock’s ability to perform. Therefore, keen attention to temperature, gases and ensuring access to feed right away sets a strong foundation for success.

Water sanitation

an even distribution of floor temperatures ranging from 90-95 °F (32-35 °C), with an optimal target of 93-94 °F (34-34.5 °C) across the feed and water space. The images below showcase applicable ranges of temperature whether using whole room or ring brooding set ups.

Gases Another check to perform, before and after the birds arrive, is to test the levels of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide should be maintained under 2,500 ppm and carbon monoxide should be less than 20 ppm. Similar to temperature measurement, be sure to take your readings at bird level. If these levels are out of the correct range, check that the barn is properly ventilated with no unplanned openings and that airflow is travelling across the barn, and mixing the incoming air to condition it, rather than dropping outside air onto the birds. Proper un-

20

derstanding and control of gases in the environment can help minimize mortality or health issues, such as roundheart, and help to ensure the overall comfort of the birds.

Importance of feed Regardless of your farm set up, level of production or breed, it is of utmost importance to get birds eating and drinking right away. Delayed access to feed and water can have adverse effects and compromise the bird’s potential to grow and thrive. The best way to do this is to ensure they provided a comfortable environment, as mentioned above, and that you make the feed and water attractive.

A recent trial, by Hybrid Turkeys, evaluating the effect of getting on feed day one versus day 2 found that differences in average flock weight are evident as soon as 7 days. The trial results showed that flocks on feed day 1 were above the 170 gram

- focus -

Clean sanitized water is one of the most critical, but unfortunately often overlooked, elements in allowing a flock to perform to its full potential.

Clean water reduces stress on the animals and helps to prevent common health issues such as Bordetella, E. coli, and Salmonella.

The three most common sanitation systems are chlorine dioxide, chlorine with acidification and hydrogen peroxide. Each have their own positive and negative aspects.

To make sure the sanitizer is working properly, it is recommended to take water samples routinely (at least once per week). Simply go to the end of your line and get a clean, non-contaminated water sample with your sanitizer present in the water system.

Biosecurity & health Biosecurity is the planned, methodical approach to securing your farm as safe and disease-free. A crucial component of any biosecurity program is risk management. This means that by identifying and ana-

FOCUS

“Controlling the spread of pathogens outside the barns is your first line of defence in biosecurity. This includes visitor and traffic protocol as well as control of insects, rodents, and wild birds”

lyzing the risks, you will be equipped to take action, monitor the results, and control the risk. There are a few key areas to keep in mind when developing your biosecurity plan.

Controlling the spread of pathogens outside the barns is your first line of defence in biosecurity. This includes visitor and traffic protocol as well as control of insects,

rodents, and wild birds. To control potential carriers of pathogens such as insects, rodents, and wild birds, one common theme is to keep the area around the barns clean of debris or spilled feed. The farm site should also have good water drainage, and barns should be well-ventilated with no pathways for rodents or birds to get into.

Within the farm, it is important to minimize the spread of pathogens. This includes set up of a proper barn entry system with separate personnel clothing. Once inside the barns, cleaning and disinfection will stop the spread of pathogens between flocks.

Conclusion Keen attention to these key areas of focus will help turkey producers reach a new level of success in performance.

Careful focus and investing in your flock at the beginning will lead to better turkeys, better results, better economics, and piece of mind that producers are doing the best they can.

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- february 2021 -

21

©Ratthakorn Komol

MARKETING

The forgotten world: the egg industry in the least developed countries Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is scientific director of the WING at the Hannover Veterinary University and Prof. emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany

22

Analyses dealing with the dynamics and patterns of the global egg industry mostly ignore the least developed countries (LLDC). In this paper, their role in the global egg industry will be documented.

Analyses dealing with the dynamics and patterns of the global egg industry mostly focus on the leading countries. This is also the case for many papers of this author. When preparing a detailed analysis dealing with the role of the threshold countries in the global egg industry,

- marketing -

MARKETING

I realized that the least developed countries (LLDC)1 were ignored. That was the reason for dealing with this group of countries in more detail.

Wide gap between their share in the global population and in egg production In 2018, 31 of the 46 LLDC were located in Africa, nine in Asia and 5 in Oceania. They had a population of 1 billion inhabitants, a share of 13.2% in the global population. The countries had a laying hen inventory of 480.4 mill. birds and they produced 1.9 mill. t of eggs (Table 1). The imbalance between population and egg production is obvious.

Table 1 – The share of the LLDC in the global population, the laying hen inventory and in egg production in 2018 (source: FAO database).

Region

Population (mill.)

Share (%)

Laying hens (mill.)

Share (%)

Egg production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

LLDC

1,009.7

13.2

480.4

6.4

1,926.4

2.5

World

7,631.1

100.0

7,466.5

100.0

76,694.8

100.0

When dealing with the situation at continent level, the wide difference between their share in population, laying hen inventory and egg production becomes obvious (Table 2). The highest share in the population reached the LLDC in Africa, followed Asia, Oceania and the Americas. This ranking was the same in their share in the laying hen inventories and in egg production. In Africa, the LLDC contributed 30.2% to the laying hen inventory and 21.1% to egg production. In Asia, too, their share in egg production was much lower than in the continent’s population. The gap was even wider in Oceania and Haiti, the only LLDC in the Americas.

Table 2 – The share of the LLDC in the population, the laying hen inventory and in egg production of the respective continents in 2018 (source: own calculations based on FAO data).

Population (mill.)

Share (%)

Africa

650.7

Asia

332.2

Oceania America

Continent

Laying hens (mill.)

Share (%)

Egg production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

51.0

156.7

7.3

322.6

30.2

655.1

21.1

6.7

1,268.2

1.9

4.6

2.8

0.6

2.6

2.6

11.1

1.1

0.8

0.5

0.1

0.5

< 0.1

A comparison of the share in the laying hen inventories and in egg production reveals the low efficiency in laying hen husbandry in the LLDC in relation to the industrialised and threshold countries. Local breeds, less quality feed and the lack of veterinary services are the main reasons for the low efficiency. In many countries small backyard flocks are dominating. In Asia, these small farms are a continuous threat regarding the introduction and dissemination of the Avian Influenza virus. It can be assumed, however, that the available inventory and production data is too low and is not necessarily an indicator of an insufficient availability of eggs for the rural population. In many small

farms, laying hens are double purpose hens as they are kept for egg production and as a meat source.

High regional concentration in laying hen husbandry One has to go down to the country level to get an impression of the uneven distribution of the laying hen inventories. Between 2008 and 2018, the laying hen inventories of the LLDC increased by 157.8 mill. birds or 48.9% (Table 3). To this growth, the ten leading countries contributed 139.8 mill. hens. The highest absolute increase showed Bangladesh with 81.5 mill. birds (+70.3%) and Myanmar with 35.9 mill (+73.6%).

High absolute growth rates were also to be found in Nepal (+7.3 mill.) and Mozambique (+6.1 mill.). Bangladesh and Myanmar together contributed 84.0% to the overall growth of the laying hen inventories in the LLDC in the analysed decade.

The high degree of the regional concentration is worth noting. It increased from 77.2% to 81.0%. The two leading countries, Bangladesh and Myanmar were in a dominating position. Their contribution to the inventories of the LLDC grew from 51.1% to 58.7%. The following paragraph will show that in both countries egg production increased faster than the inventories, an indicator of the growing efficiency of the egg industry.

High regional concentration also in egg production Table 4 lists the ten leading LLDC in egg production in 2008 and 2018.

In egg production, the regional con-

1 A list of the LLDC is available from: www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL.

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23

©100noticias

MARKETING

“Between 2008 and 2018, egg production in the LLDC increased by 878,000 t or 77.0%.

To this growth, the two leading countries contributed 626,300 t or 74.8%”

Table 3 – The ten LLDC with the highest laying hen inventories in 2008 and 2018 (source: FAO database).

2018

2008 Laying hens (mill.)

Share (%)

Bangladesh

116.0

36.0

Bangladesh

197.5

41.1

Myanmar

48.8

19.1

Myanmar

84.7

17.6

Burkina Faso

15.0

4.6

Burkina Faso

17.7

3.7

Tanzania

12.8

4.0

Benin

17.2

3.6

Benin

12.5

3.9

Tanzania

16.2

3.4

Zambia

9.5

2.9

Nepal

12.5

2.6

Afghanistan

9.1

2.8

Ethiopia

11.3

2.4

Ethiopia

8.8

2.7

Zambia

11.2

2.3

Country

Country

Laying hens (mill.)

Share (%)

Senegal

8.5

2.6

Afghanistan

10.7

2.1

Yemen

8.2

2.5

Mozambique

10.0

2.1

10 countries

249.2

*77.2

10 countries

389.0

81.0

LLDC total

322.6

100.0

LLDC total

480.4

100.0

*sum does not add because of rounding

24

- marketing -

centration also increased. A comparison of the composition and ranking of the countries reveals several notable patterns and changes.

Myanmar ranked in first place before Bangladesh despite the much lower number of laying hens, followed

by Tanzania and Nepal. These two countries could also increase their production volume considerably.

While Myanmar’s share in the total production volume of the LLDC increased by only 5.7%, Bangladesh gained 8.8%. In both countries, the efficiency of egg production grew considerably.

MARKETING

Table 4 – The ten LLDC with the highest egg production in 2008 and 2018 (source: FAO database).

2018

2008 Country

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

Country

Myanmar

263.4

24.2

Myanmar

576.0

29.9

Bangladesh

186.0

17.1

Bangladesh

499.7

25.9

Tanzania

85.2

7.8

Tanzania

108.7

5.6

Yemen

56.4

5.2

Nepal

74.9

3.9

Burkina Faso

52.5

4.8

Sudan

65.0

3.4

Zambia

42.8

3.9

Burkina Faso

60.6

3.1

Ethiopia

38.5

3.5

Yemen

55.6

2.9

Senegal

36.6

3.4

Zambia

52.6

2.7

Sudan

32.0

2.9

Ethiopia

52.2

2.7

Nepal

30.9

2.8

Mozambique

50.0

2.6

824.3

*75.7

10 countries

1,593.3

*82.8

1,088.6

100.0

LLDC total

1,926.4

100.0

10 countries LLDC total

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

*sum does not add because of rounding

Between 2008 and 2018, egg production in the LLDC increased by 878,000 t or 77.0%. To this growth, the two leading countries contributed 626,300 t or 74.8%. In both countries, the absolute increase was very similar, but the laying hen inventory in Myanmar grew by only 35.9 mill. hens compared to 81.5 mill. in Bangladesh. Obviously, the efficiency of egg production in Myanmar was higher than in Bangladesh. Capital investments of Thailand’s CP Table 5 – Laying hens per inhabitant in selected countries in 2018 (source: own calculations based on FAO data).

Country/continent

Laying hen per inhabitant

Tanzania

0.29

Nepal

0.46

Bangladesh

1.27

Myanmar

1.57

Germany

0.62

Netherlands

2.59

Africa

0.40

Asia

1.06

Europe

1.37

World

0.98

group and the use of hybrid hens were the main steering factors behind the difference in the dynamics.

The regional concentration in egg production was similar to that in the laying hen inventories. In 2008, the two leading countries shared 41.3% in the overall egg production of the LLDC; in 2018, it was already 55.8%, a result of the remarkable dynamics in Myanmar, Bangladesh and Nepal.

Hens per inhabitant – a measure for the selfsufficiency with eggs?

Hardly any data on the per capita consumption of eggs is available for the LLDC, so it is almost impossible to calculate the self-sufficiency rate.

One can try to estimate it by calculating the number of laying hens per inhabitant (Table 5). It has to be considered, however, that also hardly any data is published for the laying rates of the hens in these countries.

Assuming that in Tanzania a laying hen in a backyard flock would lay

- february 2021 -

120 eggs per year would mean that an average of 35 eggs would be available per person and year. The fast increase of egg production in Myanmar and Bangladesh (see Table 4) is a result of the high number of hens per inhabitant. A comparison at continent level reveals that Africa with only 0.4 hens per person ranks far behind Asia and Europe. This documents the problem of supplying the population in Africa with valuable animal proteins.

A comparison of the data for Germany and the Netherlands shows the extremely high self-sufficiency of the Netherlands and explains why they are the leading egg exporting country worldwide. Even with a laying rate of 290 eggs per hen, Germany had to import large amounts of eggs because of a per capita consumption of 235 eggs/year. In Europe as a whole, the egg industry produces a surplus and permits exports. At the global scale, the relation between production and consumption seems to be balanced. A detailed analysis at country level would show that the self-sufficiency rate differs considerably. The gap between the Netherlands and the Central African Republic, to mention two extreme positions, is incredibly wide.

Data source and additional literature FAO database: www.faostat.org.

Windhorst, H.-W.: Emerging Markets Countries. Dynamics and Patterns of the Egg Industry. (= WING – Beiträge zur Geflügelwirtschaft 23). Vechta 2020. (https://wing.tiho-hannover.de/pdf_files/wing-beitraege-heft-23_860_1.pdf).

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TECHNICAL COLUMN

First week management of turkey poults In commercial turkey production we aim to replicate and improve on what a mother turkey supplies to her young in the wild, this includes heat, light, food, water, fresh air, security and comfort.

©Nolangroup

House preparation

The importance of providing optimal brooding conditions is highlighted by its influence on post-hatch gut development, which if impaired during the first two weeks of life, can permanently limit the absorptive capacity of the gut.

Aviagen Turkeys Ltd.

26

The first few hours and days of a turkey poult are therefore the most significant period of its life and have a long-term influence on its capacity to fulfill its maximum health, welfare, growth and economic potential, evidence of which can be seen in the commercial world as increased egg and meat production. This stage of the bird’s life if well managed with attention to detail, will be time and effort well spent.

- technical column -

Preparing a house for a new flock of turkeys starts as soon as the last one has depleted. Remove the old litter then wash down and disinfect using a well-managed professional cleaning team. All chemicals should be approved diluted and handled in accordance with the manufactures instructions.

Washing of the house and equipment must be carried out thoroughly as any remaining organic matter has a major negative impact on disinfectant performance. After disinfecting and before new litter has been placed, the houses should have environmental swabs taken and visual inspections made to ensure good quality cleaning is maintained, in order to reduce the risk of pathogen challenges from one flock of birds to the next.

All foot dips/disinfectant mats and biosecurity measures should now be re-introduced to maintain a “clean” pathogen free environment within the houses. Water lines/header tanks should be drained and cleaned using an approved cleaning product such as a peracetic acid based product. At this point any maintenance or servicing to the house or equipment should be carried out.

Fresh high quality litter should now be laid on dry floors at a depth of a minimum of 7 cm in Spring/Summer and 10 cm in Autumn/Winter. This depth of bedding stops the poult from the chilling effect of the cool concrete floor beneath, so maintaining a warm thermal comfort for the poult. Hard wood or wet sawdust should not be used. It may be necessary to apply a secondary disinfectant via a thermal fogging application after the bedding has been spread and the

TECHNICAL COLUMN

house prepared for poult arrival this will depend on recent health status, age and condition of the houses.

House set-up There are two ways to set up a house ready for day old poults 1; Spot brooding (Figure 1), where the poults are kept in rings for up to 5-7 days (commonly used for rearing breeding stock poults) or 2; Whole House brooding (Figure 4), where poults are allowed a much larger area to spread, with nearly all or all of the floor space utilised for brooding which is commonly used for commercial poult rearing. As for both systems the references laid out in this article are all equally important but the larger the brooding area the greater the pressure on the poults immediate environment (temperature, light, ventilation, feed and water). For this reason Aviagen Turkeys Ltd would advise smaller brooding flock sizes, if practical and economic.

Spot brooding:

Figure 1 – Brooding set-up.

The ring size depends on the heat output of the brooder but in general the ring needs to be approx. 4 m in diameter with a brooder that delivers a temperature range of 40 °C degrees in the middle and 28 °C at the edge (Figure 2). To achieve these temperatures the brooder can be raised or lowered accordingly. The surround can be of a solid material such as cardboard which is generally used in cooler countries or a mesh that is used in warmer climates. Height of the surround should be 45 cm.

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- february 2021 -

27

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Poults have access to a large area of floor space, therefore feed and water points need to be evenly placed across the floor area at the correct height. This usually means the permanent feeders and drinkers are positioned in lines the length of the house with supplementary feeders and drinkers in between, this ensures poults have minimum distance to travel to locate feed and water.

As with spot brooding there should be a minimum of two feeders and drinkers to every 100 poults of which 50% can be supplementary.

Feed presentation

Figure 2 – Brooder temperature.

The fewer poults in a ring and the less competition between poults will increase the chance of a good start. As a general rule, each ring should contain no more than 270 male poults or 290 female poults.

Within the ring there should be at least two feeding and drinking points per 100 poults, 50% of each can be of a supplementary type. Supplementary feeders can consist of a cardboard egg tray, plastic or cardboard tray.

Figure 3 – Examples of supplementary feeding equipment.

Whole house brooding

Figure 4 – Whole house brooding.

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Feed intake in the brooding period is vital in terms of attainment of bodyweight targets. It is vital in either brooding systems that the starter feed is provided as either a sieved crumb or a mini pellet, both should be presentable to the poult with minimal levels of fine material (<10%). Aviagen Turkeys have a specialised feed sieve to help monitor the presentation of feed.

Further information regarding the feed sieve can be found at: www.aviagenturkeys.com.

Placing poults Poults should be placed into a comfortable warm environment, pre-heat the house 24-72hrs prior to placement of poults. The surface of the bedding which the poult comes into contact with needs to be a minimum of 28 °C and ideally 30 °C before placement; this can be checked with an infrared thermometer. Attaining the correct brooding house temperature at placement is critical in the case of whole house brooding and extra preheating may be required to achieve this. Minimum ventilation and recirculation fans if available should be started 24hrs before placement to achieve an even temperature across the house. Prior to placing poults take a CO2 reading at floor level and in the case of spot brooding inside the brooding ring. This reading must be under 2500ppm if not increase the minimum ventilation until the required reading is achieved. Placing poults at CO2 levels above 2500ppm may result in reduced poult activity, feed intake and have a negative impact on health and bird performance. The house should be inspected well before poults arrive to make sure the environment; temperatures, water, feed and light (minimum 80 Lux) is adequate.

Transferring poults from the delivery vehicle into the

- technical column -

TECHNICAL COLUMN

house by trollies or personnel carrying the boxes can be a critical biosecurity risk. If trollies are used the delivery vehicle needs to be as close to the entry doors of the house as possible. Before entry into the house the wheels of the trolley need to be disinfected. During poult placement, separation of the dirty zone from the clean zone must be maintained at all times. Personnel transferring boxes from the vehicle to the house must remain in this ‘dirty zone’. Boxes should be transferred by personnel at the doorway who are dedicated to staying within the house and they must remain in this ‘clean zone’ for the entire duration of the placement. Personnel in the dirty zone must not enter the clean zone. When the poults arrive, do not delay placing them as this will increase the risk of dehydration.

and to find feed and water without other distractions including unnecessary noise. After this time poults should be inspected every 2 hours checking the “spread” of the poults across the brooding ring or the floor on whole house brooding. Adjust the temperature on the basis of the poult spread and only use temperature charts as a guide (Figure 5 & Table 1).

The delivery vehicle should be unloaded as quickly as possible to prevent the poults from becoming chilled and to reduce unnecessary heat loss from the house. If spot brooding, do not place the boxes inside the ring as this may lead to overheating of the poults, place boxes outside all the rings before placing and check numbers are correct. For whole house brooding, count the number of boxes on the trollies as they enter the house. If the poults have been sexed at the hatchery ensure the boxes have been checked before releasing them to guarantee the correct sex is placed in the correct area of the house.

The poults can now be quickly, gently and quietly released from the boxes into the brooding area close to feed and water. Whilst placing the poults any dead on arrival should be noted. The poults should be alert, lively and looking for feed and water. After placing the poults, they should be left alone for 60 minutes to settle down,

Figure 5 – Poult distribution in brooder surrounds.

Feed and water must be replenished routinely and kept clean and free from faeces. A little and often approach when it comes to adding feed/water encourages poults to

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29

TECHNICAL COLUMN

KEEP UP ON

Table 1 – Target environmental temperatures.

TRENDS AND CHALLENGES of poultry industry with

Age

Sex

Under the Brooder °C

Day 1

M+F

40

36-37

Day 2

M+F

40

35-36

39-40

34-35

38-40

Decrease 1 °C per day

Day 3

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Ambient Temperature °C

Day 4 to 7

M+F

Week 2

M+F

27-28

27-28

Week 3

M+F

25-26

25-26

Week 4

M+F

23-24

23-24

Week 5

M+F

21-22

21-22

Week 6

M+F

20-21

20-21

Week 7

M+F

19-20

19-20

Week 8

M+F

18-19

18-19

Week 9

M+F

17-18

17-18

Week 10 until depetion

M+F

16-17

16-17

eat and drink if supplementary tray feeders become contaminated with faeces they should be replaced. With the high brooding temperature the water within the drinkers and the pipework becomes warm which isn’t appealing to the poults to drink, it also allows bacteria to multiply within the water system. Water systems and drinkers should be flushed to maintain a cool fresh water supply to the poults whilst ensuring the correct water depth & drinker height (Figure 6).

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Figure 6 – Correct water depth & drinker height

30

Whole House Brooding °C

- technical column -

TECHNICAL COLUMN

Litter can become wet or contaminated especially around drinkers; this requires removing and replenishing with fresh litter to prevent wet litter conditions (damage to the poults feet) which may lead to Foot Pad Dermatitis.

After 3-4 days two rings can be joined together to make one larger ring that allows poults more space and incorporates more permanent feeders and drinkers. Ring surrounds should be removed after 5-7 days to allow poults the area of the whole house.

is a minimum of 80 Lux across the whole of the brooding area. This helps the poults locate the feed and water without delay after placing. After a few days the light intensity may need to be reduced if feather/vent pecking starts to occur.

For both Spot and Whole house brooding the supplementary feeders and drinkers should be removed gradually after 5-7 days i.e. remove half one day, leave for two days then take the rest out. This allows birds to transfer over to the automatic feeders and drinkers with the minimum of stress.

Aim to increase minimum ventilation every day to maintain good air quality. This can be tested by taking a CO2 reading daily (max. 2500ppm). This should be carried out at bird height, first thing in the morning to ensure you are measuring the air quality after a prolonged period of minimum ventilation and therefore at its highest CO2 level.

A lighting programme that includes periods of darkness should be introduced from day one with a minimum of one hour darkness. This dark period is built up gradually until 5-10 days when the poults should be receiving 8 hours of continuous darkness. Birds require this dark period in order to stimulate the production of melatonin that helps bone strength, providing poults with a rest period, increasing feeding and drinking activity.

People have experienced good poult start when the first 48 hours light periods have been alternated between light and dark every 2 hours. When the light comes back on after a dark period poults naturally are stimulated into searching for food and water. This is an ideal time to top up supplementary feeders.

Conclusion There are many important factors before and after poult placement which is crucial to the wellbeing of turkey poults, for this reason, management of this period is vitally important and relies on well organised staff and planning ahead. Taking short cuts and being poorly managed within the brooding period will compromise bird performance which will result in poorer financial returns both in terms of breeding and commercial bird performance.

When using either of the brooding systems (brooding ring/whole house) it is essential that the light intensity

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MANAGEMENT

Considerations for effective vermin control Vermin are considered to be wild animals that are believed to be harmful to crops and livestock or carry disease. Therefore, the definition of vermin is not specific to certain species but rather the circumstances. In poultry production, rodents and insects, including rats, mice, and beetles, are generally classified as vermin and are the most common pests.

The Norway rat can produce up to 100 offspring per year, while the roof rat can produce around 90 per year. Both have a territorial range of less than 100 meters. Mice and rats primarily cause environmental damage but can carry and transmit pathogens including Salmonella and Pasteurella multocida (fowl cholera).

©FoodSafetyWatch

While mice are very curious, rats are very suspicious. This is something to keep in mind for control strategies. Both rats and mice are mainly active during the dark hours. If seen during the daytime, there is most likely an infestation of mice or rats.

The damage done by vermin can be categorized into 2 major groups: 1) direct damage to the environment, feed, food, equipment, and/or infrastructure and 2) disease carriers and disease multipliers.

Mice and rats

Andrea Derkx Senior Veterinarian, Cobb-Vantress

32

Rodent control program Rodent control is part of any biosecurity system. Rodents can be carried in boxes, feed, bedding, and other materials that are brought onto the farm from suppliers.

Therefore, it is not just the poultry farms but also feed plants, hatcheries, storage facilities, and processing plants that must have a rodent control program in place.

Three methods are involved in rodent control: mechanical, biological, and chemical.

Mechanical control

The most common mouse, Mus musculus, has a territorial range of less than 50 meters. The life span of the mouse is 9 to 12 months and sexually matures in 6 weeks.

Each mouse has about 3 to 6 offspring per cycle with a maximum of 10 cycles per year.

- management -

• This should start with the design and construction of the farm. There should be a perimeter fence with a metal sheet on the bottom that is at least 40 centimeters vertical and has a 20-centimeter horizontal lip on top.

MANAGEMENT

• The foundation of the building should be 50 centimeters in the ground (rodents are very good at digging!) and 1 unit with the floor.

• A concrete apron outside the house of at least 20 centimeters is recommended.

• A vegetation-free perimeter (3 to 10 meters) around the farm buildings and a vegetation-free perimeter (3 to 10 meters) around the complex fence (see Figure 1).

• A 3-meter gravel area around the poultry houses is recommended. Broken roof tiles are often used since they are sharp and rodents do not like to walk on them.

• If feed is bagged, store the bags on top of pallets. If stored in silos, control and remove any spillage under and around the silo.

• Remove and prevent any standing and open water sources.

• Remove dead flocks immediately, store in rodentproof containers, and incinerate daily if possible.

• Repair and fill holes during the house clean-out.

• Prevent any piling of debris within the farm perimeter.

This includes accumulation of old equipment, old nests, construction materials, and any trash that can serve as rodent breeding sites.

Biological control • Traps with bait and glue traps can be used and must be checked daily and refilled as needed.

• Rodents will stay close to walls while traveling, so place traps against walls and in dark areas.

Chemical control • Most products work on an anticoagulation principle using a poison inside a bait. The benefit is that it takes some time before the poison becomes active.

Thus, the rodent does not die immediately after consuming the poison. This is an important factor in rat control.

• Create and use a baiting plan that shows the location, box numbers, and traps to conduct an accurate evaluation of bait consumption or catches in your logbook.

• Under normal conditions, bait stations are placed every 25 meters around a building and should be checked 4 times per week. If infested, increase the number of stations to every 5 meters and increase the number of times stations are checked.

• Indoor bait stations depend a bit on the house construction but must be present in the attic and feed room.

• Rats are clever and suspicious. Therefore, in stations with bait consumption, discard any bait and replace it with fresh new bait.

• Rotate baiting products every 6 months.

• Anticonception products are relatively new but can work very well. First, determine where there is bait consumption and then replace those stations with the anticonception product.

• During the clean-out period, maintain the chemical pest control.

Beetle The main beetle in the poultry houses is the lesser mealworm, also named litter beetle or darkling beetle. An adult beetle is about 6 millimeters long, brownish black, and oval with 6 legs with a tough chitin exoskeleton. It prefers warm, humid environments.

Figure 1 – A perimeter fence should consist of a metal sheet that is at least 40 centimeters vertical with a 20-centimeter horizontal lip on top and a 3-meter vegetation-free perimeter around the fence.

An adult can produce up to 2,000 eggs in its life cycle (about 1 year). Eggs turn into larvae within 4 to 11 days under optimal conditions (humidity and temperature).

The total cycle length is dependent on the ambient tem-

- february 2021 -

33

MANAGEMENT

Three methods are involved in beetle control: mechanical, biological, and chemical.

Mechanical perature: 26 days at 31 °C (88 °F) increasing to 90 days at 22 °C (72 °F).

In the chicken house, larvae can be found under the pan feeders, drinking lines, and the outer wall. The outer row feeders are especially popular. Beetles feed on spilled feed, manure, dead flocks, and cracked eggs. They can cause structural damage by chewing into insulation. This damage can be increased by flocks attempting to reach the insects. Adults can be found all over the house, but those in the litter have an opportunity to disperse when the house is emptied. They may escape either to the roof or into the soil. Furthermore, beetles left in litter when it is piled outside can fly and find new houses to infest.

Beetles cause damage by infesting feed and destroying infrastructure. Beetles can carry and transmit viruses, fungi, bacteria, and parasites among the flock and between flocks. Disease agents transmitted by the beetle include Salmonella, spondylolisthesis (kinky back), Pasteurella, pathogenic E. coli strains, and even avian leukosis virus. Gumboro disease is well known to persist between flocks through beetles. Beetles can infect flocks through contact of surfaces and direct consumption of the insects.

• Chemical treatments are not very effective at the infestation level. Beetles are known to be resistant to many pesticides. Therefore, good management practices along with a prevention program are the most effective ways to control beetles.

• Remove the litter after the flock has been depleted.

If litter is left outside to dry and has beetles, those beetles can fly back into the house or other places on the farm. Cover or treat the litter to keep the beetles contained until it can be removed from the farm.

• Ensure that the house drains well and is ventilated properly to prevent wet litter. Check for and repair any water leaks immediately. Beetles need water to thrive, so it is important to keep the house environment dry.

• Repair any structural damage as these areas can be used as burrows for beetles.

• Allow at least 2 weeks of downtime between flocks.

This will eliminate the food and water source for the beetle and allow time for insecticides to work.

Biological • Boric acid can be applied as a pellet to the house.

This pesticide damages the skin of the larvae but should only be applied between flocks because it can also injure animals.

• Products are being developed that use specific strains of fungi to infect and kill larvae and adults.

Chemical • Carbaryl-based products block the nervous system by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholineesterase.

• Pyrethrin-based products are safe to use while flocks are in the house. These chemicals cause temporary paralysis, but the beetles can produce enzymes that detoxify the chemical. Using pyrethrins synergistically with other insecticides can be more effective.

Figure 2 – Black beetle larvae and adults in poultry houses can cause damage and carry disease.

34

• Insect growth regulators are also available, which prevent formation of chitin so that the larvae cannot turn into an adult beetle.

Professional pest control companies have experts who can readily evaluate your situation and help you develop a good pest management program. Once your program is established, good record keeping is a valuable tool to identify and mitigate vermin issues before they become an infestation problem.

- management -

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MANAGEMENT

M.S. Bari1,2, Y. Laurenson1, A.M. Cohen-Barnhouse1,2, S.W. Walkden-Brown1, D.L.M. Campbell2 1

School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Australia 2

Agriculture and Food, CSIRO, Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia

36

Consequences of outdoor ranging on external and internal health parameters of hens from different rearing enrichments Free-range layer pullets are typically reared indoors within Australia, but adult layers go outdoors which might cause poorer adaptation due to the mismatch between rearing and laying environments.

Indoor enrichments may optimise physical development of pullets and subsequent welfare as adult free-range hens (Campbell et al., 2019). In the outdoor environment, hens may have greater opportunities for exercise and natural behaviours which might contribute to improved

- management -

MANAGEMENT

25 to 64 weeks via radio-frequency identification technology. At 64-65 weeks of age, a total of 308 hens (statistical unit) across all rearing treatments and pen replicates were selected based on their range use patterns: no outdoor access, low daily outdoor access (1.4 h or less daily), and high daily outdoor access (5.2-9 h daily).

The external health and welfare parameters were evaluated via assessment of plumage condition, toenail length, pecking wounds, and body weight, and internal parameters via post-mortem assessment of internal organ weight and keel bone damage including whole-body CT scanning for body composition.

General Linear Mixed Models showed the control hens had the lowest feather coverage (P<0.0001) and a higher number of comb wounds (P=0.03) than both the enriched groups. The high outdoor rangers had fewer comb wounds (P=0.04), shorter toenails (P<0.0001) and the highest feather coverage (P<0.0001), but lower body weight (P<0.0001) than the indoor hens.

physical health and welfare (Rodriguez-Aurrekoetxea & Estevez, 2016). However, not all hens show equal use of the outdoor range. The objectives of this study were to assess whether adult hens varied in their external and internal health dependent both on their different rearing environments and subsequent variation in range use.

Hy-Line Brown® chicks (n=1386) were reared indoors for the duration of 16 weeks with 3 enrichment treatments including a control group having no extra materials over floor litter, feed, and water, a novelty group providing novel objects (e.g. balls, bottles, bricks, brooms, brushes, buckets, containers, pet toys, plastic pipes) that changed weekly, and a structural group with H-shaped metal perching structures.

At 16 weeks of age the pullets were moved to a free-range system and housed in 9 identical pens with three replicates of each rearing treatment. All hens were leg-banded with microchips and daily ranging was assessed from

The enrichment treatments did not affect the muscle, fat, and bone composition of hens (P>0.05), but high outdoor ranging decreased both body fat and muscle composition (both P<0.0001). The novelty group had lower spleen weights than the control hens (P=0.009) but neither group differed from the structural hens. The high outdoor hens showed the highest spleen (P=0.01) and empty gizzard weights (P=0.04). Both the rearing enrichments and ranging had no effect on overall keel bone damages (all P≥0.19).

Rearing treatments affected hen health and welfare at the later stage of the laying cycle but variation in ranging had a greater impact. Rearing enrichments thus might be recommended for positive effects on hen welfare but management of outdoor access is important in freerange systems.

References Campbell DLM, de Haas EN & Lee C (2019) Poult. Sci. 98: 9-28.

Rodriguez-Aurrekoetxea A & Estevez I (2016) Poult. Sci. 95: 2503-2513.

From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2020

- february 2021 -

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NUTRITION

Performance, intestinal morphology and antioxidant status of broilers fed oregano essential oil or an organic acid blend In this study, the effect of an oregano essential oil, or a blend of formic and propionic acids and essential oil on mineral carriers, on the performance, intestinal morphology and antioxidant status of broilers was investigated.

D. Harrington, W. Wakeman - Anpario plc, Worksop, UK I. Giannenas - Laboratory of Nutrition, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

38

The use of feed additives such as those based on essential oils or organic acids is increasing in poultry production as a result of a number of factors including legislation on restricting antibiotic use and consumer preferences for more natural, welfare friendly poultry production. Formic and propionic acid products have a strong antimicrobial activity and have been shown to improve bird performance and positively influence the gut microbiota.

Oregano essential oil has antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and has also been shown to improve bird performance. Organic acids can be presented as salts or liquids while stud-

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

ies using oregano have included whole plants, dried leaves and essential oils. Variability in the presentation and supplementation rate of these products necessitates further work to build a sufficient information base to understand the influence these parameters have on performance and how best they can be optimized.

The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy of two commercial products on the performance, gut morphology and antioxidant status of broilers. The products were an oregano essential oil presented on a mineral carrier (Orego-Stim, Anpario plc, UK) and a mixture of formic and propionic acids, oregano essential oil and plant extract presented on a mineral carrier (Genex, Anpario plc, UK).

Methods A total of 720 day-old Ross-308 male chicks was randomly allocated into 3 equal groups with 8 replicates of 30 birds: CON - control group, basal ration; OEO300 basal ration and OEO (300 g/t); OAB - organic acid blend

(2 kg/t). Birds were reared in floor pens on clean litter.

The study ran for 42 days. Feed and water were available ad libitum. Feed rations were presented as a mash and comprised starter, grower and finisher phases. Rations were formulated to meet or exceed to NRC for Poultry recommendations (1994) (Table 1). All feed was free of all antibiotics and anticoccidial medication.

Birds were weighed weekly. On day 42, 4 birds/replicate were euthanised and samples taken for the following analysis: a) Histology

Histology: Sections (1 cm) of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum were taken into 10% buffered formalin for morphometric analysis according to Giannenas et al. (2011).

Villus height (VH) and crypt depth (CD) were measured. b) Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)

Unstained tissue sections taken were collected for immunohistochemical examination of PCNA, using the

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NUTRITION

c) Antioxidant status Table 1 – Diet composition of basal diet.

Ingredients

Starter

Grower

Finisher

Wheat (g/kg)

360

470

557

Maize (g/kg)

200

100

50

Soybean meal, 47

350

330

300

Soybean oil (g/kg)

32

40

35

Palm fat (g/kg)

15

20

25

Lysine (g/kg)

2.5

2.2

1.3

Methionine (g/kg)

2.6

2.4

1.7

Vitamins and mineral premix1 (g/kg)

2.0

2.0

2.0

Crude protein2, %

22.0

21.0

19.0

Lysine, %

1.3

1.2

1

Methionine+Cystine, %

1.0

0.96

0.94

Calcium2, %

91.2

90.4

90.2

0.71

0.69

0.66

12.6

13.3

13.5

Phosphorus2,

%

Metabolisable energy, MJ/kg

Data were analyzed by ANOVA using JMP®, v. 13 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) and statistical significance declared at P≤0.05.

Results

1

Supplying per kg feed: 12,000 IU vitamin A, 5,000 IU vitamin D3, 30 mg vitamin E, 3 mg vitamin K, 5 mg thiamin, 6 mg riboflavin, 6 mg pyridoxine, 0.02 mg vitamin B12, 60 mg niacin, 15 mg pantothenic acid, 1.5 mg folic acid, 0.25 biotin, 10 mg vitamin C, 500 mg choline chloride, 100 mg Zn, 120 mg Mn, 20 mg Fe, 15 mg Cu, 0.2 mg Co, 1 mg I, 0.3 mg Se, and phytase in recommended quantities per kg of diet.

2

The lipid oxidation of raw breast (Pectoralis major) and thigh (Biceps femoris) meat during refrigerated storage (2-8 °C), was determined as malondialdehyde (MDA), using a modified version described by Buege and Aust (1978). Meat samples were analysed at the time of collection (day 0) and 3 and 6 days later.

Proximate analysis.

avidin-biotin immunoperoxidase method (ABC kit, Vector Laboratories, CA, USA). Positive controls included canine testicular tumors. Normal intestine sections were used as negative controls with the primary antibody replaced by PBS.

Body weight gain was significantly higher in OEO than CON on day 21 (P=0.0065), while OAB and CON did not differ significantly (Table 2). Overall, body weight gain was significantly greater in OAB than both CON and OEO by 0.148 and 0.092 kgs respectively (P=0.0006 and P=0.0271, respectively). Feed intake differed significantly between all treatments for 0-28 and 0-42 days.

Feed intake for day 0-28 was lowest in OAB while for day 0-42 it was lowest in OEO. FCR for days 0-28 was significantly lower in OEO and OAB than CON (P<0.0001 and P<0.0001, respectively), while OEO and OAB did not differ. For the whole study period of 0-42 days, FCR was significantly different between all treatments. FCR was lowest in OAB (1.34) while FCR in OEO was 39 points lower than CON. Analysis of intestinal samples for villus height, crypt depth and villus height:crypt depth ratio did not identify any significant treatment effect (Table 3). Duodenal PCNA score was significantly higher in OEO than both CON and OAB (OEO versus CON, P<0.0001; OEO versus OAB, P=0.0005). CON and OAB did not differ significantly in duodenal PCNA score. PCNA score was significantly

Table 2 – Zootechnical performance.

Treatment

Body weight gain (g)

Feed intake (g)

FCR*

Mortality

day 0-28

day 0-42

day 0-28

day 0-42

day 0-28

day 0-42

%

CON

1335b

2364b

1967a

4072a

1.46a

1.73a

3.75

OEO

1412a

2420 b

1856b

3371b

1.31b

1.44b

2.50

OAB

1377ab

2512a

1802c

3406 c

1.32b

1.34c

2.90

SEM

18.2

9.6

15.3

65.8

0.017

0.036

0.050

Significance (P)

<0.01

<0.01

<0.0001

<0.0001

<0.0001

<0.0001

0.444

* FCR corrected for mortality. Column data having different superscripts (a, b, c...) are significantly different (P≤0.05).

40

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

Table 3 – Morphometric analysis and determination of PCNA in intestinal samples.

Sample

CON

Duodenum

Jejunum

SEM

Significance (P)

Villus height (µm)

1592

1765

1712

36.9

0.154

Crypt depth (µm)

196

198

164

11.9

0.449

Ratio

8.9

9.52

11.17

0.59

0.278

PCNA score

15.9 b

21.1a

17.5b

0.55

P<0.001

Villus height (µm)

1286

1455

1377

37.1

0.185

Crypt depth (µm)

145

144

158

8.8

0.759

Ratio

9.8

10.6

9.5

0.62

0.747

19.8b

23.7a

22.2ab

0.53

P<0.01

Villus height (µm)

691

760

734

16.7

0.196

Crypt depth (µm)

120

120

97

6.2

0.236

Ratio

6.0

6.8

7.9

0.36

0.104

22.3 b

24.7a

23.6ab

0.38

P<0.05

PCNA score Ileum

Treatment OEO OAB

PCNA score

higher in OEO than CON in jejunal (P=0.002) and ileal samples (P=0.0152), while CON versus OAB and OEO versus OAB did not differ significantly.

effect of oregano and, to a lesser extent, organic acid/ essential oil/plant mixtures on the number of dividing enterocytes. Similarly, Silva et al. (2009) observed an increase in PCNA in intestinal cells of birds fed oregano essential oil. This observation in conjunction with improved bird performance in these treatments suggest nutrient utilisation and perhaps absorption was improved, despite an apparent lack of significant increase in gut villus length. The use of oregano essential oil in feed improved the antioxidant status of the bird as seen by lower MDA levels in breast and thigh muscles, an effect observed previously. Improved antioxidant status in the muscle can result in improved meat quality and longer storage time.

In conclusion, the supplementation of broiler feed with either a commercial oregano essential oil product or a product comprising organic acids, essential oil and plant extracts can improve the performance of broilers oregano oil also has the potential to improve meat quality.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2019

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Discussion The supplementation of broiler feed with either a commercial oregano essential oil product or a product based on formic, propionic acid, essential oils and plant extracts significantly improved broiler performance. These findings are in agreement with other authors who demonstrated an improvement in bird performance using products with similar composition. While organic acids have been shown to increase villus height and other morphometric parameters, the organic acid blend used in the current study did not demonstrate such an effect. However, the proportion of acids, dietary inclusion and presentation are all factors that could influence efficacy on intestinal morphology. While oregano supplementation has been shown to increase villus height in birds, results from the current study did not repeat these findings, although villi were numerically longer in birds fed oregano than controls. PCNA is a co-factor of DNA polymerase-8, expressed in dividing cells during the growth phase. The activity of nutrient assimilation aligns with the proliferative activity of enterocytes, enhancing healthy tissue turnover and maintenance. The current study demonstrated an

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NUTRITION

The role of dietary calcium in Necrotic Enteritis development and pathogenesis The research was made possible in part by an endowing Foundation gift from the Sanderson Farms and is part of the Association’s comprehensive research program encompassing all phases of poultry and egg production and processing.

42

USPOULTRY and the USPOULTRY Foundation announced the completion of a funded research project at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, in which the role dietary calcium plays in Necrotic Enteritis (NE) development and pathogenesis was examined.

Project #BRF009: The role of dietary calcium in Necrotic Enteritis development and pathogenesis – (Dr. Audrey P. McElroy, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas).

Dr. Audrey McElroy at Texas A&M University recently completed a research project where

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

she conducted two experiments to better define the involvement that calcium has in changes that occur in the intestinal environment, resulting in NE morbidity and mortality in broilers. She also evaluated the effect that calcium source has in broiler diets that contain animal protein and those that do not (all veggie) on natural occurrence of NE. Data showed that dietary calcium, in particular limestone particle size, limestone geographic source and diet inclusion levels, are complex contributors to intestinal health and broiler performance.

Necrotic Enteritis (NE) is a complex intestinal health issue with important economic impacts on poultry production.

Losses due to NE are not only associated with increased mortality but also decreases in bird performance and feed efficiency. C. perfringens, the bacteria responsible for NE, is naturally occurring in the intestines of chickens; however, its presence alone is not a determining factor for disease development.

Pre-disposing factors leading to an overgrowth of C. perfringens have been reported to include diets, immune status, stress, intestinal functions and coccidiosis. Little research has evaluated the role of dietary mineral levels during episodes of NE. Published data indicates that altering dietary calcium (Ca) levels and sources may result in differences in the development and pathogenicity of naturally occurring NE. That information has led to further investigation of the role and mode of action of Ca source (availability and solubility) in different diet types and the resulting impact on NE development and pathogenesis and concurrently, leg health.

size and dietary Ca levels on grower phase mortality resulting from NE. Birds fed the high level of fine particle limestone had increased NE mortality. Through day 35, there was a three-way interaction of dietary Ca level, limestone source and limestone particle size on performance. Birds fed higher levels of an industry standard particle size of limestone source had decreased body weight and increased feed conversion ratio. In summary, this experiment indicated that the higher level of dietary Ca was detrimental to intestinal health (NE occurrence) and performance. At the lower level of dietary Ca, the negative impacts on performance were not observed and there was no increase in NE associated mortality. Smaller particle size contributed to more NE mortality, but larger particle size was more detrimental to performance.

Experiment 2 investigated the role dietary protein type (all veggie vs animal protein) in combination with dietary Ca level and limestone source have on the pathogenesis of NE. Not only was there an interaction of Ca dietary level and limestone source, as in Experiment 1, but results were also dependent on if the diet was veggie or animal protein based. Results suggested that the higher level of dietary Ca in diets with animal protein was more related to mortality resulting from NE.

The specific goals and objectives of the two experiments in this research project were to 1) evaluate diets with different limestone Ca sources (differences in particle size and solubility), in C. perfringens challenge trials, to better define the involvement of Ca in changes to the intestinal environment resulting in NE morbidity and mortality and changes in leg health; and 2) utilize the results from Experiment 1 to evaluate Ca source in diets with and without (all veggie) animal protein on natural occurrence of NE in broilers on a commercial coccidia vaccination program fed non-medicated diets, a bioshuttle feeding program, or diets with BMD inclusion.

Overall, dietary Ca level appeared to be a risk factor for NE occurrence. The most impactful finding of this research was that dietary Ca, in particular limestone particle size, limestone geographic source and diet inclusion levels, are complex contributors to intestinal health and broiler performance. Both experiments suggest that limestone characteristics need to be further examined for the influence they have on intestinal health, nutrient digestibility and bird performance. Furthermore, the effects of Ca level and limestone characteristics were dependent on the diet protein type (animal vs veggie). These results have direct application to the poultry industry for consideration of not only level of dietary Ca in formulation, but Ca sources regarding the characteristics of the limestone and the impact on intestinal health, potential risk for NE and broiler performance dependent on the protein type of diet.

Experiment 1 compared two limestone sources (different geographical locations) and two particle sizes (coarse and fine) of each of the sources at two dietary levels of Ca. There was an interaction between particle

A complete report, along with information on other Association research, may be obtained by going to USPOULTRY’s website: www.uspoultry.org.

- february 2021 -

43

NUTRITION

K.W. McCafferty1, M.R. Bedford2, B.J. Kerr3, W.A. Dozier III4 1

School of Environmental and Rural Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, Australia 2

3

4

AB Vista Feed Ingredients, Marlborough, Wiltshire, United Kingdom

USDA-ARS National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment, Ames, United States Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, United States

44

Effects of supplemental xylanase, cereal grain source, and age on caecal volatile fatty acid concentrations of broilers Supplemental xylanase may be used in diet formulation to reduce diet cost, mitigate the anti-nutritive effects of arabinoxylans, increase energy utilization, and improve growth performance of broilers.

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

Xylanase has been shown to partially depolymerize arabinoxylans, which can reduce intestinal viscosity, reduce nutrient encapsulation, and modulate the intestinal microflora of broilers (Choct et al., 1999; Bedford, 1995; Bedford and Cowieson, 2012). In addition, products of xylanase hydrolysis, arabinoxylo- and xylo-oligosaccharides, have been reported to stimulate a prebiotic effect, increasing broiler caecal fermentative capacity, and volatile fatty acid (VFA) production (Masey O’Neill et al., 2014). However, factors such as cereal grain source and bird age affect the mode of action of xylanase.

An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of supplemental xylanase, cereal grain source, and age on caecal VFA concentrations of Ross × Ross 708 male broilers during weekly intervals from 14 to 42 d of age. One thousand five hundred day-old chicks were randomly distributed into 60 floor pens (25 chicks/pen; 0.078 m2) and fed 1 of 4 dietary treatments from 1 to 14, 15 to 28, and 29 to 42 d of age with 15 replicate pens per treatment.

Dietary treatments consisted of a 2×2 factorial arrangement with 2 cereal grain sources (corn- or wheat-based) and 2 supplemental xylanase inclusions (with or without) as the main factors. Caecal contents were collected and pooled from 4 broilers per pen at 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 d of age for VFA analysis.

Cereal grain source and supplemental xylanase interacted (P<0.05) to affect butyric (14 and 21 d of age) and total VFA (21 d of age) concentrations. Broilers fed cornbased diets with and without xylanase and broilers fed the wheat-based diet with xylanase exhibited higher concentrations of butyric and total VFA than broilers fed wheatbased diet without xylanase.

Cereal grain source (P<0.05) influenced propionic, isobutyric, butyric, isovaleric, valeric, and isocaproic acid concentrations at 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 d of age. Broilers fed corn-based diets had higher (P<0.05) concentrations of propionic, isobutyric, isovaleric, valeric, and isocaproic acids than birds fed wheat-based diets from 14 to 42 d of age. Conversely, broilers fed wheat-based diets had higher (P<0.05) concentrations of butyric acid at 28, 35, and 42 d of age compared with broilers fed corn- based diets. All individual and total VFA concentrations increased (P<0.05) linearly from 14 to 42 d of age. Age and cereal grain interactive effects (P<0.05) were observed with propionic, isobutyric, butyric, isovaleric, and valeric acid concentrations.

“Products of xylanase hydrolysis, arabinoxylo- and xylo-oligosaccharides, have been reported to stimulate a prebiotic effect, increasing broiler caecal fermentative capacity, and volatile fatty acid (VFA) production. However, factors such as cereal grain source and bird age affect the mode of action of xylanase”

These results indicate that broiler caecal VFA concentrations are influenced by cereal grain source and bird age.

However, inconsistent effects of xylanase supplementation on broiler caecal VFA concentrations demonstrate that future research evaluating factors such as substrate availability, gastrointestinal environment and age, xylanase inhibitors, microflora composition, immunological and stress conditions, and health are warranted.

References Bedford MR (1995) Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 53: 145-155.

Bedford MR & Cowieson AJ (2012) Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 173: 76-85. Choct M, Hughes RJ & Bedford MR (1999) Br. Poult. Sci. 40: 419-422.

Masey-O’Neill HV, Singh M & Cowieson A (2014) Br. Poult. Sci. 55: 351-359 From the proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2019

- february 2021 -

45

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza, a technical update Avian influenza (AI) is caused by a type A Influenza virus and is distributed worldwide in birds. There are two important classifications: High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) and Low Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (LPAI). Waterfowl naturally carry many LPAIs and are the primary reservoir for transfer to commercial poultry. As LPAIs replicate and spread in commercial poultry, they may cause disease production losses. Without proper control programs, LPAI infections can become endemic in areas of concentrated commercial poultry production. of non-H5 or H7 viruses officially classified by the OIE as LPAI which cause significant disease in poultry.

Virus susceptibility to disinfectants and environmental conditions AIV are enveloped viruses, which refers to the presence of a lipid membrane surrounding the virus, and as such are inactivated by most detergents and disinfectants commonly used in poultry facilities. Heat and dryness are also effective for inactivation. The virus can survive outside the bird when the environment is cool and moist, or contained in organic matter (nasal secretions, feces, dust, bird carcasses).

by the Hy-Line Global Technical Services Team

46

When significant, LPAI infections in laying chickens cause acute respiratory disease and egg production losses. Circulation over time increases the possibility of mutation to HPAI. This occurs most commonly with H5 and H7 subtypes, and causes an acute, severe disease resulting in high mortality. HPAI is a designation made by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) and specifically refers to H5 and H7 subtypes. Although HPAI strains cause significant damage, there are several examples

- veterinary science -

Transmission Transmission of LPAI occurs easily among susceptible birds that encounter nasal secretions, aerosols, or feces from infected birds. Important sources of infectious particles are contact with wild birds, people, vehicles, equipment, clothing, and footwear. High risk factors for transmission between facilities also includes crews and equipment involved in vaccination, manure handling, and transporting pullets and endof-lay hens.

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Table 1 – Recent Influenza challenges.

Strain

Countries of Occurrence

Clinical Signs / Production Losses

Zoonosis

Comments

Ref.

H9N2 (ongoing)

China, Southeast Asia, Indian Subcontinent, Middle East, North and West Africa

Moderate to severe respiratory disease; egg production drops

Rare mild respiratory symptoms

Endemic in many areas. Prevalent in live bird markets. Continuous circulation with other subtypes increases zoonotic potential

4,9

H6N2, H6N6 (ongoing)

China, Taiwan, Korea, Southeast Asia, South Africa

Moderate to severe respiratory disease; egg production drops

No

Endemic in many areas. Prevalent in live bird markets. Continuous circulation with other subtypes increases zoonotic potential

4,2

H3N1 (2019)

Belgium

Severe respiratory disease, 58% mortality and 100% egg drop

No

Older birds showed more severe clinical signs than young birds

5

H6N1 (2020)

Ireland

Sharp drops in egg production, increased mortality (low); green diarrhea

No

Culling of positive flocks involving >500,000 hens

7

Most LPAI infections in waterfowl are subclinical and are transported over long distances by infected birds during their seasonal migrations. Spring migrations are a high risk, as waterfowl from all the major migratory flyways migrate to nesting areas near the arctic circle. This makes it possible for intercontinental spread of Influenza.

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47

VETERINARY SCIENCE

The Influenza Virus: • Family - Orthomyxoviridae, Genus -lnfluenzavirus A • RNA, single stranded, negative sense, enveloped • Possesses eight genes producing 10 viral proteins

Hemagglutinin Neuraminidase RNA nucleoprotein Lipid envelope Matrix (M) protein

• HA and NA proteins are prone to antigenic drift and shift • Inactivated by most disinfectants and detergents • Survives best in cool and moist environments

Hemagglutinin {HA) and Neuraminidase {NA)

cial swelling. Less common signs include: exudate from sinuses (Figure 4), diarrhea, and subcutaneous hemorrhages of the feet and legs (Figure 5).

• Surface glycoproteins • 16 HA and 9 NA subtypes • HA is the most important for virus pathogenicity (virus attachment and entry into host cell).

• Cleavage of the HA protein is required for virus infectivity.

• HA is cleaved by trypsin that is present in respiratory and intestinal tissues.

• Targeted by the immune system to produce neutralizing antibodies.

Figure 1 – Structure of the Influenza virus.

Clinical signs The incubation period of LPAI infection is highly variable and can range between 3 to 14 days in naturally infected birds. Many LPAI infections do not cause significant clinical signs in chickens and are only diagnosed through AI surveillance programs. LPAI usually causes acute,

mild to moderate disease with high morbidity and low mortality. Typically, mortality does not exceed 5%, but high mortality has been recorded.

Clinical signs of infection vary greatly and include: decreased feed and water consumption, coughing, sneezing, respiratory rales, and fa-

Figure 4 – Commercial layer with LPAI exhibiting facial swelling, swollen sinuses and nasal exudate.

Figure 5 – Commercial layer with LPAI exhibiting subcutaneous hemorrhage of the legs and feet.

Figure 3 – During the spring migrations, the global migratory flyways converge in the Arctic region. For some species of aquatic birds, the nesting areas may overlap.

48

- veterinary science -

Affected flocks become quiet and listless. In laying hens, egg production and eggshell quality can decrease dramatically, and loss of shell pigmentation can occur in colored eggs.

VETERINARY SCIENCE

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VETERINARY SCIENCE

LPAI affected flock 100.0

Hen-Day Standard (%)

80.0

Hen-Day Actual (%)

70.0

9.0 8.0 7.0

60.0

6.0

50.0

5.0

40.0

4.0

Cumulative Mortality (%)

30.0 20.0

3.0

Mortality (%)

Hen-Day Egg Production (%)

90.0

10.0

2.0

10.0

1.0

0.0

0.0 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70

weeks of Age Figure 6 – Egg production and mortality in a laying flock infected with LPAIV. The drop in egg production and mortality is highly variable depending on the strain of LPAI, immune status of the flock and the presence of other secondary pathogens.

Figure 8 – Mucosal petechial hemorrhages surrounding proventricular glands from a commercial layer infected with LPAIV.

Necropsy lesions Most pathology occurs in the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tissues. The lining of the mouth, sinuses, and trachea may appear inflamed and edematous with occasional hemorrhages. Tracheal exudates can form plugs that block airways causing suffocation. Pneumonia and airsacculitis may occur, especially with complicating secondary pathogens. Hemorrhages in the proventriculus are a common necropsy finding in layers (Figures 7–9).

Some LPAI strains present with egg yolk peritonitis as a prominent finding (Figure 7). Complete regression of the ovary and oviduct with cessation of egg production is possible.

Some LPAIs cause swollen kidneys resulting in visceral gout.

Differential diagnosis Differential diagnoses for LPAI in-

50

Figure 9 – Hemorrhages may be found on ovarian follicles and proventricular glands in LPAI affected layers.

Diagnosis

Figure 7 – Petechial hemorrhages occurring in the epicardial fat of the heart from a commercial layer infected with LPAIV.

clude infectious bronchitis, Newcastle disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, fowl cholera, and mycoplasmosis.

- veterinary science -

Detection and confirmation of infection can be done via real time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR), detection of viral antibodies 5-10 days post infection through ELISA, HI, or AGID; or virus isolation. Samples and tests should be done in accordance with local regulation and monitoring programs.

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Intervention strategies • Strict, effective biosecurity programs and procedure adherence.

people. The most frequently identified subtypes of Avian Influenza virus that have caused human infections are H5, H7, and H9 viruses.

References are available on request

• Focused, effective vaccination programs (where allowed).

Eradication strategy Eradication of the virus is accomplished by depopulation of infected flocks and isolation of other flocks within an established quarantine area. Flocks are released from quarantine after repeated negative results. This requires strict biosecurity programs, controlled movement of poultry and poultry products, and extensive surveillance testing. Eradication has not been achievable in many countries due to the resources required. For many countries, the goal is to control AIV infections with vaccination programs and limit the economic impact of the disease.

© Petersime 2020 - All rights reserved.

• Rapid, early detection of infection through routine monitoring.

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Vaccination Avian Influenza vaccines have been shown to provide antibody protection against AIV infections. While vaccination does not prevent infection, properly vaccinated birds are protected from the mortality, respiratory disease, and egg production losses associated with AIV infection.

Vaccinated birds are more resistant to infection, with less shedding and transmission of infected virus after a field challenge.

Zoonosis

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January, 25 to 27 IPPE International Production & Processing Expo Georgia World Congress Center 285 Andrew Young International Blvd NW Atlanta, Georgia USA For information contact: U.S. Poultry & Egg Association 1530 Cooledge Road Tucker, GA USA Tel.: +1 770 4939401 Fax: +1 770 4939257 Email: pstates@ippexpo.org Website: www.ippexpo.org

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