and wholesalers of South Africa's broadest selection of fine jewellery designs and quality colour gemstones since 1965”
www.jppe.co.za
INDUSTRY INSIGHTS
• Massmart Growth Summit to take place in Johannesburg
• PlatAfrica store open
• WFDB denies claim that Asian Diamond Exchange is affiliated bourse
• SSEF mourns former Director Prof Henry A Hänni
11. 16. 18. 18 23.
THE ENCHANTING WORLD OF DIAMOND BEADS
The popularity of diamond beads has been growing exponentially – and not just for wearers, but for jewellers and designers
BRANDS SHINE AT VINCENZAORO JANUARY
From 17-21 January this year, the historic city of Vicenza hosted 1 300 leading brands, showcasing the latest in luxury jewellery, precious stones and cutting-edge technology
CHAMPIONING LOCAL CONTEMPORARY JEWELLERY
Through its many solo and group exhibitions, Tinsel Gallery aims to grow the audience for contemporary jewellery in South Africa
10 UNIVERSAL MINING PROBLEMS
OIM Consulting’s Group CEO Arjen de Bruin shares the most common workforce mining challenges found in Africa, Australia and South and North America – and what to do about them
YOUR BIRTHSTONE AND ANNIVERSARY GEMSTONE GUIDE
Birthstones and anniversary stones are a fun, popular and colourful introduction to the world of gemstones
TOP FIVE BUSINESS TRENDS IN SA TO PROFIT FROM IN 2025
As SA’s economy shows signs of recovery and growth, small and medium-sized enterprises are poised to experience a boost from the economic uptick
NATURAL DIAMONDS
GJEPC and De Beers Group forge a strategic collaboration
EDUCATIONAL INSERT
WATCH OUT
December sees highest spike in luxury watch theft and losses
DID YOU KNOW?
Interesting facts
BORN IN AFRICA
A comprehensive directory featuring information and contact details of all members of the Jewellery Manufacturing Association of SA 24. 26. 32. 28. 33. 40. 43. 44. 11
Jewellery Council of SA update
Lorna Lloyd, CEO of the Jewellery Council of SA (JCSA) shares the latest developments from the council’s office.
The Executive Committee of the Jewellery Council of SA (JCSA), comprising Grant Crosse, Sharon Eades, David Bolding, Khalid Mohamed, Fahmida Smith and Lorna Lloyd, chaired by Johan Bezuidenhout, brings together a wealth of experience and diverse perspectives. These collective strengths will significantly strengthen the council’s efforts as we continue to drive the industry forward.
In January, the committee convened for a strategic session to outline our key priorities and establish a clear roadmap for 2025. During this session, Bezuidenhout affirmed his commitment to fostering growth and development within the industry. He stated: “The jewellery industry plays an integral role in South Africa’s economy. Together, we have the opportunity to elevate its standing, enhance its reputation and create new avenues for success for all our members. As Chairperson, my focus will be on collaborating closely with the council and our members to ensure we meet the evolving needs of
the industry and position ourselves to succeed in the global market.”
While much of the work is done behind the scenes, we acknowledge that our members may not always be aware of the initiatives underway. Moving forward, we will enhance our communication strategies to ensure that members are informed of critical legislative changes and given opportunities to take full advantage of resources and offerings that will directly benefit their businesses.
Key initiatives for 2025
Our first priority will be to develop and implement a comprehensive marketing plan for the Jewellery Council. This strategy will include both print and digital media, video advertising and a dual consumer approach. We will engage a specialised agency to craft a detailed plan, as well as determine the budget for these marketing initiatives.
We will strengthen our relationships with current members and re-engage past and non-members through targeted outreach efforts. Our focus will also be on attracting new sponsors and partners to support council initiatives and secure additional funding.
We are planning to host roadshows in Durban, Cape Town and Johannesburg. These events will provide
members and non-members alike with essential updates on legislative changes, resources, training programmes and member benefits. Importantly, these roadshows will offer a platform for networking with local industry professionals.
The issue of unpaid membership fees is one we are taking very seriously. The sustainability of the council relies on the timely payment of these fees and we will be focusing on effective debtor management to ensure financial stability.
The collection, analysis and strategic use of industry data is another priority for us. We aim to establish a robust system for gathering and leveraging statistics that will help members make informed business decisions. An auditing firm will be engaged to ensure the data is collected and analysed professionally and confidentially. We will also explore the possibility of anonymised data sales to potential sponsors such as Metals Focus.
We are pleased to announce that the Jewellery Council has made a strategic decision to bring SA Jewellery News (SAJN) magazine in-house, effective immediately.
As the owners of the publication, we now have greater control over production, distribution
and editorial content. This decision is driven by our goal to achieve cost-savings, enhance member engagement and open new avenues for partnerships and revenue generation. By managing the magazine internally, we will retain the intellectual property associated with the publication and build our internal capacity in content creation, design and publishing, ensuring sustainability and alignment with our long-term objectives.
Looking to the future, one of our key objectives is to promote skills development within the manufacturing sector. We are committed to fostering local workforce growth through partnerships with international experts, as well as working with government to support these initiatives.
The strength of our association is directly linked to the active engagement of our members. We invite you to participate fully in the opportunities provided by the Jewellery Council to ensure the growth and success of the industry.
We thank you for your continued support and look forward to working together to achieve our shared goals in 2025 and beyond.
LORNA LLOYD CEO: Jewellery Council of SA
For more information about the council, our initiatives or how to get involved, visit our website at: www.jewellery.org.za, call us on tel: (011) 484-5528 or email us at: admin@jewellery.org.za.
Editor: Adri Viviers
Cell: 084 261 1805
E-mail: adriv@jewellery.org.za
Sales Representative and Administrative Manager: Thuli Majola
The beginning of the year always marks change and new beginnings and as we publish our fi rst issue of 2025, we have some very exciting news to share with the industry!
After being published by Isikhova on behalf of the Jewellery Council of SA (JCSA) for nearly three decades, the council has decided to bring SA Jewellery News (SAJN) in-house. This decision was taken in order to strengthen engagement with its members, explore new opportunities for partnerships and build its internal expertise in content creation, design and publishing to help establish a self-reliant model that supports its long-term goals.
It has always been essential for the SAJN team to work closely with the JCSA in order to publish the magazine and I believe this new transition will allow us to delve even deeper into current matters which are pertinent to the council and the industry at large. I am grateful to the JCSA for the passion and support it has always shown to the publication.
Change is good – it invigorates, excites, helps move us forward and keeps us on our toes. Change requires courage and an open mind. Most importantly, change is necessary to grow – personally and professionally – and the SAJN team and I look forward to experiencing that. However, our commitment to being a reliable, well-informed and dynamic platform for our industry has not changed in any way. Our fi rst priority has always been and will always be to serve you, our readers, as best we can, and we look forward to continue doing so.
We hope you enjoy this issue and here’s to a rewarding and prosperous year ahead!
Adri
Ajanta Afrika is a South African supplier of precious and semi-precious gemstones, as well as unconventional diamonds and a variety of beads. Its passion for stones shows in its wide range of unique and typical gems that it sources from around the world. Ajanta Afrika’s website showcases approximately 4 000 products, as well as price lists. Members of the trade simply need to register on the website to be approved as a wholesale buyer to access its array of products. For more information, visit: www.ajantaafrika.com
PlatAfrica store open
Annually, Anglo American Platinum, Platinum Guild International (PGI) India and Metal Concentrators host the PlatAfrica jewellery design and manufacture competition. The competition celebrates and supports the South African platinum industry by giving student, apprentice and professional jewellers the opportunity to work, experiment, innovate and develop their technical expertise with the metal. PlatAfrica highlights the strength and beauty of platinum, while revealing the glowing jeweller talent of SA.
Every year an original theme is chosen for the competition, producing one-of-a-kind, statement pieces of jewellery.
The PlatAfrica store, which is exclusively online, provides the public with an opportunity to invest in the precious resource of platinum and in the South African jewellery industry. To view or shop pieces from the PlatAfrica 2024 collection, visit: https://plat.africa/.
SSEF mourns former Director Prof Henry A Hänni
Prof Henry A Hänni, former Director of the Swiss Gemmological Institute SSEF, passed away peacefully at his home in Basel surrounded by his family.
Hänni, whose remarkable career spanned over four decades, was a pioneering figure in the field of gemmology. His journey began as a technical assistant at the Mineralogical Institute of the University of Basel, where his fascination with minerals led him to pursue advanced studies, culminating in a PhD in 1980, with his doctoral thesis focusing on beryl from the Swiss Alps.
In 1990, Hänni assumed the role of Director at SSEF, where he made invaluable contributions to the institute’s development and international reputation. His groundbreaking research in pearl and coloured stone analysis, treatment detection and origin determination has left an indelible mark on the field of gemmology. Even after his retirement in 2009, he remained actively engaged in gemstone research and education. As a professor of gemmology at the University of Basel since 1996, he inspired countless students and professionals worldwide through his teaching and mentorship, sharing not only his vast knowledge, but also his infectious enthusiasm for the field.
“Prof Hänni will be remembered not only for his extraordinary academic achievements, but for his unique sense of curiosity,” says Dr Michael S Krzemnicki, Director of SSEF. “His warm personality and distinctive sense of humour touched all who knew him, making him not just a respected colleague, but a beloved friend to many in the international gemmological community.”
His passing represents a significant loss to the global gemmological community, but his legacy will continue to influence and inspire future generations of gemmologists.
WFDB denies claim that Asian Diamond Exchange is affiliated bourse
The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) has officially denied a claim made by the Philux Global Group, which is raising funds from the public for investment in the Asian Diamond Exchange, among other projects, that this purported diamond exchange is affiliated with the WFDB.
The federation, founded in 1947, is the official association of diamond bourses internationally. Today 27 bourses throughout the world are members of it and adhere to its stringent standards.
While the WFDB encourages the establishment of new diamond bourses and aids and supports bourses in their early stages, the Asian Diamond Exchange has not asked to be affiliated with it, nor has it contacted the federation at any time.
II G G
Massmart Growth Summit to take place in Johannesburg
The SA Consulate-General in New York has shared an invitation from Massmart-Walmart in South Africa looking for potential South African/African suppliers to participate in Massmart’s Growth Summit, which will take place in Johannesburg on 2 April 2025 in partnership with the DTIC.
“The event, although not aimed at exports to the USA, is nevertheless an opportunity for South Africans and suppliers in the region who’re interested in doing business with the Massmart retail businesses – Builders Warehouse, Cash & Carry, Game and Makro – in SA,” says Lorna Lloyd, CEO of the Jewellery Council of SA. “South African suppliers will have the opportunity to pitch directly to the Massmart buyers who make the final decision and network with Massmart and Walmart executives.”
The summit is modelled on similar highly successful events that Walmart has hosted, most recently in its Chilean market.
Andrea Albright, Walmart’s Executive Vice-President: Sourcing and Operating Partner, who discussed hosting the event with representatives from the South African Department of Trade, Industry & Competition earlier this year, explains: “Our focus is to harness the power of African-based product manufacturers, assemblers and growers to enhance local product assortment and innovation in our stores on that continent.’”
Participation in this Massmart Growth Summit is open to prospective suppliers and entrepreneurs from across Africa, with interest from entrepreneurs
based in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, Botswana and Namibia. “A challenge in the retail industry is to help potential suppliers to connect with buyers who make the final buying decision. The Growth Summit overcomes this challenge by arranging for prospective suppliers to pitch directly to the buyers responsible for their particular product category,” says Herman Venter, Massmart’s Chief Merchandise Officer.
The event includes networking opportunities with senior Massmart and Walmart executives, workshops to share knowledge about supplier best practices and guidance on how to build trust-based commercial relationships. A principle underpinning the summit is that all participants should leave it with a path to future growth by gaining a clear understanding of the specific actions needed to develop a rewarding business relationship with Massmart.
“The Growth Summit should typically provide new or expanded opportunities for suppliers to work with Massmart and grow their businesses,” says Albright. “However, what it should also do is stimulate socioeconomic development, because we know that when a supplier succeeds, their local communities tend to benefit from increased economic investment and job opportunities.”
More information about the Massmart powered by Walmart Growth Summit is available at www. massmart.co.za/massmart-growth-summit. Alternatively, suppliers interested in participating can complete the supplier readiness questionnaire at: www.rangeme.com/massmartgrowthsummit.
Swiss watch exports slide as all top markets decline
Swiss watch exports fell 5% year on year in December amid a downturn in the luxury segment in China and Hong Kong and weak demand in all major markets.
Shipments of luxury timepieces dropped to US$2.24 billion, the Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry said. Orders from all but four of the top 15 markets saw demand slip, while the four major markets showed significant declines.
“All four of the top export destinations declined in December,” the federation said. “The US recorded a slight downturn for the first time in six months.
Hong Kong moved up into second place, with a less marked decline than in the previous months, while China continued to perform very poorly. Japan saw a very significant reduction, impacted by a marked base effect. Among the top 15 markets, only the United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, Spain and Australia achieved positive results.”
Meanwhile, total shipments for the full year declined 2.8% to US$28.65 billion in 2024. The decrease came as global socioeconomic factors have been affecting demand for luxury. - Rapaport
The enchanting world of diamond beads
The popularity of diamond beads has been growing exponentially. “And not just for wearers, but also for jewellers and designers,” says Adine Lutz of Cape Town-based Ajanta Afrika, a supplier of semi-precious and precious gemstones, beads, unconventional diamonds and diamond beads
Established in 2006, Ajanta Afrika’s passion for natural semi-precious and precious stones shows in its wide range of unique and typical gems which it sources from around the world.
“I started the business because of my love of travelling and of gemstones,” says Lutz. “I worked with specimens and rough for years before I started specialising in cut and polished gems.”
“I still travel all over to buy and source the gemstones we sell. Following the trends, selecting the stones and looking for unusual pieces to complement the range of standard stock our jewellers always need are important to me,” says Lutz.
Ajanta Afrika offers a spectacular range of diamond beads, which they have been stocking for many years. There is a definite uptick in the trend and demand at the moment in the market.
These beads are a unique product and have numerous jewellery applications. Not only can they be strung in necklaces and bracelets, but they can be used for earrings, added to the base of designer settings and utilised in many other creative ways.
Diamond beads are a unique product and have numerous jewellery applications. Not only can they be strung in necklaces and bracelets, but they can be used for earrings, added to the base of designer settings and utilised in many other creative ways.
“Diamond beads, as with all diamonds, are required to have a certain number of facets,” explains Lutz. “For example, Diamond chips with holes drilled through them, aren’t legal to own or sell according the diamond laws in South Africa, just like it is not legal to own or sell rough uncut diamonds without a license.”
An authentic diamond bead has tiny facets on all sides, frequently in steps. Girdle, table and culet are not present. The bead is always formed from a certain kind of diamond rough crystal which has a near-spherical shape.
Natural diamond beads are a luxurious treat, are very flexible to work with and their popularity continues to grow. This can be attributed to their elegance, shimmer, beauty and brilliance, all of which are evident in a range of designs and shades.
“Diamond beads are available in a wide range of colours, including black, natural champagne, brown, white, yellow and grey. Ajanta is a proud supplier of all these colours, with black being the most sparkly and therefore the most popular. We also offer clients irradiated green and blue,” says Lutz.
Ajanta Afrika offers another beautiful design with diamond beads, where the beads are wire -knotted in, on 18ct gold wire.
“With so many lab-grown gems in the market, our focus is strictly on natural gems,” adds Lutz. “This also applies to our diamond beads, which are all 100% natural.”
Diamond beads make a stunning gift for jewellery-lovers, particularly those wanting to invest in an item of jewellery which is very versatile.
From 17-21 January 2025, the historic city of Vicenza hosted 1 300 leading brands, showcasing the latest in luxury jewellery, precious stones and cutting-edge technology at Italy’s renowned Vicenzaoro jewellery show
Brands shine at VincenzaOro January
Vicenzaoro January 2025, the first event of reference for the global jewellery industry and the starting point of the sector’s global calendar, opened its doors on 17 January in Vicenza.
The five-day event not only confirmed last year’s exceptional numbers, but also saw a new international dimension record with foreign visitation – greater than that of Italians – reaching the extraordinary participation number of 145 countries from all over the world, with Turkey, the USA, Germany, Spain and Greece in the lead and increases from North Korea and Australia.
“We’ve won the internationality challenge,” said Corrado Peraboni, CEO of the Italian Exhibition Group. “Several years ago, we decided to develop our leading products abroad. It was a successful strategy which decisively increased foreign visitation at our most important events in Italy.”
Matteo Farsura, head of IEG’s gold and jewellery division, echoed Peraboni’s sentiments: “With 1 300 brands and the involvement of the entire jewellery supply chain, from technologies to haute joaillerie, Vicenzaoro has confirmed its position as a global
platform of reference, favouring dialogue among the different segments to meet the needs of the various markets.”
In parallel, with the involvement of 650 young students on the opening day and further indepth discussions within the full programme, together with the main trade associations, the centrality of training and generational turnover was also reaffirmed.
“A sector that’s specifically continuing its positive trend is ‘Made in Italy’. During the first 10 months of 2024, the jewellery
"The five-day event not only confirmed last year’s exceptional numbers, but also saw a new international dimension record with foreign visitation"
industry’s revenues were up 5,8% [ according to Istat data], with exports more dynamic than the domestic market (+7,2% vs +3,0%),” added Farsura. “Thanks to the development of tailor-made contents in a highly energetic atmosphere and to an elegant and distinctive look and feel, the sector’s community perceives Vicenzaoro as a fundamental reference point for the development of business, relations and knowledge. Think of the authoritative look at the future through Trendvision Jewellery + Forecasting, IEG’s independent observatory, of the topics connected to technology and ESG at the centre of debate, with events organised by CIBJO and the Jewellery Technology Forum
promoted by Legor, prior to September’s début of the Vicenza Symposium, an international scientific event on the theme of technologies, metals and urgencies that link jewellery and fashion.”
Vicenzaoro January was held in conjunction with T.Gold and VO Vintage.
T.Gold is the international show for machinery and the most innovative technologies applied to jewellery and precious metal processing. The event, specifically for sector operators, offered the chance to place one’s business in the running, underlining the inseparable link which binds creative skills with technological innovations, which now involve every level of the manufacturing process. Thanks to the Expo Centre’s expansion, T.Gold will now be staged inside the Vicenzaoro areas as of the second half of 2026.
VO Vintage and VO’ClockPrivé, which take place respectively in January and September, are events dedicated to the world of watchmaking. Apart from the exhibitions, Vicenzaoro offers opportunities for insights, information and culture for its audiences throughout the year.
IEG’s agenda will see OROAREZZO in May, SIJE in Singapore in July, Vicenzaoro September at the end of the Europeam summer (and the return of VO’ClockPrivé) preceded by the new Vicenza Symposium, the Valenza Gem Forum in October, JGTD in Dubai in November and the Italian Jewellery Summit in Arezzo in December.
“IEG thanks all the companies and partners that contributed to the success of Vicenzaoro January 2025,” said Farsura. Authoritative international organisations also contributed to the show’s agenda and success, including CIBJO, the World Jewellery Confederation –which promotes the jewellery supply chain’s economic and social sustainability, the Gem and Jewellery Export Promotion Council in India (GJEPC), the Hong Kong Jewellery and Jade Manufacturers’ Association (HKJJA) and Francéclat.
Vicenzaoro September will take place from 5-9 September this year.
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try people and decision cross a broad range of sinesses!
Since 2006, Tinsel has been providing a platform for South African artists to exhibit and sell their work
All images courtesy tinselgallery.com
Championing local contemporary jewellery
Tinsel Gallery has been at the forefront of contemporary jewellery in SA for almost two decades and focuses mainly on one-of-a-kind items which are handmade by the jeweller. Through its many solo and group exhibitions it aims to grow the audience for contemporary jewellery in this country.
Situated at 53 Rustenburg Road in Melville, Johannesburg, its offering is unique in SA and it is committed to promoting this kind of jewellery.
Visit Tinsel anytime to see its permanent collection of pieces or look out for one of its six exhibitions during the year.
OIM Consulting’s Group
CEO Arjen De Bruin shares the most common workforce mining challenges found in Africa, Australia and South and North America – and what to do about them
When we are faced with a seemingly insurmountable hurdle, many of us are guilty of believing that these problems are unique to us alone and that no-one else is experiencing them.
The same is true in the business world. For those working in mining in a particular region – be it Africa, Australia, South or North America – we see things through our regional lens, often not realising that the same day-to-day challenges we face are encountered by our global counterparts.
Arjen de Bruin, Group CEO at OIM Consulting, says it is important to understand that many of the workforce challenges we encounter are shared by other organisations in other countries.
“When we understand this commonality, the problems become surmountable, as we realise that the interventions which worked for other companies and countries will work for us,” he says.
A snapshot of the global supervisor
A recent global survey that assessed over 9 000 mining supervisors (who had been exposed to the same training and protocols) in diff erent regions identifi ed certain key strengths in supervisors, depending on the areas in which they were based.
universal mining problems
"A recent global survey which assessed over 9 000 mining supervisors (who had been exposed to the same training and protocols) in different regions identified certain key strengths in supervisors, depending on the areas in which they were based."
For example, in Australia and North America, the study found that supervisors were streaks ahead of their global counterparts in the following capabilities:
- Mental processing.
- Dealing with complexity.
- Technical skills.
“In terms of societal construct, Australians and North Americans typically have a solid foundation in schooling, which means that they’re well-equipped to grasp and process complex issues which assist in developing their technical skills. Their industry’s also very process-driven, with workers complying with the rules,” explains De Bruin.
In Africa, as well as both South and North America, supervisors were stronger than Australian front-line leaders in:
- Social processing skills.
- Application.
- Safety proficiency.
“Africans are very community-centric and this creates strong social processing skills and application, as well as an understanding of the importance of collaboration and teamwork,” says De Bruin.
“Africa, North and South America also scored slightly higher on safety proficiency, which some might find surprising, given the robustness of the Australian regulatory environment.
“However, because many of the variables that could lead to injuries or safety incidents are removed as a result of this process-driven environment, Australian supervisors might not need to develop such strong powers of observation, or to be as attuned to the
unexpected as their global counterparts, which is possibly why they ranked lower on safety.”
Apart from these regional differences, the survey found far more similarities between the industries, with the 10 most commonly shared problems being:
1. Frequently missed daily targets.
2. Upward delegation.
3. Lack of team engagement.
4. Too many initiatives delivering sub-par results.
5. Lack of confidence in the supervisor.
6. Non-standard work approach (“fire-fighter” mode).
7. Lack of clear accountability.
8. Recurring safety issues.
9. Increased turnover of supervisors.
10. Problems with extended spans of control.
With offices in South Africa and Australia, OIM Consulting’s own research supports these findings, with its assessments revealing that 91% of supervisors follow an unstructured and reactive approach to work which directly impacts output, while only 12% regularly set directions, engage and empower their teams for target attainment.
“The first critical intervention, regardless of what region you’re in, is to get your supervisors united regarding the organisation’s purpose and direction. They’re your front-line leaders and culture-carriers,” says De Bruin.
He adds that developing leadership and intellectual capital is critical and this can be done through training and classroom learning. “However, the most important step is on-the-ground coaching in order to embed these new skills for execution excellence.”
These challenges are universal, regardless of where an organisation is based, says De Bruin. If we are to drive universal operational excellence, we need to put our people first. “They’re the heart of our organisation and sustainable change can only start with them,” he says.
Your birthstone and anniversary gemstone guide
BIRTHSTONES
Birthstones are gemstones that accompany a birth month, each having a unique meaning and historical signifi cance and are often worn as jewellery such as a pendant necklace. The popularity of birthstones dates back to ancient times, when civilisations believed that gemstones had the power to bring good fortune, health and prosperity to their wearers. Traditionally, each month is associated with a single gemstone, but as you will fi nd below, there are a few months with multiple birthstones. Each birthstone carries secrets, attributes and lore which are unique to it.
MODERN VERSUS TRADITIONAL
Birthstones and anniversary stones are a fun, popular and colourful introduction to the world of gemstones. They appeal to audiences around the world, regardless of gender, age, nationality or religion
The list of traditional or ancient birthstones best known in the Western world actually originated in Poland between the 16th and 18th centuries. In 1912, the UK’s National Association of Jewellers released a list of socalled “modern birthstones”. This list diff ered somewhat from the traditional ones, most notably by including only transparent gems. Presumably, this made it easier for jewellers to create “mothers’ rings”, which feature the birthstones of a woman’s children.
To this day, jewellers continue to add options to the modern birthstone chart. For example, spinel, citrine and tanzanite are recent additions. MONTH TRADITIONAL
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
Golden topaz, Citrine
December Blue zircon, Blue topaz, Tanzanite Turquoise, Lapis lazuli
Anniversary gemstones
The tradition of giving gemstones as anniversary gifts has its roots in ancient times, when gemstones were believed to possess mystical powers and had deep symbolic meanings. Over time, specifi c gemstones became associated with particular anniversaries, each representing diff erent qualities and aspects of a couple’s journey together.
The connection between gemstones and anniversaries was formalised in the early 20th century, when jewellers began promoting specifi c gems for these milestones, helping to create a standardised list which is still in use today.
First Gold jewellery
Second Garnet
Third Pearls
Fourth Blue topaz
Fifth Sapphire
Sixth Amethyst
Seventh Onyx
Eighth Tourmaline
Nineth Lapis lazuli
Tenth Diamonds
11th Turquoise
12th Jade
Top five business trends in SA to profit from in 2025
As South Africa’s economy shows signs of recovery and growth, small and medium-sized enterprises are poised to experience a boost fromthe economic uptick – especially those that can harness the top business trends set to emerge in 2025, writes Martin Slabbert
Aeconomic uptick – especially those
ccording to Slabbert of Cape Town-based Alkemi Collective, a plug-and-play marketing agency specialising in providing innovative marketing solutions, SMEs that fail to adapt to a growing and changing economic landscape risk facing:
• Reduced market competitiveness and loss in market share as customers move to forward-thinking businesses.
• Ineffi cient operations and higher costs due to manual processes and outdated systems.
• Limited access to capital and growth opportunities as lenders shy away from SMEs that do not show future potential.
Slabbert shares the fi ve key business trends in SA to look out for in 2025 that will impact SMEs –from e-commerce going mainstream and digital transformation to new fi nancial service models for growing businesses.
The economic climate in recent years has been tough on South African businessowners. With only 33% of SMEs having access to credit, many small businesses are hampered in their resilience against unforeseen challenges and in achieving longterm growth potential.
“2024 was a year of continued headwinds for SME-owners in South Africa – high interest rates, infl ation and heightened uncertainty around election time, as well as the formation of a new government, have all left their mark,” says Thomas McKinnon, Chief Growth Offi cer at SME services provider Lula.
The good news is that, with the Bureau of Economic Research’s projections indicating potential economic growth of 2,2% in 2025 and S&P’s recent positive outlook change for SA, SME-owners might see economic growth double, compared with 2024.
While this is good news for small businesses struggling to make ends meet, SME-owners must stay ahead of emerging trends to capitalise on opportunities in the new economic landscape.
Here are the five business trends in SA that small and medium-sized business-owners should be acting on this year:
1. Flexibility is king: New financial service models for SMEs
While many banks will not take the time to actively manage small business accounts, technological innovations in banking now offer alternative solutions to SMEs. Financial services are increasingly extending their services from traditional banking to digital tools that allow for smart cash flow management.
“Banks and fintechs are naturally diving into things like cash flow management tools and leaning into artificial intelligence [AI]driven insights to make cash flow management smarter than ever,” says McKinnon.
Why it is important
These financial tools help entrepreneurs flexibly grow their businesses in a way that traditional banking does not allow.
“More than just cash flow insights tools, we’re seeing a rise in flexible services that can adapt to the
ebbs and flows of SME growth in reality – from office spaces that scale with business size to more flexible logistics providers and marketplace aggregators that simplify operations,” advises McKinnon. “It’s making real-world cash flow management easier than ever before.”
How to prepare
Evaluate your business processes to identify areas that could benefit from flexible financial tools. Is seasonal demand affecting your cash reserves? Are upfront payments not coming in?
Look for a financial service provider that can help you manage your cash flow and operations efficiently and that offers scalable solutions to help your business grow.
2. Funding gets personal: More financing options, better fits Data is bringing transparency to business and finances. Thanks to increased access to transaction data, payments data and data overall, lenders now have a better view of a business’s financial health – and can tailor financing options to match.
It is not just banks which are using data to tailor financing options.
"Evaluate your business processes to identify areas that could benefit from flexible financial tools."
“Banks are no longer the only game in town. Alternative funders and embedded finance options with payments businesses are proliferating,” says McKinnon. He adds that government and NGO initiatives are also stepping up to support micro and womenowned businesses with guarantee schemes, creating a broader safety net.
Why it is important
With tailored financing offered by more players in the lending market, getting approved for funding will become easier for the 67% of businesses which traditionally have not had access to credit.
Access to appropriate funding can be a make-or-break factor for small businesses wanting to grow or navigate challenging economic periods.
How to prepare
First, familiarise yourself with alternative types of business funding, such as capital facilities or capital advances. Which funding solutions fit your business’s needs best?
To better plan and prepare for your funding needs, look into your cash flow and make a cash flow projection to prepare for challenges in the months to come.
Finally, it is important to maintain detailed financial records and ensure you are meeting your current debt repayments and obligations, to improve your chances of securing fast funding when the need arises.
3. Mobile first: Digital commerce booms and goes mobile The digital shift is not just something tech CEOs like to
mention; it is happening at breakneck speed. The digital economy is projected to account for 15-20% of SA’s GDP by 2025, growing in size by 8-10% in 2020.
Driving this shift is increased Internet penetration, growing from 68% in 2023 to over 75% by 2025. However, Internet usage alone does not fully account for the boom in the digital economy. E-commerce is expected to grow rapidly at a 21,4% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) through 2030.
Within the online retail space, 77% of South Africans do their shopping on mobile phones, while 54% make their purchases on laptops.
Why it is important
“Digital commerce is more than just a trend – it’s actually creating
new opportunities and markets for SME-owners,” says McKinnon. He adds that high mobile penetration is fuelling mobile commerce, allowing businesses to reach customers on their phones –wherever they are.
Through high mobile penetration, e-commerce now has the potential to extend a business’s reach beyond local borders. The increasing adoption of online shopping platforms means that even small businesses can reach beyond their local community and compete on a national or even international scale.
How to prepare
Bring your business to the digital era and invest in a user-friendly e-commerce website. Ensure your website and online services are fully optimised for mobile devices. Consider partnering with techsavvy businesses or joining online marketplaces to increase your online presence.
4. Just a swipe away: Payments are becoming smoother As consumers move toward digital commerce, so do payments. In
June 2024, the SA Reserve Bank published a roadmap towards a cashless economy and is transforming the nation’s digital payments landscape to get there by 2035.
The South African payments landscape is evolving to meet not only digital consumers’ demands, but those of both digital and bricks-and-mortar businesses. While cash is still widely used by SMEs, 58% of them already use digital transactions.
Why it is important “B2B options, consumer payment innovation and contactless solutions are helping SMEs reach more customers, while simplifying their check-out processes,” says McKinnon.
More than just simplifying the check-out process, offering digital payment services as an option to both B2B and B2C customers is crucial for South African SMEs to break into the growing e-commerce market.
How to prepare
Adopt mobile and digital payment solutions, like implementing mobile wallet and QR code payments or offering EFT services like Ozow and Payfast for e-commerce transactions. Bricks-and-mortar shops should consider contactless payments and affordable, digital payment terminals.
5. In the cloud: Investments in digital infrastructure and tech
The digital transformation of SA’s economy does not end with e-commerce and the payments landscape. Digital transformation will play a pivotal role in the country’s future, with projections indicating that it could contribute almost 20% to the GDP by 2028 and create 300 000 jobs.
Today, massive investments hold up tomorrow’s promise. South African telecom companies have invested R200 billion in the past five years to establish fibre-optic networks and data centres, improving connectivity and supporting the shift towards a digital economy.
The International Trade Association predicts that the public cloud services market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 25% until 2025. Similarly, the number of Internet of Things (IoT) connections is anticipated to increase to 43 million by 2025 from 17 million in 2020.
Why it is important
Digital technologies like IoT, AI) and cloud computing have the power to transform traditional sectors and SMEs making use of these and other emerging technologies.
Think of real-time monitoring and data collection of production processes, improving efficiency and customer experience, and automating routine tasks. All of these improvements through technology give your SME an edge and could allow you to compete with other, often bigger businesses.
In fact, 73% of African SMEs which have adopted technological solutions increased their competitiveness, while 87% said they had experienced accelerated business growth.
How to prepare
First assess your current digital capabilities. What technologies and digital skills exist within your business? Address any digital skills gap that you find and develop a roadmap for adopting technologies that can help you achieve your business goals.
Perhaps you would like to start with cloud computing. Of the 400
"The South African payments landscape is evolving to meet not only digital consumers' demands, but those of both digital and bricksand-mortar businesses."
SMEs surveyed by Ecofin, 81,3 mentioned cloud computing as the most important tool in enhancing competitiveness – even more so than e-commerce tools.
Cloud services offer a lowcost entry point to advanced technologies that were formerly only available to large enterprises.
Preparing for 2025:
Get your capital in order It is clear that digitalisation is the big driver behind the business trends in SA set to transform SMEs in 2025. The top five trends explored above can bring big opportunities to small businessowners.
To capitalise on these trends, it is crucial to have your finances in order. Digital transformation requires investment in new technologies, whether these are e-commerce solutions or AIdriven tools. Besides, cash flow management is more important than ever in a rapidly growing digital economy.
GJEPC and De Beers Group forge strategic collaboration
Leading diamond company the De Beers Group and the Gem and Jewellery Export Promotion Council (GJEPC), India’s apex jewellery trade body, have announced the commencement of a strategic collaboration to strengthen the natural diamond narrative within the Indian gem and jewellery trade.
The collaboration, titled the Indian Natural Diamond Retailer Alliance (INDRA) will focus on supporting independent retailers in India with tools that go beyond the conventional, such as leveraging artificial intelligence to create customised retailer campaigns. From multilingual marketing assets to immersive story-telling and superior customer experiences, as well as in-depth natural diamond jewellery training in local languages, it will support India’s jewellery retailers with the tools they need to ensure that natural diamonds resonate deeply with every consumer who walks through their doors. Interactive roadshows regarding the collaboration commenced in January this year, at which GJEPC members are able to enrol in the programme.
“The Indian gem and jewellery market, currently valued at US$85 billion, is poised for rapid growth, projected to reach US$130 billion by 2030. INDRA is designed to harness this momentum by tapping into India’s dynamic young population, the rise of organised players and increasing demand across bridal, everyday wear, fashion and entry-level jewellery,” says Vipul Shah, Chairperson of
As India becomes the world’s fastest-growing major diamond jewellery market, industry leaders the De Beers Group and the GJEPC will collaborate to support the gem and jewellery trade with education and promotional assets to support the natural diamond narrative
the GJEPC. “This initiative reflects a shared vision to educate stakeholders, empower retailers and boost consumer demand, all while highlighting the timeless value of natural diamonds.”
“India’s diamond growth story is remarkable and it’s now become the second-largest market in the world for retail sales of diamond jewellery,” says Sandrine Conseiller, CEO of De Beers Brands. “However, with its vibrant economy, growing young population and large number of leading diamond businesses, India still holds a wealth of untapped potential. In the Indian jewellery retail sector, the penetration of natural diamonds currently stands at only about 10%, which is well below the rate seen in mature jewellery markets such as that of the USA.
“Through this new collaboration with the GJEPC, we’ll help to unlock this growing opportunity for increased consumer demand for all types of natural diamond jewellery, including bridal, everyday wear and entrylevel pieces.”
Retailers will be able to register for the programme on www.indraonline. in and will benefit from multilingual staff training modules focused on generic natural diamond product knowledge, as well as access to a market intelligence portal. The programme will also provide customisable marketing assets and content for retailers to promote natural diamonds at store level, as they seek to enhance their returns and expand their customer base.
With more than 10 500 members, the GJEPC is the apex body driving India’s gem and jewellery sector. Through its three large-scale IIJS shows, as well as multiple roadshows and direct outreach activities, the council has the potential to reach a broad range of the businesses comprising the Indian gem and jewellery industry. Through this collaboration, the two partners will capitalise on the GJEPC’s deep understanding of the Indian market built up over five decades, combined with the De Beers Group’s expertise in the diamond category.
DIAMOND REFLECTIONS DIAMOND REFLECTIONS
Deep-Focus Earthquakes: The Heartbeat of a Diamond Factory?
Evan M. Smith
The geological landscape around us evolves so slowly that it can appear static, but the rigid tectonic plates that make up the outer layer of our planet drift across its surface over time. Interactions between plates result in large-scale bumping, grinding, and breaking of rocks that we feel as earthquakes. Some earthquakes originate from below the rigid outer layer of plates, even from depths greater than about 300 km where rocks are expected to be under too much confining pressure to break by brittle failure. Instead of being related to multiple plates jostling together, these deep earthquakes are always associated with cold, lone plates that have sunken down into the warmer convecting mantle through the process of subduction. The nature and cause of these so-called deep-focus earthquakes remain poorly understood, but recent research suggests they might have something to do with the growth of top-quality gem diamonds.
and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fl uid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacifi c Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fl uid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profiles in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB) of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
As a sinking or subducting plate, also colloquially called a “slab,” descends into the mantle, the pressure and temperature increase. Changing conditions can cause some minerals to melt or undergo phase changes that release water. Recent slab modeling shows that the measured depths of deep-focus earthquakes coincide with the depth where melts and fluids should be released from some slabs, especially those that are relatively cold to begin with (Shirey et al., 2021). The release of melts and fluids at depths beyond 300 km potentially serves to trigger these deep-focus earthquakes. Shirey et al. (2021) also linked this earthquake activity to the formation of sublithospheric or super-deep diamonds, which have been connected with subducted material and both carbonatitic melts and hydrous fluids in previous studies (Walter et al., 2008; Harte, 2010; Pearson et al., 2014; Smith et al., 2016, 2018; Thomson et al., 2016b; Smith and Nestola, 2021). Here we will explore the connection between deep-focus earthquakes and the growth of diamonds—specifically the variety known as CLIPPIR diamonds (Cullinan-like, Large, Inclusion-Poor, Pure, Irregular, and Resorbed) that make up many of the type II diamonds in the gem market (Smith et al., 2016, 2017).
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-
faults resists the motion. Stresses build up until they cause sudden brittle failure and movement that can shake Earth’s interior and surface. The vibrations or seismic activity can cause serious damage to buildings and infrastructure, or they can be so slight that they are only detected with sensitive instruments called seismometers.
bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability fi eld far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown defl ecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also super-deep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
Scientists have been recording earthquake activity for more than a century, with increasing degrees of sophistication, accumulating a tremendous amount of data. With multiple seismometers recording the same earthquake, it is possible to calculate where it originated within the earth. The location in the earth where an earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, while the location directly above it at the surface is called the epicenter. When mapped out over time, earthquakes near the surface trace out faults, marking the boundaries between mobile tectonic plates.
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fl uids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fl uid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich
Diamond-bearing kimberlite eruption
Continental lithosphere
Deep-focus earthquake activity
There is also important information conveyed by the depth of earthquake hypocenters. Figure 1A shows a histogram of the depth of earthquakes worldwide, revealing two humps or modes in the data. The first and most prominent mode peaks within the uppermost 100 km and drops off exponentially with depth (Frohlich, 2006). These shallower earthquakes are associated with movements along faults between tectonic plates, especially where plates push together, at subduction zones and continental collisions (figure 1B). Deeper earthquakes, plotted all the way down to 700 km in figure 1A, are associated with subducting plates and record their activity as they sink into the mantle.
Oceaniclithosphere
High-quality CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds
Low-quality, non-gem sublithospheric diamonds
Deep-Focus Earthquakes
Lithospheric diamonds
An earthquake in the crust is caused by a sudden brittle failure of rock, often along a preexisting, large-scale fracture where two plates meet, called a fault. Tectonic plates move at a pace of a few centimeters per year, about the same rate our fingernails grow, but the motion is not smooth and continuous at the boundaries between plates. Friction along
Carbonated slab melting
Hydrous uid
DHMS
Initially, earthquake activity coincides with dehydration and the release of fluids from sediment and crust in a subducting slab. Seismicity tapers off sharply down to a depth of 300 km, and it is expected that dehydration and loss of volatiles from the slab are largely complete by this point. There should be no further earthquakes as the slab continues to descend into the mantle. For this reason, the deep-focus earthquakes below about 300 km that peak in a second mode at 500–600 km are anomalous (figure 1A).
Solidus of carbonated MORB Carb. melting
Breakdown of hydrous phases
Deep-focus earthquakes are a subject of active research. Several ideas have been proposed to explain them. One of the proposed mechanisms is that subducting slabs contain hydrous minerals in their interior from previous interaction with seawater at the surface, which eventually break down as the slab warms up, releasing water and promoting brittle failure within the slab (Omori et al., 2004). This idea is singled out here because it ties in with the modeling work
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
by Shirey et al. (2021), who refined the idea and connected it with recent observations from CLIPPIR (~type IIa) and type IIb diamonds.
A Primer in Plate Tectonics
under the plates. The lithosphere is an open-faced sandwich of two components, with the crust on top and a portion of rigid mantle rock beneath it. The bottom of the lithosphere or plate is a mechanical boundary where the mantle rocks transition from rigid and brittle to weak and plastic. The weak and fl owing mantle beneath the lithosphere is sometimes specifi ed as the sublithospheric mantle or convecting mantle, which extends all the way down to the outer core at 2900 km.
and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fl uid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacifi c Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
surrounded by subduction zones where oceanic lithosphere is subducting down into the mantle and fueling arc volcanoes that make up the Pacifi c Ring of Fire.
It is clear that deep-focus earthquakes are linked with subduction, so it is important to clarify some of the concepts of plate tectonics before moving further. The rigid outer layer of the earth that makes up the plates in figure 1B is called the lithosphere, and it rides on the weak and plastic (but not molten) rock beneath the lithosphere, shown simply as white space under the plates. The lithosphere is an open-faced sandwich of two components, with the crust on top and a portion of rigid mantle rock beneath it. The bottom of the lithosphere or plate is a mechanical boundary where the mantle rocks transition from rigid and brittle to weak and plastic. The weak and flowing mantle beneath the lithosphere is sometimes specified as the sublithospheric mantle or convecting mantle, which extends all the way down to the outer core at 2900 km.
There are two very different kinds of lithosphere. Continents, including their underwater continental shelf extensions, are made of continental lithosphere, whereas ocean fl oors are made of oceanic lithosphere (figure 1B). Continental lithosphere is thicker, more buoyant, and relatively stable through geologic time. Oceanic lithosphere is thinner, denser, and has a relatively fi nite life cycle.
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fl uid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profiles in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB) of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-
bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability fi eld far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown defl ecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also super-deep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
Super-Deep Diamond Factories
Oceanic lithosphere is created almost continuously at the spreading centers of mid-ocean ridges. On either side of a ridge, the plates gradually spread apart. Eventually, in 20 to 200 million years, the oceanic lithosphere bends and sinks down into the convecting mantle, a process called subduction (figure 1B). The creation and subduction of oceanic lithosphere are ongoing. The rate of spreading at mid-ocean ridges and convergence at subduction zones often differs and is not necessarily balanced in the same ocean basin, so oceans are dynamic regions that can open and grow or shrink and close. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean, for example, is facilitated by the creation of new oceanic lithosphere along the mid-Atlantic ridge. There is currently no subduction of oceanic lithosphere around the Atlantic’s perimeter. The Pacifi c Ocean, however, is almost completely
There are two very different kinds of lithosphere. Continents, including their underwater continental shelf extensions, are made of continental lithosphere, whereas ocean floors are made of oceanic lithosphere (figure 1B). Continental lithosphere is thicker, more buoyant, and relatively stable through geologic time. Oceanic lithosphere is thinner, denser, and has a relatively finite life cycle.
Diamond-bearing kimberlite eruption
Continental lithosphere
FREQUENCY OF EARTHQUAKES
Deep-focus earthquake activity
High-quality CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds
Low-quality, non-gem sublithospheric diamonds
Lithospheric diamonds
Nearly all the oceanic lithosphere on Earth is younger than about 200 million years old. Modern-style plate tectonics is thought to have been operating for about the past 3 billion years (Earth is 4.5 billion years old) (Shirey and Richardson, 2011). Over this time, several oceans have opened and closed (Wilson, 1966) along with the assembly and breakup of various continental configurations, such as the supercontinent Pangaea.
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fl uids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fl uid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich
Oceanic lithosphere is created almost continuously at the spreading centers of mid-ocean ridges. On either side of a ridge, the plates gradually spread apart. Eventually, in 20 to 200 million years, the oceanic lithosphere bends and sinks down into the convecting mantle, a process called subduction (figure 1B). The creation and subduction of oceanic lithosphere are ongoing. The rate of spreading at mid-ocean ridges and convergence at subduction zones often differs and is not necessarily balanced in the same ocean basin, so oceans are dynamic regions that can open and grow or shrink and close. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean, for example, is facilitated by the creation of new oceanic lithosphere along the mid-Atlantic ridge. There is currently no subduction of oceanic lithosphere around the Atlantic’s perimeter. The Pacific Ocean, however, is almost completely surrounded by subduction zones where oceanic lithosphere is subducting down into the mantle and fueling arc volcanoes that make up the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Nearly all the oceanic lithosphere on Earth is younger than about 200 million years old. Modern-style plate tectonics is thought to have been operating for about the past 3 billion years (Earth is 4.5 billion years old) (Shirey and Richardson, 2011). Over this time, several oceans have opened and closed (Wilson, 1966) along with the assembly and breakup of various continental configurations, such as the supercontinent Pangaea.
Hundreds of kilometers down inside the earth, where subducting slabs reach perhaps 360–750 km, there may be blossoming domains of diamond growth. Most mined diamonds are thought to originate from shallower depths within the continental lithosphere at about 150–200 km, but some (estimated to be approximately 2%) originate from below the continental lithosphere. These are known as sublithospheric or super-deep diamonds. Despite being a relatively rare mineral, diamond can form in multiple different ways. The variables that lead to different kinds of diamond include the host rock type, the composition of the diamond forming fl uid, how carbon resides in the fl uid and surrounding mantle, and the pressure and temperature conditions. Individual diamond deposits at the surface often contain several distinct populations that can be recognized by studying mineral inclusions or other features, such as their morphology, internal growth history, nitrogen content and aggregation, and carbon isotopic composition (e.g., Stachel and Harris, 2008).
Oceaniclithosphere
Carbonated slab melting Hydrous uid
Figure 1. Earthquake depth distribution and overview of plate boundaries. A: Depth distribution of earthquakes worldwide (note the logarithmic scale). Most “regular” earthquakes occur at depths shallower than 200 km, and the frequency decreases with depth. Earthquakes deeper than about 300 km stray from this pattern, and there is an anomalous mode of activity around 500-600 km. The histogram shows magnitude 5 and greater earthquakes for a 40-year period (1964–2004) in the EHB (Engdahlvan der Hilst-Buland) catalog (Engdahl et al., 1998). B: A simplified schematic cross section of the earth, showing interactions between tectonic plates. Most earthquake activity occurs by interactions between these rigid plates near the surface, especially where plates push together, at subduction zones and continental collisions. Deeper earthquakes are spatially associated with subducted plates and must occur by a different mechanism that remains poorly understood.
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
Figure 1. Earthquake depth distribution and overview of plate boundaries. A: Depth distribution of earthquakes worldwide (note the logarithmic scale). Most “regular” earthquakes occur at depths shallower than 200 km, and the frequency decreases with depth. Earthquakes deeper than about 300 km stray from this pattern, and there is an anomalous mode of activity around 500-600 km. The histogram shows magnitude 5 and greater earthquakes for a 40-year period (1964–2004) in the EHB (Engdahl-van der Hilst-Buland) catalog (Engdahl et al., 1998). B: A simplified schematic cross section of the earth, showing interactions between tectonic plates. Most earthquake activity occurs by interactions between these rigid plates near the surface, especially where plates push together, at subduction zones and continental collisions. Deeper earthquakes are spatially associated with subducted plates and must occur by a different mechanism that remains poorly understood.
and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fl uid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacifi c Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fl uid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profiles in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB) of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability fi eld far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown defl ecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also super-deep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
2. These large type IIa diamonds are good examples of CLIPPIR diamonds, which are the kind of top gem-quality diamonds produced in the sublithospheric mantle, potentially in association with deep earthquakes. The diamonds shown are from the Letšeng mine in Lesotho and range from 14 to 91 ct. Note the irregular morphologies, including surfaces that are both broken and substantially resorbed. Photo by Robert Weldon/GIA; courtesy of Gem Diamonds Ltd.
Super-Deep Diamond Factories
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fl uids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fl uid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich
Diamond-bearing kimberlite eruption
Continental lithosphere
Deep-focus earthquake activity
High-quality CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds
Low-quality, non-gem sublithospheric diamonds
Lithospheric diamonds
Hundreds of kilometers down inside the earth, where subducting slabs reach perhaps 360–750 km, there may be blossoming domains of diamond growth. Most mined diamonds are thought to originate from shallower depths within the continental lithosphere at about 150–200 km, but some (estimated to be approximately 2%) originate from below the continental lithosphere. These are known as sublithospheric or super-deep diamonds. Despite being a relatively rare mineral, diamond can form in multiple different ways. The variables that lead to different kinds of diamond include the host rock type, the composition of the diamond forming fluid, how carbon resides in the fluid and surrounding mantle, and the pressure and temperature conditions. Individual diamond deposits at the surface often contain several distinct populations that can be recognized by studying mineral inclusions or other features, such as their morphology, internal growth history, nitrogen content and aggregation, and carbon isotopic composition (e.g., Stachel and Harris, 2008).
The study of sublithospheric diamonds over the past few decades has been dominated by small (usually <1 ct), generally non-gem quality diamonds from the Juina region of Brazil and various other localities worldwide (see reviews by Stachel et al., 2005; Kaminsky, 2012; Harte and Hudson,
Oceaniclithosphere
2013; Smith and Nestola, 2021). In the past few years, however, it has been discovered that the prevalence of sublithospheric diamonds is greater than previously thought and includes some of the largest and highest-quality gem diamonds (Smith et al., 2016, 2017, 2018). Diamonds such as the exquisite type IIa (containing no detectable nitrogen by FTIR) gems from the Letšeng mine (figure 2) are now recognized to belong to the sublithospheric variety termed CLIPPIR diamonds. These are argued to account for most of the type IIa diamonds in the gem marketplace, amounting to about ~1% of diamonds (Smith et al., 2017). Similarly, rare type IIb diamonds (boron-bearing), which can be blue in color, have also been shown to be sublithospheric (Smith et al., 2018).
Carbonated slab melting
Hydrous uid
A connection to subducted oceanic lithosphere is an emerging theme common to many sublithospheric diamonds, based mainly on the composition of mineral inclusions (Walter et al., 2008, 2011; Bulanova et al., 2010; Burnham et al., 2015; Ickert et al., 2015; Seitz et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2018; Thomson et al., 2016a). CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds have also been linked to subducted slabs and to serpentinized peridotite in the mantle portion of slabs in particular. Serpentinization is a complex series of reactions between water and rock, resulting in the formation of hydrous (water-bearing) minerals such as serpentine
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
Figure
and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fl uid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacifi c Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fl uid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacifi c Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
from normally anhydrous minerals such as olivine. The strongest piece of evidence for this connection between diamonds and serpentinites comes from measurements of iron isotopes in inclusions trapped in CLIPPIR diamonds (Smith et al., 2021). The iron in these inclusions has an isotopic signature produced during serpentinization reactions between seawater and the ocean floor. In order for this signature to be trapped in CLIPPIR diamonds, deeply subducted serpentinized oceanic lithosphere must have contributed to their formation. In a sense, subducting slabs are like conveyor belts feeding raw materials down to hidden super-deep diamond factories at 360–750 km depths. Exactly how these diamonds make their way upward to shallower depths where they can be swept up to the surface in volcanic eruptions of kimberlite magma remains an open question, however (figure 3).
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fl uid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profi les in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB) of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fl uid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profiles in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB) of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
Earthquakes and Diamond-Forming Fluid Slabs gradually warm up as they subduct into the mantle. The temperature change with depth is called a geotherm. About half of Earth’s subducting slabs trace out warmer pathways while the remainder are colder, depending on the age of the slab and the speed at which it subducts. Warmer slabs generally lack deep earthquakes, which appear to
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-
bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability fi eld far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown defl ecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also super-deep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability fi eld far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown defl ecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also super-deep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
be unique to colder slabs. Shirey et al. (2021) examined slabs around the world and modeled their temperature change with depth as they heat up during subduction into the mantle. They also made a careful comparison between earthquake locations, slab geotherms, and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fluid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fluid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profiles in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB)
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fl uids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fl uid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich
Diamond-bearing kimberlite eruption
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fl uids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fl uid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich
Diamond-bearing kimberlite eruption
Continental lithosphere
Deep-focus earthquake activity
Deep-focus earthquake activity
High-quality CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds
Low-quality, non-gem sublithospheric diamonds
Lithospheric diamonds
High-quality CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds
Low-quality, non-gem sublithospheric diamonds
Lithospheric diamonds
Oceaniclithosphere
Oceaniclithosphere
slab melting
Carbonated slab melting
Hydrous uid
of hydrous phases
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
upon trapping because it crystallized from, or was exposed to, hydrous fl uids. Subducted serpentinized peridotite is also a key ingredient for CLIPPIR diamond growth, on the basis of recent iron isotope measurements (Smith et al., 2021).
Broken Diamonds
upon trapping because it crystallized from, or was exposed to, hydrous fl uids. Subducted serpentinized peridotite is also a key ingredient for CLIPPIR diamond growth, on the basis of recent iron isotope measurements (Smith et al., 2021).
of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
Broken Diamonds
Evidence of natural deformation and breakage in diamond is not uncommon. For example, this evidence can be in the form of plastic deformation lines or internally fractured diamond overgrown by new layers of pristine diamond. Features such as these attest to the occasional turbulent conditions in the mantle, even before diamonds are picked up and scrambled by kimberlite eruptions. Little is known about the circumstances responsible for these features.
and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fl uid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacifi c Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
Evidence of natural deformation and breakage in diamond is not uncommon. For example, this evidence can be in the form of plastic deformation lines or internally fractured diamond overgrown by new layers of pristine diamond. Features such as these attest to the occasional turbulent conditions in the mantle, even before diamonds are picked up and scrambled by kimberlite eruptions. Little is known about the circumstances responsible for these features.
Sublithospheric diamonds in particular bear evidence of deformation and breakage, typically having irregular morphologies with broken and resorbed surfaces. CLIPPIR diamonds, which can reach thousands of carats (including the 3,106 ct Cullinan), often have surfaces that appear to be broken (fi gure 2). Some of those broken surfaces on large diamonds have high degrees of resorption or chemical dissolution, to an extent that would consume any small diamonds nearby (Gurney and Helmstaedt, 2012). For this reason, such extreme resorption is unlikely to be associated with volcanic transport in a kimberlite where smaller diamond
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability field far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown deflecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also superdeep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fl uid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profiles in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB) of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
Sublithospheric diamonds in particular bear evidence of deformation and breakage, typically having irregular morphologies with broken and resorbed surfaces. CLIPPIR diamonds, which can reach thousands of carats (including the 3,106 ct Cullinan), often have surfaces that appear to be broken (fi gure 2). Some of those broken surfaces on large diamonds have high degrees of resorption or chemical dissolution, to an extent that would consume any small diamonds nearby (Gurney and Helmstaedt, 2012). For this reason, such extreme resorption is unlikely to be associated with volcanic transport in a kimberlite where smaller diamond
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-
Figure 5. Evidence of the incredibly dynamic setting in which these diamonds form. A: Deep-UV luminescence image of a type IIa diamond with irregular blue lines (see arrows) that may be healed fractures lying within a typical dislocation network pattern. Image by E.M. Smith; fi eld of view 5.92 mm. B: Cathodoluminescence image of a type IIb diamond with an irregular dislocation network pattern that encloses several long straight segments, reaching up to 600 µm, interpreted as healed segments of brittle fracture/cleavage within an otherwise plastically deformed and annealed diamond. Image by E.M. Smith; fi eld of view 2.39 mm.
bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability fi eld far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown defl ecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also super-deep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
Figure 5. Evidence of the incredibly dynamic setting in which these diamonds form. A: Deep-UV luminescence image of a type IIa diamond with irregular blue lines (see arrows) that may be healed fractures lying within a typical dislocation network pattern. Image by E.M. Smith; fi eld of view 5.92 mm. B: Cathodoluminescence image of a type IIb diamond with an irregular dislocation network pattern that encloses several long straight segments, reaching up to 600 µm, interpreted as healed segments of brittle fracture/cleavage within an otherwise plastically deformed and annealed diamond. Image by E.M. Smith; fi eld of view 2.39 mm.
crystals survive. This indicates that the resorption, and in turn some of the breakage of large CLIPPIR diamonds, occurred early in the diamond’s history.
Figure 5. Evidence of the incredibly dynamic setting in which these diamonds form. A: Deep-UV luminescence image of a type IIa diamond with irregular blue lines (see arrows) that may be healed fractures lying within a typical dislocation network pattern. Image by E.M. Smith; field of view 5.92 mm. B: Cathodoluminescence image of a type IIb diamond with an irregular dislocation network pattern that encloses several long straight segments, reaching up to 600 µm, interpreted as healed segments of brittle fracture/cleavage within an otherwise plastically deformed and annealed diamond. Image by E.M. Smith; field of view 2.39 mm.
crystals survive. This indicates that the resorption, and in turn some of the breakage of large CLIPPIR diamonds, occurred early in the diamond’s history.
In addition to diamond breakage, some sublithospheric diamonds have internal evidence of more subdued brittle fractures that have healed rather than separated (figure 5). Network-like patterns of dislocations inside these diamonds often conform with the healed fractures rather than being cross-cut by them, suggesting the deformation and fracturing was followed by a protracted period of annealing in the mantle to allow the network pattern to develop. Again, this points to sublithospheric diamond deformation and breakage that is not due to kimberlite activity.
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fl uids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fl uid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich
Diamond-bearing kimberlite eruption
Continental lithosphere
Deep-focus earthquake activity
High-quality CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds
Figure 4. Evidence of hydrous fl uid presence during diamond growth. This inclusion of breyite (photomicrograph and bottom Raman spectrum) within a blue type IIb diamond is interpreted to have been trapped as CaSiO3 perovskite, which has inverted to a lower-pressure mineral form during exhumation from the mantle, originating from a depth greater than 360 km. Raman spectroscopy also reveals peaks associated with methane and molecular hydrogen (top right spectrum), which are present as a thin fl uid layer trapped at the interface between the solid inclusion and the host diamond. Photomicrograph by E.M. Smith; fi eld of view 0.65 mm.
Low-quality, non-gem sublithospheric diamonds
Lithospheric diamonds
Figure 4. Evidence of hydrous fluid presence during diamond growth. This inclusion of breyite (photomicrograph and bottom Raman spectrum) within a blue type IIb diamond is interpreted to have been trapped as CaSiO3 perovskite, which has inverted to a lower-pressure mineral form during exhumation from the mantle, originating from a depth greater than 360 km. Raman spectroscopy also reveals peaks associated with methane and molecular hydrogen (top right spectrum), which are present as a thin fluid layer trapped at the interface between the solid inclusion and the host diamond. Photomicrograph by E.M. Smith; field of view 0.65 mm.
Figure 4. Evidence of hydrous fl uid presence during diamond growth. This inclusion of breyite (photomicrograph and bottom Raman spectrum) within a blue type IIb diamond is interpreted to have been trapped as CaSiO3 perovskite, which has inverted to a lower-pressure mineral form during exhumation from the mantle, originating from a depth greater than 360 km. Raman spectroscopy also reveals peaks associated with methane and molecular hydrogen (top right spectrum), which are present as a thin fl uid layer trapped at the interface between the solid inclusion and the host diamond. Photomicrograph by E.M. Smith; fi eld of view 0.65 mm.
In addition to diamond breakage, some sublithospheric diamonds have internal evidence of more subdued brittle fractures that have healed rather than separated (figure 5). Network-like patterns of dislocations inside these diamonds often conform with the healed fractures rather than being cross-cut by them, suggesting the deformation and fracturing was followed by a protracted period of annealing in the mantle to allow the network pattern to develop. Again, this points to sublithospheric diamond deformation and breakage that is not due to kimberlite activity.
Oceaniclithosphere
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fluids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fluid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich upon trapping because it crystallized from, or was exposed to, hydrous fluids. Subducted serpentinized peridotite is also a key ingredient for CLIPPIR diamond growth, on the basis of recent iron isotope measurements (Smith et al., 2021).
Broken Diamonds
If fl uid and melt release from deeply subducted slabs causes both deep-focus earthquakes and diamond growth, it is worth considering how diamonds might be affected by earthquakes. Breakage and other signs of deformation could potentially be related to diamond growth in a dynamic setting punctuated by deep-focus earthquakes. Obviously, more research is needed to decipher the natural deformation history of diamonds. Nevertheless, it is interesting to speculate on a possible connection between diamond breakage and deep-focus earthquakes.
Scientifi c Signifi cance
If fl uid and melt release from deeply subducted slabs causes both deep-focus earthquakes and diamond growth, it is worth considering how diamonds might be affected by earthquakes. Breakage and other signs of deformation could potentially be related to diamond growth in a dynamic setting punctuated by deep-focus earthquakes. Obviously, more research is needed to decipher the natural deformation history of diamonds. Nevertheless, it is interesting to speculate on a possible connection between diamond breakage and deep-focus earthquakes.
Breakdown of
Scientifi c Signifi cance
Evidence of natural deformation and breakage in diamond is not uncommon. For example, this evidence can be in the form of plastic deformation lines or internally fractured diamond overgrown by new layers of pristine diamond. Features such as these attest to the occasional turbulent conditions in the mantle, even before diamonds are picked up and scrambled by kimberlite eruptions. Little is known about the circumstances responsible for these features.
Carbonated slab melting
Hydrous uid
Subduction is a fundamental aspect of plate tectonics that is driven by Earth’s internal heat engine – the means by which heat escapes from the mantle and core. It forces us to consider plate tectonics not just as a system of plates at Earth’s surface but also as a process that involves the exchange of material between the surface and the deeper convecting mantle over time (figure 1B). During its time at the seafl oor, oceanic lithosphere interacts with seawater over many millions of years.
Sublithospheric diamonds in particular bear evidence of deformation and breakage, typically having irregular morphologies with broken and resorbed surfaces. CLIPPIR
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
Subduction is a fundamental aspect of plate tectonics that is driven by Earth’s internal heat engine – the means by which heat escapes from the mantle and core. It forces us to consider plate tectonics not just as a system of plates at Earth’s surface but also as a process that involves the exchange of material between the surface and the deeper convecting mantle over time (figure 1B). During its time at the seafl oor, oceanic lithosphere interacts with seawater over many millions of years.
diamonds, which can reach thousands of carats (including the 3,106 ct Cullinan), often have surfaces that appear to be broken (figure 2). Some of those broken surfaces on large diamonds have high degrees of resorption or chemical dissolution, to an extent that would consume any small diamonds nearby (Gurney and Helmstaedt, 2012). For this reason, such extreme resorption is unlikely to be associated with volcanic transport in a kimberlite where smaller diamond crystals survive. This indicates that the resorption, and in turn some of the breakage of large CLIPPIR diamonds, occurred early in the diamond’s history.
and the expected mineralogy and phase changes within slab rocks. Overlaying the slab geotherms onto phase diagrams helps to illustrate where water-bearing phases break down and release fl uid, such as the relatively well-accepted loss of most water from warm slabs at relatively shallow depths (<200 km). This is the activity that generates melt and fuels arc volcanoes such as those of the Pacifi c Ring of Fire. Cold slabs, however, can partially bypass this shallow dewatering process and transport a budget of carbonate and water to depths beyond 300 km, where its later release can cause deep-focus earthquakes (figure 3).
In addition to diamond breakage, some sublithospheric diamonds have internal evidence of more subdued brittle fractures that have healed rather than separated (figure 5). Network-like patterns of dislocations inside these diamonds often conform with the healed fractures rather than being cross-cut by them, suggesting the deformation and fracturing was followed by a protracted period of annealing in the mantle to allow the network pattern to develop. Again, this points to sublithospheric diamond deformation and breakage that is not due to kimberlite activity.
The cold slabs can be thought of as having a carbonated crust component and a hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite component that lies shielded beneath the crust, toward the interior of the slab. The deep release of carbonatitic melt and hydrous fl uid from each component, respectively, is shown in the two depth profiles in figure 3. The carbonated crust (mid-ocean ridge basalt, or MORB) of the slab surface will intersect a deep depression in its solidus, the curve describing the beginning of melting, meaning it exceeds the melting temperature. Beyond this point, carbonate melting (red arrows) is expected to occur within the top/crustal portion of the slab.
For hydrated/serpentinized mantle peridotite inside the slab, its stability also depends on temperature. If it remains cool, the serpentine can metamorphose into higher-pressure water-
If fluid and melt release from deeply subducted slabs causes both deep-focus earthquakes and diamond growth, it is worth considering how diamonds might be affected by earthquakes. Breakage and other signs of deformation could potentially be related to diamond growth in a dynamic setting punctuated by deep-focus earthquakes. Obviously, more research is needed to decipher the natural deformation history of diamonds. Nevertheless, it is interesting to speculate on a possible connection between diamond breakage and deep-focus earthquakes.
Scientific Significance
The sediments, water, and carbonate in the upper portion of the slab may be stripped off at shallower depths in the subduction zone (<200 km) where they fuel arc volcanoes, but some carbonated crust and serpentinized peridotite can be transported deeper. Deep-focus earthquakes and diamonds may be a product of some slabs, namely those that have remained cooler during subduction, carrying a budget of carbonate in altered ocean crust and hydrous minerals in serpentinized peridotite down to 300 to 700 km. The deep cycling of carbon and water has a big impact on the behavior of Earth’s interior, how it moves and melts.
bearing minerals called dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) rather than breaking down. DHMS phases are a good vehicle for transporting water, with some carrying as much as 10% or more water by weight. The geotherm for the interior of cold slabs remains in the DHMS stability fi eld far beyond a depth of 300 km (far right in figure 3). The slab in figure 3 is shown defl ecting as it reaches the top of the lower mantle (at 660 km), where there is a change in mantle density and deformability. As the slab stalls and warms up, DHMS phases break down to form minerals that carry much less water, thereby causing water release (blue arrows in figure 3). These are the mechanisms proposed to trigger not only deep-focus earthquakes but also super-deep diamond growth (Shirey et al., 2021).
Inclusions in the smaller, lower-quality varieties of sublithospheric diamonds often show evidence of growth from carbonatitic melts derived from slabs (Walter et al., 2008), but hydrous/aqueous fl uids have also been implicated for some samples (Wirth et al., 2007; Pearson et al., 2014; Palot et al., 2016). Serpentinite in subducting slabs can be relatively enriched in boron, meaning that the eventual breakdown of hydrous minerals from serpentinized peridotite can release boron-bearing hydrous fl uid, which has been linked with the formation of type IIb (boron-bearing) diamonds (Smith et al., 2018). Figure 4 shows a calcium silicate (breyite) inclusion with methane and hydrogen in a type IIb diamond. The original mineral inclusion may have been relatively hydrogen-rich
Diamond-bearing kimberlite eruption
Continental lithosphere
Deep-focus earthquake activity
These large-scale processes are relevant for the evolution of the atmosphere, the distribution of water at the surface, and the formation of continents over geological time. All of these parts of the dynamic earth are connected. Despite the proven 1 to 3 billion-year-old ages of many gem diamonds that come from the lithosphere, there is no reason that diamonds cannot be forming in the present. If diamonds and deep earthquakes are truly related, as described by Shirey et al. (2021), the implication is that modern-day earthquakes herald the formation of new diamonds. In this sense, subduction drives a sort of modern diamond factory – one that has the potential to produce some of the largest and most valuable diamonds known (including type IIa and type IIb diamonds).
Diamonds and earthquakes, while fascinating in their own right, are two of the most powerful tools we have to unravel the inner workings of our planet.
Oceaniclithosphere
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
High-quality CLIPPIR and type IIb diamonds
Low-quality, non-gem sublithospheric diamonds
Lithospheric diamonds
Subduction is a fundamental aspect of plate tectonics that is driven by Earth’s internal heat engine – the means by which heat escapes from the mantle and core. It forces us to consider plate tectonics not just as a system of plates at Earth’s surface but also as a process that involves the exchange of material between the surface and the deeper convecting mantle over time (figure 1B). During its time at the seafloor, oceanic lithosphere interacts with seawater over many millions of years. Water can circulate into fractures and react with the basaltic and peridotitic rocks that make up the oceanic lithosphere. As the aged and modified oceanic plates subduct, they now carry sediments, pore fluids, altered oceanic crust, and serpentinized peridotite along for the ride.
Carbonated slab melting Hydrous uid
Many thanks to Dr. Steven B. Shirey for insightful discussion and suggestions that helped to improve this column.
Figure 3. Mantle cross section showing a relatively cool subducting slab, with an inset histogram of earthquake frequency (from figure 1). Profiles on the right show the slab surface and interior temperature during subduction. Where the slab surface temperature intersects the solidus of carbonated mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB), partial melting may occur (red arrows). At the far right, a cold slab interior remains within the dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS) stability field until the slab stalls and warms up, causing the breakdown of these hydrous phases and the release of hydrous fluid (blue arrows). Large white and smaller brown diamond symbols signify the growth of high-quality gem diamonds (CLIPPIR and type IIb) and low-quality, generally non-gem sublithospheric diamonds, respectively. Poorly understood mechanisms transport some diamonds upward where they can be swept up in kimberlite eruptions and mixed with common lithospheric diamonds (small black diamond symbols). Modified from Smith and Nestola (2021) with carbonated MORB solidus from Thomson et al. (2016b) and DHMS stability field from Harte (2010).
December sees highest spike in luxury watch theft and losses
The Watch Register reported a 48% rise in thefts of luxury watches and a 183% rise in accidental losses of high-end watches during December last year
The month of December is associated with going out and parties, but these celebrations come with a heightened risk for owners of luxury watches. New analysis from The Watch Register, the world’s most comprehensive database of lost and stolen watches with over £1,5 billion of watches registered, reveals that the number of reported luxury watch thefts in December 2024 from owners while wearing them was 48% higher than the average monthly figure for the year.
The number of accidental losses of highend timepieces during December 2024 was also 183% higher than the number typically recorded in an average month.
The data highlights a worrying peak in luxury watch crime during December, when thieves seek to capitalise on festive crowds and more people are out and about.
Analysis reveals that over half (52%) of thefts of luxury watches from people wearing them occurred when owners were eating or drinking in bars, restaurants, nightclubs or other private member luxury clubs.
Crowded transport hubs and weary passengers travelling away for Christmas also significantly increase the likelihood of losing a high-end timepiece. Travel accounted for a staggering 94% of all accidental losses registered on The Watch Register’s global database during December, with people reporting that their losses occurred while travelling in taxis, trains or flights, or in airports.
Catherine Alexander, Business Development and Recoveries Manager at The Watch Register, recounts how one victim was
STOLEN
targeted during December 2023’s spike in luxury watch theft. “A male victim was drugged in a bar while wearing his Cartier watch on 21 December that year. As the drug took effect and he started losing consciousness, a stranger offered to help him to his hotel room. On waking up, he found that his watch was missing. A police report was filed and the watch’s serial number is registered on our global database,” she says.
“The significant rise in watch thefts and losses during December underlines the need for greater awareness and caution.
“We want owners to enjoy wearing their luxury watches when they’re out celebrating with friends and family, but to make sure that they’re alert to the fact that thefts are more prevalent. There’s a tendency for people to drop their guard when out socialising, which makes them more vulnerable to crime and accidental loss.”
"The number of accidental losses of high-end timepieces during December 2024 was also 183% higher than the number typically recorded in an average month."
The Watch Register offers the following advice retailers can give owners who wear their luxury watches when out and about:
• Stay alert to your surroundings, particularly in crowded venues or when using public transport.
• Avoid displaying a luxury watch in public and keep it in a secure place when travelling.
• Be cautious when approached by strangers asking for assistance or trying to engage you in conversation.
• Make sure your luxury watch is covered under a comprehensive insurance policy that includes theft or loss of your watch outside your home.
• Report any theft as soon as possible. The Metro politan Police describe the first hour after a robbery as “the golden hour” in terms of helping to identify suspects and secure evidence.
• Register your luxury watch’s serial number on The Watch Register’s global database, to increase its chances of recovery, if stolen.
The Watch Register database, which offers a global 24/7 service, provides a simple way for purchasers of preowned watches to check whether a watch offered for sale is reported stolen. The Watch Register combines sophisticated computer algorithms with human expertise and intervention to actively identify lost and stolen watches on the global pre-owned market. The database is used by watch dealers, jewellers, pawnbrokers and auction houses to identify stolen watches prior to transactions. From the moment a
stolen watch is located, The Watch Register’s specialist recoveries team steps in to secure the watch and facilitate a recovery for the rightful owner.
The Watch Register finds six lost and stolen watches per day, on average. Fifty percent of the watches it finds are located within a year of the theft and 35% within six months. One-third of the stolen watches located by The Watch Register database are offered with box and papers, many of which are fake, so buyers should not assume that the presence of paperwork indicates legitimate ownership.
The Watch Register database is the global leader of due diligence and crime prevention in the luxury watch market. It holds the world’s largest, most established, international database of lost, stolen and fake watches, containing data compiled over 30 years. The company provides expert-audited theft checks for watch traders and buyers, as well as specialist watch recovery services to victims and insurers.
The Watch Register database is independent of any brands or retailers. Its sole purpose is to protect the pre-owned watch market, assist victims of theft and support the police.
The Watch Register operation is headquartered in London and is part of the Art Loss Register (ALR), the world’s largest private database of lost and stolen art, antiques and collectables (www.artloss.com). Its database was established with the purpose of protecting the market from stolen property and enabling insurers and victims to recover their losses. The ALR, founded in 1990, has been responsible for the recovery of lost and stolen property worth hundreds of millions of pounds.
Did you know?
The word "carat" comes from the seed of the carob tree, which was historically used to weigh gemstones due to its consistency. Ancient traders used carob seeds as a unit of measurement before standardized weights were established.
MILLION TONS
Sea otters are known to wear a “pocket” under their forearms, where they store precious objects, including shells and even human-made jewellery like rings!
This is the estimated amount of gold in the oceans worldwide. However, the concentration is so low that it's not practical to mine at this scale – you’d need to process about 1 billion tons of seawater to extract just one ton of gold.
The term “bling” is said to come from the sound that flashy, shiny jewellery makes when it catches the light. It became popular in hip-hop culture in the early 2000s.
A lightning strike can generate enough heat to melt gold, turning it into liquid form.
Howard Tracy Hall (October 20, 1919 – July 25, 2008) was an American physical chemist and one of the early pioneers in the research of synthetic diamonds, using a press of his own design. When he started working at the General Electric Research Laboratory in New York, he joined a team focused on synthetic diamond making, codenamed "Project Superpressure". General Electric went on to make a fortune with Hall's invention and rewarded Hall with a $10 savings bond.
The "Cave of the Crystals" in Uruguay holds the world’s largest known amethyst geode, weighing over 2 500kg.
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