WCAPS Pipeline Fellows Publication

The WCAPS Pipeline Fellowship (WPF) Program

It is our pleasure to present the 2022 WCAPS Pipeline Fellowship Program Policy Paper Publication! The central goal of Women of Color Advancing Peace and Security (WCAPS) is to encourage, support, and ensure women of color have a seat at the table on issues of peace and security WCAPS looks at the whole person, no matter where they are in their professional journey, and utilizes the power of community, scholarship, and empowerment to help these women maneuver the peace and security space successfully. Community is our network of talented and energized members. Scholarship refers to the many areas of expertise and specialization our members hold, in addition to the outputs produced by members, by way of thought leadership Empowerment means having the strength and resilience to keep fighting to overcome challenges such as stereotypes, various types of abuse, and gaslighting This type of empowerment is needed if women of color are to tackle imbalances, namely related to gender and race, that exist in many policy-making circles, at all

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spirit of community, scholarship, and empowerment, The WCAPS Pipeline Fellowship Program was born In February 2020, Ambassador Bonnie Jenkins and Gabrielle Gueye welcomed the first batch of Fellows. For five months, fellows learned about and engaged with topics such as climate action, mentorship, and human rights, and were graced by some of the most dedicated and diligent women in the field. The WCAPS Pipeline Fellowship Program provides an opportunity for college and university students, as well as young adults and early career professionals, to develop a broad understanding of the different dimensions of peace, security, and foreign policy through engagement with WCAPS members, to include young, mid career and senior level women and men Oftentimes, the WCAPS Pipeline Fellowship program serves as an introduction to these career paths for young women of color and allows them to seamlessly integrate into the WCAPS community and beyond, thus creating the pipeline we aimed for.

The program started locally in Washington D C and has since expanded to include participants from across the globe This most recent cohort had participants from four continents This dynamic group of women learned about a variety of topics to include Redefining National Security (RNS), emotional intelligence, Women Peace and Security (WPS), and international law as it relates to peacebuilding. WCAPS is very proud to present the policy papers these young women wrote, following months of rigorous research, coordination, and collaboration There is no doubt in our minds that these women will go on to do incredible things, given the vigor and passion they hold for these topics and challenges and for their desire to be a force for change. WCAPS would like to thank all of the authors, editors, and program managers in ensuring the continued success of the WCAPS Pipeline Fellowship Program. Bonne lecture!

Gabrielle Gueye Pipeline Programs Lead

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Adenikè Adegbidi is a graduate of the Master's program in International Law at the Université du Québec à Montréal Adenikè's master's research focused on an intersectional analysis of Shamima Begum's private citizenship in the United Kingdom. She also holds a BA in Political Science with a specialization in International Relations. She currently works for a human rights organization. Her research interests include human rights, women's rights, minority rights, migrant rights and citizenship issues

Beza Gebremariam is a second generation Ethiopian American from Aurora, Colorado. She graduated from Duke University with a Bachelor's degree in Political Science and African and African American Studies. While at Duke Beza studied abroad in Cape Town, South Africa and interned at Scalabrini Refugee Centre Beza is currently based in Washington D C , working as a contractor for the State Depar tment's Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM) covering the South America and Caribbean region

Caroline Mendoza is currently an undergraduate at Columbia University studying human rights and gender studies. Originally from Los Angeles, CA, Caroline has worked with the US Depar tment of State, Search for Common Ground, the Simon Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide, and served as a research associate with the Columbia Center for Latin America Caroline hopes to attend graduate school in the future with a focus on the intersection of gender and conflict.

Clémence Kouamé is a Master’s student in international security at Sciences Po Paris and is passionate about advocating for Africans affected by wars Growing up in Ivory Coast, a war affected country, She has experienced what it is like to seek refuge from violence as a young woman. From a very young age, she became aware of the dispropor tionate consequences of war. This traumatic experience in her childhood led her to find ways to advocate for refugees affected by wars For this purpose, she essentially works in post conflict resolutions, aiming at rebuilding the lives of people who have survived civil wars in numerous African countries by equipping them and enabling their social reinser tion

Desiree Raymond was born in Brooklyn, NY to St Lucian immigrants. Like many other immigrant parents, they instilled in her the importance of education, taking advantage of opportunities, and helping others After being diagnosed with Transverse Myelitis in her early 20s and experiencing the country’s faulty healthcare system first-hand, she decided to pursue a career focused on public health She received a BS in Health Service Administration and recently graduated from Baruch’s Marxe School of Public and International Affairs MPA program. Desiree is an advocate for disability rights and racial equity. She believes it is crucial to

understand and address the intersectionality of gender, race, and disability equality Her goal is to help decrease disparities in health and health care and provide adequate access to care for minorities with disabilities through policies and programs

Emily Peraza is from Santa Ana, California, currently a four th year undergraduate student at UC Berkeley working towards a Global Studies degree with a concentration in Peace and Conflict I'm passionate about global issues, human rights, immigration, and foreign policy Her identities as a 1st generation, Latina student are all very impor tant to me and relevant to the work and the learning she does. I am extremely honored to have been selected to par ticipate as a WCAPS 2022 fellow alongside an empowering cohor t of like minded women from across the globe In my free time, I like going to concer ts and trying new cafe spots

Haripriya Guduru is in the final year of her Master ’s program in Development Studies and Economics at Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India. She’s passionate about analyzing the nexus between conflict, security and development discourses in post conflict societies of Asia and Africa She aims to contribute to the field through inclusive, sustainable and gendered approaches that focus on the lived experiences in the Global South to tackle developmental and governance issues in conflict and post conflict regions

Jada. C. Quinland is a 23 year old, naturalized immigrant from the islands of Antigua & Barbuda and Jamaica. She is currently a second year Master’s of International Affairs candidate at the Pennsylvania State University. At Penn State, Jada also serves as the President of the 72nd Assembly within the Graduate and Professional Student Association (GPSA)

Leading up to her civil service and admission to Penn State, Jada completed her undergraduate career in the Bronx at the City University of New York’s Lehman campus. During that journey to gain a Bachelor’s of Science in Accounting, with a discipline in International Business, Jada received the Chancellor’s scholarships to study abroad in the Netherlands where she did research regarding business and development in Africa. Lastly, Jada is ending her last year as a Master’s candidate with an intensive focus on formulating her required capstone thesis paper Her thesis is aimed to create a matrix on the conditions of water supplies amongst the developing and emerging nations After graduation, she is hoping to enroll into a PhD program before 2024, where she plans to fur ther develop and expand her resource oriented matrix.

Javeria is a young feminist peacebuilder She is passionate about embracing anti-colonial lense for inclusive and intersectional peacebuilding She holds an MA in Development Studies from the Graduate Institute, Geneva and a BA in International Relations and Geography from Mount Holyoke College, MA, USA. Beyond peacebuilding, she has prior experience in human rights and climate justice. Currently, she works at the Global Initiative for Justice, Truth and

Reconciliation under the International Coalition of Sites of Conscience. Javeria is a shape shifter with a desire to work at the intersection of her many interests and passions.

Katie Dames is a foreign policy professional working at the British Embassy in Washington Her academic interests include gender and security, peacebuilding, postcolonialism, and conflict resolution. Outside of work, you can catch her learning Arabic or recipe testing with veggies from her local farmers market.

Lalissie E. is a growing professional in the nonprofit sector with a Bachelor’s in International Relations She enjoys analyzing how marginalized communities are affected by power dynamics between institutions and individuals. Outside of academics, Lalissie relies on hands on experiences to enrich her understanding of community building, problem solving practices, and current events. To that end, she’s previously taken up roles as her college’s Black Student Union president, a First Year Mentor to guide new college students, and a Hansard Society Scholar spending a semester at the London School of Economics and interning for a Labour MP This past spring, Lalissie was a Pipeline Fellow. By attending topic specific sessions and par ticipating in group work, she gained familiarity with the peace and security field by brainstorming potential solutions to global issues with other fellows. Currently, Lalissie is the Events & Community Coordinator at The Communications Network With the team, she works to fulfill The Network’s goal of providing informational resources and oppor tunities to connect for communications professionals across the social sector

Lauran Howard (pronouns: she/her) is an active member of the Women of Color Advancing Peace, Security and Conflict Transformation (WCAPS) where she is Co Chair of the Mental Health Sub Working Group and a Pipeline Fellow Graduated from Georgetown University SCS, she obtained her MA in Liberal Studies with a focus in International Relations and Religious Studies She also obtained her BA, in International Studies concentrating in International Cultures from Mount St. Mary’s University. A Cer tified Foundational Positive Psychology Specialist, Adult Mental Health First Aider/Instructor and a member of the International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA), she has also spent the last 10 years as a Human Rights and Mental Health Advocate for organizations and initiatives that focus on marginalized communities such as POC, WOC and LGBTQIA+ on a global scale

Lauran has also dedicated herself in fur thering her studies in Mindfulness, Religious & Contemplative Practices at the Won Institute of Graduate Studies. At the same time, she also aims to gain experience and knowledge surrounding Mind, Body & Spiritual Wellness while deciding to pursue a PhD in Clinical Psychology or Global Human Development Currently, Lauran works as a Research Consultant at the International Coalition of Sites of Conscience (ICSC) with the Global Initiative for Justice, Truth and Reconciliation while completing her internship as a Research Assistant Intern at the Radiant Cardinal Project, a non

organization that centers around research on how to better suppor t those affected by Substance Use Disorder (SUD). She enjoys going on nature walks, reading, playing and teaching the piano, ar t, journaling and spending time with friends and family

Lizeth Flores currently serves as the Grants Manager at U S VETS, which is a veteran services organization headquar tered in Los Angeles, California. In addition to being a WCAPS Pipeline Fellow, she is a graduate student at Cornell University, working toward her Master of Public Administration degree, with a concentration in International Policy She is also a Board Fellow for School on Wheels (providing tutoring services for unhoused students in Southern California), and a member of Women of Color in Fundraising and Philanthropy Previously, she served with organizations such as the Hispanic Scholarship Fund and California Latinas for Reproductive Justice; and also worked at a star tup called Pioneer Infotech. Prior to this work, she advocated for undocumented student rights during her time at the University of Califoria, Los Angeles, where she earned her bachelor’s degree in International Development Studies

Lydia Johnson is a 2019 graduate of Howard University, holding degrees in Spanish and Political Science. Throughout her academic and professional careers she has committed herself to global servant leadership and empowerment through education, and has traveled, lived, and worked in seventeen different countries Lydia is a current Fulbright ETA grantee to Panama, where she suppor ts English coursework at the primary and university level Prior to beginning her Fulbright, she worked as a Program Assistant for the Charles B Rangel International Affairs Program, as a Research Fellow for Her Term, a Political Organizing Fellow with The Working Families Par ty, and a Summer Fellow with The Peace and Security Funders Group. Along with being a 2022 Pipeline Fellow, she serves on the leadership board for the Women of Color Advancing Peace, Security and Conflict Transformation (WCAPS) Georgia chapter She is multilingual and has studied Spanish, Japanese, French, Por tuguese, and Latin She is also a proud member of Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Incorporated She has a genuine passion for international affairs, most notably suppor ting students from underrepresented and minority backgrounds through academic spaces. Lydia plans to someday star t her own nonprofit organization to create accessible international education oppor tunities for low income Black and POC students focused on minority identities and Black culture throughout the African Diaspora In her free time she loves to cook, binge horror movies, and play indie games on her Nintendo Switch

Maywadee (May) Viriyapah is a graduate from the George Washington University, receiving a B.A in Political Science and Fine Ar ts. She is interested in international affairs and human rights advocacy As an undergraduate, she worked at several institutions researching conflict resolution and terrorism For the past year, she has been working in the U S House of Representatives as a Asian Pacific American Institute for Congressional Studies Racial Equity Fellow

with a focus on foreign affairs legislation. Following her work at Congress, May will be working in Thailand with the Fulbright English Teaching Assistant program for the 2022 2023 year. Outside of work, she enjoys studying ar t and has par ticipated in several local ar t exhibitions

Meenu Bhooshanan was born and raised in Madison, Alabama She is an interdisciplinary technologist, with industry experience in software engineering, cybersecurity, and data science. Currently, she serves as a US Digital Corps Software Engineering Fellow at the General Services Administration's technology innovation lab Meenu aspires to utilize her technological background and domain knowledge to help redefine national security and make government more equitable Meenu graduated from Washington University in St. Louis in 2022 as a John B. Ervin scholar, with a B.A. in Global Studies (International Affairs concentration), Second Major in Computer Science, and a minor in Arabic. During her undergraduate years, she was involved with a South Asian equality collective working to raise awareness about and combat caste discrimination Outside of her professional life, Meenu loves to cook global cuisines and try local restaurants She is an avid reader, writer, crocheter, music lover, and explorer of new places.

Ngozi Elobuike is an international scholar, global health health practitioner and community organizer She is a 2019 Honors graduate from Howard University with a Bachelors of Science in Biology In December of 2020, she completed her Masters in Global Health and Development at University College London In 2022, she wrapped up her Masters student in Race, Migration and Decolonial Studies at University College Dublin. While balancing full time, academically rigorous courses, she acquired 7 years of experience working with nonprofits. She managed over 75 people across different teams, handling over $50,000 in funding and structured the full life cycle of projects in Stockton, California, Washington, D C , London, U K , and Blantyre, Malawi Overall, she has robust experience in organization design, communicating with stakeholders, and culturally competent strategic planning.

Raziya Hillery is 2022 Fulbright Peru Scholar and recent graduate of Butler University, where she studied political science, international studies, and Spanish As a committed public servant, she has worked with Catholic Charities Refugee and Immigrant Services, The Office of the Indianapolis Mayor, and with The Dominican Republic's Permanent Mission to the United Nations. She most recently interned with the United Nations Development Coordination Office to monitor the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. Raziya currently works to protect human rights for marginalized populations as the Director of Community Engagement for Black Women in Charge, Inc In the future, she hopes to work in government or international organizations to improve the lives of marginalized communities Raziya proudly calls Indianapolis, Indiana her home.

EDITORS

Gabrielle Gueye is the Outreach, Stakeholder Engagement, and Training Manager at Women of Color Advancing Peace and Security (WCAPS) She is also the Global Business Director at Morganmatters LLC, an International Trade Firm. Gabrielle also leads the organization and implementation of WCAPS' pipeline programs Before joining WCAPS full time, she worked in humanitarian aid and development, at Catholic Relief Services, for a number of years, where she led Knowledge Management activities and provided Technical Assistance as part of the Impact Investing and Private Sector Engagement team Gabrielle is a returned Peace Corps Volunteer, AmeriCorps member, and Rotarian. She completed her Bachelor's degree at Kent State University in Ohio, with a concentration in Justice Studies and Teaching English as a Foreign Language, and completed her Master ’s degree at Thunderbird School of Global Management at Arizona State University in Global Affairs and Management.

Kynnedi Taylor-Henry is the Foreign Policy and Programs Lead for Women of Color Advancing Peace, Security and Conflict Transformation (WCAPS) In her role, she works closely with WCAPS' working group and initiative leadership to suppor t them in their membership engagement effor ts. Prior to joining WCAPS Headquar ters, she served on the Board of Directors for the League of Women Voters, Oxford/Nor th Mississippi Chapter During her time with the League, s Mississippi legislators to advocate for the League's top priorities, including voter engagement, redistricting, People Powered Fair Maps Campaign and secure elections Kynnedi also worked with the League to educate the community of Oxford, Mississippi about the People Powered Fair Maps Campaign, which focused on redistricting and gerrymandering. Prior to her service to the League of Women Voters, she worked for the Friends Committee on National Legislation to organize community members and lobby members of Congress to suppor t nation wide gun safety legislation As a burgeoning practitioner in the field of foreign affairs, she has par ticipated in Orgs in Solidarity's Media Spokesperson Training Series, Davis Center for Eurasian Study's Negotiation Task Force, and Women in Government Relations' Direct Connect to Congress. Her proudest accomplishment is that she is the author of a motivational children's book titled, The Adventures of Jonathan and Mr. King.

Noura Hassouna is an international affairs scholar with a focus on Global Gender Policy and the Middle East She earned a Masters of Art in International Affairs with a concentration on Global Gender Policy and the Middle East from George Washington University where she conducted a year long policy research paper on Women Led Activism in the MENA Region She has also held positions at the Egyptian Embassy, the Center for Civilians in Conflict and the UN ESCWA Noura is currently the Program Assistant for Women of Color Advancing Peace, Security and Conflict Transformation’s Pipeline Fellowship program. In her spare time, Noura is an avid writer, a published photographer and enjoys activities such as hiking and rafting

Climate Change and Migration: Policy Recommendations

Adenikè Adegbidi, Sylvia Lynch, Meenu Bhooshanan

The accelerating pace of climate change has been a major concern since the end of the 19th century Therefore, in 1992, the Rio Summit endorsed the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). All countries in the world are affected by climate change but not all equally. Many developing countries are among the most impacted by climate change. The people living in these countries are often highly dependent on their natural environment and have minimal resources to cope with climate change

To illustrate the impacts of climate change on women, peace, and security, this paper will focus on the case of South Sudan. As one of the ten African countries most vulnerable to climate change and amongst the five worst performing and prepared countries in the world according to the Climate Change Vulnerability Index 2017,1 South Sudan exemplifies how the changing climate is already influencing conflict and migration

UN Mission in South Sudan

In December 2021, Nicholas Haysom, the Special Representative of the Secretary General for South Sudan and head of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), presented his latest situation repor t 2 The repor t highlights the UN Mission's effor ts to address climate related security risks given the increasing frequency of droughts and severe flooding in South Sudan It also recognized that the security challenges cannot be separated from the prevailing socio economic and humanitarian difficulties in the country, which have been exacerbated by the COVID 19 pandemic and the negative effects of climate change. To address these growing climate related security risks, the UNMISS established a working group to develop integrated strategies in South Sudan

Gender disparities

The gendered dimension of climate change in South Sudan is critical to consider, especially as female led households are par ticularly vulnerable. A 2018 repor t from the Sudd Institute evaluated the gendered impacts of climate change in South Sudan 3 According to the repor t, the Sudd Institute found that women are more vulnerable to climate change due to their position at the bottom of the patriarchal social hierarchy, which subsequently produces imbalances that put women at high risk from climate change related disasters. Women tend to be more dependent on natural resources, have a high rate of illiteracy, and have very limited

1“Climate Change Vulnerability Index 2017”, Relief web, November 14, 2016, https://reliefweb.int/repor t/world/climate-change-vulnerability-index-2017

2 United Nations, Security Council, Situation in South Sudan: repor t of the Secretary-General, S/2021/1015 (7 December 2021), available from undocs.org/en/S/2021/1015

3Nyathon Hoth Mai, Jok Madut Jok and Nhial Tiitmamer , “Climate Change and Gender in South Sudan” Sudd Institute, August 2018, 1-18 https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep20115.pdf

access to professional employment oppor tunities. Given that context, women economically rely on agricultural activities, which in turn leaves women at greater risk of unpredictable temperatures, flooding, and drought Ultimately, this results in female led households’ greater vulnerability to disasters and climate change

Migration

Climate change affects migration and mobility in a variety of ways, including displacement caused by extreme weather conditions and long term environmental change In 2018, the World Bank projected that three regions, including sub Saharan Africa, will generate an additional 143 million climate migrants by 2050 4 Although difficult to estimate, about one third of migrants have been forced to move due to "sudden onset" climate related events. South Sudan is the main country of origin of refugees in Africa, with over 2.3 million depar tees.5 Floods affect between 750,000 and more than one million people every year in South Sudan, forcing half of them to leave their homeland to higher grounds 6 As of March 2021, according to the Norwegian Institute of International affairs, more than 1 6 million South Sudanese were internally displaced due to factors such as conflict and weather 7

Peace and security

Long term effects and shor t term impacts of climate change such as floods and droughts disrupt food security and increase the risk of violence Climate change can therefore trigger or exacerbate conflict According to Nhial Tiitmamer of the Sudd Institute, this phenomenon is exacerbated in societies with weak institutions and conflict resolution mechanisms that are dependent on rain fed agriculture. This is the case in South Sudan where 95 percent of livelihoods depend on traditional rain fed agriculture, crops, pastoralism and livestock 8 Climate change consequently has direct and interrelated implications for peace and security in South Sudan In the country, a single flood can be associated with approximately nine incidents of conflict The effects of climate change affect communities dependent on agriculture and can intensify the risk of tensions between pastoralists and farmers, often over land, pasture, and water. UNMISS has repor ted 415 violent incidents between communities between January and May 2020.9 As armed conflict reduces the resilience of populations to

7 “Climate, Peace and Security Fact Sheet: South Sudan” Norwegian Institute of International affairs, March 11, 20214https:/5https:/6https://www.nupi.no/nupi_eng/News/Climate-Peace-and-Security-Fact-Sheet-South-Sudan“Climatechangeandflooding”UNICEF,/www.unicef.org/southsudan/what-we-do/climate-change-and-flooding“UNHCRconcernedatclimatechangeimpactsinSouthSudan”UNHCR,March11,2022/reliefweb.int/report/south-sudan/unhcr-concerned-climate-change-impacts-south-sudanRigaud,KantaKumari;deSherbinin,Alex;Jones,Bryan;Bergmann,Jonas;Clement,Viviane;Ober, Kayly; Schewe, Jacob; Adamo, Susana; McCusker, Brent; Heuser, Silke; Midgley, Amelia. Groundswell : Preparing for Internal Climate Migration. Washington, DC :World Bank, 2018. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461

8 Ibid.

9“Escalating intercommunal conflict could unravel the peace agreement” United Nations Mission In South Sudan, June 09, 2020, https://unmiss.unmissions.org/escalating-intercommunal-conflict-could-unravel-peace-agreement

climate shocks, the Food and Agriculture Organization warned that South Sudan lacks functioning state institutions and local mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of resource related conflicts which undermine the resilience and adaptation potential of communities when confronted with the impacts of climate change 10

Current Challenges

As described above, over the next several decades, climate change will increasingly wreak havoc on communities across the world, par ticularly those in lower and lower middle income countries Extreme temperatures and irregular rainfall augmenting food and water insecurity and resource deterioration and depletion, rising sea levels threatening low lying and island populations, and surging extreme weather events will all contribute to humanitarian crises and global mass migration, displacement, and ultimately, refugees. Notably, the international community has not yet agreed to formally recognize and protect climate refugees. Without formal international recognition of climate as a legitimate driver of migration and category for refugee status, climate migrants and refugees will not be afforded the protections11 afforded to other refugees However, the World Bank models predict over 86 million climate migrants in sub Saharan Africa, 89 million across Asia and the Pacific, and 41 million across other regions by 2050,12 demonstrating the need for consensus on international and state responsibilities regarding climate refugees and migrants.

Beyond the financial cost of these crises, humanitarian emergencies and displacement incur significant human costs that dispropor tionately impact women, youth, and marginalized populations. As highlighted in the South Sudan case study above, women traditionally family caretakers are the first to suffer from food and water insecurity and scarcity. Reduced access to healthy, nutritious food and clean water will additionally threaten women’s and children’s health and nutrition Fur thermore, gender based violence often intensifies during crisis situations due to gender and abusive power dynamics and the lapse in societal structures 13 As the international community responds to climate migration and displacement, prioritizing gender equality and accessibility will be critical to ensure the most vulnerable populations are safe and able to access food, water, and services. Of note, the UN’s existing char ter protecting women, the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against women, does not explicitly consider violence against women or specific considerations for vulnerable populations (e g , refugees, displaced persons, and indigenous peoples) To rectify this, international women’s rights activists have introduced for deliberation a global treaty condemning violence against women and girls.14

Moreover, increasing incidence of internal and cross border displacement and refugee flows will place enormous strain on countries and host communities. Such mass movements leave significant population gaps in the countries of origin, which can devastate local economies and communities Second, the host countries, under international law and with limited suppor t from the UNHCR15 and other international actors, are required to shelter refugees. Providing shelter, food, water, and basic services for thousands of refugees presents an imposing burden few countries willingly accept. Responding to future humanitarian crises will require mobilizing increased international and private sector funding.

a. Western Responsibility to Act

As noted above, Nor th American and Western European industrialized countries have been the largest historic emitters of greenhouse gasses and contributors to climate change.

Recommendations

Multilateral bodies like the UN do not supersede individual nations’ sovereignty However, climate change is already affecting the world’s most marginalized populations and is projected to have more direct effects in the US and other nations in the upper Nor thern hemisphere star ting in 2035.16 Thus, it is imperative that multilateral bodies help redefine traditional issues like migration and war to include climate change and how it acts as a threat multiplier.

a. Empower Women of Color Voices

Women of color globally stand to be the most affected by the first waves of climate change as demonstrated by the South Sudan case study. As such, they should be empowered to design and lead implementation for mitigation programs countering the effects of climate change. Activists fighting climate change who have lived experience and domain knowledge including indigenous climate activists are best suited to craft recommendations that suppor t their communities Fur thermore, the more people from different backgrounds there are when problem solving, the higher likelihood of coming up with people centered and innovative solutions since everyone brings different perspectives to the table.17

b. Expand the Definitions and Categories of Refugees

As currently defined, international refugee law ratified by the 1951 Refugee Convention does not include fleeing one’s country on the basis of climate-induced change, conflict, or lack of resources By expanding this to include the recognition of climate refugees, it helps star t a global conversation and enables more resources to strategize for urgent solutions.

c. Tackle the Root Issue: Climate Change

15 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

16 https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-change-science/future-climate-change#:~:text=Climate%20models%20 project%20that%20 if,the%20time%20by%202035%2D2064

17 https://hbr.org/2017/03/teams-solve-problems-faster-when-theyre-more-cognitively-diverse

Bodies like the UN have prioritized forming strategies that counties can adopt in order to mitigate the impacts of climate change. One such suggestion is to encourage nations to invest in reducing carbon emissions and geoengineering technology By tackling the root issue of climate change, nations can reduce the effects of the climate refugee crisis and the resource constraints countries like South Sudan are facing and others will face within this century

Femicide & Violence Against Women in Latin America

Beza Gebremariam, Emily Peraza, Lydia Johnson, & Raziya Hillery

Femicide, defined as gender based murder of a woman or girl by a man, is a global human rights issue and a threat to peace and security.18 On average, about 66 thousand women are killed violently each year around the world.19 Femicide and general violence against women is not only a healthcare issue, but it is a human rights issue. Because violence can be systemic through policy or domestic and societal norms, it is a grand issue affecting the population, public health, education, and many other areas of one’s life Examples of this include policies made about women’s bodies that put them in danger, work related policies that are insensitive to menstruation and breastfeeding, societal norms and systems that make women second class citizens, societal rules that may not protect women’s rights, and much more. All forms of violence have a profound impact on women in the region, and it leads to numerous deaths

Latin America has a growing problem of violence against women, including femicide In Latin America, at least 4,091 women were victims of femicide in 2020.20 Where about 12 women are murdered a day across the region.21 There is an extensive history of what is called “machismo” or a strong sense of masculine pride throughout the region, which relates to violence against women and inspires much of the policies and social norms that make women face violence systemically and domestically 22

In a world where women struggle to gain adequate rights, there comes a great need to assess how this issue spreads. This paper will briefly discuss modern human rights violations, specifically regarding femicide and violence against women in Latin America The paper will share a case study of femicide in Latin America, assess government responses through policy, and provide an overview of activist groups that raise awareness about women’s rights to show that addressing violence against women, especially femicide, in Latin America is key to protecting human rights, peace, and security worldwide.

The patriarchal societal norms across Latin America have led to the loss of hundreds of thousands of women through femicide tendencies Failed policy decisions reflect the

Femicide: A Global Problem. Small Arms Survey 1https://www.smallarmssurvey.org/resource/femicide-global-problem-research-note-148Merriam-Webster.(n.d.).Femicide.InMerriam-Webster.comdictionary.RetrievedMay 10, 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/femicide

20 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. (2021, November 24). At Least 4,091 Women Were Victims of Femicide in 2020 in Latin America and the Caribbean, Despite Greater Visibility and Social Condemnation. 1nd-caribbean-despiteECLAC.https://www.cepal.org/en/pressreleases/eclac-least-4091-women-were-victims-femicide-2020-latin-america-a9Nowak,M.(2012).

22 Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Machismo. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 10, 2022 from2https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/machismo1FemicideandInternationalWomen’sRights.(n.d.).InGlobal Americans https://theglobalamericans.org/repor ts/femicide-international-womens-rights/

incarceration rates of women for abor tions or miscarriages and the lack of access to healthcare. Therefore, the need for women to be present and proactive at the center of policy decisions is crucial and required For example, activism in El Salvador is increasingly growing as the country battles the highest rate of femicide in the world, with one woman being murdered by a man every 24 hours 23 While the U S has been involved in El Salvador’s economic and social development, especially post civil war, par ticipation from female figures both domestically and internationally has significantly lacked on issues regarding femicide and violence against women. The approach and lackluster response to gender based violence reinforces misogynistic ideals where machismo prevails The normalization of domestic violence and gender violence only fuels the silence of victims and leads to the underrepor ting of similar crimes 24A culture of silencing the families of femicide victims and letting perpetrators free without any repercussions is vastly normalized in Latin America. Therefore, the scattered data and absence of an accurate and standardized data base often leaves the testimonies of women untold.

Femicide rates in Latin America highlight the impor tance of women of color and their voices in public health and public policy Repor ted in a 2016 publication, “A Gendered Analysis of Violent Deaths,” “four teen of the twenty five countries with the highest femicide rates are Latin American”25. Without the safety and protection of women, nation states will not have the sustainability vital for a strong and stable country. A star t to appropriately approaching femicide and gender violence would begin with the education of young women, task forces including women both from domestic and international organizations, and holding perpetrators of gendered violence As a result of Latin America holding some of the highest rates of femicide, there are a variety of laws passed acknowledging this, sadly holding those accountable is where more issues arise, showcasing that, “the adoption of specific laws does not always facilitate the prosecution of these crimes as actual gender related killings of women and girls, or “femicides'', because it may be challenging to identify the additional gender related elements that constitute the crime”26 Femicides are an international peace and conflict issue and if allowed to continue without interference will result in a broken justice system remaining to ignore the trauma of victims on the world stage.

Femicide, the gender specific homicide of women, often stemming from other instances of violence against women, is an international human rights crisis The increasing number of

26 “Global Study on Homicide - Gender-Related Killing of Women and Girls .” UNODC, 2019.2https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/gsh/Booklet_5.pdf5Kennon,Isabel,andGraceValdevitt.“WomenProtestforTheirLives:Fighting Femicide in Latin America.” Atlantic Council, March 10, 2021. http:/2http:/2de-in-latin-americahttps://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/diversity-equity-inclusion/women-protest-for-their-lives-fighting-femici4Huttner,Sophie.“ElSalvador'sFemicideCrisis.”TheYaleReviewofInternationalStudies,June29,2020./yris.yira.org/essays/37943Huttner,Sophie.“ElSalvador'sFemicideCrisis.”TheYaleReviewofInternationalStudies,June29,2020./yris.yira.org/essays/379415

cases of femicide and violence against women in Latin America reflects a global institutional disregard for women. Latin America boasts some of the highest regional instances of femicide, many of which escalate from domestic violence cases that were either not properly documented, investigated, or prosecuted The machismo culture of Latin America, a culture of overbearing male entitlement, aggression, and dominance, reinforces misogynistic attitudes about women and feminism. Regionally, women and girls are viewed as and encouraged to be submissive to men, who are considered dominant and the sole sources of protection. In many instances, femicide is the tragic conclusion to patterns of domestic violence, sexual assault and rape, and abuse examples of gender based violence that dispropor tionately affect women, girls, and those within the LGBTQI community

It is exacerbated by inaction and negligence by police, national security forces, and governments, which often contribute to fur ther victimization of survivors. Femicide cases are frequently under or improperly repor ted, making the confirmation of actual case numbers difficult Human rights organizations in the region have noted that local police forces often fail to recognize or document when a woman’s gender played a role in her murder, complicating effor ts to capture the full scope of the crisis 27 Survivors and families of victims are often discouraged from speaking out against perpetrators or pursuing justice through legal systems. Lack of strong policies, institutional protections, and suppor tive infrastructure, such as women’s shelters, coupled with high rates of impunity leave many women feeling unprotected in the face of

violenceThefirst large scale movement against femicide, and the most well known, star ted in Argentina in June 2015, united under the slogan “Ni una menos” (Not one less). The protest began in response to the death of pregnant four teen year old Chiara Páez, found severely beaten and buried by her seventeen year old boyfriend in the Central Province of Santa Fe.28The first Ni Una Menos march was held just weeks later in front of the Argentine National Congress The star t of the movement can be traced back to a tweet from Argentine radio journalist Marcela Ojeda in reaction to Páez’s death, “Actrices, políticas, ar tistas, empresarias, referentes sociales...mujeres, todas, bah...no vamos a levantar la voz? NOS ESTAN MATANDO” (Actresses, politicians, ar tists, business women, social references, women, everyone, bah...are we not going to lift up our voice? THEY ARE KILLING US).29 After this tweet the hashtag #NiUnaMenos went viral providing a vir tual town square for activists to organize and to spread their message throughout the region- in countries such as Mexico, Chile, and Brazil among many others

Since 2015, Ni Una Menos has brought more attention to the issue of femicide in Latin America, as well as pushed for meaningful policy changes. This is par ticularly true in Argentina, where it is now a requirement of the government to collect and publish national femicide

27 https://www.milenio.com/policia/violencia-de-genero/fuera-de-radar-oficial-50-de-los-feminicidios

28 Piatti-Crocker, Adriana. "Diffusion of# NiUnaMenos in Latin America: Social Protests Amid a Pandemic." Journal of International Women's Studies 22, no. 12 (2021): 7-24.

29 Marcela Ojeda, Twitter post, May 11, 2015, 9:24 a.m., https://twitter.com/Marcelitaojeda/status/597799471368564736 A social referent is someone socially significant.

statistics30. Also in Chile, activists were able to pressure politicians to ensure gender parity in the construction of Chile’s new constitution.31 While these advancements show the power of a grassroots movement, femicide is still a persistent issue in the region even more so due to COVID 19 Like the rest of the world, Ni Una Menos and its related movements were heavily impacted by the COVID 19 pandemic, putting activists in a difficult position Femicide rates during COVID were at an all time high due to victims of domestic abuse being stuck inside with their abusers with little outlets. In June 2020, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Colombia, and Peru had an increase in calls to domestic violence hotlines.32 Normally this would lead to activists protesting in the streets however due to social distancing regulations, they were not able to Initially when activists couldn’t meet in person, they moved to organizing vir tually For instance, Salvadorian women organized a vir tual #NiUnaMenos protest33 However as the pandemic continued and domestic violence cases continued to increase (with little action from governments) so protests returned to the streets.

Activist organizations have made significant effor ts to amplify the realities of femicide and call for accountability from Latin American governments and political leaders Though the Covid 19 pandemic complicated many on the ground initiatives, it is through the relentless work of movements such as Ni Una Más (the anti gender based violence movement in Latin and Central America) and #NiUnaMenos (a similar movement in South American nations, like Argentina) that survivors have been able to pursue justice, and victims of femicide have been recognized Growing outrage and organizing response from survivors, their communities, and human rights organizations has prompted many Latin American governments to address demands for state action and protections for victims of gender based violence These organizations seek to ultimately prevent murders of women by thoroughly prosecuting the crimes that lead to it and condemning femicide as a regional epidemic and human rights violation.Increased

media coverage and pressure from activist organizations against femicide has pushed many Latin American governments to finally acknowledge the femicide crisis, though in many cases these institutional responses have been incremental at best. As of 2020, seventeen Latin American nations have laws distinguishing the murder of a woman from the traditional definition of homicide, with some including parameters for domestic relationships murders committed by a woman’s par tner or a family member Some countries have become more

31 Alcoba, Natalie, and Charis McGowan . “ This Ar ticle Is More than 1 Year Old #NiUnaMenos Five Years on: Latin America as Deadly as Ever for Women, Say Activists.” The Guardian, June 4, 2020.

Domestic Violence Repor ting during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Latin America. No. 11716. Inter-American Development Bank, 2021.

33 Prusa, Anya, Beatriz Garcia Nice, and Olivia Soledad. “‘Not One Women Less, Not One More Death:’ Feminist Activism and Policy Responses to Gender-Based Violence in Latin America.” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs , August 12, 2020.

3nses-thttps://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/08/12/not-one-women-less-not-one-more-death-feminist-activism-and-policy-respoo-gender-based-violence-in-latin-america/2Carreras,Enrique,andSantiagoM.Perez-Vincent.

3s-ehttps://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jun/04/niunamenos-five-years-on-latin-america-as-deadly-aver-for-women-say-activists0Piatti-Crocker,"Diffusionof#NiUnaMenosinLatinAmerica”17

proactive in identifying femicide attempts by incentivizing victims to come forward by providing government backed suppor t and protection. Peru, for example, developed a national plan against gender based violence34, including specialized task forces and emergency centers for victims Panama increased locations in its safe house network plan35, and Mexico has incorporated longer sentences for perpetrators (40 to 60 years plus a fine)36 Gender based violence and feminism activist leaders know that these changes are far from sufficient, however. As outlined in this paper, in El Salvador, which holds the highest rate of femicide of any Latin American country, the continued normalization of domestic violence instances and general unawareness of the dangers of femicide by political leaders presents barriers to accurate repor ting and tracking of cases, as well as limits activist effor ts to provide resources to victims

While femicide is far from a regionally isolated crisis, the growing number of cases and national responses in Latin America have global implications. Government inaction and police ineffectiveness equate to complicity in the perpetuation of femicide and contribute to the cycle of abuse faced by women globally The machismo culture of the region both undermines the severity of gender based violence and contributes to inaccurate repor ting and protections for victims Violence against women is a global peace and security issue; femicide is the consequence of this issue remaining unresolved. It is not solely a product of conflict or extenuating circumstances, but rather the inevitable reality fostered by a culture that encourages male dominance through harassment, abuse, and control of women and their bodies Nonetheless, activist initiatives, increased global awareness, and international government responses have contributed to the fight to end femicide and the human rights violation of gender based violence

3ly-marks.4“Decreto

36 United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime. “Criminalization of Gender-Related Killing of Women and Girls.” Www.unodc.org, United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime, Sept. 2014, Assembly3https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/IEGM_GRK_BKK/UNODC.CCPCJ.EG.8.2014.CRP.1.pdf5UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.“ProgresstowardsGenderEqualityunderThreat,WorldLeadersWarnasGeneralMarksTwenty-FifthAnniversaryofLandmarkWomen'sRightsConference-World.” ReliefWeb, United Nations General Assembly, 2 Oct. 2020, https://reliefweb.int/repor t/world/progress-towards-gender-equality-under-threat-world-leaders-warn-general-assemb

Supremo Que Aprueba El ‘Plan Nacional Contra La Violencia De Género.’” Www.mimp.gob.pe, Ministerio De La Mujer y Poblaciones Vulnerables De Peru, 26 July 2016, leciaGenerhttps://www.mimp.gob.pe/files/programas_nacionales/pncvfs/procesos/DS-008-2016-mimp-PlanNacionalContraVioo.pdf18

Gendered Impacts of Food Insecurity in Conflict

Katie Dames, Eden Hailu, and Laura Landetta

Introduction

The World Bank noted that in 2017, women made up the backbone of the global rural economy, especially as population trends shift toward urbanization.37 Given their salience in food cultivation and production, it is no surprise that when conflict disrupts agricultural production, women face immense challenges in providing for themselves, their families, and their communities Kavita Ramdas, a global gender justice advocate, shared that “We cannot have security, real human security, or peace without food sovereignty. And because women and girls are the key to the production of food and the collection of water in most par ts of the Ear th and because they are the most critical determinants of child nutrition in every par t of the Ear th, their voices and their wisdom are key to us being able to help correct our ways ” 38 Belligerent states and groups use blockades to target both combatants and civilians, leading to dispropor tionate impacts on women During a conflict, women are often the primary caregivers and therefore face the burden of trying to provide for their families while being the most vulnerable to gender and sexual based violence. Through the lens of conflicts in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, Yemen, and Ukraine, this repor t explores the impacts of war on women and food systems

Tigray

In Tigray, Ethiopia, a deadly war and de facto blockade has left 5.2 million people, 91% of the region’s population, in need of emergency food aid.39 Since the star t of the war, Ethiopian federal troops and allied forces systematically destroyed Tigray’s food system by burning crops, looting, killing livestock and prohibiting farmers from plowing their land, causing people to flee and preventing sources of food and livelihood The ongoing government blockade and siege ensures that millions across the region remain without access to food, medical care, electricity and cash compounding one of the worst hunger crises in the world.

As government forces and its allies destroy all means of food, Tigrayan women and girls become one of the most vulnerable populations trapped in the region In addition to famine, they are coping with the aftermath of widespread sexual violenc e that was used as a weapon of war stem#:~:text=Whttps:/2017),3https:/38monthshttps:/39/www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/over-5-million-people-face-extreme-hunger-tigray-conflict-surges-past-six-/www.csis.org/events/celebrating-women-and-girls-change-agents-food-and-nutrition-security-conflict-setting7“WomeninAgriculture:TheAgentsofChangefortheGlobalFoodSystem,”WorldBank(WorldBankGroup,March6,/www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/03/07/women-in-agriculture-the-agents-of-change-for-the-food-syomen%20are%20the%20backbone%20of,men%20have%20amigrated%20to%20cities19

and a means for ethnic cleansing.40 The UNFPA estimated that more than 22,000 women and girls will require clinical treatment for rape in the region.41 But the starvation of survivors and healthcare workers alike has impeded a comprehensive response to conflict related sexual violence 42 The weaponization of sexual violence and the subsequent blockade of the region has made healing impossible for thousands of women and girls in Tigray Women who have survived months of sexual slavery and mutilation can not begin their rehabilitation process until their most basic needs are met. The consequences of this nearly year long blockade are devastating as there are increasing repor ts of suicide amongst survivors.

In July 2021, USAID officials stated the blockade of Tigray was likely the most egregious humanitarian obstruction in the world 43 Today, the blockade and siege of Tigray continues to decimate the region while dispropor tionately impacting women and children. The UN recently repor ted that 120,000 pregnant and lactating women and 454,000 children are estimated to be malnourished this year alone.44 There are also repor ts of mothers committing suicide as a result of the blockade Unable to feed their children, they are forced to witness their children slowly starve and succumb to famine A young mother in Tigray’s capital city took her own life because she was unable to feed her children and could not bear to watch them die in front of her 45 Without unfettered humanitarian access, women in Tigray will continue to bear the brunt of this man made famine.

Yemen

The decade long conflict and the ongoing blockade in Yemen between the Houthis and the Saudi backed Hadi government has created an extremely dire hunger crisis across the country. The blockade has led to the collapse of basic services and has made food inaccessible for millions of civilians. Additionally, the hunger crisis has exacerbated violence against women and girls which increased 63% since the star t of the war 46 With widespread disruption of food systems, women and girls are forced to travel long distances to access food, water and basic

4https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-574221680Ethiopia:Troopsandmilitiarape,abductwomenand girls in tigray conflict – new repor t. (Amnesty International, November 1, 2021).

4hiopias#1Alexde

Waal, Ethiopia's Tigray Crisis: Tragedy of the man-made famine. BBC News (June 11, 2021)

". Human Rights Watch (December 2, 2021) https://www.hrw.org/repor t/2021/11/09/i-always-remember-day/access-services-survivors-gender-based-violence-et

43 Maria Ger th-Niculescu, Ethiopia offers A tigray truce, but will aid trucks star t rolling? The New Humanitarian. (March 29, 2022)

4https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2022/03/29/Security-threats-Tigray-relief-Ethiopia-truce-Afar-Amhara2"Ialwaysrememberthatday

44 Nor thern Ethiopia - Humanitarian Update. Situation Repor ts. UNOCHA (May 7, 2022) https://repor ts.unocha.org/en/country/ethiopia

45 Cara Anna. 'God have mercy': Tigray residents describe life under siege. AP NEWS. (October 16, 2021) https://apnews.com/ar ticle/ethiopia-tigray-crisis-hunger-malnutrition-a772602d2caac96e8024769c012ce8c6

46 4 ways the war in Yemen has impacted women and girls. International Rescue Committee (IRC). (December 20, 2019) https://www.rescue.org/ar ticle/4-ways-war-yemen-has-impacted-women-and-girls

conhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/08/ethiopia-troops-and-militia-rape-abduct-women-and-girls-in-tigray-flict-new-report/20

services in order to provide for their families. During their travels, they are left vulnerable to sexual and physical assualt and/or harrassment by men who target them with impunity. The blockade has created a dangerous environment where survivors of gender based violence are left unprotected and even vulnerable to repeat assaults

In addition to sexual assault, Yemeni civillians, especially pregnant people and mothers, are weakened by blockade driven nutritional deficits. Pregnant and breastfeeding women in Yemen face a unique challenge as their physical health is inter twined with the health and life expectancy of their newborn children In 2018, nearly 418,000 pregnant and breastfeeding women were admitted to health facilities in Yemen with acute malnutrition 47 Pregnant women facing malnutrition are increasingly at risk of dying while giving labor or having a miscarriage The malnourishment of pregnant women undoubtedly leads to high rates of maternal, infant, and child mor tality. In both Yemen and Tigray, countless survivors of sexual violence are reeling from unwanted pregnancies and untreated malnourishment, increasing their risk of death.

Prior to the war, Yemen was already one of the poorest countries in the world Since 2006, the country has ranked last in the World Economic Forum's Gender Gap Index and, in 2017, as the worst place in the world to be a woman.48 The degradation of women's rights in the country worsens as the conflict drags on and famine is used as a weapon of war.

Ukraine

The recent and ongoing invasion of Ukraine has exposed how war impacts food security in countries impacted by conflict, as well as their lasting side effects. Mauripol, the por t city in Southeastern Ukraine, continues to make headlines due to civilian casualties and an ongoing blockade. In late February, Russian soldiers cut off access to food, water, electricity, radio, and television Food ran out in the city of 170,000 by March 13th 49 Sexual violence in Ukraine has been connected to the exploitation of resources A Human Rights Watch repor t found that after raping or killing Ukrainian civilians, Russian soldiers fled with food, firewood, gasoline, and other essential goods.50

While many men and women stayed in their towns to defend on the frontlines, primary caregivers have defended their families by leaving over half of Ukrainian children have been

48 “4 Ways the War in Yemen Has Impacted Women and Girls.” International Rescue Committee. ( December 20, 2019) https://www.rescue.org/ar ticle/4-ways-war-yemen-has-impacted-women-and-girls

49 Eddy Wax, “The Starvation of a Nation: Putin Uses Hunger as a Weapon in Ukraine,” POLITICO (POLITICO, April 4, 2022), https://www.politico.eu/ar ticle/the-starvation-of-a-nation-how-putin-is-using-hunger-as-a-weapon-in-ukraine/

50“Ukraine: Apparent War Crimes in Russia-Controlled Areas,” Human Rights Watch (Human Rights Watch, April 18, 2022), https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/03/ukraine-apparent-war-crimes-russia-controlled-areas#.

47 Maternal malnutrition soars in Yemen. Save the Children UK. (May 3, 2019) en-malnutrition-soarshttps://www.savethechildren.org.uk/news/media-centre/press-releases/Yemen-conflict-pregnant-breastfeeding-wom21

displaced.51 Food supply chain disruptions heighten food insecurity among women, a problem that was already on the rise due to COVID.52 Given our globalized supply chains, conflict can impact civilians even outside of the states at war Joyce Msuya, Assistant Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, noted that “The global impacts of this war (in Ukraine) are becoming clearer as each day of this conflict continues ” Russia and Ukraine are considered one of the main “Breadbaskets of the World,” producing a combined nearly ⅓ of the world’s wheat and barley expor ts.53 Both of our previous case studies face major nutritional deficits due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, even as they face their own conflicts 67% of Ethiopia’s grain expor ts come from the two nations,54 with Yemen impor ting 42% from Russia and Ukraine 55

As for the displaced Ukrainian population, the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) estimates that more than one million people have already fled the country, mostly women and children who are at high risk of exploitation, including sexual violence and human trafficking, which is why a relief operation has been launched through the World Food Program (WFP) to deliver food aid to those displaced by the conflict 56 While the humanitarian consequences of the ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine remain elusive, it is women and girls who continue to pay the highest price during the conflict.

Conclusions

Armed conflict and blockades are the main driver of food insecurity and malnutrition in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, Yemen and Ukraine, where women and girls have been subjected to continuous violation of their rights. As a weapon, blockades can immediately harm thousands and eventually millions of people, making them more effective than many armaments. International organizations and allies should uplift marginalized voices in conflict

54 Save the Children International, Twitter Post, 23 April 2022, 10:01 AM,

5https://www.wfp.org/stories/world-food-programme-set-assist-people-affected-conflict-ukraine5SikandraKurdietal.,“TheRussianInvasionofUkraineThreatenstoFurtherExacerbatetheFood Insecurity Emergency in Yemen,” International Food Policy Research Institute (International Food Policy Research Institute, March 23, 2022), https://www.ifpri.org/blog/russian-invasion-ukraine-threatens-fur ther-exacerbate-food-insecurity-emergency-yemen#: ~:text=Currently%2C%20the%20 cereal%20impor t%20 dependence,wheat%20product%20impor ts%20(42%25)

56“World Food Programme Set to Assist People Affected by Conflict in Ukraine: World Food Programme.” UN World Food Programme. (February 28, 2022)

5https://twitter.com/save_children/status/1517866130588766208?s=20&t=rwNFX6SZd-t9xfk5MAAVog3JosephWilsonetal.,“RussianWarinWorld's'Breadbasket'ThreatensFoodSupply,”ABCNews(ABCNews Network, March 6, 2022), Nations,Capacity5https:/Nations5https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/wireStory/russian-war-worlds-breadbasket-threatens-food-supply-83279787.2“ResponsetotheUkraineCrisis:SocialProtectionforFoodSecurityandNutrition-Ukraine,”ReliefWeb(UnitedOfficefortheCoordinationofHumanitarianAffairs,April7,2022),/reliefweb.int/report/ukraine/response-ukraine-crisis-social-protection-food-security-and-nutrition1“Conflict,HumanitarianCrisisinUkraineThreateningFutureGlobalFoodSecurityasPricesRise,ProductionShrinks,SpeakersWarnSecurityCouncil|MeetingsCoverageandPressReleases,”UnitedNations(UnitedMarch29,2022),https://www.un.org/press/en/2022/sc14846.doc.htm.22

and focus on protecting humanitarian corridors to ensure that essential needs and services are received by civilians.

International organizations should also reflect on the discrepancies in their response to the suffering in Ukraine in comparison to the suffering in Tigray and Yemen The suspension of Russia from the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) was swift, signaling strong opposition to Russian officials and solidarity with the victims of war in Ukraine. Unfor tunately, Eritrea’s invasion of Tigray and its countless war crimes continue to be overlooked as they remain on the UNHRC The United Arab Emirates has also been accused of egregious crimes in Yemen but there has been no attempt to suspend their membership in the UNHRC The global solidarity with Ukrainian victims and the dedication to uplift their voices is remarkable and should be replicated for women and girls trapped in Tigray, Yemen and dangerous conflict zones across the globe.

Anna, Cara. 'God have mercy': Tigray residents describe life under siege. AP NEWS. (October 16, h2021)ttps://apnews com/ar ticle/ethiopia-tigray-crisis-hunger-malnutrition-a772602d2caac96 e8024769c012ce8c6

Celebrating Women and Girls: Change Agents for Food and Nutrition Security in Conflict Settings. Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2017.

https://www csis org/events/celebrating women and girls change agents food and nutrit ion-security-conflict-settings

“Conflict, Humanitarian Crisis in Ukraine Threatening Future Global Food Security as Prices Rise, Production Capacity Shrinks, Speakers Warn Security Council | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases.” United Nations. United Nations, March 29, 2022.

https://www un org/press/en/2022/sc14846 doc htm

Duckett, Maryellen Kennedy “Empowering Female Farmers to Feed the World ” National Geographic. National Geographic, May 3, 2021.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/ar ticle/par tner content empowering femal e farmers.

Ger th-Niculescu, Maria Ethiopia offers A tigray truce, but will aid trucks star t rolling? The New Humanitarian (March 29, 2022)

https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2022/03/29/Security threats Tigray relief Ethiopia truce Afar Amhara

Kurdi, Sikandra, Clemens Breisinger, Joseph Glauber, and David Laborde “The Russian Invasion of Ukraine Threatens to Fur ther Exacerbate the Food Insecurity Emergency in Yemen ” International Food Policy Research Institute International Food Policy Research Institute, March 23, 2022.

https://www.ifpri.org/blog/russian invasion ukraine threatens fur ther exacerbate food in security emergency yemen#:~:text=Currently%2C%20the%20cereal%20impor t%20depen dence,wheat%20product%20impor ts%20(42%25)

“Motherhood on the Brink: Pregnant Women in Yemen under Famine and Violence ” United Nations Population Fund. UNFPA, March 25, 2021.

https://www.unfpa.org/news/motherhood brink pregnant women yemen under famine a nd violence.

Nor thern Ethiopia - Humanitarian Update Situation Repor ts UNOCHA (May 7, 2022) https://repor ts.unocha.org/en/country/ethiopia

“Response to the Ukraine Crisis: Social Protection for Food Security and Nutrition Ukraine.” ReliefWeb. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, April 7, h2022ttps://reliefweb int/repor t/ukraine/response ukraine crisis social protection food securi ty and nutrition

Ruane, Michael E. “Cut off from Food, Ukrainians Recall Famine under Stalin, Which Killed 4 Million of Them.” The Washington Post. WP Company, March 14, 2022. https://www washingtonpost com/history/2022/03/12/holodomor famine ukraine stalin /

Symington, Annabel “Why Women and Girls in Yemen Need WFP's Suppor t More than Ever: World Food Programme.” UN World Food Programme. World Food Programme, March 11, 2020. https://www wfp org/stories/why women and girls yemen need wfps suppor t more ever

“The Case for More Inclusive and More Effective Peacemaking in Yemen ” Crisis Group, April 1, 2021

https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle east nor th africa/gulf and arabian peninsula/yemen /221 case more inclusive and more effective peacemaking yemen.

“Ukraine: Apparent War Crimes in Russia Controlled Areas ” Human Rights Watch Human Rights Watch, April 18, 2022 https://www hrw org/news/2022/04/03/ukraine apparent war crimes russia controlled a reas#.

“Ukraine: UN Exper t Warns of Global Famine, Urges End to Russia Aggression Ukraine.” ReliefWeb United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, March 18, h2022ttps://reliefweb int/repor t/ukraine/ukraine un exper t warns global famine urges end rus sia aggression.

“UN Agencies Concerned by Looming Famine in Nor thern Ethiopia, Call for Urgent Life Saving Action to Aver t It ” UNICEF, June 10, 2021 https://www unicef org/press-releases/un-agencies-concerned-looming-famine-nor thern ethiopia call urgent life saving

Wax, Eddy. “The Starvation of a Nation: Putin Uses Hunger as a Weapon in Ukraine.” POLITICO. POLITICO, April 4, 2022. https://www politico eu/ar ticle/the starvation of a nation how putin is using hunger as a weapon-in-ukraine/

Wilson, Joseph, Samy Magdy, Aya Batrawy, and Chinedu Asadu. “Russian War in World's 'Breadbasket' Threatens Food Supply.” ABC News. ABC News Network, March 6,

https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/wireStory/russian war worlds breadbasket threatens f ood supply 83279787.

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Affected by Conflict in Ukraine: World Food Programme ” UN World Food Programme, February 28, 2022 https://www wfp org/stories/world food programme set assist people affected conflict ukraine

“en%20have%20migrated%20to%20cities.WorldFoodProgrammeSettoAssistPeople

By Lauran Howard, Maywadee Viriyapah, Haripriya Guduru

Overview

The study of terrorism has been largely male centric and has resulted in counter terrorism measures being predicated towards male psychology This, however, casts a blind spot in our security measures as more studies show that female extremists and their recruitment effor ts are steadily on the rise Therefore, it is impor tant to consider the circumstances that result in women joining violent extremist effor ts, especially in the wake of cyberwarfare and the widespread use of social media. Creating equitable access for women, especially women of color, in counter terrorism measures within STEM should be recognized as a way to address these gaps in security policy. In order to delve into women’s role in violent terrorist acts, this repor t will first establish what terrorism is

According to the UNODC Repor t, “there is currently no comprehensive United Nations treaty on terrorism, nor is there an official definition of the term terrorism.”57 In this repor t, we will define violent extremism, as it is defined by the UN Women’s Training Manual for Women in Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism, as committing violence in the name of “a strict adherence to a set of narratives or belief systems (whether political or religious) that constitute assaults on the mainstream values, orientations, and principles of the dominant society ”58 The term radicalization will be defined as, “A process by which individuals or groups deviate from moderate mainstream beliefs and adopt extreme views. While radicalization sometimes leads to violence, it cannot be equated with terrorism, and many radicals are not violent or dangerous and simply want to address what they view as societal ills ”59

Although exper ts are still debating what constitutes as terrorism, for use in this repor t, we will define terrorism as the “frequent violence aimed either directly or indirectly, at governments to influence policy or topple an existing regime.”60 The general goal of terrorism is to destroy the public’s sense of security. Major targets include buildings or other locations that are impor tant economic or political symbols, such as embassies or military installations Many terrorists hope that the sense of fear these acts engender will induce the population to pressure political leaders toward a specific political end 61

57 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” United Nations: Office on Drugs and Crime, September 2012. https://www.unodc.org/.

58 Speckhard, PhD, A., 2021. Women in Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism. [online] UN Women Europe and Central Asia Regional Office. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/pve_trainingmanual-min.pdf, Accessed 13 May 2022.

59 Ibid.

60 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” United Nations: Office on Drugs and Crime, September 2012. https://www.unodc.org/.

61 Ibid.

Gendering Terrorism: A Psychosocial Analysis on Why Women Engage in Terrorism and How Educating Women in Counter terrorist Initiatives can help offset Cyber Recruitment

A Historical Context of Women in Terrorism & Counter terrorism

This repor t will briefly discuss the historical context surrounding terrorist acts and counter terrorist measures throughout the years Unfor tunately, there has been a widespread assumption that terrorists are only male due to limited visibility of female terrorists in the media and gendered stereotypes that lead women to be predominately written off as passive actors instead of Iperpetrators.norderto

understand the historical background of terrorism, we must first identify specific overlapping “waves” of terrorist acts These “waves” are characterized by David Rapopor t, Professor Emeritus of Political Science at UCLA, and reiterated by Cyndi Banks, Associate Vice President for Student Success, Capilano University, that categorized these waves of terrorism into four sections: “Anarchist Wave” (from the 1880s to the 1920s); “Anti Colonial Wave” (from the 1920s to the 1960s); “New Left Wave'' (from the 1960s to 1979); and “Religious Wave” (from 1979 to 2019).62

Scholars theorize that we are currently in the fifth wave, encompassing 2019 to the present date However, there is much debate surrounding the nature of this new fifth wave The three main fifth waves that are debated are: Terrorist Semi States/Tribalism Malign Aspirational Tribalism (MAT): as we have seen through ISIS and the newly established Taliban government in Afghanistan; The Right Wing Terrorist & Anti Globalization Emergence: these encompass the white nationalist and white supremacy ideologies of terror Examples of this violence include shooters in New Zealand and the recent insurgency on the U S Capitol on January 6th, which only name a few of the violent acts in the name of white supremacy within the 2019 and 2020 span;63 Cyber terrorism: The Use of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes: according to the UNODC, there is repor ted evidence that extremists, such as ISIS, use Internet Cafes for recruitments and other illegal transactions, bypassing government

Tregulations.64herearefew

detailed accounts of how women engage in acts of terrorism despite being hailed as mar tyrs by their male counterpar ts and extremist communities for their contributions to the cause In the past, the academics, research, and pedagogy involving terrorism and counter terrorism studies have been authored by primarily white men. Therefore, such accounts often ignore the gender and racial theory involved in analyzing and understanding female terrorists. With this said, women in terrorism are becoming an increasingly growing trend One that draws the attention of observers to recognize the gendered elements of this international threat

62 Banks, Cyndi. "Introduction: Women, gender, and terrorism: Gendering terrorism." Women & Criminal Justice 29, no. 4-5 (2019): 181-187; Rapopor t, David C., Audrey Kur th Cronin, and James Ludes. "The four waves of modern terrorism." Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press 2004) p 54 (2004):

64 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” United Nations: Office on Drugs and Crime, September 2012.6https://www.unodc.org/.3Auger,VincentA."Right-wing

terror " Perspectives on Terrorism 14, no. 3 (2020): 87-97.

Historical Timeline of Counter terrorism

During the conception of the League of Nations, the focal point of terrorism was centered around the ideals between modern terrorism and self determination amongst the development of communist/socialist theory 65

Ar ticle 1(2) of the Terrorism Convention defines “acts of terrorism” as “criminal acts directed against a state” (1937). Such acts must be “intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of par ticular persons, or a group of persons or the general public ”

There was a differentiation between “terrorist” and “political” offences, and what warranted a granting of asylum 66

Unfor tunately, when the League finally came to a consensus to bring these actions into motion, WWII erupted. After the League of Nations’ collapse and the continual rise of white supremacy through Nazism and WWII, the remnants of the League were restructured into the United Nations

Issues “of terror-violence by so-called “liberation fighters “pursuing their right to the selfdetermination of peoples, resulting in the United Nations Char ter (Treaty Series, vol 1, no XVI), ar ticles 1(2) and 55 (see also 1941 Atlantic Char ter).”67 The establishment of counter terrorism effor ts after the events of the September 11th, 2001, attacks resulted in counter terrorism measures that have been expanded across sectors Violent religious extremists have evolved to systematic operations, such as ISIS/ISIL, who reach followers from around the world through the internet and social media Counter terrorism strategies struggle to balance protecting free speech and perceptions of terrorists being “freedom fighters” despite committing acts of violence.

Psychosocial Analysis of Women’s Radicalization, Terrorism & Violent Extremism

The psychosocial perspective explains that women engage in radicalization, terrorism, and violent extremism due to a desire to fulfill a duty or a mission within the communities they serve. Potential female mar tyrs may include calls for gender equity in mar tyrdom for a cause, offers of salvation for women who have violated gender norms and been shunned by the community, revenge for the death of a relative, and religious benefits A display of women's loyalty in some extremist cultures perpetuates a sense of belonging within the group Studies suggest that women who have become involved in radicalization exhibit a dark personality trait In other words, they tend to display one or more of the following “dark triad” or “dark tetrad” personality traits such as: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy and in this case, Sadism; rather than being disturbed, or fostering “schizotypal, borderline, and depressive features,” as originally speculated in this research.68 Although

68 Morgades Bamba, Clara Isabel, Patrick Raynal, and Henri Chabrol "Exploring the radicalization process in young women " Terrorism and political violence 32, no 7 (2020): 1439 1457

being associated with radicalization, having disturbed features does not contribute to this model. The study also suggests that “both the dark traits and socio cultural factors are revealed as predictors of radicalization, while dogmatism is clearly shown as a mediator Orientations in terms of prevention among young women are proposed ”69 Fur thermore, women who engage in violent extremism often play the role of the “faithful wife” to their extremist husband or to gain favor towards a potential husband. The cultural differences and realities should also be considered when we look at the gendering and “feminization of terrorism.”70 Cultural norms that distinguish women and men’s roles are often overlooked in terms of their motivations to pursue their extremist agendas, especially among Islamic countries According to other recent studies, women are more determined to pursue goals than men; they have more resistance to physical and psychological suffering than their male counterpar ts Therefore, their “sacrifice” comes from a belief that it is an honor to lay down their lives for what they believe is right.71

Women’s Role in Extremist Groups

From suicide bombers for the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka to enforcers of the Al Khansaa Brigade within the Islamic State, women have held roles in terrorist organizations equal to their male counterpar ts despite many of these groups’ ideology appointing them as second class citizens. Until recently, political discourse around terrorism has often discounted female members as agents of terrorism. However, new scholarship has focused on the gender dynamics of extremism as more groups put women at the forefront of their organizations Attention to this dimension grew after extremist organizations began to utilize women as bombers Between 2014 2018, Boko Haram, one of the largest Islamist militant groups in Africa, used 468 women and girls deployed or arrested in 240 suicide bomb attacks.72 Terrorist groups began to use women as the faces of their organizations instead of the hidden shadows that passively suppor t the ideology for several reasons. First, women as active par ticipants of violence led to more media coverage, with more audiences captivated by the harsh contrast between the traditional idea of women as innocent victims of violence with the roles as perpetrators Secondly, extremist groups take advantage of patriarchal views that lead to women being perceived as innocent and even superficially “attractive” actors Therefore, women successfully recruit others by using their image to “sanitize” the terrorist organization’s ideology as rational and mainstream to unsuspecting vulnerable individuals, especially other women. The popularity of social media has made the digital landscape a perfect platform for female members to reach broad audiences and spread extremist propaganda 73 The following case studies will demonstrate how women par ticipate in online recruitment in the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and far-right white supremacist groups

69 Ibid.

70 Bodziany, Marek, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz. of terror: Psychological analysis of the role of terrorist structures." in Conflict & Terrorism no. 3 (2021): 266-283.

71 Ibid.

72 https://www.cfr.org/blog/women-boko-haram-and-suicide-bombings

73 https://www.science.org/content/ar

Islamic Extremism

Women play an essential role in ISIS’s goal: building a caliphate [or religious state based on their interpretation of Sharia law] Women in these roles not only provide suppor tive labor but add to the organization’s legitimacy and claim to the land in building a functioning society with necessary matriarchal figures. Female members have proven to be efficient recruiters and subjects for propaganda materials catered toward other women.

“I want to become a mar tyr ” These were one of the last words nineteen year old Aqsa Mahmood would say to her parents in a phone call after Mahmood left her family’s home in Glasgow, Scotland, to join the Islamic State in Syria Mahmood would leave her life as a Scottish teenager in November 2013 to become a prolific ISIS recruiter targeting young women. The image of the smiling teenager that radiated youthful innocence became unrecognizable in her new identity. Aqsa is repor ted to have been influenced by sermons published online and connecting with other radicals through social media 74 For Mahmood, the Syrian conflict enforced this idea that the international Muslim community was being violently persecuted 75 Aqsa used a Tumblr blog to spread propaganda material under a new identity Umm Layth [mother of lions] 76 Her calls for violence on Twitter and Tumblr made media headlines, raising Umm Layth’s notoriety as a key voice for ISIS. Umm Layth’s identity as a young woman proved to be an invaluable asset as an ISIS propagandist. One of her most notable posts included a checklist of items a young woman should bring to Syria such as good undergarments, beauty products, prenatal vitamins, and painkillers suitable for pregnant women 77 With her posts including practical and specific advice relatable for young women, a once far away conflict is within arm’s length Aqsa’s posts allegedly led to three London schoolgirls joining ISIS after it was found that one of the girls, Shamima Begum, messaged Aqsa on Twitter.78 Mahmood’s story demonstrates the cycle of women being “victims” of online radicalization and becoming effective perpetrators of propaganda.

Far-Right White Supremacist Groups

Unlike other extremist organizations, condemnation of far right white supremacist groups as terrorist organizations has not been widespread. These groups’ ideology is dominated by fear mongering rhetoric grounded in racial politics, asser ting that the white population is facing the loss of majority status, which is then framed as a “genocide” that must be stopped This is also known as the “Great Replacement” theory The events of January 6th, 2021, rise in AAPI violence, and the tragic shooting in Buffalo, New York show how violent these ideologies can be A study by George Washington University showed that women account for 13% of the total 766 federal cases pending for those

74 Lisa Blaker, “The Islamic State’s Use of Online Social Media.” Military Cyber Affairs 1, no. 1 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5038/2378-0789.1.1.1004

75 Erin Saltman and Melanie Smith, “Till Mar tyrdom Do Us Par t: Gender and the ISIS Phenomenon,” Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 2015.

76 Farhana Qazi, Invisible Mar tyrs: Inside the Secret World of Female Islamic Radicals (Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2018).

77 https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bring-good-quality-bras-scots-6175193

78 https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/11/14/world/middleeast/isis-expansion.html

involved in the January 6th insurrection. The study fur thers that 82% of the cases brought against women included information connected to social media.79 Women in the far right movement have used social media to become “influencers” that slip their extremist beliefs within an aesthetic branding of beauty, fashion, and motherhood In doing so, they radicalize their audiences who previously may have had limited knowledge on the organization and are unable to recognize the rhetoric being poised to them. These recruiters utilize language surrounding motherhood to “depoliticize their actions by positioning themselves as acting on behalf of their children and families.”80 This strategy has been used so frequently in organizations like QAnon that the phenomenon has been dubbed “Pastel QAnon ”81 Although social media companies like Facebook and Twitter have made promises to crackdown on hate speech and misinformation by extremist far right groups, studies show that there is a hidden bias in their policing A comparison of Facebook’s policy by the Brennan Center showed that white supremacist content had a smaller set of restrictions than terrorist organizations that typically were made up of people of color, leading to far right white nationalist propaganda circulating online longer before being repor ted.82

Women in Counter terrorism Initiatives

We have seen in earlier sections how women play a crucial role in various terrorist and violent extremist organizations. Now we move on to study the role women in countering terrorism and why it is vital for policy to promote the inclusion of women in counter terrorist initiatives in various roles such as: threat analysts, peacekeepers, cyber analysts, intelligence officers, etc There is also an immediate need for an engagement of women of color, who are marginalized and underrepresented, into the counter terrorism discourse Women of color from various par ts of the world, often hailing from conflict societies prone to extremist violence and terrorism, bring their ‘lived experience’ narrative that serves as a unique tool to analyze activities and operations of various terrorist organizations and especially facilitate in comprehending of why women engage in terrorism.

Women currently occupy significant positions in various counter terrorism agencies and initiatives at national and international levels On the international sphere, the United Nations Office on Drugs & Crime (UNODC), UN Women83, Interpol, NATO etc. are examples of organizations that seek to be gender inclusive in various counter terrorism initiatives. The UNODC acknowledges the significance of gender perspective in designing and drafting projects and initiatives in preventing terrorism. Through mainstreaming a gender perspective, UNODC aims to address ‘some of the main issues related to

https:/81/www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/qanon-pastel-antivax-natural-parenting-community-freebir th-109 American72https:/88518/.0/www.msnbc.com/opinion/msnbc-opinion/how-far-right-uses-motherhood-manipulate-recruit-women-n129492.9HilaryMatfessandDevorahMargolin,“TheWomenofJanuary6th:AGenderedAnalysisofthe21stCenturyFar-Right”(Washington,DC:ProgramonExtremismatGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,2022).32

https:/83/www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquar ters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2021/Brief-8Preventing-violent-extremism-focus-areas-en.pdf2ÁngelDíazandLauraHecht-Felella,“DoubleStandards in Social Media in Content Moderation” (New York , NY: Brennan Center for Justice, 2021).

gender and terrorism that help in the situational analysis and provide practical tips in formulating project objectives, outcomes, outputs, indicators, and activities’ (UNODC 2020).84 Similarly, UN Women aim to change cer tain structural frameworks within counter terrorism (CT) and preventive violent extremism (PVE) that exacerbate gender inequality While these organizations are actively working to promote gender mainstreaming in various CT & PVE programs, suppor t capacity building and engagement of civil society organizations, it is also a known reality that women (esp. Women of Color) are still not an integral par t of CT & PVE initiatives of many national and regional level agencies and organizations.

In a paper addressing the need for inclusion of women in Indonesia’s national CT effor ts, Wulan (2015)85 argues that women are valuable agents in CT initiatives in both soft (sociological, psychological and legal approaches in preventing terrorism) and hard approaches (combat roles). She argues that women provide significant analysis on social, economic discourses that facilitate recruitment of women into various terrorist groups and offer nuanced approaches and solutions to tackle the issues of recruitments, financing and operations of these groups through a gender sensitive lens In the context of tackling cyber recruitment of both men and women as well as young boys and girls, it is imperative that counter terrorist mechanisms include initiatives that tackle cyber threats. While cyber analysts observe the ‘online’ presence of individuals and organizations looking for recruitment and financing from various sources across the world, it is also crucial to focus on decentralized approaches in combating cyber terrorism. In a decentralized approach, it is essential that vulnerable groups, such as women and young girls, par ticularly of the Global South, receive access to various tools and resources in STEM to understand the cyber methods used by terrorist and extremist groups to promote their recruitment and funding, especially through social media These initiatives are especially necessary for regions inflicted with violence and terrorism where women of color are often vulnerable targets of such groups and so there is an immediate need for policy to include a STEM education for women of color as they become crucial actors in the decentralized CT effor ts

Conclusion

As seen in both case studies, gender and race intersex in terrorist organizations, with Islamic extremism distor ting the Muslim practice and white supremacy grounded in the supposed inferiority of people of color and other marginalized communities Terrorist groups thrive in environments that promote an “othering” process that slowly alienates an individual through the adoption of radical beliefs Race and ethnicity are a social construct that is primarily based on visible characteristics, thus making it a prominent division in many societies, and thus an effective pillar underlying radical rhetoric. Both case studies demonstrate how women play prominent roles in spreading extremist beliefs on social media that later lead to violence. However, if gender and race can play a role in why terrorist organizations are becoming more effective, they should also play a role in counter terrorism policy Women of Color with diverse backgrounds hold a key perspective in identifying holes in

84 https://www.unodc.org/documents/Gender/Thematic_Gender_Briefs_English/Terrorism_brief_23_03_2020.pdf

85 https://apcss.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/AP-Women-Indonesia-CT final.pdf

strategies that fail to acknowledge the nuances of a culture or lack the ability to moderate online hate speech from all terrorist groups.

Policy Recommendations

Resiliency as a Deterrence: Having women of color that understand this commitment to having resilience in the face of adversity should be at the forefront of countermeasures in the newly developing field of Psychosocial Counter terrorism. To counteract these ideals among women extremists, women that are engaged in counter terrorism effor ts can recognize and empathize with the resilience that these women must stand for their beliefs, ideals, husbands, and community However, resilience can be used to then be a defining factor to convince radicalized women to shed their violent ideals and move towards a positive end. According to studies, resilience is about transformation. “Transformation and flexibility are characteristics that permit a system to persist under challenging conditions with the same components and much the same (or better) function…” Resilience or “resilience thinking,” involves decision processes that involve anticipation, adaptation, being flexible, and focusing on the inclusivity of diverse decision makers ”86

Specialized Recruitment and Programming for People of Color and Marginalized Communities: The ideology of violent extremism often pairs itself with the extreme distor tion of culture, religion, or race and preys on existing divisions based on these categories. As a result, it is imperative that our security policies reflect a cultural sensitivity that often only comes from those who have firsthand experience People of Color and those from marginalized communities face obstacles that are often more difficult to overcome than their white and Western counterpar ts entering the PVE space, such as the lack of resources dedicated to economic and social mobility. Therefore, to fill the CT and PVE industry with perspectives that are nuanced and diverse enough to address a terrorist organization’s ideology, CT/PVE programs must specifically reach out to people of color and marginalized communities Initiatives like investment in CV and PVE programs in predominantly minority serving institutions or the creation of a CV/PVE pipeline in countries with high extremist activity are examples of policies that could be adopted Need for Women, especially Women of Color, in Counter terrorism Initiatives: It is necessary that countries pay attention to the need for presence of women in various roles to prevent terrorism as well as to promote peace and development. Women trained in STEM could be cyber analysts, threat analysts, intelligence analysts, researchers, etc across numerous depar tments and agencies of the governments focusing on preventing terrorism The presence of women in peacekeeping forces as military personnel, medical practitioners, judicial officers, and other peacebuilding officers could also help promote trust among victims of terrorist activities and essentially help in preventing future recruitment to terrorist groups in fragile, post conflict societies.

Mainstreaming Gender Perspective in CT and PVE: In adherence to the policy guidelines of the UNODC, it is imperative that counter terrorism effor ts of individual nation-states, as well as the group

86 Prior, Tim. "Resilience: The ‘Fifth Wave’ in the Evolution of Deterrence." In Strategic Trends 2018 , pp. 63-80. Center for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zürich, 2018.

effor ts of nations of a region, follow an inclusive approach of mainstreaming gender perspective in their initiatives. While such an approach has been integrated into the effor ts of international organizations such as the UNODC, Council of Europe, NATO, etc, individual nations (where most counter terrorism initiatives are integrated into policy and law enforcement) are yet to mainstream gender perspectives into their peacebuilding operations and counter terrorism effor ts

The Lack of Representation of Women of Color, Including Indigenous Women in Local, National, and International Decision Making Bodies Increases Their Vulnerability to the Climate Crisis

Lizeth Flores and Javeria Kella

The gendered nature of the climate crisis dispropor tionately hur ts women and girls, par ticularly rural, coastal, and Indigenous women. Indigenous people constitute approximately 6.2% of the world’s population, and about 80% of the biodiversity lies under their protection 87 The concept of conservation has been embedded in many Indigenous traditions Indigenous communities have vital ancestral knowledge and exper tise on adapting, mitigating and reducing climate and disaster risks. Indigenous women face additional and differential challenges of climate change compounded with discrimination against Indigenous Peoples and women. However, Indigenous women have limited access, space, and representation in local, national, and international governance structures and decision making bodies This makes them more vulnerable to threats from the climate crisis

The impact of the climate crisis, corporate investments, and industrial expansions are most severely felt by those who live closest to their natural habitats, with dynamic ramifications specifically on women. Within these communities, given that women are often responsible for providing water, food, energy, and livestock care for their families,88 they bear the brunt of the consequences With threats to their livelihoods and traditionally sustainable ways of life, they are forced to walk fur ther away to collect food, water, or firewood, which increases their risk of being victims of gender based violence.89 Given the prominent role they play in managing the food sovereignty of their families and communities, a study conducted by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature discovered that environmental degradation reduces women’s control over finances and work, which can lead to an increase in domestic violence, sexual assault, and forced prostitution 90

In other cases, extreme vulnerability and exposure to climate change leave them with migration as an adaptation strategy. Without access to information concerning legal ways to migrate, they are at the risk of trafficking Currently, women and children make the majority of the displaced population91, and with increased exposure to natural disasters, the number is likely to increase with fur ther risk of gender based violence 92 In other situations, women are expected to manage the household and care for children and the elderly. This makes them less able to evacuate in case of a weather emergency, increasing their level of vulnerability.93

93 https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr923.pdf 88899b.pdfhttps:/92/cdn.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/climate-justice-for-indigenous-women-urgency-and-way-forward-we1https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr923.pdf0https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/2/19/marriage-of-survival-will-climate-change-mean-more-child-brides9https://www.iucn.org/news/gender/202001/environmental-degradation-driving-gender-based-violence-iucn-study8https://www.fmreview.org/issue64/pentlow7https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/indigenouspeoples#136

Globally, women comprise a large propor tion of the world’s population suffering from hunger, even though they are responsible for half of the world’s food production In most Global South countries, women produce between 40 80% of food, and are central stewards of seeds and agricultural biodiversity 94 The climate crisis has disrupted food systems, leading to growing food insecurity. The availability and quality of Indigenous plant and animal species also require adaptation. As the climate crisis advances, it becomes increasingly impor tant to address dietary needs, par ticularly those pregnant, breastfeeding, or with special nutritional needs.95 While Indigenous food sovereignty movements are leading the way in protecting Indigenous rights to traditional foods, more needs to be done

The impact of the climate crisis is profoundly felt by young girls. As a result of climate change, extreme weather events have continued to increase. When human-induced natural disasters devastated communities in southern Malawi, one of the detrimental effects of the climate crisis was the increase of child marriages To survive, families married off their underage daughters This translated to one less mouth to feed or one less child to protect from the risks of sexual exploitation.96 The climate crisis continues to fur ther reduce options for vulnerable and marginalized communities who often live at the margins of society.

As a direct response, women and girls of color, including those from Indigenous backgrounds, have continuously raised their voices and organized to sustain their lands and livelihoods Undoubtedly, women’s par ticipation in decision making is imperative A study conducted in 2005 concluded that countries with higher female parliamentary representation were more prone to ratify international environmental treaties.97 While evidence shows that the advancement of women within decision making spaces leads to more environmentally sound outcomes, there remain various instances where female perspectives have been excluded at this level 98 In climate change adaptation and resilience actions, women continue to face normative, structural, capacity, and decision making barriers 99 These barriers are prevalent within organizations ranging from regional NGOs, to national government agencies and UN entities. Such is the case for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

UNFCCC is the branch of the United Nations that has the specific aim to address climate change and suppor t sustainable development The convention was adopted in 1992, and is the parent treaty for the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, as well as the 2015 Paris Agreement 100 The Kyoto Protocol is geared toward reducing the greenhouse emissions of industrialized states,101 and the Paris

94 https://www.fao.org/3/x0171e/x0171e02.htm

95 https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr923.pdf

96 https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/2/19/marriage-of-survival-will-climate-change-mean-more-child-brides

97 https://pages.uoregon.edu/norgaard/pdf/Gender-Equality-Norgaard-York-2005.pdf

98 https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/03/standing-all-women-and-girls-hear t-climate-justice

99 http://www.adpc.net/igo/category/ID1700/doc/2021-q74Xpc-ADPC-Gender_Mainstreaming_Policy_Brief-ADPC.pdf

100 https://unfccc.int/about-us/about-the-secretariat

101 https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol

Agreement builds on this by engaging all nations in limiting global warming.102 UNFCCC hosts the annual Conference of the Par ties (COP), which, according to the UNFCCC website, is the “supreme decision making body of the Convention ”103

Equal representation of women within constituted bodies and delegations has been an issue since the first COP meeting in 1995. COP 18, held in Qatar in 2012, agreed that achieving gender balance within these bodies would be a goal of the convention.104 In order to track progress toward this aim, the UNFCCC secretariat publishes an annual repor t on the gender composition of leaders par ticipating in the convention 105 The most recent repor t, which was published in 2021, shows that women continue to be underrepresented in the UN climate process 106 The analysis shows that while the gender perspective is being increasingly incorporated into UNFCCC’s work, there is a lack of sustained progress toward gender balance amongst the convention’s decision making and technical panels, and country specific delegations. Overall, the repor t showed that in 2021, women made up approximately one third of constituted body positions, and 49% of government delegates While the last metric shows a promising move toward gender balance, it was noted that women only took up 26% of the speaking time in plenaries 107

To address this and other considerations around gender, the Lima Work Program on Gender (LWPG) was established. LWPG is designed to advance the integration of gender equality initiatives within the work of UNFCCC 108 An enhanced gender action plan was added for implementation in 2022, with five priority areas, including women’s leadership and active par ticipation within the Convention’s work 109 When it comes to integrating the perspectives of representatives from diverse identities including those from different racial and ethnic backgrounds UNFCCC has established working groups such as the Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform (LCIPP) to engage them in UNFCCC’s effor ts.110

A 2020 analysis by the Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC) outlined that while UNFCCC has a number of initiatives related to gender equality (e g , LWPG), as well as programs

107 https://unfccc int/sites/default/files/resource/cp2021 04E pdf

110 https://lcipp.unfccc.int/lcipp-background/overview 1/thttps:/109/unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/the-enhanced-lima-work-programme-on-gender#eq-3https://unfccc.intopics/gender/workstreams/the-enhanced-lima-work-programme-on-gender#eq-308https://unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/the-enhanced-lima-work-programme-on-gender

106 https://unfccc.int/news/overrepresentation-of-men-in-un-climate-process-persists 111mong%20the%2011%2C306%20national%20https:/105/unfccc.int/news/women-still-underrepresented-in-decision-making-on-climate-issues-under-the-un#:~:text=Adelegates,27%25%20of%20whom%20were%20women04https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cp2021_04E.pdf03https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/supreme-bodies/conference-of-the-parties-cop02https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement38

focused on the inclusion of Indigenous communities (e.g., LCIPP), there are missed oppor tunities for them to collaborate with each other and build off of the other’s gains.111

Based off of the findings above, we make the following recommendations:

Recommendations

1. Increase collaborative effor ts between LWPG and LCIPP to suppor t par ticipation of Indigenous women and amplify their voices

2 Establish a state mechanism to obtain Free, Prior Informed Consent (FPIC) of Indigenous women prior to adopting and implementing rule, laws, regulations, strategies, plans, projects, programs, and working procedures.

3. Suppor t Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, especially women, to develop procedures and protocols for obtaining Free Prior Informed Consent.

4 Recognition and strengthening of the customary self government systems and laws of Indigenous Peoples with mandatory and meaningful representation of Indigenous women at all levels of climate policy and decision making process

5. Suppor t and expansion of knowledge transfer modalities led by Indigenous women to exchange knowledge across different regions and generations.

6. Establishment of effective reparations and grievance mechanisms.

This kind of intersectional work is critical to meaningful inclusion of Indigenous women within the activities of UNFCCC, and beyond WG%20-%202Yhttps:/111/www4.unfccc.int/sites/SubmissionsStaging/Documents/202004280812---UNFCCC%20-%20LCIPP%20-%20FWP%20-%20Activity%207%20-%20Comments%20-%20NWAC%20-%202020.pdf39

Race and Gender at the Borderlands: An Analysis of the Factors Influencing the Experience of Black Climate Change Refugees

Desiree Raymond, Ngozi Elobuike, Clemence Koame

Introduction

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, human activity has contributed to the large amounts of greenhouse gasses released into the atmosphere and changed the ear th’s climate Burning fossil fuels resulting from increased human activity has been linked to changes in ocean acidity, increasing land and sea surface temperatures, and extreme weather events. Climate change dispropor tionately affected many developing countries in Africa and the Caribbean, despite their low contribution to the increasing global greenhouse gas emission112.

The changing rain patterns, increasing intensity of natural disasters, and rising sea levels have greatly affected the livelihoods of countries whose economies are dependent on agriculture, tourism, and fishing. Coastal communities have been destroyed and damaged by extreme weather events such as category 4 hurricanes. Rising sea levels have aided erosion and increased sea surface temperatures, as well as chemical pollution, all of which have devastated coral reefs while shifting marine life As the danger of vector borne diseases rises, food security falls, and access to freshwater decreases, public health takes a turn for the worse

Some governments have sought collaboration with international groups and countries, whilst others have adopted an independent stance and taken policy effor ts into their own hands. Policies to strengthen homes, protect marine life, reduce deforestation, and reduce emissions have been developed, but they differ by country, leaving many people whose government has not adapted a climate change policy vulnerable to its effects

Between 20 and 40 million people are displaced every year as a result of natural disasters, the number has doubled since the seventies. At the 14th Conference of the Par ties to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change in Poznan in December 2008, L Craig Johnstone, Deputy High Commissioner of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) announced that nearly 250 million people will be displaced in the middle of this century due to the degradation of the environment. Natural disasters, environmental degradation, and other climatic events or processes (deser tification, drought, sea level rise) engender dramatic human situations. Due to the consequences of climate change, displacement will likely increase in the coming decades Lukas Chancel (2021), “Climate Change and the Global Inequality of Carbon Emissions 1990-2020”, World Inequality Lab,

The World Bank projects that by 2050, sub Saharan Africa could have up to 86 million climate migrants; East Asia and the Pacific, 49 million; South Asia, 40 million; Nor th Africa, 19 million; Latin America, 17 million; and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 5 million The most vulnerable populations of this phenomenon are located in the Global South In Asia for example, the monsoon floods have forced more than a million people to flee Cyclone Fani has caused millions of evacuations in India and Bangladesh. On the African continent, Cyclone Idai hit Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Madagascar in 2018. Other floods hit Ethiopia, the Philippines, Bolivia and Iran, where the worst floods in 100 years affected two thirds of the

countryCountries

affected by political instability are often at the forefront of the phenomenon as well. It is not uncommon for conflicts to exacerbate the effects of climate crises and vice versa. This is the case in Somalia, where more than a million people have fled to Kenya and Ethiopia since the early 1990s to escape the combined civil war and famine caused by the drought. According to a repor t by the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR), the case of Somalia is characterized by "a situation in which conflict and responses to it have exacerbated the impact of natural disasters and the effects of climate change "113

The geopolitical climate surrounding major climate change has the largest effect on marginalized populations. Black refugees are defined as those in the Caribbean, and Africa. Within this repor t, the question exploration is: What racial and gender dimensions uniquely impact Black climate change refugees? Together, we will explore three dimensions; political, economic and social

Political

The “climate refugees” category is a challenge to international refugee law Therefore, creating protections for “climate refugees” raises impor tant challenges especially as there is no proper definition for this specific category The refugee status was established in 1951 by the Geneva Convention. A refugee is an individual who fears persecution if he returns to his country "because of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a cer tain social group or his political views"114. There is no mention of climate among the causes of persecution so the definition of refugee excludes climate refugees Par tly because the focus is on the internal migration but also because persecution is a contentious term within the climate discourse Today in Europe, only Sweden recognizes climate refugee status (since 2005)

The international community has to be criticized for its belated raising of awareness and its collective lack of action for climate refugees. Below is a list of landmark actions that have been taken thus far:

113 UNHCR and Environmental Change and displacement - https://www.unhcr.org/5df9f01b4.pdf

114 The Geneva Convention on refugees

● 1985: First appearance of the term “climate refugees” in a repor t of the United Nations Environment Programme.

● 2009: COP15 makes the climate crisis a political issue for the first time

● Since 2009: Many African countries have ratified the Kampala Convention on Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons in Africa

● 2015: The Paris Agreement creates a working group on the issue whose conclusions have been transposed into the Katowice Agreement.

● 2018: The Marrakech Migration Pact mentions (for the first time) climate change among the causes of forced depar tures

These agreements, pacts, and treaties are often criticized for the lack of concrete action that follows their signature. They do not impose any constraints on the states to provide any protection for forced displacements of people due to climate change.

Economic

Experiencing climate change’s weather events firsthand has dispropor tionately harmed low income and developing countries in the Caribbean and Africa economically. The cost of recovery has deprived and delayed these communities of the resources needed for social and development projects. From 1990 to 2014, the Caribbean spent six times more of its GDP budget on damage recovery than the rest of the world (“The Caribbean’s Extreme Vulnerability”)

A total of $245 4 billion was spent in the Caribbean region recovering from damages dealt by Hurricane Irma, Hurricane Maria, and Hurricane Harvey Many of these countries owe large sums of international debt, making it impossible for them to pay for adaptation and mitigation measures. Between 2004 and 2013, 11% of all Caribbean countries' financial por tfolios consisted of loans and grants per taining to climate change (“The Caribbean’s Extreme

Vulnerability”)Although

over the years many African and Caribbean countries have diversified their economies, agriculture is still a major source of income. The frequency and severity of climate related extreme weather events have crippled nutmeg impor ts from Grenada, banana plantations in Jamaica, St Lucia, and Dominica, as well as sugarcane production in Cuba. Fluctuation in rainfall and increasing temperatures have caused African countries whose economies depend on agriculture, like Ethiopia (one-third of GDP) and sub-Sahara (one-fifth of GDP), to worry

The cost of inaction on climate change can financially harm these regions fur ther and add to their current recovery costs. The Caribbean region is projected to lose $10.7 billion annually by 2025 (10 percent), and $46 billion (22 percent) annually by 2100 due to Hurricane damage, loss of tourism venues, and infrastructure damage associated with climate change (“The Caribbean’s Extreme Vulnerability”) Inaction could cause Southern Africa to lose up to 10%, and East and West Africa up to 15% of their GDP by 2050 (Saghir et al. 2022).

There have been many relevant works that discuss migration, climate change, and global Blackness in isolation However, overlaying them reveals a new axis of exploration At the critical juncture, power and privilege are present. Power asymmetries are deeply embedded into the structure of climate change. Within these borderlands, Black refugees are ruled by power structures that attack their personhood and strip them of their humanity. Racial discrimation accentuates these asymmetries However, the inflow of migrants into a country or region is not happenstance As sharply written by Rüegger in 2018, negative externalities create insecurities both within the home and host country This results in a shift in the ethnic composition of the country of asylum, increasing instability, creating hostile territories and prompting the unjust persecution of refugees (Rüegger, 2018).

Macro theorists Wallerstein and Samir Amin provide a paradigm through which the refugees' experience can be examined The World Systems Theory demonstrates how global decision making is structured World Systems Theory arises from conflict theory which sees society as perpetually in a state of conflict because of competition for limited resources between different social groups. The unequal distribution of power and resources thus leads to crippling social dynamics that spell disaster for those positions at the lowest ranks of the class hierarchy There are three divisions of the world’s countries, the core, the semiperiphery and the periphery The core, often synonymous with the West, is at the center of exploitation that multinational corporations use to extract cheap labor and raw materials They then transform them into secondary or ter tiary consumer goods at a higher cost. The next layer from the core is the semi periphery. It is often occupied by emerging or middle income countries attempting to industrialize. They are often complicit in the extractionary work of the core (Conflict Theory, 2005) The periphery is where most populations of the global Black refugees reside which also happen to be poorer countries whose resources are extracted on unfavorable terms

The world system theory also corroborates with the colonial project. The machinery of colonialism operated viciously in the periphery. Much of the global Black community has been completely restructured by the colonial project and the positioning of humans within social structures follows the pattern of colonialism This also overlays seamlessly with theories ar ticulated by Frank Wilderson in his book Afro Pessimism In his work, Color Theory, Wilderson utilizes personal narrative to examine ethnic attitudes, and race relations According to Wilderson in the center the color theory of is whiteness, the semi periphery is occupied by the non Black subaltern and Blackness is relegated to the periphery. Black refugees occupy a precarious positionality that makes them one of the most vulnerable groups. Kreston Perry in 2021 investigated the impact of climate change on Caribbean populations and uncovered that they faced increased displacement, dispossession and debt burdens To add, policies against climate change only serve to greenwash the periphery The ‘green capitalist periphery’ is still fixed in the world system, unable to exer t any real control over the supply chain.

Above all else, borderlands are political playgrounds The policies and laws crafted by international lawmakers, foreign aid institutions and transnational entities that trickle down into the interstices of refugee camps, detention centers and asylum accommodations are seldomly well adapted to the needs of migrants. For most policies, paternalism governs the most aid interactions. Rarely are individuals experiencing forced migration able to exercise autonomy. The current political and economic systems only enhance the environmental racism plaguing Black communities (Palmer and Evasco, 2021)

Discussion: Intersection of Race and Gender

Climate change is an increasingly gendered and racialized phenomenon. As early as 2007, the IPCC noted that the consequences of climate change varied by gender and indicated that the poorest were the most directly affected by this phenomenon However, around the world, 70% of people living on less than a dollar a day are women and women own less than 1% of the world’s resources In its 2014 repor t, the IPCC established that existing gender inequalities are increased by climate risks. Women’s social position weakens them in the face of climate change and they are among the first to be affected as their ability to adapt and their resilience are limited by social norms. In Asia and Africa, women account for 70% of people living below the pover ty line, leaving them more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change Pover ty is a factor that makes it difficult to adapt to climate change, all the more so since women often bear the burden of the household

All these factors make women more vulnerable to extreme weather events. Globally, women are four teen times more likely to die in a natural disaster than men. To take concrete examples, 80% of the Indonesian victims of the tsunami of 26 December 2004 were women The 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster also highlighted the intersection of many inequalities, including gender, in addition to social and racial inequalities It is estimated that 80% of adults left behind after the hurricane were women. These factors fur ther demonstrate that in addition to race, gender is directly implicated in climate change consequences.

Conclusion

The future implications for the Black climate change refugee are immense There are lasting impacts on life expectations, maternity rates, education, income, and more outcomes. To begin, the life expectancy of migrants is dismal. Premature death poses the biggest threat to the lives of Black refugees (Perry, 2021). Other health indicators demonstrate a drastic decline in the quality of life for those in the borderlands As demanded by Jariel Arvin in 2021, the Black climate agenda is urgent The political, social and economic dimensions fur ther emphasize the impact of climate change Ultimately, race and gender continue to exist at an impor tant intersection in this phenomenon.

Arvin, Jariel “The Urgency of the Black Climate Agenda ” Vox, Vox, 7 Apr 2021, https://www vox com/22358730/climate change biden environmental racial justice

“The Caribbean’s Extreme Vulnerability to Climate Change: A Comprehensive Strategy to Build a Resilient, Secure and Prosperous Western Hemisphere.” Global Americans, 3 Nov. 2019, https://theglobalamericans.org/repor ts/the caribbean extreme vulnerability climate cha nge/

“Conflict Theory ” Encyclopedia of Social Theory , 2005, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412952552.n57.

The Geneva Convention on refugees (1951) UNHCR and Environmental Change and displacement https://www unhcr org/5df9f01b4 pdf

Lukas Chancel (2021), “Climate Change and the Global Inequality of Carbon Emissions 1990 2020”, World Inequality Lab, https://wid.world/document/climate change the global inequality of carbon emissions 1 990 2020 world inequality lab working paper 2021 21/

Perry, Keston K “(Un)Just Transitions and Black Dispossession: The Disposability of Caribbean ‘Refugees’ and the Political Economy of Climate Justice.” Politics, 2021, p.026339572110414., https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957211041441.

Rüegger, Seraina “Refugees, Ethnic Power Relations, and Civil Conflict in the Country of Asylum ” Journal of Peace Research, vol 56, no 1, 2018, pp 42 57 , https://doi org/10 1177/0022343318812935

Saghir, Jamal, Chakin Jenane, Ede Ijjasz Vasquez, and Holger Kray. “The Urgency and Benefits of Climate Adaptation for Africa’s Agriculture and Food Security.” Brookings (blog), March 24, 2022 https://www brookings edu/blog/africa in focus/2022/03/24/the urgency and benefits o f climate adaptation for africas agriculture and food security/

United Nations Peacekeepers: Examining Resolution 2436, Accountability, And Implications For Women Of Color

Lalissie E. and Caroline M.

Introduction

The United Nations (UN) set up the peacekeeping program as their way to protect civilians, de escalate conflicts, and play an active role in revitalizing security in nation states (United Nations, 2019) The UN even uplifts peacekeepers as their “largest and most visible representation” (United Nations, 2019) Yet, the praise the UN gives to peacekeepers contradicts the sexual abuse and exploitation cases, highlighted in the news over the years. VICE News repor ts that in the last 20 years, around 1,800 sexual abuse cases were repor ted against staff and peacekeepers.

While the UN highlights the program’s benefits, it is impossible to overlook the emotional, psychological, and financial issues peacekeepers have caused (Wheeler, 2020) Peacekeepers abuse their power by taking advantage of civilians’ trust and vulnerability, such as withholding the supplies they need in exchange for sex (known as sexual exploitation), the same supplies that peacekeepers were given to help civilians initially (VICE News, 2021). Some rapes have even led to impregnating civilians who are left to struggle raising the child without any assistance (Wheeler, 2020)

The UN’s “largest and most visible representation” is tearing down the UN’s humanitarian reputation from within. They are tasked to be a nonviolent leader in the peacebuilding process, promote human rights, and, most impor tantly, protect the people (Felter and Renwick, 2021). As peacekeepers curate a violent, sexually exploitative environment, they are repainting the UN’s golden image with one that lacks integrity and ethics (Felter and Renwick, 2021)

Reasons To Oppose Resolution 2436

1. Universalizing women & lack of meaningful representation

2. Low standards for accountability & peacekeeper immunity

Background

Resolution 2436 was originally adopted on September 21, 2018, during the UN Security Council’s 8360th meeting. It was created in response to “serious and continuous” sexual abuse and exploitation allegations against UN peacekeepers (United Nations Security Council, 2018) Resolution 2436 is the most recent in a line of related Security Council Resolutions relevant to sexual abuse and exploitation, with Resolution 2272 (2016) covering only peacekeeper sexual abuse, and the General Assembly having adopted at least four similar resolutions as early as 2003 (Code Blue, n.d.). In December 2019, to commemorate one year since 2436’s adoption, the UN held an event to highlight the resolution’s successes and evaluate shor

(EuropaNewswire, 2019). The United States, alongside other member states, heavily emphasized accountability, increased performance repor ting, and implementing the resolution to its full potential (United States Mission to the United Nations, 2019) The resolution remains a work in progress and is supplemented by numerous Secretary General repor ts, the most recent from February 2022 (United Nations Secretary General, 2022)

1. Universalizing women & lack of meaningful representation

Ar ticle 7 notes the UN’s responsibility for protecting women and children and valuing the personnel dedicated to protecting those groups (United Nations, 2018) Nowhere in the resolution does the UN address the variety of cultures they come across in their work Nor does the impor tance of implementing strategies that reflect individual communities/regions’ values For example, “region A” may prefer an accountability strategy that involves only community leaders while “region B” may prefer more involvement from the federal level. This “one size fits all” approach surely does not fit all.

Lumping women and “women’s issues” under the same umbrella with only one solution in mind is not new in the international affairs field Tickner and Sjoberg highlight how postcolonial feminists, such as Chandra Mohanty, have commented on how universalizing women is harmful. This is typically done to non white women, assuming the concerns and issues of white western women are the same as theirs. By choosing to not acknowledge how other factors and identities (ie: social economic standing) impact women differently, agency is stripped from women of color (Tickner and Sjoberg, 2013) Their struggles nor solutions are identical and should not be treated as such

For example, take the goal: “Victims will get a chance to take the perpetrator to cour t”. While this is a great goal, justice systems vary across the globe as well as access to those systems. Take a step back and ask: “How will we make cour ts accessible for victims?” A praised example are the mobile military and civilian cour ts in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) These cour ts collaborate with legal clinics and the clinic and cour t staff are Congolese (Askin, 2016) By not leaving this up to foreign appointees, it ensures that more sensible decisions will be made (ideally). However, it would be wrong to frame this model as perfect. Despite the good it has done, it has its fair share of unsuccessful trials; also, resources and reparations for victims are limited (Cengel, 2016) Overall, the DRC is heading in the right direction by making cour ts more accessible in urban regions, but they still have a lot of more work to do

The UN does not only struggle to break away from ethnocentric universalism, but also places the bulk of the work upon women. Throughout the resolution, such as Ar ticle 19, the UN pushes to place more women in “all aspects of peacekeeping,” building upon the 2015 Resolution 2242 to recruit more women for their military and police units (United Nations, 2018) Yes, representation is impor tant and is influential Yet, representation should not be desired simply for mere presence, but what does having representation mean for brainstorming solutions? How does it influence policy? How does it encourage tangible change?

The UN should not assume that the presence of women in staff and troops will improve the quality of their missions Hernandez argues that placing the responsibility to create a “civilized” environment for missions onto women peacekeepers allows men to never take accountability for their actions, are not pushed to improve themselves, or contribute to a healthy work environment. The UN’s gendered approach complicates the issue fur ther and leaves women including women peacekeeping staff at a disadvantage (Hernandez, 2020).

When deciding how to properly protect civilians from perpetrators in their peacekeeping staff, the UN needs to change their approach First, fully researching the region’s culture and values to incorporate it into the planning process This informs what the customs are, who are the leaders, and the inequalities that will impact what kind of resources and suppor t survivors will need. Second, setting up proper representation that will carry weight in the solution process, when holding trials against peacekeepers, and when fixing policies related to sexual assault within the UN. Mixing leaders from predominantly western states will not solve anything Bring in the community leaders and the survivors into the space Have women of color who range in backgrounds, exper tise, class, etc The end result needs to reflect the needs and wants of those who are most vulnerable.

2. Low standards for accountability & peacekeeper immunity

Resolution 2436 holds a cursory understanding of accountability UN peacekeepers who sexually abuse and exploit people In Ar ticle 16, the resolution encourages that all troop contributing countries “conduct investigations of allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse by their personnel and take appropriate steps to hold accountable those responsible” (United Nations Security Council, 2018). This line is par ticularly problematic as it leaves justice measures to peacekeepers’ respective countries and offers no oversight or accountability on the par t of the UN Also impor tant to note is the fact that UN peacekeepers are offered immunity in the countries they are deployed in, providing perpetrators even more of an outlet from any potential prosecution, a phenomenon already rare when trials in home countries do occur (Felter and Renwick, 2021).

In the last 20 years, an estimated 1,800 sexual abuse cases have been repor ted against UN peacekeepers and staff, a number likely lower than the actual total due to the extent to which sexual abuse and exploitation go underrepor ted (VICE News, 2021) The UN’s choice to uphold immunity for peacekeepers in the countries they are deployed in empowers the unfor tunate idea that any abuse suffered will continue with impunity, forwarding the cycle of underrepor ting and lack of justice for victims. Ar ticle 16’s shor tcomings also reinforce already severe gender inequalities, as the lack of a trial can normalize abuse, cause women to not view their abuse as “real crimes'' wor thy of repor ting, and teach victims to believe that any abuse endured will not be answered with accountability for the perpetrator (Ordway, 2018)

While the actual methodology of prosecuting peacekeepers is an issue in itself, it is difficult to address the nuances of sexual abuse trials when the process of simply bringing peacekeepers to cour t is left to the will of individual countries The top contributors of military and police troops in 2021 were Bangladesh, Rwanda, and Ethiopia, all developing countries with likely inadequate legal systems that are unlikely to burden themselves with trying peacekeepers (McCar thy, 2021). When accountability is left up to peacekeepers’ home countries, as Ar ticle 16 outlines, this inhibits the ability of victims to receive justice and marks Resolution 2436 with a substantial weak spot. Security Council resolutions are also unbinding, meaning that while member states can be incentivized to abide by resolutions via international pressure or a desire to be viewed positively on the world’s stage, there is no formal oversight or legal repercussions if countries do not carry out the ar ticles they signed on to With this in mind, even if peacekeepers’ home countries have agreed to hold trials as signatories of Resolution 2436, there is zero enforcement and little incentive for them to do so.

To remedy this, the UN should remove peacekeeper immunity and allow victims’ home countries to prosecute deployed peacekeepers. Troop contributing countries should be compelled to consent to this change given that it allows home countries to share the responsibility of holding trials with the countries where peacekeepers are deployed. Removing immunity would offer an increased oppor tunity for victims to receive justice and provide peacekeepers with a stronger deterrent from committing such crimes. Fur ther, the UN must implement some form of oversight and enforcement, as leaving trials to individual countries is ineffective. Independent of the International Cour t of Justice and International Criminal Cour t, the UN should implement stronger monitoring and evaluation of peacekeepers and ensure that any trials overseen or pursued have legal professionals informed on gender justice.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a review of Resolution 2436, alongside peacekeepers’ history of sexual abuse and exploitation, offers many oppor tunities for revision and reflection Accountability is a necessary step to ending peacekeepers’ crimes; however, when this process is left to peacekeepers' home countries, this leaves a highly unlikely chance of any recognition of wrongdoing. The UN has no formal oversight or direct process to ensure that home countries are carrying out trials, normalizing violence against women in already fragile countries and offering low standards for justice despite a human-rights driven mission In considering the implications of allowing women of color to experience abuse at the hands of an international institution, it should be recognized that this sets a harmful standard for the rest of the world, signaling that women of color in conflict affected areas are not deserving of justice or accountability.

Additionally, their gendered approach to addressing the issue through representation of women in uniform hasn’t brought much improvement for two reasons First, it universalizes women’s concerns under a singular solution, ignoring women of color’s individual identities and obstacles. It shouldn’t be assumed that non white women will suddenly feel more seen

protected with more women in uniform. Hernandez notes that women peacekeepers believe the communities they work in “see uniform first and uniform second” rather than women before the uniform No matter who is wearing it, the uniform represents the UN, a large, well known international institution with a long history of sexual abuse and exploitation and being able to get away with it (Hernandez, 2020) So the representation becomes meaningless and root causes are left unaddressed. Second, it encourages the idea that women will naturally solve the problem. Then the work to improve is taken off of the backs of men (and the UN) so they never have to face actual accountability. Power dynamics stay the same and communities aren’t any safer The UN needs to tailor their resolutions to the power dynamics at hand instead of using women as their bandaid to repair the UN’s good samaritan image

Askin, Kelly “Global: Ending Impunity for Crimes Committed by UN Peacekeepers ” International Bar Association, International Bar Association, 11 Mar 2016, www ibanet org/ar ticle/CEBC5F69 A238 49BB B85A 5E8D878FE485 Accessed 13 July 2021.

Cengel, Katya. “DRC: Mobile Cour ts Deliver Justice to Remote Areas.” Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera Media Network, 26 Sept 2016, www aljazeera com/features/2016/9/26/drc mobile cour ts deliver justice to remote are as Accessed 13 May 2022

Code Blue. “UN Documents Code Blue:.” Code Blue Campaign, http://www.codebluecampaign.com/un docs. Accessed 13 May 2022.

Europa Newswire “Improving Peacekeeping Performance Meeting at United Nations ” Europa Newswire, 7 December 2019, https://europanewswire.com/improving peacekeeping performance meeting at united n ations amp/. Accessed 13 May 2022.

Felter, Claire, and Danielle Renwick “The Role of Peacekeeping in Africa ” Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, 5 Oct 2021, www cfr org/backgrounder/role peacekeeping africa Accessed 12 May 2022

Hernandez, Brianna Nicole. “Sexual Abuse in UN Peacekeeping: The Problem of Viewing Women as a “Quick Fix.”” E International Relations, E International Relations, 20 Feb. 2020, www e ir info/2020/02/20/sexual abuse in un peacekeeping the problem of viewing wo men-as-a-quick-fix/ Accessed 23 Apr 2021

McCar thy, Niall. “The Biggest Contributors To UN Peacekeeping Missions.” Forbes, 28 May 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/niallmccar thy/2021/05/28/the biggest contributors to un peacekeeping missions infographic/?sh=41a300e22ca7. Accessed 13 May 2022.

Ordway, Denise “Why many sexual assault survivors may not come forward for years ” The Journalist's Resource, 5 October 2018, https://journalistsresource.org/health/sexual assault repor t why research/. Accessed 13 May 2022.

"Security Council Stresses Need to Improve Behaviour, Leadership, Accountability in Peacekeeping, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2436 (2018) " United Nations, 21 Sept 2018, https://www un org/press/en/2018/sc13518 doc htm Press Release

Tickner, Ann J. and Sojoberg, Laura. "Feminism." International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, edited by Timothy Dunne, et al., 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 205 222

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United States Mission to the United Nations. “Remarks at a High Level Event on Improving Peacekeeping Performance: One Year since UNSCR 2436.” United States Mission to the United Nations, 6 December 2019, https://usun usmission gov/remarks at a high level event on improving peacekeeping performa nce one year since unscr 2436/. Accessed 13 May 2022.

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"Why the UN Has a Sexual Abuse Problem | System Error " YouTube, uploaded by VICE News, 26 April 2021, https://youtu be/BxVUpGCeyu0

Water Sanitation, Accessibility and Shor tages: A Woman’s Crisis

Background

STATE COLLEGE, PA In this present climatic condition, peace and security building is more than about the absence of War and the increasing need for domestic combat Specifically, other peace and security threats such as clean water shor tages and accessibility need development aid, humanitarian assistance, and democratic suppor t. Water scarcity is a driving security concern in many developing countries as it causes “disruptions in sustainable supplies, distributions of por table water and levels of sanitation, and conflicts over resources demanding clean water (see figure 1).115 According to a United Nations 2015 repor t presented at U.N. headquar ters in New York, “about 2 9 billion people in 48 countries will be facing water shor tages within 10 years that could destabilize and jeopardize the “very existence” of some countries.”116 Meaning, between 2025 and 2030, they anticipate a global supply shor tfall of 40%, which will pose a major threat to domestic and global security for government and non government officials worldwide 117

The United Nations General assembly adopted 17 sustainable development goals intended to evolve humanity and our world by 2030.118 The sixth goal (SDG 6) is entitled “Clean Water and Sanitation” which focuses on ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water sanitation for all.119 This Intergovernmental Organization (IGO), like many others, believes that water and sanitation are at the core of sustainable development, and the range of services bodies of water provide amplifies pover ty reduction, economic growth, and environmental sustainability.120 Although SDG 6 is a recent iteration amongst the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) focused on water security, there has been a historic chain of conversations around the global risks of water shor tages and inaccessibility. For instance, in 1997, “the Mar del Plata conference in Argentina created an Action Plan on “Community Water Supply”, declaring that all peoples have the right to access drinking water in quantities and qualities that are equal to their basic needs ”121 This was fur ther raised by the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade that aimed to have safe water and sanitation across the world by 1990, and in 1992 the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro reiterated this goal, then again at the International Conference on Water and the Environment (ICWE) in Dublin.122

Most recently, the COVID 19 pandemic and the emerging “Monkeypox” virus have demonstrated to many IGOs the prominent roles of sanitation, hygiene, and adequate access to clean water to Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. “Water and Sanitation | Depar tment of Economic and Social Affairs.” United Nations, United Nations,11sdgs.un.org/topics/water-and-sanitation.17Ibid.16WrittenbyZeeshanAleem.“TheThreat to Global Security from Water Shor tages.” World Economic Forum, www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/03/the-threat-to-global-security-from-water-shor tages/.

115 By. “Water Scarcity: The Most Understated Global Security Risk.” Harvard National Security Journal, 18 May 2018, scarharvardnsj.org/2018/05/water-scarcity-the-most-understated-global-security-risk/#:~:text=Globally%2C%20water%20city%20is%20driving,however%2C%20in%20some%20cases%2C%20water.53

Jada Quinland

prevent and contain transnational diseases and epidemics.123 According to another IGO, the World Health Organization (WHO), handwashing is one of the most effective actions you can take to reduce the spread of pathogens and prevent infections, including the COVID 19 and Monkeypox virus.124 Due to the aforementioned, the concept of water scarcity has evolved. Now, water scarcity can mean ”scarcity in availability due to physical shor tage, scarcity in access due to the failure of institutions to ensure a regular supply or due to a lack of adequate infrastructure.”125 This ideological shift is because water use has been growing internationally at more than twice the rate of population increases in the last century, especially in arid regions 126

World Water Day was declared to be celebrated within Women’s History Month (March) maybe as a coincidence; however, it highlights the negative correlation between women and water insecurity Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are integral to improving health outcomes of women and girls, and the development of sustainable communities 127Therefore women, especially women of color (WOC) (mostly found in developing countries), are crucial in this contextual discussion of peace and security building With our presence and advocacy, global governance agencies are more likely to develop/restructure policies to address water insecurity through the lens of gender and racial equity.128 Moreover, women’s water insecurity is a global health crisis that impacts a multitude of regions and ”dispropor tionately impacts women of color, low income women, and their children ”129

Studies show that women and girls are often primarily responsible for water collection, and have a worldwide devotion to 200 million hours each day to collect water for their households 130 UNICEF conducted research that found 80 percent of households for which water collection is necessary, women and girls are responsible for retrieving water supplies.131

For instance, in Sub Saharan Africa, among households without running water, water collection duties are mostly performed by women and girls; in rural India, women can walk an average of 16 kilometers per day to collect water; in Latin America and the Caribbean, 31 percent of women retrieve their water from sources that are thir ty minutes away from their homes.132That is why building and maintaining sustainable water and sanitation systems are essential to the ability of women and girls to live ”healthfully anticipating heavy duty activities such as menstruation, pregnancy, child labor, and breast feeding.”133

Figure #1

“Water stress is when the demand for water exceeds the available amount during a cer tain period, or when poor/unsensitized water quality prohibits its use European Environment Agency”

Suppor ting Data

According to a literature review, Sub Saharan Africa has the largest number of water stressed countries of all regions Secondly, the Middle East and Nor th African region (MENA) have 60 percent of its population living in water stressed areas The repor t emphasized that water is already one of the main vulnerabilities faced by people living in this region, par ticularly those displaced by conflicts and their host communities 134 Specifically, Mozambique, Niger, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Somalia, Ethiopia, Uganda, Papua New Guinea, Eritrea, India, Jordan, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, Lebanon, Pakistan, and many more are countries of high water scarcity or low water sanitation accessibility as of 2021 135 Moreover, the repor t's conclusion claimed that water deficits are linked to 10 percent of the increase in migration, 30 percent increase in health issues, and driving the steady decline in the Agricultural sector of arid state actors between 1970 and 2010 136

Migration Impacts

The water sector, and the accessibility of water itself, implicitly/explicitly shape migration flows And climate change is a key determinant of this water induced migration. Extreme water events affecting water supplies for drinking, cooking, washing, and agriculture drive migration across 136 Ibid. 135 Ibid. 134 World Bank Group. “Lack of Water Linked to 10 Percent of the Rise in Global Migration.” World Bank, World Bank Group, 18 Aug. 2021, ation.www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/08/23/lack-of-water-linked-to-10-percent-of-the-rise-in-global-migr55

the world.137 For instance, in 2021 cyclone Eloise battered Mozambique displacing 100,000 to 400,000 people and contaminating the country’s water infrastructure 138 People displaced by the storm needed food, hygiene kits, and personal protective equipment (PPE) for the increased bacterial exposures of the flood.139 Cyclones are an example of extreme water events that will play out more frequently and adversely as water crises worsen with climate change 140 In another sense, migration will be induced by drought, as we saw in the Sahel in Africa, or by unregulated water management, as we saw in the Aral Sea region of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan 141

Conflict Impacts

As the MENA region is the world’s most water scarce region, water is more often a casualty/driver of conflict or corruption rather than a reason for migration.142 Par ticularly, water infrastructure is frequently targeted during conflict or in bargaining leverages.143 ” Precipitating issues could include socio political tensions; disputes over dams, reservoirs, and other large scale projects; and disputes concerning environmental and resource issues.”144 It is safe to claim the major underlying reasons for these conflicts include low rainfall; inadequate water supply, and dependency on one major water source; high population growth and rapid urbanization; modernization and industrialization; and a history of armed combat to solve scarcity problems and poor relations between countries and among groups within countries to gain scarce resources 145 Ibid.

144 Levy, Barry S, W Sidel. Rights and Water Fights: Preventing and Resolving Conflicts before They Journal of Public Health American Public Health Association, May 2011, World Bank, World Bank Group, 20 Aug. 2021, www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/08/23/going-with-the-flow-water-s-role-in-global-migration. Ibid. Fioret PhD Candidate, Nidhi Nagabhatla Adjunct Professor. “How Droughts and Floods Lead to Conversation 11 May 2022,

Agricultural Impacts

Figure #2

”Access to safe water at home gives women hope, and oppor tunity

Approximately 97 5% of all water is either salt water or water that has become polluted.147 Of the remaining 2.5%, nearly 70% is frozen in glaciers and the polar ice caps.148 Less than 0 01% of all water worldwide is available for human use in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and easily accessible aquifers 149 Alongside water supplies, the agricultural sector is an impor tant contributor to a developing economy in many ways; from promoting food and energy security to providing jobs in rural areas and for individuals in marginalized communities such as WOC 150The depletion of water availability in soils causes significant declines in crops and livestock production.151 For instance, ”surface and groundwater supplies may decline during drought, affecting water availability and increasing costs to access water for crops or forage irrigation and watering livestock “152

Health Impacts

As mentioned in the background section, access to safe water is critical to the health of women and their babies during pregnancy and after However, walking to collect water and carrying heavy vessels of water can be dangerous for a pregnant woman or straining for a young girl.153 From maintaining a healthy pregnancy to nourishing a newborn child or raising a menstruating Water Woman's Crisis.” Water.org, water.org/our-impact/water-crisis/womens-crisis/.

Water.org, water.org/our-impact/water-crisis/womens-crisis/.

teen, women need safe and accessible water at home.154 When women are empowered with safe water and toilets at home, they are empowered to change their world by focusing on other developmental activities/aspirations 155Especially for women of color, lifting their burdens from a water crisis makes room for the oppor tunities for them to seek employment, an education, or other skill based training that would add to their household income

Recommendations

Policymakers, especially in conflict affected regions like MENA, will need to make trade offs between shor t term, uncoordinated measures to respond to immediate water needs, and long term measures to address structural water issues. Therefore, some suggestions are:

1 States/ NGOs/IGOs should invest more into desalination plants as a shor t-term goal that could turn salt water that surrounds most developing countries into purified water For instance, “The Claude “Bud” Lewis Carlsbad Desalination Plant is the largest, most technologically advanced, and energy efficient seawater desalination plant in the nation ”156 Anticipating that most developing nations can't afford this type of investment, it is up to different humanitarian platforms to push this resource building intervention. Not only would this increase safe water reserves, but it would also decrease migration and conflict impacts within the original and receiving country

2. The long term could be to prioritize safety nets for future water shocks. Such as implementing or increasing national water reserves and increasing social advocacy on the value of water both in a domestic and international capacity For example, Mozambique has a WASH program through the United Nations International Children’s Fund that works with the local government to embed SDG 6’s values and missions for water preservation 157 situation%20in%20