Waipahu Transit-Oriented Development Collaboration - Planning Practicum Report

TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT IN WAIPAHU,

Assessing Transit-Oriented Development in Waipahu, Hawai‘i

Prepared by: University of Hawai‘i at Manoa Department of Urban and Regional Planning Planning Practicum (PLAN 751) Spring 2018

Faculty Sponsor: Priyam Das, Ph.D. Teaching Assistant: Yusraa Tadj Wesley Bradshaw Erin Braich Trevor Fitzpatrick Britta Johnson Malachi Krishok

Laura Mo

Umeyo Momotaro

Kelsey Morfitt

Samuel Mukai

Amanda Rothschild Sameer Saraswat Brandon Soo Jennifer Wheeler Grace Wolff

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Waipahu Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)

Plan seeks to foster a livable neighborhood, reducing the cost of transportation and housing by encouraging effective use of land and enhancing mobility by promoting different modes of transit. This report presents research on five sub-topics related to TOD, focusing, in particular, on State held parcels adjacent to the proposed Pouhala Transit Center in Waipahu.

Climate Change

Increasing global temperatures, erratic precipitation patterns, more frequent and severe storms are all observable elements that are signaling global climate change. Coastal communities throughout Hawai'i will be affected by the changing climate. Coastal erosion, seasonal flooding, inundation, wave effects, and pressures on the groundwater table all pose serious threats to economic assets and infrastructures necessitating improvements to make them resilient to the impacts of climate change and sea level rise (SLR).

Waipahu is situated at the base of the Waipio, Waiawa, and Waikele watersheds, with the low-lying coastal area highly prone to rain-induced flooding as well as sea level rise. These will only be more severe and frequent with rain events that are climate-changerelated. Moreover, Waipahu's proximity to the leeward side of the island and coastal plain of ‘Ewa keep the typical areal climate slightly warmer and drier than other parts of the island. This, coupled with increases in urban density such as those proposed by TOD, are commonly associated with loss of green space that is replaced by impervious surfaces contributing to an urban heat island effect. Recommendations to address flooding include building community resiliency, restoring the natural ecosystem, managed retreat, revised building codes for new construction and remodels. Updating building codes to encourage appropriate built form, increasing urban tree canopy, reducing impervious surfaces, public service announcements, and the strategic use of urban form could help mitigate the heat island effect.

Economic Development

Traditional economic development strategies have focused almost exclusively on attracting outside industries and supporting private business growth to compete on a global scale. However, there has been a shift towards a more holistic approach, focusing on enhancing regional resources, and the social and natural environment, to encourage economic development. Transit-oriented communitybased economic development (TOCBED), a local development strategy for community-based economic development (CBED), include enhancing regional identity, building local industry clusters, connecting to anchor institutions, advancing innovation, building entrepreneurial and business capacity, building workforce capacity, democratizing ownership, diversifying investment, promoting regional assets, and fostering network leadership.

Based on these ten strategies of CBED, recommendations for economic development in Waipahu centered around three major themes: providing infrastructure, facilitating financing, and incentivizing partnership. Transit-oriented development offers a unique opportunity to catalyze and enhance CBED within communities along the rail corridor. State-owned parcels could provide a cohesive center for encouraging the partnerships required to sustain development in the long term through land packaging, developing facilities for community enterprises and working with the City and County of Honolulu to promote location development. Sustainable economic development for a transit village further requires the cooperation of the entire village. In order to incentivize such partnerships, the State can encourage workforce development between schools and local businesses, help communities negotiate community benefits agreements (CBAs) in TOD areas, coordinate TOCBED initiatives with other programs (e.g. housing).

Supporting small business growth is an important mechanism for empowering local residents to improve their job opportunities. Small businesses, however, require different types of financing than do larger

corporations. The State, besides outright grants for business projects, can support the development of businesses by facilitating an ecosystem that can grow economic activity more sustainably through encouraging community development financial institutions (CDFIs) and revolving loan funds. These can help seed TOCBED projects by coordinating a network of technical assistance providers for the projects.

Housing

TOD presents an opportunity to address the current housing crisis on Oahu. Based on the current market, Waipahu is a neighborhood that is generally affordable for people who want to live near Honolulu but cannot afford to live in the central city. Based on common patterns of redevelopment, access to the rail and newly developed areas will raise the land value, resulting in a decrease in housing affordability. The specific housing needs of the Waipahu community based on community testimonial, individual household data, and Waipahu-level data, are aligned with those at the county and state levels. The findings underscore the importance of community knowledge and goals in identifying best housing practices for Waipahu and for future rail stations. Recommendations therefore focus on identifying housing policy for long-term, lowincome, family-oriented rentals to avoid displacement of residents in Waipahu and future Honolulu TOD.

Placemaking

The three key areas that are central to developing a city’s sense of place are open space and connecting green networks, food citizenship and access, and beautification and urban design elements. Drawing on community surveys and interviews, the study recommends implementing green pedestrian pathways with permeable surfaces, starting community-run gardens, and beautifying Waipahu with culturallysignificant trees and increasing the safety through building design and increased lighting.

In a transit-oriented development, placemaking centers around a high-quality pedestrian experience in a mixed-income and mixed-use environment with less dependence on vehicles. Placemaking can emphasize a community’s strength and character, building on social capital as well as environmental and cultural

capital. The report reviews the role of placemaking in increasing environmental, cultural, and social capital by paying particular attention to community needs, and City and State TOD goals. Research and community input highlighted inadequate attention to issues of equity, safety, and health. To have access to healthy, fresh food, the recommednations include education on growing vegetables with aquaponics, and local art to uplift Waipahu and give residents a sense of belonging, a positive sense of place.

Transportation

The report provides recommendations for specified parties regarding best practices to meet the expressed goals for TOD in Waipahu and to prepare for emerging trends in transportation. This includes a review of the town of Waipahu, existing conditions, community planning goals, City goals, and an overview of TOD and planning for multimodal accessibility, to identify problems, barriers, opportunities, and recommendations. Recommendations include:

Zoning for horizontal and vertical mixed land use and compact development at maximum appropriate densities to maintain local character while supporting public transit systems;

Improving public transit systems through increased funding, enhanced connectivity and efficiency using autonomous shuttles, bus-only lanes, and better cycling infrastructure;

Changing existing parking policies to allow for the elimination of parking minimums, development of parking maximums, and formulating policies that encourage district level shared parking and new parking structures that can be easily adapted to other uses in the future;

Developing form-based codes in TOD zones that create more walkable environments;

Assessing existing laws and municipal codes that will impact deployment of Autonomous Vehicles (AV) technology; modification of existing codes may be necessary, or cities may have to develop a new autonomous vehicle or smart infrastructure code; Waipahu, which has state-owned parcels of land close to the transit station, is a good candidate to employ Shared Autonomous Vehicles (SAVs) for first/ last mile transit which will boost the reach of rail to a much larger area. To begin with, a normal shuttle

service with a driver may also be employed to assess the effectiveness of such a service until the driverless option becomes feasible.

In the age of electric/ autonomous vehicles, Waipahu, as well as Honolulu, may begin to think about associated infrastructure like pick up/ drop off zones, and charging zones to address changing needs in the future.

TABLE

1.

1.1

1.5

1.4.1

Canada:

Portland, Oregon:

San Diego, California:

Los Angeles,

1.5.1 Public Transit

Land use

Built Form and

Shared Streets

Transportation

Policy and Design

Opportunities

Pedestrian-Oriented

Figures

2. HOUSING

3. PLACEMAKING

TABLE

CONTENTS

3.4.1

3.7

List of Tables

3.1 Public Spaces:

Map

Jardín

List of Figures

3.1 Race and ethnicity

Age by nativity in Waipahu,

3.3. Aerial and Street

Close-up aerial of

Close-up aerial of

3.6. Close-up aerial of

3.7 Radial graph of open spaces

relation

3.8 Food Asset Map showing Waipahu’s

3.9 Pouhala station aerial

3.10 Community stone

options within half mile radius of Pouhala...........

3.11 Image of Corktown Common, Toronto........................................................................................

3.12 Areas for proposed open spaces near Pouhala

Areas for proposed open spaces near Ho‘ae‘ae

New York’s Highline,

Blake TOD

Park in Fort York

Kōban police

Community input

Jardín

Hoopla

Samples of Edible

Bench with seat

Picnic table

TABLE

4. CLIMATE

List of Tables

Number of People Displaced by 3.2 ft of SLR in the USA, Hawai‘i, and Waipahu.................

Waipahu Average

Assets

Types of Green

List of Figures

for 2050 and

Level Rise

Graph of global temperature increase over the 20th century....................................................

Annual averages of sea level rise from 1870-2010.......................................................................

Accelerated increase in sea level rise since 1993.........................................................................

Social, cultural, and economic assets on Hawai‘i ’s shoreline (hotels, heiau, people)............

Named tropical storms near Hawai‘i in

Cover of Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise

Adaptation

Map of Waipahu...............................................................................................................................

Waipahu community input on

Urban Heat-island

1.1ft of SLR in

of SLR

of SLR

riverine

riverine

100-year riverine

Storm surge map

heat map of

heat map of

loss from

135 136 137 138 140 141 141 142 151

5. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

155 156

157 157 159 159 161

167 170 179 180 181 182 184

187

159

Acknowledgements

not have been possible

Planning, and advice and guidance of the following

input and expertise

• Leo Asuncion, the State of Hawai‘i Office of Planning

Lee Sichter

• Ryan Tam, Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation

support of the State of Hawai‘i Office

agencies, and stakeholders who

• Harrison Rue, C&C of Honolulu, Department of Planning and Permitting – TOD

Dean Sakamoto, SHADE

• Ruby Edwards, the State of Hawai‘i Office of Planning

• Rodney Funakoshi, the State of Hawai‘i Office of Planning

• Sen. Clarence Nishihara, Hawai‘i Senate District 18

• Rep. Henry Aquino, Jr., Hawai‘i House District 38 & Waipahu Community Association

• Andrew Teng, C&C of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting – TOD

• Bob Agres, Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation

• Bruce Tsuchida, Townscape

• Cathi Schar, UH Mānoa School of Architecture & the UH Community Design Center Students

• Craig Harai, Hawai‘i Housing Finance and Development Corporation

• Deanna Espinas, Waipahu Coalition

• Erwin Lagespi, GearUP Waipahu

• Jason Okuhama, HACBED & HCDA Board

• John Wallenstrom, Alaka‘i Development

• Kendric Wong, Tropicana Square Shopping Center

• Kevin Carney, EAH Housing

• Lucian Wong, Board Member, EAH Housing Board

• Rito Saniatan, Waipahu Neighborhood Board

• Wayne Ogasawara, Waipahu Community Association Board

Last but certainly not least, we would like to extend a huge mahalo to our tireless professor, Dr. Priyam Das, our incredible teaching assistant, Yusraa Tadj, and the amazing faculty and staff of the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Department of Urban and Regional Planning.

Abbreviations

AV Autonomous Vehicle(s)

CMAQ Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program

CSTF Complete Streets Task Force

DOT Department of Transportation

DPP Department of Planning and Permitting

FAST Act Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act of 2015

ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991

MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act of 2012

MPO Metropolitan Planning Organization

NHS National Highway System Designation Act of 1995

OGP Proposed Revised O‘ahu General Plan

ORTP 2040 O‘ahu Regional Transportation Plan

SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users of 2005

STP Surface Transportation Program

TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century of 1998

TIFIA Transportation Infrastructure Financing and Innovation Act

TOD Transit-Oriented Development

VMT Vehicle Miles Travelled

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Transportation planning and transit-oriented development.

Transportation planners are tasked with many challenges in making improvements to accessibility and mobility while promoting equity and affordability, and bolstering public health. Transportation planners must do this while preparing for climate change and sea level rise, and for a future of new transportation technologies such as autonomous vehicles and the rise of the ride-sharing economy. Transportation is not an isolated topic; it is intricately linked to land use and features of the built environment. Land use directly influences transportation methods and modes (Litman, 2016). For example, segregated land uses and urban sprawl require private automobiles and extensive road networks, while denser urban core regions benefit substantially from multi-modal transportation options. Moreover, mixed land uses are a vital part of informing walkable environments.

A good transportation plan must be multidimensional and integrated with other aspects of infrastructure planning in a comprehensive manner, rather than as an isolated element of planning and development (Neuman, 2012). For example, a transportation plan must not only consider transportation demand, congestion issues, and multimodal opportunities; it must also consider land use, and an environmental assessment of potential threats such as flooding, climate change, and sea level rise. Therefore, transportation infrastructure planning is tightly linked with other aspects of infrastructure planning.

Transit-oriented development, or TOD, is a model in urban planning that seeks to develop new housing near access points to public transit— particularly rail transit stations (Chatman, 2013). TODs aim to enhance pedestrian amenities and improve walking and biking mobility with the goal of reducing private automobile ownership and use. Therefore, multimodal options and multimodal connectivity is essential in such development (Litman, 2016). TOD typically calls for compact development using a mix of land uses, such as residences, employment, and shopping (City & County of Honolulu, 2017).

1.1.2 The chapter outline.

Section 1.2 provides an overview of national, regional, and local policies and transportation trends, beginning with national level and ending with a focus on existing conditions in Waipahu as well as local goals for improvement. Here we draw on planning documents derived from the City & County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting (DPP), Oahu Metropolitan Planning Organization (OahuMPO), and other professional planning organizations, as well as site visits, personal observations, Google Maps, and GIS. Section 1.3 outlines our research methodology. Following our methodology is section 1.4, which includes key case studies and provides a basis for our recommendations. Section 1.5 establishes our recommendations for TOD on O‘ahu and in Waipahu by drawing on an extensive literature review to provide solid support. This section consists of seven sub-sections outlining transit, multimodal accessibility, land use, parking reform, and design strategies, as well as new street typologies and policy and design recommendations to improve connectivity and prepare for new technologies such as autonomous vehicles. Section 1.6 provides the conclusion for this chapter and outlines opportunities and constraints and summarizes our key recommendations.

1.2 Background

1.2.1 National policies for transportation in the United States.

National policies for transportation in the U.S. had a large influence on transportation planning at the state, local, and community levels (Gutfreund, 2004), and as the rest of this chapter will suggest, will continue to do so throughout the 21st century. While the first federal aid came in 1916 for public roads and the mass production of automobiles, the most significant funding for long-distance mobility came with the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. This policy funded the expansion of the massive highway system that exists today in the U.S. An illustration of its impact on O‘ahu is shown in Figure 1.1. While its main purpose was for national defense to connect military bases and allow military vehicles and personnel to move freely between major cities and strategic locales, it also fostered the increase of

capacity for transportation, and has been described as the “Greatest Public Works Project in History” (U.S. DOT, 2017a). In 1991, the estimated cost was $128.9 billion, covering 42,795 miles under the Interstate Construction Program, excluding financing outside of the program (U.S. DOT, 2017b).

Recent history of national policies. While the historical context is helpful to understand how

the present landscape of transportation came to be, the post-highway era in transportation planning began with the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA, pronounced “ice tea”). ISTEA has been hailed as the turning point of surface transportation in the U.S. (Schweppe, 2001). One change it made was to reorganize public roads from four classifications—interstate, primary, secondary, and urban—to two: National Highways and Interstate

Highways. Equally significant was the creation of the Surface Transportation Program (STP). The STP brought more flexibility to the funding process and was more flexible in expenditures. This included transit capital projects, carpooling projects, safety improvements, bicycle and pedestrian facilities, and transportation control measures, in addition to federal aid for public transit, highways, bridges, and public roads. It was initially envisioned to be a block grant type of program.

The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program (CMAQ) was another important program established by ISTEA. The goals of CMAQ funds were to improve air quality and reduce traffic congestion. This included transit improvement focusing on the conversion to cleaner fuels for public fleets, establishing ride-share services, promoting employer-trip reduction programs, and supporting bicycle and pedestrian travel. It also included funding for special programs to increase use of safety belts, motorcycle helmets, scenic byways and recreational trails, and for research and development to resolve highway problems.

ISTEA also broadened the number of stakeholders in the planning process, including the freight community, environmental groups, and bicycle and pedestrian advocates. The STP funded construction of pedestrian and bicycle facilities, acquisition of scenic and historic sites, rehabilitation of historic transportation facilities, archeological planning and research, control and removal of outdoor advertising, and mitigation of water quality effects from roadway runoffs. This collaborative effort utilized the “intermodal” mindset. Many states redefined and reorganized their statewide and metropolitan planning and program development processes with ISTEA philosophies. The legislative legacy of ISTEA has become: the National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 (NHS); Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century of 1998 (TEA-21); Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users of 2005 (SAFETEA-LU); Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act of 2012 (MAP-21); and Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act of 2015 (FAST Act).

The main purpose of the NHS was the designation of public roads as mandated by ISTEA. However, other significant provisions include a one-

time approval for intermodal connections to the NHS (eg. ports, airports, rail terminals, etc.), repealing a national speed limit, penalizing states that did not require motorcycle helmets, establishing a national 0.02 alcohol level for minors, and relaxing regulations on commercial vehicles. Two key initiatives were in financing. The first was a pilot program establishing state or multistate transportation infrastructure banks. The second was the allowance for federal-aid funds for bond principal, interest costs, issuance costs, and insurance in debt financing. Other changes include increasing the share of federal funds in toll projects, fast-tracking state transportation improvement projects, lowering interest rates on federal loans, and deregulating private donations for state transportation projects (Bennett, 1996).

TEA-21 retained most of the structure of ISTEA (Smallen, 1998); STP and CMAQ were kept intact. A key modification was consolidating sixteen goals for Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) and the planning process for states into seven goals. These goals are outlined in Table 1.1.

In support of these goals, the National Corridor Planning Development Program and the Coordinated Border Infrastructure Program were established. The corridor program provided funds for states and metropolitan organizations to coordinate the planning, design, and construction of corridors of national significance, for economic growth and international or interregional trade. The border program was intended to reduce motor vehicle travel time through international border crossings, improve vehicle and highway safety and cargo security, and increase the use of existing, underused border crossing facilities. In the area of environmental protection, the U.S. EPA (2017) outlines the type of projects TEA21 supports. They are transportation enhancements (which include improving communities’ cultural, aesthetic, and environmental qualities, activities for bicycle and pedestrian pathways, historic preservation, acquisition of conservation or scenic easements, railsto-trails projects, and the mitigation of water pollution due to highway runoff), environmental restoration and pollution abatement, wetlands restoration, wetland mitigation banking, environmental review streamlining, pilot programs for community planning in transportation, and the Clean Vessel Act.

SAFETEA-LU guaranteed funding for

Table 1.1. Seven Goals for the Planning Process Outlined by TEA-21 (Smallen, 1998)

highways, highway safety, and public transportation. Totaling $244.1 billion, it represented the largest surface transportation investment in U.S. history. Table 1.2 outlines its legislative goals.

The criticism of SAFETEA-LU has been that it also represented “pork barrel politics.” A well-cited example of this was the “Bridge to Nowhere” in Alaska (Henig, 2008). The project was meant to connect the small town of Ketchikan, Alaska on Revillagigedo Island to Gravina Island, a sparsely populated island

on the southern end of the Alaskan Peninsula. It was alleged that the real motive for the bridge was to pave the way for well-connected timber interests to clear the island of hundreds of millions of dollars worth of old-growth forests.

MAP-21 continued the long-term commitment to surface transportation funding. A key provision was transforming the policy and programmatic framework for investments to guide the growth and development of transportation infrastructure. This included

Goals

a new formula for distributing funds (including those from STP and CMAQ) more equally among states, and dramatically increasing funding available for the Transportation Infrastructure Financing and Innovation Act (TIFIA) program. TIFIA is a federal credit assistance program for eligible surface transportation projects including highway, transit, intercity passenger rail, some types of freight rail, and intermodal freight transfer facilities.

The FAST Act is the most recent federal legislation for surface transportation in the posthighway era. It is a continuation of MAP-21, including modifications and additions of provisions that were first drafted in ISTEA. A key modification in the FAST Act is the allowance of transferring funds from the Federal General Fund to the Highway Trust Fund (HTF). The HTF has been the primary source for transportation expenditures in the U.S. since the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, which has been primarily funded by fuel taxes ever since. This provision signals a growing challenge facing transportation planning: financing public transit (TRB, 2013). For transportation planning, the FAST Act emphasized that states and MPOs continue to uphold public involvement and establish performance measures and standards for safety, infrastructure condition, congestion reduction, system reliability, and environmental sustainability. As for programs, funding was continued for the STP, CMAQ, Highway Safety Improvement Program, Emergency Relief, and Workforce Development and DBE. A newly established program was Transportation Alternatives (TA) for transportation enhancements, recreational trail programs, safe routes to school programs, and planning, designing, or constructing roadways within the right-of-way of former interstate routes or other divided highways (FHA, 2016).

1.2.2 Regional overview.

The two main planning agencies for transportation planning on O‘ahu are the OahuMPO and the City & County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting (DPP). Two key documents that outline the current conditions and future scenarios and goals of transportation planning on O‘ahu are the 2040 O‘ahu Regional Transportation Plan (ORTP) by the OahuMPO and the Proposed Revised O‘ahu General Plan (OGP) by DPP. Another

useful document issued by the OahuMPO is the 2011 State of Congestion on O‘ahu, which is required by the congestion management process. A review of these documents shows that the City’s primary goal for transportation is to increase accountability and accessibility. This is consistent with national trends. Tables 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 reprint the objectives and goals of the ORTP and the OGP. However, in regard to goals and trends of TOD, the OGP places far too much emphasis on auto-based infrastructure.

Among the 17 objectives in the ORTP, only one increases capacity and four may increase efficiency. The rest are aimed at increasing accessibility. Among the objectives that increase accessibility, the focuses are on travel modes, disaster management, air, noise and water pollution, climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, safety, cultural inclusion in planning, affordable housing, sustainable finance, infrastructure maintenance, and project time delay. Under the OGP, there are two objectives for transportation. Out of the 22 policies, only one calls for an increase in capacity; the rest increase accessibility. Efficiency is addressed, but not using the most effective measures.

The City and County of Honolulu’s primary goal for transportation—to increase accessibility—is in line with federal regulations since the changes implemented with ISTEA. In response to these planning goals, the Complete Streets Task Force (CSTF) was assembled as a result of Act 54, Session Laws of Hawai‘i 2009. Act 54 required that the State of Hawai‘i Department of Transportation (DOT) and county transportation departments ensure the accommodation of all users of the road, regardless of their age, ability, or preferred mode of transportation. It also called for the creation of a statewide task force to review existing state and county highway design standards and guidelines, and required the DOT and county transportation departments to adopt a Complete Streets Policy. These guidelines are described in Table 1.5. In addition to Complete Streets, the Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transit (HART) is constructing a 20-mile long elevated fixed guideway rail system with 21 stations, connecting west O‘ahu from East Kapolei to the central urban core at Ala Moana Center. Along this 20-mile corridor, two stations are planned for the town of Waipahu.

Table 1.5. Complete Streets Guiding Principles (CH2MHILL, 2010)

City & County approach to TOD. Bill 74 (City Council, 2015) establishes a blueprint for TOD special districts island-wide. The objectives of the TOD special district are to promote multimodal transportation, a mixture of activity and housing types around the rail transit stations, more compact development and appropriate densities to support transit ridership rates, and streetscape amenities and architectural features that create a comfortable environment for pedestrians and bicyclists, as well as reduce minimum parking requirements. The goal of such regulations is to support the creation of vibrant, mixed-use developments and quality community gathering places around transit stations, as well as support alternative transportation modes to private motor vehicles.

1.2.3 Waipahu town overview.

Waipahu is a town in Central O‘ahu. It has a population of just over 41,000 and an average annual

vehicle miles traveled (VMT) per household of about21,000, with 9 percent of residents commuting to work via public transit (H+T Factsheet, 2017). The average commute time to work for Waipahu residents is 35.5 minutes (U.S. Census, 2016). Additionally, Waipahu has a walkscore of 49, meaning that it is a car-dependent town and most errands require a car (Walkscore, 2018.). Walkscore is a private company that measures how easy a neighborhood or community is to get around in without a car (Redfin, 2018). The numbers are scaled from 0 to 100, with higher numbers representing more walkable areas in which a greater percentage of trips can be completed easily without relying on a car.

As part of the TOD project in Waipahu, Fehrs & Peers (2017) prepared a mobility assessment report for DTS, who implements transportation system management strategies for the City & County of Honolulu. Fehrs & Peers prepared a mobility assessment report for the Waipahu TOD. Table

Table 1.6. Modifications Near the Waipahu Transit Station (Fehrs & Peers, 2017).

1.6 outlines the 12 proposed modifications in Waipahu near the transit station. Figure 1.2 below shows the locations of planned bike paths from the O‘ahu Master Bicycle Plan for the TOD area

The Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan is a vision plan based on the results of a series of focused community-based planning efforts led by the Honolulu DPP. The plan describes a vision for neighborhood improvements that includes redevelopment that takes advantage of transit and the creation of new compact walkable districts through infill development (City & County of Honolulu, 2014). The Waipahu Town Action Plan describes key goals, projects, and strategies identified by the community to improve the area around the future Pouhala Transit Station. Those most pertinent to transportation planning and land use planning are: upgrading the Transit Center, connecting the Waipahu town core to Hawai‘i’s Plantation Village and Waipahu District Park, implementing a network of connected bicycle facilities, redesigning Moloalo Street, and upgrading street lighting in the area (C&C of Honolulu, 2017b). Moreover, the community engagement effort identified “an auto-oriented environment not conducive to pedestrians and bicyclists” as one of the barriers to realizing effective TOD in the area.

Figure 1.2. Waipahu TOD area planned bike paths. Note. Base map from Google Maps (n.d.); paths adapted from Hawai‘i Bicycling League map (2013).

around Pouhala Station in Waipahu. Waipahu town planning and community goals. Baer (1997) describes several different types of plans, including vision plans, symbolic or expressive plans, remedial plans, blueprints, and land use guides, among other types. Each type of plan has unique criteria as they approach problems and goals in a different manner. Most relevant to this report are the Waipahu Town Neighborhood and Action Plans facilitated by the Honolulu DPP (City & County of Honolulu, 2014; City & County of Honolulu, 2017b). These plans describe a vision for the community. Additionally, Bill 74, which describes the City’s plans for TOD, is also relevant in determining best practices in addressing problems and meeting goals.

The prevailing themes of both plans are centered on promoting connectivity, accessibility, and safety. Therefore, one of the objectives of the Waipahu Town Action Plan is to reshape streets as places for pedestrian-based activity and alternative modes of movement to automobiles. To support multi-modal options, the plan calls for more walkable streetscapes through the provision of street furniture, shade trees, landscaping features, pedestrian and bicycle facilities, better street crossings, and better street lighting at night. The concluding recommendations of this report are based on best practices derived from the literature on TOD and related goals expressed in these plans.

Figure 1.3. Pouhala Station TOD Area.

Note. Base map from Google Earth (n.d.).

Waipahu existing conditions.

Existing transportation conditions. Farrington Highway is a principal arterial road generally paralleling H-1, thereby also serving east-west traffic; it runs along the rail’s fixed guideway system through Waipahu Town. Kamehameha Highway merges with Farrington at the eastern fringe of Waipahu, connecting to the Pearl City area. Along with H-2, it is one of the principal north-south arterial roadways in the area, connecting with Mililani Town to the north of Waipahu. Waipahu Street is a minor arterial street traversing in an east-west direction between the H-I Freeway and Farrington Highway.

Paiwa Street and Waipahu Depot Road between Farrington Highway and Waipahu Street are north-south major collector streets. Mokuola and Leoku Streets traverse in a north-south direction. These are the intersecting streets along Farrington Highway where fixed guideway stations are proposed, and are both local roads. Most local roads are configured with typical subdivision patterns, with limited connectivity to adjacent land uses. This basic

framework functions poorly because densities and levels of activity are gradually intensifying both within and outside of the study area, overloading the limited number of arterial streets. The roadway system throughout Waipahu provides service to all areas of the community at approximately the same level of service except for Farrington Highway which becomes severely overloaded when traffic seeks an alternative to H-1. The severe traffic congestion on Farrington Highway has a detrimental impact on the speed and reliability of fixed route bus operations since there are no exclusive bus lanes, traffic queue jump lanes, or transit signal priority treatments. Bus service. Waipahu has a high level of bus service well-utilized by local residents. Bus service is provided through a contract between the Department of Transportation Services (DTS) and Oahu Transit Services (OTS). Both fixed route (TheBus) and paratransit (TheHandiVan) services are operated by OTS. DTS is responsible for overseeing the OTS contract

Figure 1.4. Current bus stops around Pouhala Station. Note. Base map from Google Earth (n.d.)

and conducting all planning functions. Waipahu is served by a set of community circulator routes – 432, 433, and 434. These operate within Waipahu and connect directly to the Waipahu Transit Center located along Hikimoe Street. Figure 1.4 shows the locations of current bus stops around Pouhala Station. Sidewalks and crosswalks. Through site visits and a review of planning documents, a sidewalk and crosswalk inventory was conducted along all roads within one quarter mile of the Pouhala Station. Sidewalks are provided along less than one third of these streets. Crosswalks exist along Farrington Highway with crosswalks located at Waipahu Depot Road and Mokuola Street. Crosswalks also exist at intersections involving Hikimoe and Waipahu Streets. Bike lanes and signs. A new bike lane exists along Mokuola Street starting mauka of Nalii Street and extending to Manager’s Drive Bridge. Although a standard bicycle path exists along major portions of Lumiaina Street, a gap exists. This alignment offers excellent potential for bicycle access from a major residential corridor connecting to the Pouhala Station. The interior of Waipahu Town presently does not have any other bike lanes or dedicated bike paths. There are sporadic bike routes delineated by a few signs, primarily along Farrington Highway.

Future Development Potential. There is a need for identifying and developing pedestrian pathways and bikeways to connect the existing residential areas with the proposed stations. A proposal currently exists to develop such a pedestrian and bike pathway between Waipahu District Park and the Mokuola/ Hikimoe intersection (A. Tang, interview, 2018). There are six parcels of substantial size within the half-mile radius of the Pouhala Transit Station, owned and operated by various state agencies (Figure 1.5). The State of Hawai‘i is actively planning to redevelop these lands; therefore, a major source of future development potential is connected to these sites. In Waipahu, there is opportunity to redevelop large surface parking lots and other excess pavement. These spaces could host new buildings, be converted into public space with attractive landscaping and pedestrian amenities, and be transformed with design provisions that encourage use of rapid transit, buses, bicycling, walking, and other non-automobile forms of transport. TOD represents an opportunity for change,

Figure 1.5. State lands near Pouhala Station Note. State parcels in yellow. Data source Google Maps (n.d.); adapted by Amanda Rothschild (2018).

but it also represents an opportunity to capitalize on Waipahu’s distinctive historical character and cultural amenities, including the Filipino Community Center, Hawai‘i’s Plantation Village, the Historic Pearl Harbor Trail, the Leeward O‘ahu Trail, the Festival Marketplace, the Leeward YMCA, and Waipahu’s large parks and open spaces, such as Waipahu District Park, Hans L’Orange Park, and the Ted Makalena Golf Course. It is the job of transportation planners to reinforce connectivity between an area’s resources, and promote the highest degree of accessibility to desired activities and opportunities.

1.3 Methodology

Our research methodology began with an in-depth review and assessment of plans and policies from the City and County of Honolulu and other quasi-governmental organizations (DPP, OahuMPO, and HART). This included a review of documents as well as interviews to gain more clarity on plans, opportunities, and constraints, as well as to gain feedback on our own ideas. We also produced tables and maps of existing goals and plans and compiled them for the purpose of this report. Moreover, we assessed surveys and other resources derived

from community engagement in Waipahu, such as the Waipahu Town Action Plan and the Waipahu Neighborhood plan, and we participated in the “Waipahu Talk Story” community and stakeholder engagement event hosted by the Department of Urban and Regional Planning . We conducted numerous site visits to make first-hand observations of site features, land use patterns, and how people were getting around. The purpose of our site visits was to identify barriers to TOD goals and opportunities for improvements. More importantly, we have spent many hours walking around the area to get a feel for what it is like to move about the area without being in a car or bus, although we also made observations of people driving and taking the bus.

The primary research method we utilized to determine our recommendations and propose our three scenarios was an extensive literature review. This method allowed us to draw on wellestablished findings regarding best practices for TOD. Additionally, our research includes a case study that draws from many examples related to land use and design strategies to improve walkability, parking reform, and autonomous vehicles.

1.4 Case Studies

1.4.1 Toronto, Canada - transit is only one part of the picture.

Toronto’s transportation system consists of the Toronto Transportation Commission (TTC), overseeing a network of subways, streetcars, buses, and Go Transit, a commuter mass transportation rail. Kennedy (2002) reviewed public transportation in the Greater Toronto Area (the regions of Halton, Peel, York, and Durham) through a lens of environmental, social, and economic sustainability. While Toronto’s public transportation system is extensive, it has not curbed auto-driven development or urban sprawl. Private transportation has influenced growth and development much more so than public transportation systems. What has been lacking in Toronto are effective smart growth management strategies and appropriate land use and design strategies, such as those associated with New Urbanism.

The three broad elements of sustainable development are environmental, economic, and social sustainability. Air pollution is a common measure of

environmental sustainability for transportation. In a World Bank study of 37 cities in 1999 (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999), Toronto’s 2,434.3 kg per capita of CO2 emission was below the U.S. average of 4,541.2 kg per capita but above the European average of 1,887.9 kg per capita. Air pollution in Toronto has also been linked to over one thousand premature deaths and 5,500 hospitalizations. As for other air pollutants, transportation contributed to 83% of nitrogen oxides, 30% of volatile organic compounds, 91% carbon monoxide, 60% of sulfur oxides, and 33% of other particulate materials. However, public transportation only contributed to 7, 5, 15, 12, and 9% respectively. It is well known that public transportation is more environmentally sustainable, yet private transportation is still the dominant mode of transportation in Toronto, despite concerns of environmental sustainability and the fact that Toronto has an extensive public transit network.

In measuring the social and economic elements of transportation, several aspects are considered, including its impacts on trade, economic activity within Toronto, and cost of living. In 1993 the automobile industry accounted for 12% of Toronto’s total trade (GTA Task Force, 1996). From the mid80s to mid-90s, peak-hour traffic was at around two million cars every weekday. Transportation averaged 16.65% of household spending (Statistics Canada, Market Research Handbook, n.d). This private consumption of transportation is related to fuel and auto sales along with public spending. Fuel sales reached up to $3.7 billion, and car sales as much as $7.2 billion (Rampersaad, 2000). Public expenditure on roads was $1 billion, while Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) expenditures were $1.21 billion and Go Transit was $0.23 billion. Per capita costs in 1996 for automobile use averaged $5.17 per personal trip and $0.55 per person/km, while those for TTC transit were $2.87 and $0.35 respectively; those for Go Transit were $7.49 and $0.24 (Kennedy, 2002).

Transportation’s impact on society includes access to amenities, recreation, employment, wellbeing, noise, and basic social interactions. While many social impacts are difficult to quantify, other measures of social sustainability include insurance costs, accidents, and employment. The social cost due to accidents, including deaths and property damage, has been about $2 billion (Ontario Road Safety Accident

Reports from 1993 to 1997), and the auto industry employs over 67,000 workers while Go Transit and TTC employ 11,000 (GTA Task Force, 1996).

While Kennedy’s study confirms that private transportation dominates Toronto’s transportation sector, Filion, McSpurren, and Appleby (2006) add to the discussion with the claim that Toronto’s highdensity development has not taken advantage of its extensive public transportation. They emphasize that, while it is a rule of thumb in transportation planning that high density is correlated with public transit use, it must be accompanied with policies and incentives for appropriate land use and design to facilitate high levels of accessibility to non-auto users.

1.4.2 Portland, Oregon – reduction in VMT and urban renewal projects.

In developing policies and priorities in the TOD districts, this report encourages the City & County of Honolulu and the State of Hawai‘i to look to Portland, Oregon. While many other American cities were continuing to focus on automobile-based infrastructure projects like adding lanes, widening roads, and building more highways, Portland invested heavily in public transit and biking facilities (Speck, 2012). The city also instituted a skinny streets program to prevent roads from becoming wider, and an urban growth boundary to contain development and mitigate sprawl. Owing in part to such efforts, VMT in Portland is, on average, about 20 percent less than other metropolitan areas in the U.S.; this reduction saves the average resident of Portland 1.5 percent of their yearly income and reduces daily travel time.

The South Waterfront district in Portland is an example of an urban renewal project that is employing Smart Growth strategies to redevelop formerly vacant brownfield sites and underutilized buildings. The district currently hosts more than a thousand new housing units, a mix of jobs, new green space, parks, a greenway system, and “will soon be connected with the most diverse multimodal transportation network in the state” (City of Portland, n.d.). The plan also includes a vision for development through the year 2035 that promotes a vibrant, walkable, mixed-use community with affordable housing options and excellent access to transit and the area’s signature riverfront greenway system for pedestrians and bicyclists. Moreover, Portland has developed

innovative ways for residents to take greater ownership of their streets and public spaces (Project for Public Spaces, 2016). For example, the city’s Department of Transportation encourages community residents to participate in various street and intersection repair projects. In such cases, residents can obtain permits to paint intersections and install planters, arbors, benches, and kiosks, among other things. These measures foster a greater sense of community and a stronger relationship between residents and their streets and public spaces, thus diminishing the dominant role of cars in the city because people are more comfortable walking and using alternative transportation means.

1.4.3 San Diego, California – smart growth.

Ohland (2004) explains that San Diego’s rapid growth consumed open space surrounding the city. The continued outward expansion was unsustainable. Throughout the 1990s, San Diego grew at twice the rate of the U.S. as a whole; by 2004, it was the nation’s sixth largest city (however, at the time of writing this, according to the 2016 U.S. Census, it is the nation’s eighth largest city). Moreover, projections indicated that the city would grow by another million residents by 2030. To accommodate such growth and development, the City of San Diego crafted two plans—one for land use and one for transit—with the goals of reducing sprawl and traffic congestion while guiding new development in walkable, mixeduse villages well-served by transit. The land use plans included zoning code amendments to allow for greater densities and mixed use, and an array of overlay zones to guide development in the city’s vision for smart growth and TOD.

Ohland (2004, p. 212) cites a regional growth model, conducted by the San Diego Association of Governments, indicating that a modest increase in compactness from the regional average of 3.7 units per acre to 4.3 units per acre “would reduce land consumption by 400,000 acres and reduce vehicle miles travelled by 22 percent.” The city responded by developing a smart growth framework for new development and adopted the vision for a “City of Villages” that utilized land use and development strategies to increase residential and job densities around transit stops and to create more walkable compact mixed-use communities that would be

connected by transit systems. Likewise, the city’s transportation planning agencies adopted a “transit first” strategy and invested heavily in improving transit systems, ensuring that users would wait for no longer than ten minutes at bus and trolley stops. Initially, the plans were met with resistance. The markets favored continued suburban sprawl and although the city was ready to turn its focus to infill development, developers were still driven to fill out the suburbs. Nonetheless, the City’s framework and goals laid the pathway for TOD and mixed-use development, kickstarted by Peter Calthorpe’s site plan for the ninety-three-acre Rio Vista West project, a TOD neighborhood with 1,800 residential units that was later “heralded as one of this country’s best suburban TODs” (Ohland, 2004, p. 214). Building on the momentum of such success, the “City of Villages” plan targeted infill development in prime locations, such as the low-income village of Barrio Logan near downtown San Diego. Barrio Logan was already well-served by transit but had been lacking other desirable features that investors and developers look for in an area, such as adequate parks and open spaces, and attractive streets. Undesirable features included the Interstate 5 freeway (constructed in the 1960s) running through the community, and the subsequent development patterns which created large, half-mile blocks throughout the neighborhood. The catalyst for change in Barrio Logan was a New Urbanist-style affordable apartment complex, Mercado Apartments, which was built a decade before the City of San Diego adopted its “City of Villages” development strategy. The design elements incorporated from the NewUrbanist style are largely derived from Jane Jacobs’ notion on the importance of “eyes on the street,” rather than homes and buildings turned away from the street. Mercado Apartments include balconies overlooking the street or central courtyard, while parking spaces are provided in the interior of the site to avoid inhibiting pedestrian flows or separating the building from active spaces.

The Mercado project was followed by the establishment of Barrio Logan as a redevelopment project area by the city redevelopment agency (Ohland, 2004). Tax increment finance allowed for funds generated from increasing property value to be funneled back into further improvements. Additional funding sources included a mix of funds from low-

income housing tax credits, the New Markets Tax Credit program, a Community Investment Program, and favorable loans from the Housing Trust Fund. Such funding, combined with guidance from the city’s newly adopted development smart growth framework, spearheaded redevelopment in the area for new housing. However, due to a lack of effective financing options for ancillary commercial and retail development, and due to Barrio Logan’s location near the downtown baseball park, opposing political and investor interests threatened to build a large suburbanstyle shopping center in the neighborhood, with big box retail and large parking lots fronting the streets. This plan was a stark contrast to the aims of smart growth and the community’s desire to build on the neighborhood’s history and sense of place. The lessons from this struggle point to the need for better retail financing options in low-income communities so that small businesses can flourish in place of large retailers with large parking lots and blank building facades opposing the surrounding streets.

The City of San Diego General Plan (2008) “provide[s] a comprehensive slate of citywide policies [that] further the City of Villages smart growth strategy for growth and development” (San Diego Planning Dept, 2008a). The updated plan builds on the vision and policy framework initially created as a part of the Strategic Framework Element of the General Plan in 2002 for how to manage sustainable growth and how to best provide public services, transit, and parks and open spaces. This plan further integrates the land use, design, and transportation elements of smart growth and TOD frameworks, and encourages further redevelopment around such principles.

Effective implementation of the City of Villages strategy depends on the development and designation of village sites. The General Plan defines a village as “the mixed-use heart of a community where residential, commercial, employment, and civic uses are all present and integrated,” and emphasizes that each village will uniquely reflect key elements of its community and history (San Diego Planning Dept, 2008b). Thus, each village will be distinct, yet built around the same principles: they will promote high walkability with access to transit, attractive streets, and public spaces, and include a mix of housing types.

The key takeaway from San Diego’s General Plan is the multi-criteria approach in implementing

effective TOD, and that from the Barrio Logan example is that favorable financing options are essential to support retail and commercial elements of mixed-use development for local small businesses. All of these factors are connected to transportation because they collectively share land use and population characteristics, and define the integration of different activities. For example, the plan recognizes the importance of the live-work relationship, acknowledging that the key to walkable transitoriented neighborhoods is developing a place where people will want to live close to where they work.

1.4.4 Los Angeles, California – re-imagining streets.

The city of Los Angeles, California is a well-known example of out-of-control sprawl and car-ravaged landscapes. LA “has more streets than anywhere else in the US, and as in most American cities, the majority of LA’s streets prioritize cars over people” (Project for Public Spaces, 2016). In fact, over 18 percent of all land in the city is covered by streets (Great Streets, n.d.). However, things are changing in this former sprawl capital. Recently, Mayor Eric Garcetti and the city’s Dept of Transportation have spearheaded initiatives to “create streets that are more inviting and vibrant for pedestrians through the design and installation of plazas, parklets, and bike corrals” (Project for Public Spaces, 2016).

For example, the Great Streets Initiative reimagines the streets of LA as its greatest resource and asset (Great Streets, n.d.). The program aims to enhance the local culture, add vibrancy to the economy, improve access, activate public spaces, and improve public safety by designing streets that can be shared between drivers, public transit users, bicyclists, and pedestrians. The program is phasing in design elements associated with shared streets (see section 1.5.5). In 2014, fifteen streets were selected for this transformation; work is already underway. First, temporary treatments are being applied to streets using paint and planters to expand plazas, open space, and pedestrian-oriented areas, and to create parklets— an expansion of the sidewalk onto prior parking space. Parklets utilize streetscape features such as seating, planting, and bicycle parking. Permanent changes to curbs, street lighting, street trees, and street furniture are planned in the Great Streets' follow-up phase.

One specific example within the Great Streets

Initiative is the People St Program. This program is designed to transform neighborhoods across the region (LADOT, n.d.). Programs such as People St create inviting pedestrian-friendly streets, and the community uses fundraising platforms as well as government funding to focus on neighborhoodfunded projects (Project for Public Spaces, 2016).

Each People St project type comes with a Kit of Parts that contains packaged configurations to help reduce applicants’ design costs and reduces barriers to getting involved. In other words, the program strives to illicit a community-based redevelopment of neighborhood streets across the city.

This shift in focus back to people and place doesn’t end here. LA has also set forth measures to reduce the amount of space devoted to parking. Los Angeles is known for large and abundant parking lots, but increasingly, parking spaces are being required to have alternative uses. Los Angeles has focused on the creation of adaptable parking through community interest and support from local government policymakers (Borland, 2017). Focusing on sustainability, usability, and engagement of the community have all helped Los Angeles to begin developing both adaptable parking structures and shared spaces.

1.5. Recommendations

This section draws on established literature to support recommendations for TOD on O‘ahu. The recommendations are integrated with supporting literature. A summary of all recommendations is provided in section 1.5.2.

1.5.1 Public transit and multimodal accessibility. Fostering more options to compete with driving as the preferred means of getting around is a primary purpose of TOD (Dittmar and Poticha, 2004). This is because, at its core, TOD is a redevelopment project, and multiple transport options aid in revenue generation, making TOD a more viable real estate product. Important components of TOD as a redevelopment option include location efficiency, abundant mix of choices, value capture, place-making, and balance between transport and housing. Value capture is one revenue generation aspect of TOD. Broadly speaking, value capture is the cost savings or

benefits of TOD, and fostering options to compete with driving is the idea behind having an abundant mix of choices.

Additionally, Crawford (2002) argues that to make transit systems more competitive with the option of driving, they must have shorter wait times, higher speeds, faster acceleration, shorter dwell times, more reliable service, and stations located within half a mile of every location within a city. Moreover, reducing the number of cars on city streets can improve urban mobility by bolstering the efficiency of public transit. This report identifies strategies for reducing car dependency, but until such methods have been successful in reducing the number of cars clogging our streets, the City & County of Honolulu should invest liberally in bus-only lanes where possible to improve the efficiency of travel by bus. Crawford (2002) reasons that “only when high priority is given to transit service can it achieve better speed than cars. Cities should decide to make transit faster than driving by allocating street space first to transit, then to bicycle, and next to cars and trucks.” Cars should not be allowed to impede public transport. From the perspective of maximizing revenue and minimizing direct costs, infrequent service that operates at the expected rate to maintain full passenger capacity may seem justifiable, but the tradeoff is that infrequent service allows for alternative mobility options, such as driving, to offer more favorable conditions (Crawford, 2002). If the ridership rate of public transit is matched to the quality of the service, then improvements to the service will result in a higher rate of passengers. Therefore, this report recommends increasing frequency, reliability, and quality of service for all forms of public transit. Such improvements could increase the demand for these services. Even if public transport systems lose money in the short term by increasing services, it should be considered a worthy long-term investment for the City because it may foster greater demand over time and because a reduction in the number of drivers and VMT in a region will have numerous social and environmental benefits. Moreover, automated transit systems can reduce cost of operations. The Honolulu Rail will be autonomous, but that alone is not enough. This report encourages the City to invest in autonomous and electric buses and trams. If public transit systems become profitable, those profits should

be reinvested into further improvements of service.

1.5.2 Land use strategies for improved accessibility. Rail will soon connect west and central O‘ahu to urban Honolulu, but is rail alone enough to foster significant changes in travel behavior, or to meet the community’s goals as outlined in the Waipahu Neighborhood Plan? Chatman (2013) contends that planners and policy makers have traditionally placed too much emphasis on rail and asserts that proximity to rail stations is not the most crucial feature in meeting the goals of TOD. Instead, the author maintains that land use factors and features of the built environment are more important than proximity to rail in reducing VMT. In Chatman’s 2013 study, the author found that the correlation of vehicle ownership with rail proximity markedly decreased when housing, parking, and built environment measures were controlled. The strongest predictor of car ownership and usage was the availability of on-street and off-street parking. In other words, if parking is scarce, people drive less. Households with fewer than one off-street parking space per adult had 0.16 fewer vehicles per adult, regardless of proximity to rail stations. The next most significant variable of the built environment was the number of bus stops within a mile of the home. Households within walking distance, or half a mile, of rail stations and bus stops, that also had low on-street and off-street parking, commuted by automobile only 40 percent as much as other households.

Chatman (2013) suggests that parking scarcity and a combination of other factors (high population and job densities, mixed land uses, the availability of many pedestrian amenities, and accessibility to various forms of public transit), rather than simply proximity to rail stations, influences automobile ownership and use. Therefore, strategies aimed at reducing car dependency must recognize the importance of implementing these additional factors. Chatman recommends that land use and transportation planners should focus on developing high-density, mixed-use, low-parking environments, while ensuring other forms of public transit, such as bus service, are highly accessible. The author maintains that this strategy will reduce automobile dependency even in areas that have low accessibility to rail stations and could be less expensive than development policies

centered on rail.

Infrastructure investment strategies and programs and transport project appraisals that value mobility and auto-oriented transit over accessibility may create more barriers for connectivity and interaction throughout a community and region. Sclar et al. (2014, p. 47) contend that historically in the U.S., “the focus on mobility in transportation planning has contributed to a decrease in accessibility by encouraging sprawl and a scattered pattern of urban development.” Planners and policy makers should then plan for enhancing accessibility, not just mobility. An effective planning framework of accessibility should integrate land use and transportation strategies; this combined approach will bolster both a person’s ability to access desired opportunities and their ability to move to desired locations. Sclar (et al., 2014) describes that while mobility refers to a person’s ability to reach a destination (and planning for mobility maximizes the capacity for movement), accessibility refers to a person’s capacity for connection, participation, and interaction. Accessibility is a multidimensional issue; it is not simply a matter of transport. Instead, “[it is] related to the interaction between land use and transport systems” (p. 50), and can be measured by the availability of opportunities to engage in desired activities at desired locations at desired times. All transport-based accessibility systems run into problems here because they may operate at limited times or in limited places, or they may fail to function or be costly to maintain. Therefore, the most accessible environment is one where walking and biking work for most, and this is what the City & County of Honolulu should aspire to create in TOD districts using land use and design strategies. This approach will benefit from a collaborative approach between land use planners, transportation planners, service providers, and private business owners to identify a wider range of strategies to promote greater accessibility.

Issues with connectivity and land use are the trickier aspects of TOD. These issues represent the location efficiency and the balance between housing and transportation of TOD (Dittmar & Poticha, 2004). Location efficiency is the conscious placement of homes in proximity to transit systems. Key components of location efficiency are density,

transit accessibility, and pedestrian friendliness. This is manifested in households per residential acre, zonal transit density, a combination of transit service frequency and proximity to the stop stations, and pedestrian/bicycle friendliness.

The balance between housing and transport is the understanding that TOD is both a trip generator as well as a placemaking project. Trip generation is related to both housing and job location, and thoughtful placemaking can be a tipping point between desirable and undesirable housing. The jobhousing balance in TOD is not a matter of mobility; it is a matter of mixed land use. TOD is both an employment center as well as a place for single- and multi-family homes. It is our belief that location efficiency and balancing housing with transportation must be a collaborative effort between land use planners and transportation engineers.

1.5.3 Parking reform.

No discussion on land use and built form would be complete without a few paragraphs on parking reform, right? After all, Chatman (2013) identified parking provision to be one of the most important elements to reducing car dependency in places that have adequate public transit systems. Willson (2013) dives deeper into how local municipalities and private developers can make parking far more efficient. He advocates for the elimination of minimum parking requirements, the institution of district-level parking maximums, and shared parking. This report fully embraces all three notions and urges the City & County to adopt such an approach to parking regulations.

The theoretical basis for the importance of parking management in transportation planning is economic (Downs, 2000). The purpose of parking policies and regulations is to foster a more efficient transportation system by ensuring an adequate provision of parking, thus reducing time spent hunting for parking spaces. An inefficient transportation system is manifested as traffic congestion, exacerbated by drivers circling blocks in search of parking (Willson, 2013). The cost of congestion is lost time due to traffic delays (Downs, 2000), while regulations and policies on parking adds financial cost to travel. Here, travel is the entire trip, starting from the walk from the home to the vehicle, and ending with the walk

from the vehicle to the workplace. Congestion is a cost during the traveling portion; parking policies and regulations are costs at the bookends of the trip.

Melbourne, Australia – Nightingale Project. The Nightingale model developed by a team of architects in Melbourne, Australia provides reference for the feasibility of eliminating parking for apartments near alternative transit options (McLeod, 2015). By removing cars from a site, the model supports building stronger social connections and sustainable low carbon transportation options, and minimizes the cost of construction to reduce the costs of housing for tenants. The elimination of parking in apartments and condos near rail stations will promote more affordable housing in the area, relieving the concern of gentrification around transit areas. Without parking, the cost of construction will be much lower, and more space can be allocated to the provision of housing. In the first Nightingale project in Australia, elimination of parking saved the developers half a million dollars, which they used to keep rents lower for tenants (McLeod, 2015).

Shared and adaptable parking. Mixing land use is a catalyst for increasing parking efficiency and reducing the amount of parking needed in an area. Willson (2013, p. 159) explains that “the peak parking use in a development that mixes some combination of commercial, residential, and workplace land uses is less than it would be if the uses were developed on separate sites.” In other words, in mixed use developments, a parking area can more easily serve multiple locations and activities simultaneously. For example, instead of needing two parking lots to accommodate an office space with peak demand during the week at day time, and an entertainment venue with peak demand in the evenings, late at night, and on the weekends, a single parking lot could accommodate both. In a perfectly matched example, the space required for an entire parking lot could be eliminated. In the former case with separated uses, the number of parking stalls must accommodate the peak demand, but outside of peak demand, the parking lots will only be partially used or perhaps even completely empty. Another example from Willson is the noncaptive user whose activity at one site is ancillary to the main purpose of their trip, such as an office

employee who parked at the office parking lot but then walked down the street to grab a morning coffee and later walked across the block for lunch. This user is a driver who needed a parking space on the site yet did not need an additional parking space for a visit to the coffee shop or for lunch.

In practice and models discussed by Willson (2013), a reduction of 20-40 percent in the number of needed parking stalls can be anticipated from implementing shared parking in mixed-use TOD districts. In order for shared parking to be feasible, it must be easy for people to walk between the shared parking structure and the different associated facilities or activities, and there must be agreements and coordinated parking management practices between entities sharing the site.

One more important consideration for parking regulations is the notion of adaptable parking. Parking structures typically have a service life of between fifty and seventy-five years (Pandya, 2017). But, with innovations such as driverless cars and ridesharing services, the parking needs of today may not be applicable in the future. Adaptable parking is designed to approach the unknowable future with more flexibility. Developers should be thinking about parking models that can anticipate change in transportation behavior, and local governments should consider implementing regulations requiring new parking structures to be adaptable. By planning for future adaptations, if the need for parking decreases, the structure can remain and be repurposed. Adaptable parking is designed with specific features which encourage future adaptability (Pandya, 2017). To create an adaptable structure, story heights should be increased. The typical recommendation is that first stories should be at least fifteen feet and upper stories should be twelve feet for future retail uses ,or at least nine feet for office or residential uses. The floor framing should be designed so, if needed, the ramped parking can be later demolished and at minimum a thirty-foot light well between the parking bays will allow for an additional elevator or stair core. The columns, walls, and foundations should also be designed to accept future vertical expansion.

To encourage the use of adaptable parking, supportive policies are critical (Project for Public Spaces, 2016). For example, zoning laws need to be altered so that the space can be developed in a manner

which encourages future residential or commercial uses. Additionally, some cities have required new parking structures to have retail or commercial users on the first floor. Through this requirement, the parking structure must already have HVAC units installed and a structure which supports the first-floor non-parking uses, and meet code regulations for retail or office space (Project for Public Spaces, 2011).

1.5.4 Built form and urban design.

Buildings often fail to interact with surrounding space, fostering a sense of isolation and disconnectivity. Such buildings may be designed to create a sense of privacy and form a barrier between the internal space and activity with the street and outside public space (Speck, 2012). However, even more important than design specifics such as building orientation and sidewalk design is what Speck refers to as a city’s “fabric,” or a collection of urban features and attractions that tie an area together. Speck’s theoretical framework for what makes a place walkable, The General Theory of Walkability, has four components. These four qualities are that walking must be: useful, safe, comfortable, and interesting. TOD on O‘ahu should prioritize an extensive network of improved pedestrian and bicycle facilities. This will ultimately be a better investment than improving streets for cars. Skinny Streets and Shared Streets should also be considered as means to improve accessibility for pedestrians and bicyclists, while maintaining access for cars.

New Urbanism in Normal, Illinois and Miami, Florida. Following adoption of the Uptown Renewal Plan crafted in 2000, the town of Normal, Illinois has been revitalized around the principles of New Urbanism, with more walkable neighborhoods and improved public transportation choices (MD Dept of Planning, 2016). The plan utilized local funding sources gathered from sales tax, a hotel tax, and a tax increment financing district to implement the uptown renewal plan. A five-way intersection was replaced with a pedestrian-friendly roundabout that serves as a vibrant community plaza and fosters connectivity to the nearby multi-modal transportation hub. The multi-modal transportation hub was completed in 2012 and includes a mixed-use environment with shops, restaurants, offices, and transit facilities. The

town also “invested in Complete Streets improvements by resurfacing streets, repairing and widening sidewalks, and enhancing landscaping, lighting and street furniture in the district.”

As an alternative to zoning, some cities like Miami, Florida have adopted Form-Based Codes (FBCs) to regulate development and shape urban form. According to Project for Public Spaces (2016), FBCs “[regulate] the physical form of development, rather than its use, which makes it easier to create a desired public realm and sense of place.” Therefore, FBCs applied to specific streets can effectively create the design parameters associated with shared streets. This reduces the public sector’s financial burden in creating such environments because FBCs create design requirements for private developers, meaning that private developers who build along such streets will be assisting local governments in creating the desired urban form.

Built form and urban design elements are a key aspect of successful TOD because they construct the framework for effective placemaking, which can inform pedestrian-friendly streets and public spaces (Dittmar & Poticha, 2004). The placemaking component of TOD is key in bolstering transit ridership because the majority of transit users access transit stations by means of walking.

To summarize the design element of TOD, it should:

1. Be a safe, comfortable, varied and attractive place for people

2. Generate a distinct response from residents and visitors

3. Have places that are physically and visually integrated with their surroundings to facilitate multi-modal transport

4. Have a balance between the natural and man-made environment that utilizes the climate, landform, landscape, and ecology of the area

5. Meet a variety of demands and provide amenities for the widest possible range of users

6. Be flexible for new development to respond to future changes in use, lifestyle and demography

1.5.5 Shared streets and pedestrian-oriented development.

Should transportation planners concern

themselves primarily with maximizing the capacity for movement throughout an area and between places, or should issues of accessibility, sustainability, health, and socialization be given considerable importance?

Waipahu Town residents and stakeholders have identified the desire to recreate streets as places, while the City & County of Honolulu has recognized the importance of shifting the transportation hierarchy from car-first to prioritizing pedestrians, bicyclists, and public transit (See sections 1.2.2 and 1.2.3 of this chapter), thus granting merit to more holistic approaches in transportation. Moreover, section 1.4 of this chapter further reinforces this notion with a review of related literature on the subject. It is with such precedents that we recommend introducing the Shared Streets Typology for future development near Pouhala Station.

Shared streets are created to achieve a better balance between pedestrians, bicyclists, and motor vehicle traffic (Pedestrian & Bicycle Information Centers, n.d.). They maintain access for motor vehicles operating at low speeds, such as 10-15 miles per hour, and are designed to permit easy loading and unloading, although freight delivery may be restricted to certain times (Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, n.d.; NACTO-b, n.d.). Shared streets must be clearly labeled as shared spaces and utilize design features which increase function and safety.

Historically, transportation engineers have designed streets to maximize the movement of motor vehicles. This has left street environments mostly unattractive or non-conducive to alternative modes of movement or as a destination for desirable activities (Project for Public Spaces, 2016). Shared streets can enhance the safety of pedestrians, bicyclists, and children playing, while strengthening the social fabric of communities by proving a space for interaction. Shared streets are designed to implicitly slow or divert traffic and prioritize pedestrian movement and accessibility (NACTO-b, n.d.). These streets are not limited to residential areas and can also be implemented in commercial or mixed-use districts. In the shared street, curbs and sidewalks are often eliminated in favor of a single plane for all users of the street, and traditional asphalt pavement is often replaced with unit paving, such as stone, brick, permeable pavement, or some other kind of tactile paving method to deter cars from speeding

(NACTO-a, n.d.; A. Tang, interview, 2018).

Removing the sidewalk and placing pedestrians, bicyclists, and vehicles in the same space assists in prioritizing pedestrian movement. To cross a normal street, a pedestrian must walk to the nearest crosswalk, press a button, wait for the signal, and then walk across the street in the crosswalk. The nature of this process speaks to the pedestrian’s place and priority. They are contained to the “side” walk and crosswalk, while cars speed past at 30, 40, or 50 miles per hour (or faster). In this environment, no matter how nice the sidewalks and crosswalks are; no matter how many trees and planters are placed along the street, the car has the top priority for movement. Shared streets give pedestrians the highest priority for movement by allowing them to move freely throughout the space.

Entrances to shared streets should be clearly labeled, notifying drivers that they are entering a shared roadway. While such streets generally have decreased signage to maintain desirable aesthetic qualities, encouraging slow speeds is essential; adding some signage can reinforce the speed limits and remind drivers that pedestrians have the rightof-way (Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, n.d.). Moreover, street furniture such as benches, planters, lights, and trees shape the uses of the space and reinforce the pedestrian-first priority (NACTO-b, n.d.). Additional design measures include narrowing streets. adding curves, or shortening lines of sight to reinforce slower speeds (Witte & Meisel, 2011). During an interview with the Department of Planning and Permitting, we learned that the Department of Transportation Services has been running a project regarding the repair and reorganization of Hikimoe Street in Waipahu (A. Tang, interview, 2018). Apparently, one goal of this project is to cluster buses on the Diamond Head side of Hikimoe Street. Considering that there is also a proposal for a pedestrian bridge to be built over the channel, passing along the makai side of the Waipahu Civic Center and connecting the Waipahu District Park to the intersection at Hikimoe street and Mokuola street, we suggest that the Department of Transportation Services cluster buses on the ‘Ewa side of Hikimoe street instead. Pedestrian connectivity from the Waipahu District Park via the proposed pedestrian pathway, combined with redevelopment

on the nearby six state-owned parcels, could then serve as a catalyst for developing a pedestrianoriented gathering space in this area. We propose that a Shared Street typology be implemented for the Diamond Head side of Hikimoe street and the segment of Mokuola street between Waipahu Street and Farrington Highway.

To create more shared streets and better pedestrian-oriented development, urban planners and urban designers should increase their role, relative to traffic engineers, in creating city streets (Project for Public Spaces, 2016). If our streets and public spaces are great destinations, then it stands to reason they will also be great places to walk or bike, thereby bolstering people’s desire to get around by alternative means to their cars. After all, three of Speck’s (2013) four principles for creating walkable environments are to make walking (1) more interesting, (2) safe, and (3) comfortable; these can be accomplished with design measures like shared streets and greater emphasis on creating better public spaces. Additionally, urban planners and local officials should energize and engage the community as one of the first steps in creating more shared streets, because public support is crucial in any major development (Project for Public Spaces, 2016; K. Otsuka, interview, 2018).

Tang (interview, 2018) concedes that it is more expensive to build this type of street, but reasons that it is a worthy investment because it can solve multiple problems at once – like flooding, since the pavers can be a permeable surface for absorbing stormwater. Funding for transportation projects like shared streets can come from several sources. Local funding sources can be applied to such projects, and if federal requirements are met, then federal monies distributed from Metropolitan Planning Organizations are another potential funding source (K. Otsuka, interview, 2018). In addition to government funding options, there are both private and nonprofit groups that can help to fund shared street projects. For example, Los Angeles uses ioby.org, which is “a crowdresourcing platform for citizen-led, neighbor-funded projects” (Project for Public Spaces, 2016).

In addition to allowing for multiple funding streams, there are specific policies that communities can adopt to encourage the creation of shared streets. First, prioritizing public safety is an important step towards realizing shared streets (Witte & Meisel,

2011). Reducing automobile speed limits makes both walking and bicycling safer, and can generate more non-auto mobility in an area, which may inform a desire for new design and policy measures in line with the shared streets typology. Finally, adopting zoning regulations and laws to allow for the creation of shared streets is an important policy step, though other regulatory methods such as implementing FBCs may be more effective.

Auckland, New Zealand – Shared Streets. In Auckland, New Zealand, five formerly non-shared streets have become shared spaces through a dedicated shared spaces program (Project for Public Spaces, 2016). These shared spaces have reduced vehicle speeds, removed curbs, increased pedestrian foot traffic and given pedestrians access to the full rightof-way, and they have provided space for other street activities, like outdoor dining and events. Additionally, the shared streets in Auckland have improved business for local shops, restaurants, and cafes.

1.5.6 Transportation technology and trends. Technology can be leveraged to improve the existing infrastructure and systems, and increase its capacity and efficiency. Various mechanisms from Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) and HOT lanes may be employed.

ITS mechanisms for speeding traffic flow. An Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) applies advanced technologies of electronics, communications, computers, control, and sensing and detecting in all kinds of transportation systems in order to improve safety, efficiency and service, and traffic situations through transmitting real-time information. ITS is comprised of five systems:

1. Advanced traffic management system (ATMS) which detects traffic situations and transmits them to a control center.

2. Advanced traveler information system (ATIS) with which road users can access real-time information in the car, at home, or at work, which may help them choose their mode and routes of transportation.

3. Advanced vehicle control and safety system (AVCSS) is the technology which helps drivers

control vehicles in order to reduce accidents and improve traffic safety.

4. Advanced public transportation system (APTS) which improves quality of service, efficiency, and number of people who can use public transportation.

5. Commercial vehicle operation (CVO) is a technology which improves efficiency and safety of commercial vehicles.

The Department of Transportation already has a ITS strategic plan in place which aims at realizing connected vehicles implementation and advancing automation as priorities (U.S. DOT, 2014). How is it relevant in Honolulu? Honolulu with its limited land and infrastructure resources makes a strong case for improving the efficiency of existing systems, as there is little scope for construction of new infrastructure and expansions. ITS has recently evolved into one of the most powerful tools to increase the capacity and safety of existing transportation. Moreover, it has potential to improve both public and private transportation. The ultimate benefits of a transformed transportation system—one that is fully connected, information-rich, and able to address safety, mobility, and environmental impacts—are wide-ranging and powerful. According to DOT it will deliver greater livability in urban areas.

Converting HOV (high occupancy vehicle) lanes to HOT lanes, and creating new HOT (high occupancy toll) lanes. The HOT lanes concept is a managed lane that combines HOV with pricing strategies to improve facility operations. Unlike HOV lanes, HOT lanes allow single-occupant vehicles (SOV) to gain access to HOT lanes if they choose to pay the applicable toll. HOT lanes provide mobility options for individual drivers while encouraging the use of transit and carpooling. Tolls collected from HOT lanes can supplement the operations, enforcement, and maintenance costs for the facilities. New revenues can then be used to support the construction of the HOT lanes themselves or other initiatives, such as improved transit service or regional transportation initiatives. It has a potential for improving the utilization of HOV lanes and therefore eliminating potential pressure to convert underperforming HOV lanes to general-purpose use.

Minneapolis has increased the number of vehicles using the I-394 MnPASS (HOT) lanes by 33 percent since the facility’s opening in 2005, without degrading transit and HOV use. Furthermore, travel speeds of 50 to 55 mph have been maintained for 95 percent of the time in these lanes (DOT, Federal Highway Administration, 2007).

How is it relevant to Honolulu? On O‘ahu, the HOV lanes don’t have enough occupancy with just buses and carpools, resulting in underutilization. There is plenty of room for other traffic, which can be addressed with the conversion to HOT lanes. This will help make the best use of the already limited infrastructure we have due to geographic, strategic, and economic reasons. Honolulu, being a coastal city, is susceptible to hurricanes and similar natural disasters. During a hurricane or other major storm, HOT lanes can be converted to be a resilient backbone for emergency and special services only. HOT lanes if extended further can also serve critical nodes such Waikiki and UH Mānoa which are not served by the Rail.

1.5.7 Policy and design for autonomous vehicles. The future is ultimately unknowable, yet planning requires predictions of future needs. Many decision-makers and practitioners (planners, engineers, and analysts) wonder how autonomous (self-driving or robotic) vehicles will affect future travel demands, how this should affect planning for roads, parking, and public transit systems, and whether policies should encourage or restrict their use (Litman, 2018).

Autonomous vehicles have the potential to eliminate virtually all driver error and most auto crashes. In addition to their safety and mobility benefits, self-driving cars would allow significant productivity increases for commuting, goods movement, and care-giving. Being able to use the time spent in motion for work, recreation, study, and sleep would greatly improve quality of life (Lutin, 2013). Over the last few years, AV technology has made tremendous progress; many pilot projects are being run already across the world to test it. Established research agencies and think tanks see AVs as the near future of urban road transportation. This is what major think tanks of the world predict:

• “It is no longer a question of if but when autonomous vehicles will hit the road” (Boston Consulting Group, 2015).

• “Autonomous cars are no longer just the realm of science fiction. They are real and will be on roads sooner than you think. Cars with basic autonomous capability are in showrooms today, semi-autonomous cars are coming in 12-18 months, and completely autonomous cars are set to be available before the end of the decade” (Morgan Stanley, 2013).

• The U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill called the “Self Drive Act” in September 2017 that could accelerate the rollout of selfdriving technology (115th Congress, 2017)

• Increase accessibility for people who are unable to drive

• Reduce the cost of taxis and delivery services

• Reduce the demand for off-street parking

• Increase road safety and capacity

• Increase the demand for short-stay, on-street parking

•

Autonomous vehicles might be employed in different formats, eg. personal AVs, shared AVs, and shared automated rides (self driving vans, micro transit).

Each format offers some advantages and disadvantages as described in Table 1.7.

Some of the inherent benefits of AVs would be:

Table 1.7. Autonomous Vehicle Operational Models, Compared Note. Adapted from Litman (2018).

Figure 1.6. Automated Versus Personal Car Costs (Johnston & Walker 2017).

Table 1.8: Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Projections

Note. Sourced from Litman (2018).

The operating cost of Autonomous vehicles is expected to go down in coming years as adoption becomes mainstream (implementation projections shown in Table 1.8). Figure 1.6 compares the cost of ownership of AVs with that of regular vehicles. Table 1.9 shows a few cities which are already conducting trials for AVs in various configurations.

The pace at which AV technology has developed and deployed has surpassed expectations and predictions. Pilot projects are operating on roadways in certain communities today. Cities should begin planning for this and holding public workshops with constituents now, with the objective of seeking stakeholder and constituent engagement and education in what is certain to be a complex policy process (NLC, 2017).

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has provided guidance on a Model State Policy, and has asserted its regulatory authority over vehicle safety by cautioning states from regulating vehicle performance. However, the Federal AV Policy does preserve traditional state and local authority over enforcement of traffic laws and regulation of motor vehicle insurance and liability.

Cities first need to assess existing laws and municipal codes that may impact deployment of AV technology. With technology like AVs, cities need to get the right people to the table, including urban planners and representatives in public works, information technology, procurement policy, and law enforcement. Modifications to existing codes may be appropriate, or cities may have to think about the

development of a new AV or smart infrastructure code (NLC, 2017). As states begin to craft their policies concerning AVs, cities should think about how state AV policy might impact smaller as well as larger cities, and suburbs as well as urban cores. Through a regional and state investment and regulatory strategy, cities can strengthen the ties between urban cores and suburbs, or between different parts of the state.

Autonomous vehicles in micro transit (shared autonomous vehicles). San Francisco’s approach to AVs focuses on filling gaps in transit networks and overnight service. The first planned pilot focuses on Treasure Island, a former naval base being redeveloped to have 8,000 housing units and rebranded as “San Francisco’s newest neighborhood.” The island was originally created as a landfill for the city’s 1939 World’s Fair. With support from a recently awarded federal transportation funding grant, San Francisco will invest $2 million over the next four years to test three driverless shuttles connecting existing bus stops, a planned ferry terminal, and other commercial and recreational destinations around the island. Delivery of vehicles for initial testing is expected in 2018, with a full launch of passenger service planned for 2020. Another example can be found in Helsinki, Finland. A global leader in the smart city movement, Helsinki grabbed headlines in late 2016 with the SOHJOA “robot bus” pilot. Featuring an Easymile EZ10 bus traversing a 1/4-mile route on the city’s Hernesaari waterfront district, the pilot helped the city increase public awareness of AV technology. The next phase of automated bus tests, called Helsinki RoboBusLine, will run for three years under the EUfunded mySMARTLife research program, a multicity project aimed at reducing carbon emissions. Meanwhile, Helsinki is also innovating not just technology, but also government’s capacity to drive innovation: the city’s Chief Design Officer, a new position created in 2016, will oversee cross-cutting efforts to integrate AVs into the urban environment.

Autonomous vehicles in personal transit. Pittsburgh is home to one of the world’s oldest hubs of research on self-driving vehicles, Carnegie Mellon University, as well as its newest: ride-sourcing giant Uber’s Advanced Technologies Group Center. Beginning in September 2016, Uber began tests with a

fleet of four Volvo SUVs prowling the city’s downtown, Strip District, Uptown, Oakland, and Southside neighborhoods, with the intent to eventually outfit a fleet of one hundred. Despite technical success, a mutually cooperative relationship between the City and Uber never formed, making it a ‘cautionary tale’ as reported by The New York Times in May 2017 (Kang C, 2017). Meanwhile, the city has continued to attract investment from a wide range of automakers and their partners, including GM, Delphi, Audi, and BMW, who are conducting limited Level 3 AV trials on city streets under current state motor vehicle regulations. What have Pittsburgh’s leaders learned? According to our survey, city officials highlight the need for formulating pilots around city objectives, data sharing, regular check-ins with companies, and tight coordination with state regulators. Moving forward, Pittsburgh has prioritized the knot of opportunities and challenges surrounding AVs and parking, which could allow broader reclamation of space on the city’s usually narrow historic streets, but also call into question the future flow of parking fees which generate a staggering 15 percent of city revenues. Another example can be found in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Home to the University of Michigan’s MCity, a sprawling 32-acre ghost town purposebuilt as a proving ground for connected vehicles, Ann Arbor has staked an early claim as the U.S. auto industry’s key hub for AV innovation. All eyes are on what The New York Times described as “a oneof-a-kind, living laboratory for the technologies that will pave the way” to the driverless future (Boudette, 2017). For now, fully-autonomous driving in Ann Arbor remains confined to MCity. However, the University of Michigan is exploring the deployment of up to fifty on-demand shuttles on its North Campus, operating on university-controlled roads. And Ford Motor Company and Domino’s Pizza are simulating how people might interact with AV-enabled services. The two companies conducted a month-long pizza delivery test using AV-capable vehicles accompanied by a human safety engineer in the driver’s seat (Lebeau, 2018).

A solution to first mile/last mile problem?

The first-mile, last-mile problem of mass transit has continually vexed transportation planners during the automotive era. Until you make it easy to get to

and from light rail and other public transit, they will remain underused. A lack of first- and last-mile transit services impairs access to public transit, causing commuters to opt for private modes of transit over public modes (Moorthy et al., 2017). A case study of the Ann Arbor-Detroit area done by Moorthy et al. models conventional public transit options with a hypothetical last-mile shared autonomous vehicle (SAV) system, then analyzed for transit between Ann Arbor and Detroit Wayne County Airport for life cycle energy, emissions, total travel time, and travel costs. In the case study, energy savings from using public transit options with AV last mile service were as high as 37% when compared to a personal vehicle option. Energy and greenhouse gas burdens were very sensitive to vehicle powertrain and ridership parameters. The results suggest that an AV taxi service providing last-mile transit services could enhance the sustainability of transit by influencing a mode shift from private modes to public modes of transit. Wait times associated with public transit options, as well as high AV technology costs, could still be obstacles for a last mile service.

Shared autonomous vehicles (SAVs) would retain door-to-door travel without the costs and congestion that accompany single-occupant vehicles. Through their potential to connect the first and last mile of trips in low-density areas, integrating SAVs with public transport systems could substantially increase synergies between autos and transit. Lowdensity land use could thus be shielded from climate and oil vulnerability as SAVs maintain accessibility to auto-dependent locations during times of climate and energy disruption (Ohnemus & Perl, 2016).

First/Last-mile connectivity remains one of the key issues in Waipahu when it comes to usability and reach of rail. During the community event organised by DURP in Waipahu, first/last mile connectivity was reported to be one of the major concerns of residents and might turn out to be the tipping point between using or not using the rail. HART is already exploring the possibility to employ Shared Autonomous Vehicles (SAVs) to address the problem. Waipahu, which has state-owned parcels of land close to the transit station, can be a good candidate to employ SAVs for first/last mile transit which will boost the reach of rail to a much larger area. Initially, a normal shuttle service with driver may also be employed to assess

the effectiveness of such a service till driverless option becomes feasible.

Car sharing. AVs will facilitate car-sharing and ride-sharing behavior, as the technology can overcome some key barriers, especially the limited accessibility and reliability of today’s car-sharing and ride-sharing programs (Fagnant & Kockelman, 2014; Kornhauser et al., 2013; Malokin, Mokhtarian, & Circella, 2015). The ownership model of vehicles can change in a future where car sharing becomes mainstream and it no longer makes economic sense for the average person to own a car. Honolulu and Waipahu may begin to think about associated infrastructure like pick-up and drop-off zones to address changing needs in the future.

Parking in an age of autonomous vehicles. Autonomous vehicles are widely expected to have major implications for the distribution of parking resources. It seems reasonable to suggest that driverless cars will be able to be parked more efficiently and in more remote locations than is currently required (Alter, 2016; Kiger, 2015; Lubell, 2016). Some potential changes include:

• Parking demand: A simulation by Zhang et al. (2015) indicates that we may be able to eliminate up to 90% of parking demand for clients who adopt the system. The market penetration rate however will remain low.

• Parking Design: A simulation by Nourinejad et al. (2018) shows that, compared to regular car-parks with only two rows of vehicles in each island, future car-parks (for autonomous vehicles) can have multiple rows of vehicles stacked behind each other. Autonomous vehicle car-parks can decrease the need for parking space by an average of 62% and a maximum of 87%.

Due to the expected changes to the nature of parking requirements, we make the following recommendations regarding parking infrastructure:

• Remove minimum parking requirements

• Adopt demand-responsive parking management practices

• Implement technology enabling drivers to book and pay for parking spaces in advance

• Require new public parking infrastructure to be compliant with building and housing regulations so as to allow for adaptive reuse into commercial or apartment buildings

Autonomous vehicles leading to urban sprawl? Cities develop in a pattern and at a density that is a result of this fundamental tradeoff. Life in the center city is often expensive, loud, and dirty, and the suburbs or edges of a city may seem cheaper and greener. But people’s time is finite, so living far out from the city has its limits. Driverless cars, if they were truly autonomous, would begin to alter this equation. Time in cars could be spent on something pleasurable, like reading a good book. For workers whose white collar job involves sending emails, calling in to phone meetings, or editing documents on a computer, the time in the car could become part of their work day. There have been some articles and studies which which suggest AVs might trigger another round of urban sprawl:

• Slate: (10/15/14) “The Self-Driving Tesla Might Make Us Love Urban Sprawl Again“ http://www.slate.com/blogs/ moneybox/2014/10/15/self_driving_tesla_car_ might_encourage_urban_sprawl.html

• FastCompany: (06/09/11) “How Google’s Robot Cars Will Revive Sprawl“ https://www.fastcompany.com/1758128/howgoogles-robot-cars-will-revive-sprawl

• Nature.org: (04/20/16): “Why Driverless Cars May Make Cities Sprawl Even More“ https://blog.nature.org/science/2016/04/20/ why-driverless-cars-cities-sprawl-urbansuburban-development/

• Wall Street Journal: (06/20/16): “Driverless Cars to Fuel Suburban Sprawl“ https://www.wsj.com/articles/driverless-carsto-fuel-suburban-sprawl-1466395201

• Bloomberg: (11/04/15) “Like the Suburbs? You’ll Love Driverless Cars.“ https://www.bloomberg.com/view/ articles/2015-11-04/like-the-suburbs-you-lllove-driverless-cars-

Other Implications. AV adoption will have implications on other aspects of life which need to be studied. Examples include:

1. Environmental 2. Lifestyle

3. Psychological

4. Cyber security

5. Privacy

1.6 Conclusion

1.6.1 Opportunities and constraints.

Rail and TOD represent an opportunity for positive changes in Waipahu and across the island of O‘ahu. In addition to maximizing effective public transit systems and movement of vehicles, transportation planning strategies involve land use and design considerations to promote multimodal options and a high degree of accessibility to desired opportunities by walking. Additionally, transportation plans should consider environmental factors and make positive contributions towards relevant challenges. In the case of Waipahu and much of O‘ahu, flooding from climate change and sea level rise are major concerns. Street typologies like shared streets that often rely on alternate pavement surfaces can utilize permeable surfaces to aid in the reduction of runoff. In this way, transportation must be recognized as a multidimensional topic.

Constraints for effective TOD in Waipahu are centered on money and behavior. Waipahu is a highly car-dependent town and it will take time and effective strategies to get people to adopt alternative modes of transportation. One challenge for TOD in terms of how it will impact people negatively is an increase in land value which could raise rents. One solution to mitigate gentrification, from the transportation perspective, is to reduce construction costs to developers by not requiring parking (such as in the Nightingale Model described in section 1.5.3). Also, TOD is most effective when it allows people to live comfortably without owning a car at all; saving people money in their transportation budgets could help them cope with higher rents. Additionally, we expect the residents of Waipahu to be slow to catch on to the benefits of autonomous vehicles, because it is a radical change in technology that is still quite contentious.

One of the best ways to reduce people’s fear of using autonomous vehicles is by introducing them to AV through public transportation systems, such as AV shuttles that can connect to the autonomous rail. Regarding financing, as we saw with Barrio Logan in San Diego (see section 1.4.3), initial challenges in creating a mixed use village came from a lack of financing options for small business owners. Therefore, the retail and commercial aspect of such developments in Waipahu could be constrained if adequate funding options are not available.

1.6.2 Summary of recommendations.

In addition to goals and plans already in place, such as more compact development, mixed use development, and improved transit systems, we encourage the city to adopt other measures related to parking reform and introducing new street typologies near the transit station to promote walkability and multimodal access. Currently, we think the city is not doing enough to adequately change the transportation hierarchy and is at risk of wasting the multi-billion dollar investment in the rail. To make the rail a good investment, it should be the catalyst for a new transportation hierarchy on O‘ahu and in Waipahu. To be blunt, adding some crosswalks, planting some trees along the sidewalk, and calling some roads “bike paths” is not enough to create substantial change. Adding a crosswalk on Hikimoe Street—with cars speeding by at 40 or 50 miles per hour—will not change the automobile’s position in the transportation hierarchy. Therefore, we recommend the city introduce the Shared Streets typology in appropriate areas within TOD zones (see section 1.5.5 for more detail).

Regarding parking reform, we recommend first that the city eliminate minimum parking requirements for all development in TOD zones. Second, we recommend the city to adopt districtlevel parking maximums in TOD zones, but this report cannot specify what an appropriate parking maximum would be at this time. Further research is needed. More importantly, we urge the city to institute strong incentives to encourage both shared parking and adaptable parking. All parking provided in TOD should be shared at a district level and all new parking structures that are built should be adaptable so that they can serve other uses when demand changes

in the future. Finally, we encourage the city to be progressive in its adoption of new technologies such as autonomous vehicles.

1.7 References

Alter, L. (2016, June 20). Will self-driving cars fuel urban sprawl? Retrieved January 12, 2017 from http://www.treehugger.com/urban-design/willselfdriving-cars-fuel-urban-sprawl.htm

Baer, W. C. (1997). General plan evaluation criteria: An approach to making better plans. Journal of the American Planning Association, 63(3), 329-344.

Bennett, N. (1996). The National Highway System

Designation Act of 1995. Public Roads, 59(4). Retrieved from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ publications/publicroads/96spring/p96sp10.cfm.

Borland, K. M. (2017). Developers are not Designing Adaptable Parking Space. Globe Street. Retrieved from http://www.globest.com/sites/ kelsimareeborland/2017/06/21/developers-arenow-designing-adaptable-parking-space/ Boston Consulting Group. (2015). Revolution in the Driver’s Seat: The Road to Autonomous Vehicles.

Boudette, N. (2017, July 9) Michigan’s new motor city: Ann arbor as new driverless hub. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/09/business/ driverless-car-autonomous-university-michigan. html

CH2MHILL. (2010). Complete Streets Task ForceFinal Complete Streets Legislative Report.Honolulu, Hawaii: CH2MHILL.

Chatman, D. G. (2013). Does TOD need the T? On the importance of factors other than rail access. Journal of the American Planning Association, 79(1), 17-31.

City Council, City and County of Honolulu. 2015. Bill 74, CD2. Retrieved from http://www4.honolulu. gov/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-197815/ BILL074(15)%2c%20CD2.pdf

City and County of Honolulu (2014). Celebrate Waipahu: Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan. Retrieved from https://www.honolulu.gov/rep/site/ dpptod/waipahu_docs/Reso_14-47_Combined_ Exhibit__Reso.pdf

City & County of Honolulu. (2017a). TOD Honolulu: Live. Work. Connect. Honolulu, HI.

City and County of Honolulu (2017b). Waipahu: Waipahu Town Action Plan. Retrieved from: https://www.honolulu.gov/rep/site/dpptod/ waipahu_docs/Waipahu_Town_Action_Plan_917.pdf

City of Portland. (n.d.). South Waterfront. Retrieved from https://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/ article/561907

Crawford J.H. 2002. Carfree Cities. International Books. The Netherlands.

Dittmar and Poticha. (2004). Defining TransitOriented Development: The New Regional Building Block. Hank Dittmar and Gloria Ohland (ed). The New Transit Town Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Development (pp. 20-40). Island Press, Washington DC.

Downs, A. (2000). Stuck in traffic: Coping with peakhour traffic congestion. Brookings Institution Press.

Fagnant, D. J., & Kockelman, K. M. (2014). The travel and environmental implications of shared autonomous vehicles, using agent-based model scenarios. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 40, 1-13.

Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, Pub. L. No. 78-521, 58 Stat. 838 (1956).

Fehrs & Peers. (2017, April 7). Rail Station Connectivity for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) - Waipahu Mobility Assessment Report (Draft). Honolulu, Hawai‘i: Fehrs & Peers. Filion, P., McSpurren, K., & Appleby, B. (2006). Wasted density? The impact of Toronto's

residential-density-distribution policies on publictransit use and walking. Environment and Planning A, 38(7), 1367-1392.

Fixing America's Surface Transportation Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-94, 129 Stat. 1312 (2015).

Great Streets. (n.d.). Homepage. Retrieved from http:// lagreatstreets.org/

GTA Task Force. (1996). Greater Toronto Report of the GTA Task Force. Publications Ontario.

Gutfreund, O. D., 2004. Twentieth-century sprawl: highways and the reshaping of the American landscape. Oxford University Press. NY.

H+T Factsheet. (2017). Municipality: Waipahu, HI. Retrieved from https://htaindex.cnt.org/factsheets/

Hawaii Bicycling League. (2013). Waipahu Oahu Bike Path. Retrieved from https://www.hbl.org/ oahubikeplan/waipahu-oahu-bike-plan/ Henig, J. (2008). Bridge to Nowhere. FactCheck.Org - A Project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center, September 22, 2008. Retrieved from https://www. factcheck.org/2008/09/bridge-to-nowhere

Honolulu Department and Planning and Permitting (Honolulu DPP) Planning Division, City & County of Honolulu. (2017). O‘ahu Proposed Revised General Plan. Honolulu, Hawai‘i: City & County Honolulu Department of Planning and Permit. Retrieved from http://www.honoluludpp. org/Planning/GeneralPlan.aspx.

Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, Pub. L. No. 102-240, 105 Stat. 1914 (1991).

Kang C (2017, May 21) Pittsburgh Welcomed

Uber’s Driverless Car Experiment. Not Anymore. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes. com/2017/05/21/technology/pittsburgh-ubersdriverless-car-experiment.html Kennedy, C. A. (2002). A comparison of the sustainability of public and private transportation

systems: Study of the Greater Toronto Area. Transportation, 29(4), 459-493.

Kiger, P. J. (2015, October 2). Imagining the Driverless City. Retrieved January 5, 2017, from http:// urbanland.uli.org/infrastructure-transit/ imagining-driverless-city/

Lebeau P. (2018, February 27) Ford teams with Domino’s, Postmates in Miami to test delivery via autonomous vehicles. Retrieved from https://www. cnbc.com/2018/02/27/ford-teams-with-dominosto-test-deliveries-by-autonomous-vehicles.html

Li, S., Linn, J., & Muehlegger, E. (2012). Gasoline Taxes and Consumer Behavior. HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series RWP12-006, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University

Litman, T. (2018). AutonomousVehicle Implementation Predictions, VCPI.

Litman, T (2017). Introduction to Multi-Modal Transportation Planning, Victoria Transport Policy Institute.

Litman, T. (2016). Land use impacts on transport. Victoria Transport Policy Institute.

Los Angeles Dept of Transportation [LADOT]. (n.d.). About People St. Retrieved from http://peoplest. lacity.org/about/

Lubell, S. (2016, October 21). 8 Experts Predict How Self-Driving Cars Will Transform Your city. Retrieved January 5, 2017, from https://www. wired.com/2016/10/heres-self-driving-cars-willtransform-city/

Lutin J.M., Kornhauser A.L. (2015). Application of Autonomous Driving Technology to TransitFunctional Capabilities for Safety and Capacity

Lutin, J. M., Kornhauser, A. L., & MASCE, E. L. L. (2013). The revolutionary development of self-driving vehicles and implications for the transportation engineering profession. Institute of

Transportation Engineers. ITE Journal, 83(7), 28.

McLeod, J. (2015.) Sustainable apartments - a new model for the future. Retrieved from https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=AFJj1v3jmYU

MD Dept of Planning. (2016). Normal, Illinois. Retrieved from http://smartgrowth.org/normalillinois/

MRCagney Pty Ltd. (2017). Mrcagney Autonomous Vehicles Research Report. Retrieved from http://mrcagney.com/uploads/case-studies/ MRCAutonomousVehicles.pdf

Moorthy, A., De Kleine, R., Keoleian, G., Good, J., & Lewis, G. (2017). Shared Autonomous Vehicles as a Sustainable Solution to the Last Mile Problem: A Case Study of Ann Arbor-Detroit Area. SAE International Journal of Passenger Cars - Electronic and Electrical Systems, 10(2). DOI: 10.4271/201701-1276.

Morgan Stanley. (2013). Autonomous Cars Self-Driving the New Auto Industry Paradigm. Morgan Stanley Research Global.

Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act of 2012. (2012). Pub. L. No. 112-141, 126 Stat. 406.

National Assoc. of City Transportation Officials [NACTO] (n.d.a). Urban Street Design Guide

Residential Shared Street. Retrieved from https:// nacto.org/publication/urban-street-design-guide/ streets/residential-shared-street/

National Assoc. of City Transportation Officials [NACTO] (n.d.b). Urban Street Design Guide Commercial Shared Street. Retrieved from https:// nacto.org/publication/urban-street-design-guide/ streets/commercial-shared-street/

National Highway System Designation Act of 1995, Pub. L. No. 104-59, 109 Stat. 568 (1995).

National League of Cities (NLC), 2017, Autonomous Vehicles: A Policy Preparation Guide

Neuman, M. (2012). Infrastructure planning for sustainable cities. Geographica Helvetica, 66(2), 100-107.

Newman, P., & Kenworthy, J. (1999). Sustainability and cities: overcoming automobile dependence. Island press.

Nourinejad, M., Bahrami, S., & Roorda, M. (2018). Designing Parking Facilities for Autonomous Vehicles. Transportation Research Part B Methodological, 109. 10.1016/j.trb.2017.12.017.

Oahu Metropolitan Planning Organization [Oahu MPO]. (2016, April 13). Oahu Regional Transportation Plan 2040. Honolulu, Hawai‘i: Oahu Metropolitan Planning Organization. Retrieved from http://www.oahumpo.org/ wp-content/uploads/2013/01/ORTP-2040APPROVED-160502.pdf.

115th Congress (2017, September 6) Safely Ensuring Lives Future Deployment and Research In Vehicle Evolution Act or the SELF DRIVE Act. Retrieved from https://www.congress.gov/bill/115thcongress/house-bill/3388

Ohland, G. (2004). Barrio Logan’s Mercado Project. Hank Dittmar and Gloria Ohland (ed). The New Transit Town Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Development (pp. 211-230). Island Press, Washington DC.

Ohnemus, M. & Perl, A. (2016). Shared Autonomous Vehicles: Catalyst of New Mobility for the Last Mile?. Built Environment. 42. 589-602. 10.2148/ benv.42.4.589.

Ontario Road Safety Accident Reports.(from 1993 to 1997). Cited in Kennedy (2002).

Pandya, S. (2017). Sustainable Buildings: Designing Multipurpose Parking Structures. GBCI. Retrieved from: http://www.gbci.org/sustainable-buildingsdesigning-multipurpose-parking-structures

Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Centers. Shared Streets. U.S. Department ofTransportation Federal

Highway Administration. Retrieved from: http:// www.pedbikeinfo.org/planning/facilities_ped_ sharedstreets.cfm

Project for Public Spaces. January 11, 2016. Actions for Streets as Places: How GovernmentMakes it Happen. Retrieved from: https://www.pps.org/ article/actions-streets-places-government-makeshappen

Rampersaad, A. (2000). Establishing the total costs of automobile based transportation for the Greater Toronto Area. Bachelors’ Thesis, University of Toronto, Department of Civil Engineering.

Redfin. (2018). How Walk Score Works. Retrieved from https://www.redfin.com/how-walk-scoreworks

Rode, P. (2015). How connected is your city? Urban transport trends around the world. Rockefeller foundation.

Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-59, 119 Stat. 1144 (2005).

San Diego Planning Dept (2008a). San Diego General Plan. Retrieved From: https://www.sandiego.gov/ planning/genplan#genplan

San Diego Planning Dept (2008b). Strategic Framework. San Diego General Plan. Retrieved From: https://www.sandiego.gov/sites/default/ files/legacy//planning/genplan/pdf/generalplan/ adoptedsfelem.pdf

Schweppe, E. (2001). Legacy of A Landmark: ISTEA After 10 Years. Public Roads, 65(3). Retrieved from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/ publicroads/01novdec/legacy.cfm

Sclar, E. D., Lönnroth, M., & Wolmar, C. (2014). Chapter 3: Social Inequalities in UrbanAccess: Better Ways of Assessing Transport Improvements. Urban access for the 21st century: Finance and governance models for transport infrastructure. Routledge.

Smallen, D. (1998). TEA-21: A ‘Historic’ Piece of Legislation. Public Roads, 62(2). Retrieved from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/ publicroads/98septoct/tea21.cfm

Speck, J. (2012). Walkable City: How Downtown Can Save America, One Step at a Time. Macmillan.

Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-178, 112 Stat. 107 (1998).

Transportation Research Board [TRB]. (2013). Critical Issues in Transportation: 2013. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2016). San Diego population. [data file] Retrieved from https://factfinder.census. gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview. xhtml?src=bkmk

U.S. Census Bureau. (2016). Waipahu transportation. [data file] Retrieved from https://www.census. gov/quickfacts/fact/table/waipahucdphawaii/ PST045216

U.S. DOT Federal Highway Administration. (2016). Summary of Highway Provisions. Fixing America's Surface Transportation Act Summary. Retrieved from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tea21/factsheets/ metropln.htm

U.S. DOT Federal Highway Administration. (2017a). History of the Interstate Highway. Retrieved from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/history.cfm.

U.S. DOT Federal Highway Administration. (2017b). Interstate Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/faq.cfm

U.S. DOT Federal Highway Administration. (2007). Considerations for High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lane to High Occupancy Toll (HOT) Lane Conversions Guidebook

U.S. DOT, Federal Highway Administration. (2005). A Summary of Highway Provisions in SAFETEALU. Retrieved From: https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ safetealu/summary.htm

U.S. DOT (2014). 2015-2019 ITS Strategic Plan, US Department of Transportation. FHWA-JPO-14-1

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA]. (2017). Overview: What is TEA-21? Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/cwa-404/overview-whattea-21

Walkscore. (2018). Living in Waipahu. Retrieved From: https://www.walkscore.com/HI/Waipahu

Willson, R. W. (2013). Parking Reform Made Easy. Island Press. Washington, DC

Witte, A., & Meisel, D. (2011). Shared Streets and Alleyways. Alta Planning + Design.

Zhang, Wenwen & Guhathakurta, Subhrajit & Fang, Jinqi & Zhang, Ge. (2015). Exploring the Impact of Shared Autonomous Vehicles on Urban Parking Demand: An Agent-based Simulation Approach. Sustainable Cities and Society, 19. 10.1016/j. scs.2015.07.006.

HOUSING

Abbreviations

AHR Affordable Housing Requirement

AMI Area Median Income

C&C City and County of Honolulu

DPP Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting

DURP Department of Urban and Regional Planning

HCDA Hawai‘i Community Development Association

HUD U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

HHFDC Hawai‘i Housing Finance and Development Corporation

HPHA Hawai‘i Public Housing Authority

HTA Hawai‘i Tourism Authority

MSA Metropolitan Statistical Area

PPP Public Private Partnership

RAD Rental Assistance Demonstration

TIF Tax Increment Financing

TOD Transit-Oriented Development

TRN Transit Rich Neighborhoods

UHERO University of Hawai‘i Economic Research Organization

UHM University of Hawai‘i at Manoa

VMT Vehicle Miles Traveled

2.1 Introduction

Housing is very much a product of its region. To discuss housing as it relates to transit-oriented development (TOD) in Waipahu, we began by examining macro-level O‘ahu data before focusing on data about Waipahu and micro-level household data in order to gather a comprehensive understanding of housing in Waipahu. These data were used to shed light on the state of housing in Waipahu and the opportunities and challenges for TOD.

2.1.1 Context.

It is paramount that housing in Waipahu, as related to the Transit-Oriented Development plan, is at the forefront of the research and planning processes. The housing changes in the Waipahu TOD plan will set an important precedent for future development at other rail stations, and provide a unique opportunity for the City and County to remedy some of the housing challenges that these different neighborhoods face. Additionally, the new transit system is a very large publicly funded project, so it is critical that the interests of the public are met. The opportunities for housing and business that can arise out of TOD in the area are ones that would not be possible without the financial support of the public.

Historically, Hawai‘i has had high housing prices. Census data illustrates that home prices in 1950 were already higher than the 48 mainland states, and this trend continues today (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). A UHERO report identifies four factors that have contributed to high housing prices over the past 50 years (La Croix, 2016). The first factor is attractive amenities that are uniquely available in Hawai‘i. Such amenities include warm ocean waters, beautiful beaches, favorable weather, a multicultural social environment with low racial tensions, an attractive host Native Hawaiian culture, and low crime rates. These factors make Hawai‘i a desirable place to live because they contribute to the perception of a high quality of life. The second factor is the lack of natural developable land which translates to a limit on housing supply, resulting in higher costs. Roughly 92% of the approximately 31-mile radius around the Honolulu downtown area is not developable. The option for middle class families to move out of the central city and successfully find lower rents is less realistic

when compared to major cities on the mainland. To exacerbate the difficulty of finding affordable housing even outside the city center, less than 1% of all land on O‘ahu is developable. The third factor is land use regulation. Hawai‘i has some of the strictest regulations on land development found in any large U.S. metropolitan area (Gyourko et al., 2007). The fourth includes the “home-voter” hypothesis which is the idea that high housing prices induce voting decisions that support strict regulations on residential development while supporting decisions against more development in their neighborhoods. As a result of all these factors, the median cost of a single family home in Hawai‘i is $800,000 (Hofschneider, 2017).

The Great Recession of 2008 exacerbated the mounting housing challenges in Hawai‘i, coined as a “housing crisis” throughout the state. Stricter mortgage lending requirements led to a drop in homeownership rates. At the same time, demand for housing plummeted as a result of high unemployment rates. In the past decade, the economy has recovered along with housing prices. However, housing supply is still constrained and continues to struggle in meeting the growing demand of a steadily increasing population. Prior to the recession, the available housing inventory in Hawai‘i expanded by an average of 6,500 units per year between 2000 and 2008. Post recession, however, supply of additional housing units increased by only 2,400 units per year between 2009 and 2013 (DBEDT, 2015).

Housing supply in Hawai‘i is also affected by an increase in residential units being used as vacation rentals. According to a Hawai‘i Tourism Authority (HTA) study (2016), the number of tourists who visit the state has been increasing faster than hotels and resort developments can accommodate. From 2012 to 2014, the average rent for a two-bedroom unit was $1,939 per month, but the average listing of a two-bedroom unit on Airbnb was $372 per night. At 80% occupancy that would generate $9,055 per month, over four times as much revenue (Vacation Rental Units, 2016). Although it is unclear how many vacation rental units could be used as more permanent housing, a 2014 survey commissioned by HTA (2016) found there were at least 22,238 vacation rental units advertised across the state.

To keep up with the long-term housing market demand, the state of Hawai‘i will require an additional

64,700 to 66,000 housing units built between 2015 and 2025; of this, 22,247 will require rental units. Affordable housing is important to address, as 93-95% of rental unit tenants have a household income of less than 140% of area median income (DBEDT, 2015).

To offset the high cost of housing, there are different housing programs that exist across the islands including affordable housing, public housing, a Section 8 voucher program, and low income housing tax credit (LIHTC) buildings. After being closed for a decade, the Section 8 rental housing vouchers opened up again in 2016 for the State of Hawai‘i (Hofschneider, 2016). The federal government assists very low-income families, the elderly, and the disabled in the form of rent subsidies. The Section 8 rental housing vouchers and public housing projects are examples of this federal government subsidy. However, the applications for subsidized housing programs like Section 8 and public housing often have years-long waiting lists, which means there are no quick housing solutions for families with very low incomes. LIHTC is also a federal program, but it serves as a way to encourage the investment of private equity in the development of affordable rental housing for low-income households instead of directly subsidizing rent. The program accomplishes this by providing dollar-for-dollar reductions in income tax liability for 10 years. The tax credit is most often sold to investors in exchange for an equity investment into the affordable housing development (HHFDC, 2016).

A feasibility study was done by Strategic Economics, Inc. for the Hawai‘i Community Development Authority (HCDA) about housing affordability. The organization specializes in studying housing feasibility in expensive coastal communities. It compared the affordable housing options in Seattle, San Francisco, New York, and Washington D.C. (CTOD, 2010). In their Hawai‘i study, they examined how feasible affordable housing options would be in Kaka‘ako. They compared all of the average construction cost per unit, unit sizes, building sizes, and development types in Kaka‘ako to determine whether it would be feasible to extend the amount of time that affordable units are to remain affordable (from five years to permanently). Ultimately, the study determined that it would be feasible for affordable units in Kaka‘ako to remain affordable in perpetuity (Fogarty, Srivastava, & Cummings, 2017). This study

is useful when thinking about potential options given Hawai‘i’s special circumstances. While Waipahu and Kaka‘ako are very different, and the development in Waipahu will not be as dense as Kaka‘ako, it is important to examine feasibility for affordable options on other parts of the island that are in TODdesignated areas.

Mayor Kirk Caldwell has been pushing for a comprehensive affordable housing requirement (AHR) to ensure that a greater supply of affordable housing is added to the C&C of Honolulu (Caldwell, 2017). The housing policy ideas of the Caldwell administration have manifested in the form of Ordinance 18-10. The first draft of the ordinance was incepted in early 2017 as Bill 58 and went through several iterations while going through City Council. The bill was adopted by City Council and signed into law by Mayor Caldwell in April of 2018 (see Table 2.1).

The AHR requires all projects needing building permits for 10 or more dwelling units to provide a certain percentage of affordable units. The percentages may be adjusted for varying unit sizes and lower income ranges. Early drafts of the bill included the option of in-lieu fees in which developers could pay a fee of $45 per square foot instead of building affordable units. The final draft of the bill removed the option of in-lieu fees but also a requirement for rental projects to be included in the AHR. The removal of rental units is important to consider when crafting recommendations to prevent displacement from the Waipahu TOD areas. Accessory dwelling units, microunits, special needs housing, group living facilities, and timeshares are also exempted from the AHR.

The AHR is applied islandwide, but requires transit-oriented developments in designated rail station areas to provide a larger percentage of their dwelling units as affordable. Early drafts required 20% of on-site, for-sale units in designated rail station areas to be priced at up to 120% AMI (1/2 up to 100%) for 30 years. In the final bill, that same category turned into 10% for 30 years, 20% for 10 years or 30% for 5 years at up to 120% AMI (1/2 up to 100%). The bill requires slightly higher percentages if a developer decides to build affordable units outside designated transit station areas.

Table 2.1. Ordinance 18-10: Honolulu’s Affordable Housing Requirement

Note. Reprinted from City and County of Honolulu (2018).

The signing of Bill 58 activates other policies that were signed in anticipation of the AHR. Bill 59 (now Ordinance 18-1), the incentives bill, was meant to offset impacts of Bill 58 and provide financial incentives to help stimulate affordable housing production. The incentives include property tax exemptions along with waivers for wastewater system facility charges, plan review fees, building permit fees, and park dedication requirements for projects providing affordable dwelling units.

For a while, affordable housing advocates were concerned because the details of Bill 58 were still being worked out after the incentives bill was already signed. The worst case scenario for affordable housing advocates would include low affordable housing requirements while providing significant property tax exemptions and fee waivers for developers from Bill 59. The result would be an AHR that provides short term affordability and because developers receive such large subsidies for units that were only affordable for a short period of time, their profit margins would be large at the expense of public funds. However, there is also a worst case scenario for developers; a scenario which also fails to produce long-term affordable housing. In 2006, Maui County implemented an inclusionary zoning requirement (Ordinance 3418) of 50% for all new affordable rental properties. These units were required to stay affordable in perpetuity. Furthermore, the policy added uncertainty and another costly step to Hawai‘i’s three- to eight-year approval process. The result was that housing was not financially feasible for developers and the number of building permits issued annually fell drastically; little housing was constructed while the ordinance remained enacted (Lief, 2018). This is an example of overregulation strangling the development of all types of housing, arguably worse than developers creating highly subsidized market to above-market units. Many transit-oriented development special district zoning changes also go into effect after the signing of Bill 58. Some examples would include Bills 74, 75, and 76 (2015) which change zoning requirements around the West Loch and Pouhala transit stations in Waipahu. These changes were specifically designed to fit certain transit-oriented development objectives such as increasing density around the rail, providing mixed-use developments, decreasing parking requirements, and making mixed-

income communities. Essentially, the details of Bill 58 could not only dictate the supply of affordable housing in Honolulu, but also be an important factor in determining how mixed the income levels of residents living in transit-oriented developments would become.

2.1.2 Context within TOD.

To prevent development outward into agriculture and conservation lands, the state envisioned encouraging infill developments. The heavy rail, currently under construction, provides C&C of Honolulu the opportunity to significantly increase housing supply on O‘ahu. Increasing densities around rail stations have proven to increase rail ridership, reduce car usage, and provide community members with alternative transportation options (Cervero, 2010). Current plans for new housing units in the total TOD plan area amounts to 65,330 units including 2,370 in Waipahu (Hawai‘i Community Development Authority, 2016). However, these numbers are preliminary and have no timetable for completion. In the Unified Approach for Development of State Lands, the state lists affordable housing as a priority to build wherever feasible. It also lists equitable development, defined as promoting community health and wellbeing, as a priority (Hawai‘i State Office of Planning, 2017).

Ensuring that transit-oriented developments are mixed-income could serve as a deterrent for negative gentrifying impacts such as the displacement of the existing communities surroundingTODs. Gentrification can undermine capturing the benefits of the public’s investment into a heavy rail system. Higher income people tend to drive more and use public transit less so having high-income residents near the rail would be disastrous for rail ridership and VMT reduction goals (Clagett, 2014). In addition, increased access to alternative modes of transportation means less income could be spent on purchasing and maintaining an automobile. In this sense, low-income households could spend more money on housing without being too rent burdened.

In order to understand what potential policies will work in Waipahu we found precedent in different cities where TOD was introduced as well as information on Transit Rich Neighborhoods (TRNs). The United States has more than 3,000 TRNs with access to fixed transit systems like rail.

People of color and low-income households across these neighborhoods are more likely than any other demographic to rely on public transportation. One study done across 42 TRNs in the United States found that 74% of the neighborhoods experienced higher rent prices than the surrounding Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs). 71% also saw an increase in car ownership, likely a result of the wealthier residents moving in who relied less on rail transit. To mitigate these impacts, there are steps provided for planners, including: preserving current affordable housing, building new affordable housing, and funding for land and property acquisition (Pollack, Bluestone, & Billingham, 2010).

Empirical data from Los Angeles confirm the importance of creating dense, mixed-income TOD communities. The extent to which affordable housing in TODs may contribute to VMT reduction and social welfare goals depends on the amount of affordable housing that municipalities can offer. The duration for which affordable housing in TODs can remain affordable after any initial covenants expire is also important (NCST, 2017).

2.1.3 Homelessness.

As a result of the competitive housing market and high housing costs in combination with a lack of affordable housing and public housing options, homelessness is a serious problem for Hawai‘i residents. According to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), there were 51 homeless people for every 10,000 individuals across the state as of December, 2017. The rate of homelessness in Hawai‘i has been on the decline, but is still the highest in the nation and is an example of the housing need for Hawai‘i’s low-income individuals (Nakaso, 2017).

Rates of homelessness are exacerbated by rising housing costs, a growing population, and gentrification, which is another reason why the cost of housing must be a critical consideration in TOD neighborhoods like Waipahu. There is a growing rent burden (money spent monthly on shelter/monthly income) across the islands. 57.5% of renters in Hawai‘i spend more than 30% of their monthly income on rent, constituting the second highest rent burden in the country (Riker, 2015).

Providing affordable housing for the bottom of

the income bracket has proven effective at significantly reducing chronic homelessness. Utah saw a drop in homelessness by 91% by implementing a model known as Housing First. Clients have to pay either 30% of income or up to $50 a month depending on whichever is greater, without preconditions and barriers to entry (McEvers, 2015). Housing First successes demonstrate that homelessness is, first and foremost, a housing crisis, and can be addressed through the provision of safe and affordable housing.

2.2 Overview of Housing in Waipahu

2.2.1 Waipahu-level housing data.

To understand the current inventory of housing in Waipahu, we pulled data on what kinds of housing currently exist in the whole Census Designated Place (CDP) of Waipahu. The different housing options in the current market include marketrate, public housing, and affordable housing. These housing types include multi-family, apartments of varying sizes, single-family homes, and townhouses. Overall, the multi-family housing in Waipahu is smaller and older, much of it built in the 1960’s (Van Meter Williams Pollack LLP, 2007).

There are currently some public housing buildings in Waipahu. The Plantation Town Apartments, Hoolulu, and Kamalu Apartments are public housing for the elderly. Waipahu Towers is a 63unit building that takes Section 8 vouchers; Waipahu Hall Apartments is a 120-unit building that takes Section 8 vouchers; Arc of Hawai‘i Housing Project Number 8 is a 10-unit Section 202 building specifically for the elderly; and Jack Hall Waipahu Memorial Housing provides 144 one- and two-bedroom units, some of which accept Section 8 vouchers. These housing options are providing housing to Waipahu’s lowest income residents (Layfield, 2018).

The market in Waipahu with TOD will support new multi-family homes that could hold a mix of singles, couples, and families with children. Table 2.2 outlines the bedrooms, bathrooms, square footage, and cost (though the costs would change over time).

Table

Supported by TOD Market

Bedrooms Bathrooms Square feet Cost to Buy

$250,000.00

$300,000.00

$350,000.00

1,100 $400,000.00

Note. Adapted from Pollack LLP (2007)

2.2.2 Household-level housing data.

Waipahu has many household characteristics that are important to consider when discussing new development around the rail station. The following are some housing facts that illustrate the makeup of the average home in Waipahu (Data USA, 2016):

• There are approximately 41,000 people who live in Waipahu in approximately 8,300 households

• 90% of the population was living in the same household one year ago

• Nearly half of the households in Waipahu are renters while the other half are homeowners

• The average monthly rent is $1,283

• There are approximately 4.8 persons per household

• The median age is 37

• The median property value is $562,600, which is lower than Honolulu County overall at $602,700

• The median household income is around $70,000

• The poverty rate is 13.5% It will be very important to consider Waipahu's sociodemographic characteristics when determining what type of housing will be best suited to the context while allowing residents to reap TOD’s benefits.

2.2.3 Income.

The average income in Waipahu is very important to consider in relation to how housing will impact the community. The median household income of $70,000 for a family of five (closest to the 4.8 average people per household) as outlined in the Honolulu County Income Schedule by Family Size (see Table 2.3) as of 2017 falls in the 60%-70% AMI bracket

(HHFDC, 2017). Waipahu houses families which are below the AMI for the county as a whole, which means they need access to affordable housing.

2.2.4 Rent burden.

Rent burden is another important consideration when discussing housing in Hawai‘i due to the high cost of living. Rent burden is the percentage of household income spent on housing and shelter. Based on the cost of living in Hawai‘i, the suggested income percentage that households are recommended to spend on their housing is up to 30%, but many people in Hawai‘i spend quite a bit more than that. Spending more than 30% of the household income on housing leaves less to spend on other necessities and also less room for emergencies like car repairs or large medical bills. It is very important then to understand the current rent burden in Waipahu so that it can be understood how the community will be impacted if housing prices (and thus rent) rise as a result of TOD. Currently, in the census tract in which the state parcel sits (87.02), 37.7% of households pay 10-29% of their income on housing, which is within the recommended threshold. Around 30.1% of households pay 30-49% of their income on housing which is just above the threshold, and 22.1% pay 50% or more of their household income on their housing, which falls well above the threshold. Based on these numbers, 37.7% of the community will either still be below the threshold or will fall above if the rent rises, while 52.2% already have a higher-than-recommended rent burden that will likely be exacerbated by higher rents. While these data look specifically at the state parcel census tract, other tracts in the area face similar rent burden trends (Social Explorer, 2016).

2.3 Methodology

2.3.1 Data collection.

Waipahu, like any town, has its own unique needs, so gathering data about its housing and households is a critical part of the process of providing recommendations to address gaps in housing. The Waipahu-level data gathered include the different types of housing currently available and the number of units of various types of affordable housing. The Waipahu household-level data include the demographics of the community, the average number of people per

household, the average percentage of renter to owneroccupied housing, the median household income, the average monthly rent, the median property value, and the poverty rate. These data were collected through the U.S. Census and the Hawai‘i State Census. We also reviewed data from all community workshops that were held in Waipahu around TOD to find trends in community needs, wants, and priorities, and our own experiences meeting and talking story with the residents of Waipahu.

2.3.2 Interviews.

We conducted interviews with various stakeholders and experts on housing to provide more informed policy recommendations. We spoke with individuals who work in public housing and those who work in both private and nonprofit housing development. Additionally, conversations with housing researchers and landowners furthered our understanding of housing in Hawai‘i. A list of interviewees is noted in the acknowledgments section.

2.3.3 Community consulting.

The community of Waipahu will be directly impacted by TOD. It will be critical for the community to have strong influence on the types of housing that are both maintained and developed in Waipahu. In addition to consulting individual community members and leaders, an important part of community consulting is speaking with those who have wisdom or expertise in the field of housing. We interviewed different people to discuss the housing challenges in Hawai‘i as well as to unpack the possible policies that would align with the needs of the Waipahu community and the goals of the county and state.

2.4 Community

The community has many of their own needs, wants, and priorities when it comes to housing. It is essential that the TOD plan in Waipahu serves the community, as they will be deeply impacted by the housing outcomes. As the first community-based TOD planning process in Hawai‘i, the Department of Planning and Permitting conducted community workshops; 6 workshops were held in Waipahu. The participants were mostly elderly folks who live or work in the community. A community survey was sent to

Waipahu residents in 2012 (also offered in Ilocano and Tagalog for residents who requested it). A Community Design Workshop was held in 2017 by SHADE. The attendees were mostly people who work in Waipahu, a few Waipahu high school students, students from University of Hawai‘i, international visitors, and some residents, as well as a few government officials and agency representatives. Lastly, the University of Hawai‘i Department of Urban and Regional Planning practicum class designed and facilitated Waipahu Talk Story, a community speak-out on April 12, 2018. For the housing portion, residents had an opportunity to review preliminary recommendations to the State, offer their opinions on the recommendations, add their own recommendations, answer some openended prompts such as, “What is your dream home?” and list their housing “want” and “do not want.”

The wants included “grass, trees, breezy, windows, tinted windows, solar/EE/PV, an enclosed garage, AC/roof ventilation, privacy, affordability, to be near schools, safe neighborhoods, fence or enclosed yard, vertical gardens, and communal homes/living which preserves culture” while the do not want list had “do not want housing to be in areas of high crime, on areas of flood-prone soil, costly, to be surrounded by homeless neighbors, drug activity, loud noise, guns, or gambling, and to be free from graffiti.” For their dream home, residents recorded that they wanted lots of greenery, an open concept, to be near stores, to have sky lights, and to have family space.

Participants had the opportunity to share their opinions about development around the rail in Waipahu. There were common themes shared by participants specifically in regards to their opinions on housing and TOD in Waipahu. Residents put affordable housing as a priority for the community, specifically for young families and seniors in some cases. Although property taxes are very low in Hawai‘i, there was a general worry about increased property values as a result of TOD spiking property taxes for existing residents. They also had opinions on the physical aspects of affordable housing, stating that low- to mid-rise development in Waipahu is more appropriate (even if the feel is urban) as opposed to high-rise development, which, they argue, could compromise the overall culture and character of Waipahu. A final common theme was a request for less crowded housing, arguing that noise and

overcrowding in certain areas is a burden to fellow residents and neighbors.

2.4.1 Community consultation.

Talking story with members of the Waipahu community, the Filipino community in particular, at the speak-out provided invaluable insights on how community processes could possibly work in Waipahu. One resident shared how the Filipino community in Waipahu is structured, explaining that there is a hierarchy in both the community and the home. For instance, in the community, there are people who are designated as those who can speak on behalf of the community to express their wants and needs because others trust them. In the home, a similar structure exists. One resident shared that the Filipino community, in general, prefers communal living, and that kind of existence is natural for this community because it provides a support structure. She said that the larger networks and family ties create a space where people know how to live together and work out their issues. Overall, we learned that the Filipino community in Waipahu is content living simply with their families.

Another important part of the discussion with the community was learning how cultural nuances inform participation in TOD planning. One of the residents mentioned that certain means of participation are not conducive for a large turnout of participants. Mail surveys were an example of a method that she mentioned would be unlikely to result in robust participation. She said it is typically uncommon for those in the community to share input or become heavily involved in something especially if they do not understand or feel that they are unqualified to give input. Additionally, she said the community is often comfortable being in a mode of coping with changes, and so it is more likely that they would cope than try to make change. She also said that surveys like the Waipahu community survey may not elicit meaningful responses from the community based on how questions are framed. She offered the example of bike lanes. Because the community often lives communally and cares for family members and neighbors, part of their travel is also communal, so they often would not take advantage of bike lanes. However, she indicated that, in a survey, respondents may feel ashamed to say they do not ride bikes or

want bike lanes, so a different means of gathering community input would be better suited.

We had a detailed discussion about many of these community nuances and there was agreement that the State should use creative solutions to truly meet communities where they are, as opposed to utilizing one-size-fits-all approaches to participation and outreach. To address these shortcomings, the first step for planners is to identify different leaders in the community and engage them in the planning process early so that they can help decide how best to reach the community. Whether the culture is one where community members prefer to speak and engage individually or where people trust their leaders to speak on their behalf, planners can develop processes that are more likely to be successful, bottom-up, and truly community-based.

2.5 Gentrification

While TODs have many impacts on the development of a community, they are often accompanied by gentrification and the resulting displacement of the existing community. Gentrification is typically described as a change in neighborhood character and culture that is associated with wealthier households moving in, and accompanying reinvestment and revitalization efforts that increase property values and displace lowerincome households. As redevelopment and access to rail increase property values, wealthy residents may be more able to afford the increased price point. Businesses tend to follow these new residents, bringing boutique stores and other amenities that do not serve the existing community and tend to crowd out existing small businesses. As a result, redevelopment is often controversial as people attempt to decipher who ultimately benefits from these changes: low-income and existing residents, or those who move into the area because of redevelopment (Pollack, Bluestone, & Billingham, 2010).

Due to an emphasis on neighborhood change around the transit station, TOD has the same potential impacts on neighborhoods as other kinds of new developments, especially as increased accessibility to surrounding areas and large metropolitan centers has the potential to drive up property values. Given the housing crisis in Hawai‘i, people are already

struggling to find affordable and safe homes, so fear of displacement becomes even more amplified (Zimbabwe et al., 2012). To address these concerns and ensure TOD is serving current residents, there are many important questions to consider in such neighborhoods, particularly about who is living there and how they can benefit from the rail. In the case of Waipahu, where residents are largely Filipino, Micronesian, Native Hawaiian, and Samoan, and many of whom are immigrants, it is important to consider how TOD will increase their quality of life rather than decrease accessibility or displace them from their communities. This is especially important because Waipahu is still relatively affordable and well connected to Honolulu as compared to other parts of Honolulu County.

Gentrification was studied in San Diego by examining the patterns of home prices in a TOD area and adjacent neighborhoods. The study found that TOD areas had higher home prices than areas further out; however, neighborhoods that are walkable and pedestrian friendly that are not necessarily near a rail station tend to see a jump in housing prices as well (Duncan, 2011). This point is very important as it suggests that the same care which goes into ensuring that housing in TOD areas stays affordable should also go into the process of building housing in neighborhoods adjacent to TOD-designed, using similar principles.

Gentrification and the resulting displacement is not inevitable, and there are several examples where well-designed TOD allows current and new residents of all income-levels to enjoy its benefits. Precedent shows that overall, when planners put forth a concerted effort to create inclusive TOD communities, its benefits are maximized.

One study supporting this claim was conducted across fourteen urban areas, including Cleveland, San Francisco, San Diego, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, Portland, Sacramento, San Jose, Los Angeles, Baltimore, St. Louis, Denver, Dallas, and Salt Lake City. Each of these cities has light rail transit and its own special characteristics, whether coastal like Waipahu or inland, but had different experiences with gentrification. In San Francisco and Denver, for example, whiter, richer residents live closer to transit while low income residents were pushed out. However, counter-gentrification efforts by planners in Portland,

Buffalo, and Los Angeles resulted in people of lower socioeconomic status still being able to live near transit. Portland puts equitable development at the forefront of its TOD priorities, and, with support from the State, has come up with potential incentives for developers to build affordably and sustainably (Baker & Lee, 2017).

In order to avoid gentrifying Waipahu, it is crucial that the TOD plan for housing is inclusive of those who already live there, across all income levels. If not properly planned, TOD has the potential to displace Waipahu residents who rent, as land values around the rail station increase and renters do not have enough room in their budget to increase their rent burden. Because nearly half the population is renters, it will be important to stabilize rent increases. The other half (approximately) of Waipahu residents who own their homes will likely be impacted by increased property taxes around the rail but also gain from increased property values.

Another important reason to avoid displacement in Waipahu is because the TOD practices in Waipahu will set a strong precedent for the development of future station areas. Waipahu, as the first community-based TOD planning effort led by the Department of Planning and Permitting, has a critical role in the overall planning process of the rail.

2.6 Recommendations

It is clear from the data and research that there are several needs that must be addressed strategically with TOD housing development in Waipahu. All of the recommendations below are based on the needs and wants of the community and the priorities of the State and City.

2.6.1 Types of housing needed.

At its most basic level, Waipahu needs stable, affordable rental housing that will serve its community members, which are largely families. Considering that approximately half of Waipahu’s housing inventory is renter-occupied, it is clear that rental units are a priority. Given that the average monthly rent in Waipahu is about $1,200 in the current, pre-TOD market, it will be important for these rentals to remain affordable or for new affordable units to be made, especially because about half of the renters in Waipahu

are already experiencing a higher-than-recommended (above 30%) rent burden. Once the new development improves the housing market, land becomes more valuable, and prices of housing and rent go up, the rent burdens could increase, threatening to push some households over the threshold of a comfortable rent burden range.

2.6.2 Family-oriented TOD.

In addition to households needing units they can afford, Waipahu will specifically need units that are able to accommodate extended families and a larger than average household size. Two- to three-bedroom units and more will need to be supplied in addition to other new affordable housing strategies that only provide housing for one to two people. Traditionally, TOD has tended to see more demand from singles, childless families, and empty nesters, making studios and one-bedroom units a preferred product type. However, with the need to accommodate demand from larger families, the range of product types need to be expanded, especially in Waipahu where the average household size is 4-5 people (Zimbabwe et. al., 2012). According to the Department of Housing and Urban Development, general occupancy guidelines as listed in the Keating Memorandum indicate that a household of 4-5 people would need a minimum of two, maybe three bedrooms, in their dwelling unit depending on a multitude of factors such as size of the bedrooms and other specific circumstances such as the age of children. If we apply this guideline in determining suitably sized units for large families, Waipahu would need at least 2-bedroom units to accommodate its average household, mixed with some larger and smaller units (Keating, 1998).

There are other types of units that can also be developed in Waipahu which can target the market of singles, single parents, the elderly, and couples, and can possibly be adapted for more communalstyle living as is common in Waipahu. Micro-units, for example, are one style of housing that can help developers reach lower AMI without public subsidies, which gives them more incentives to build affordable units. Micro-units are very small apartments (typically less than 350 square feet), leasing at approximately 20-30% lower monthly rent than conventional units. These units would also include adaptable furniture to take advantage of the small living space. Adaptable

Figure 2.1. Micro unit example.

Note. Reprinted from Studio G Architects (2003).

furniture in a micro-unit could include, for instance, a queen-sized bed that converts to a dining or desk area, bench seating in window nooks, a flat-screen TV mounted on an articulating arm, and so on. Additionally, micro-units produce higher overall occupancy rates according to a study done by the Urban Land Institute (2014). Units with less than 600 square feet were the top occupancy performers at 91.3% compared to the mid-sized units from 6001,000 square feet, which had a 89.3% occupancy rate. This type of housing has been on the radar of other U.S. cities. In New York City and Philadelphia, for instance, the minimum size requirement for a new dwelling unit was 400 square feet. However, former New York City mayor, Michael Bloomberg, waived this requirement to allow for micro-units that range between 275-300 square feet. Similarly, San Francisco passed legislation allowing apartments as small as 220 square feet. The square footage allowed for a micro-unit is dependent on the market, but the same principles apply. Funding remains a barrier in providing affordable housing. Cities that have embraced micro-units have discovered that these dwelling units produce higher rent per square foot compared to regular units, so developers and operators do not need large government subsidies for construction and maintenance.

Due to their small size and low cost, they are best suited for one to two individuals who are interested in living on their own but may not be able to afford market rate units, so they live with friends or family in larger households. The community should be consulted to determine what size units they would like to see in Waipahu. A better understanding of why they choose to live in larger households could also be useful. Is living with more people in the home simply the most affordable for people or is it enjoyed for other reasons? Given the option for smaller affordable units, such as micro-units, would some family members want to move out or would they prefer to continue living with their families? The answers to these questions will have to come from the community. Preliminary information from some Waipahu residents indicates that communal living is very common in Waipahu because of the strong Filipino and Pacific Islander cultural influence, and that the

primary reason for living communally is cultural as opposed to financial. If this is the case, micro-units would only be a truly community-serving option if there were 1) not an overwhelming number of micro-units and/or 2) if there was an opportunity for communal spaces such as kitchens or gathering rooms to be configured with the micro-unit. One resident suggested that each floor in one building could have multiple micro-units with large common areas that could bridge communal-style living with aspects of TOD and density, while providing families with both private and communal family space.

Another style of housing that could benefit the residents of Waipahu is modular housing (Figure 2.2). Modular housing is often built offsite and then transplanted, making it much cheaper overall to rent and purchase than non-modular housing. As more modular housing is built, achieving economies of scale, the ability to add less expensive units to the

Figure

housing

Palmatin

affordable housing stock becomes more practical. Because it is portable, it can also be moved and rearranged. This characteristic not only makes the housing more responsive to changing needs, it can also have an added benefit of being able to adapt to longer term changes in the environment like sea-level rise or disasters. Because Waipahu is located largely in a flood zone, having the option to move housing can be far-reaching. Moreover, modular housing can be combined with micro-units to maximize the amount of affordable units provided in a constrained affordable housing environment.

2.6.3 Community engagement and processes.

To address the complexity of housing issues and avoid displacing those who live in Waipahu, it is important to engage the community in housing decisions through participatory processes. Equally important is outreach to targeted groups who have not yet had the opportunity to be involved in these processes for reasons such as timing of community workshops, potential language barriers, general accessibility, methods of participation, or lack of knowledge or awareness about TOD. There are many creative ways to engage the community.

Workshops and surveys are commonly used by planners but have certain shortcomings. For instance, surveys distributed to households in the area often do not reach those who have a language barrier, who work multiple jobs and are therefore unable to prioritize a survey, or are not informed or actively engaged in their community. They also may not reach people who are in a less traditional housing setting and do not necessarily have their own address, and for large, multifamily houses if the survey only provides an opportunity for one adult to respond when other adults in the household might have different opinions. Workshops are a community tool but also have limitations. The time of a workshop, particularly if multiple are not held, may exclude individuals who are unable to attend due to overlapping commitments. If multiple workshops are held, they should be held on different days and at different times in an attempt to reach as many people as possible.

Another strategy to involve the community in TOD methods and processes is to engage students. This has been done in other places such as Charleston, South Carolina, in which the youth were tasked, as

part of a youth master planning team in collaboration with many community organizations and facilitators, to come up with a countywide plan and identify priority areas. Allowing students to advocate for their opinions was a successful way to cultivate leadership and activism within the community itself. This type of engagement could be done in collaboration with Waipahu High School and other schools in the neighborhoods along the rail (Zimbabwe et. al, 2012). Hoffman (2015) argues that one of the very first steps in the TOD process is finding out what the community wants as the end product and then devising the TOD strategy with that end in mind. Doing so helps the community to feel united, makes it very clear to all parties involved what will be achieved in the end, and ensures that the community existing at the start of TOD will reap the benefits of TOD. Planners who engage the community at the very beginning are then empowered to reach out to developers and other partners who share the same vision as the community. This method of early community engagement can be considered for future projects along the rail.

2.6.4 Avoiding gentrification. Avoiding displacement of residents will be key for the success of community-based TOD, not just in Waipahu but across the rail stops. People who rely on transit tend to be those of lower socioeconomic status so forcing them away from the TOD area through increased housing costs can cause transit ridership to be lower than projected. Since Waipahu has an average of three to four cars per household, it will be important that people are able to live close enough to the rail to use it, since those who cannot walk to the rail (because they are not within a quarter mile from the station) may not have the same incentive to cut back on car ownership or number of trips they take in their vehicle. Los Angeles experienced drops in their transit ridership, in part, as a result of gentrification pushing lower-income families too far from the rail stops, and the higher income families who moved in tended to use the cars with much more frequency. The Center for Urban and Regional Policy published a report asserting that these impacts actually represent a national trend, so it is imperative that ridership is considered in terms of who will ride and if they will have access to the rail after TOD (Rosenthal, 2018).

2.6.5 Public housing.

The existing Hoolulu and Kamalu public housing in the Pouhala TOD should be renovated through Rental Assistance Demonstration (RAD) rather than demolishing and reconstructing the buildings. The State TOD Strategic Plan describes plans to demolish Hawai‘i Public Housing Authority (HPHA) elderly housing projects Hoolulu and Kamalu in Waipahu (State of Hawai‘i, 2017). Hoolulu and Kamalu currently provide 112 and 109 units of housing, respectively, for the elderly in two seven-story buildings. These buildings were constructed in 1993, which makes them relatively new. They already fit the proposed TOD zoning, so the demolition of these buildings would be a waste of public monies. There are similar plans to demolish existing public housing all along the rail corridor according to the State TOD Strategic Plans.

If the ultimate goal is to create more statewide affordable housing, demolishing existing public housing projects seems counterintuitive. In 2012, U.S. Congress authorized Rental Assistance Demonstration (RAD), which allowed public housing agencies to convert units from their original sources of HUD financing to project-based Section 8 contracts. The primary benefit of RAD is that converted properties can secure private sources of capital financing for rehabilitation and preservation, addressing the longterm chronic underfunding of Hawai‘i’s public housing stock (Reid, 2017).

Hawai‘i public housing projects have had many issues over the years. Rehabilitation and good maintenance could transform them to provide better housing for residents (Star Advertiser, 2011). By involving private entities in public housing endeavors, profit motive efficiencies can be added to public housing project management. Under RAD, the designated “owner” of a residential building would enter into a contract with HUD in exchange for HUD subsidizing tenant rents. Private financing would go toward capital improvements of existing, often blighted, public housing instead of HUD or the local government fronting the cost of demolition and reconstruction. Existing public housing units could be spared if they fit TOD goals, and public investments could go toward building public housing on undeveloped state lands instead of demolishing existing projects.

In El Paso, Texas, RAD allowed the public housing authority to leverage $250 million in financing to rehabilitate its public housing stock, including approximately $120 million in loans and $75 million in tax credit equity. It made each public dollar go further, which not only preserved affordable housing units from being demolished, but improved them (Reid, 2017). There are some cases where the conditions of public housing projects are so bad that not all repairs would be financially feasible and capital improvements would only increase the life of the building by 10-15 years. However, site visits show that public housing in the Pouhala TOD half-mile radius still provides enjoyable living conditions. Current residents enjoy living in the units and utilizing the various amenities provided, such as a community garden.

As the areas around the rail stations are developed, and public housing begins to age, RAD should be considered instead of demolition to maintain the housing stock and use the limited resources efficiently.

When it comes to demolishing public housing and rebuilding new housing stock or structures, historically, there are few cases of actual one-to-one replacement of demolished units either in public housing projects or through voucher programs. Displacing families should be avoided at all cost throughout the process of rebuilding or remodeling any of the existing public housing in Waipahu.

2.6.6 Financing.

Building or remodeling housing is very expensive, especially in Hawai‘i. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are often sought out as possible funding opportunities for expensive, long-term projects that are often not feasible for the government to fund on its own. Because the private sector is engaged, it typically leads to innovative ideas as more people and resources are involved in the process, and can also be a benefit to the community since the private sector, not the public, takes on the risk (Lucyshyn et. al., 2017).

There are several important factors to consider when deciding whether or not PPPs are the best option for development: Is there a cheaper or faster way for the government to build without PPPs? Is the development providing a public good? Is there enough flexibility that the private developers can be

creative while still meeting the project requirements?

Is government financing or funding limited? How quickly does the project need to be built? All of these questions can help the government decide whether PPPs are a good alternative to more traditional financing. In the case of Waipahu, PPPs may offer a viable option for housing (Lucyshyn et. al., 2017). Utilizing state lands in Waipahu to incentivize private developers to acquire land at little to no expense can help finance long-term affordable housing needs.

A huge component of PPPs is to have as many stakeholders as possible in conversation with one another, which includes government, developers, and community. To engage as many stakeholders as possible, it is important to better understand the many nuances of the housing market in Hawai‘i and therefore to devise the most creative solutions possible. It would be a challenge for one person or entity to have the amount of knowledge that several different housing professionals/experts/local community members have, so bringing everyone together is necessary to achieve the best possible solutions that will address a totality of interests.

Additionally, capturing the increased land values from the public investment in the rail must go towards community benefits rather than entirely to the public sector. This can be achieved through consensual means, such as PPPs, but also must be achieved through nonconsensual mechanisms such as tax increment financing (TIF). TIF is another funding possibility for development around the transit stations in Waipahu. It requires the local government, acting under the authority of the local land commission, to identify a neighborhood where redevelopment is desired. The funding comes from local taxes so the first step in the TIF process is to establish the current local tax base and to estimate the increase that will result directly from new development, and that would not have increased otherwise (Levenda & Huang, 2015). The real property tax base is frozen at pre-development level in established districts. The increases in tax revenues generated by the increased valuation after the new infrastructure or project is in place are then used to pay off the bond that was issued to finance the improvements. TIF districts allow a city to re-invest all “new” property tax dollars in the neighborhood from which they are generated. In this sense, TIF monies can be used to pay for

improvements and urban redevelopment at no cost to the public because the monies will be paid back with property tax revenues generated by infrastructure improvements such as the rail. In this case, increased land value revenue would go towards subsidizing affordable housing around the rail in Waipahu.

Using TIF as a financing strategy to develop new housing has been successful in many cases. Grant Park, Minneapolis, for instance, was privately funded and developed at a total cost of $90 million. The City of Minneapolis invested $7.3 million in TIF monies and an additional $300,000 through a Neighborhood Revitalization Program Grant. TIF monies were subsequently used to acquire vacant properties, demolish the buildings and prepare the site, relocate utilities, and pay for the cost of constructing parking spaces. TIF is used as a tool to create public benefits for equitable development (Dela Cruz, 2010).

2.6.7 Housing bills.

Ordinance 18-10 looks like a promising bill for affordability in Honolulu; having an islandwide AHR will be more beneficial than the absence of one if the percentages are not too high like the case of Maui. But there are still questions about whether the bill goes far enough to prevent the displacement of existing residents around the Waipahu TOD. One red flag is the scrapping of rental housing developments from being included in the AHR. Residents who rent are at the greatest risk of displacement as the inevitable gentrification of TOD communities can lead to higher average rents.

In April 2018, state lawmakers agreed to add $200 million to the state Rental Housing Revolving Funding, the biggest single contribution to the fund to date. An excise tax exemption was also dramatically expanded for the construction of affordable housing. The entire package will provide an additional $570 million in public funding for affordable housing (Dayton, 2018). These measures can be found as HB2748. The bill is currently waiting to be signed by Governor Ige. It can be speculated that HB2748 was a response to the AHR that excluded rental projects from providing a percentage of newly developed affordable units. It is imperative that the funds and incentives granted from HB2748 are allocated towards affordable rental housing projects in TOD.

C&C of Honolulu must be diligent when

approving housing developments not only in Waipahu but also in other TOD areas along the rail. Lowincome housing is often constructed at the urban fringes of the city which causes greater segregation. A household may save in rent or mortgage payments, but its transportation costs rise considerably (Austin et al., 2009). The current AHR provides the option for developers to build their affordable units off-site. Given that acquiring land in TOD area appears to be more expensive, this could serve as a deterrent in providing affordable units within the TOD areas and an incentive to concentrate low-income housing in poorer areas in Honolulu. To leverage captured benefits from the rail and prevent displacement of atrisk communities, maximizing affordable units in the TOD areas is essential.

Additionally, to preserve affordability, limitations on resale of affordable for-sale units should be included in the AHR and strictly enforced by the DPP. Developments in Kaka‘ako that were advertised as workforce housing only required owners to live in the unit for a year, after which they could sell their units at market price. Homeowners were, therefore, selling their affordable units for 30-40% higher than the original price after only a year (Lincoln, 2016). The public funds that went into making these units affordable were essentially transferred to the first owners of the property because of the lack of resale limitations. The mistakes of Kaka‘ako should be scrutinized and not repeated in other redeveloped areas along the rail. If resale regulations are not enforced, there should be incentives for landlords to keep existing units affordable after initial covenants have expired.

2.7 Conclusion

Hawai‘i has a unique housing market owing to the state’s location and size. While it is important to look at precedents in other states and countries to determine best practices, it will require a synthesis of best practices and case studies as well as flexibility and local knowledge to identify creative solutions that will adequately address Hawai‘i’s housing crisis. In their report, Key Approach for Development of State TOD Lands, the state lists equitable development as an important approach; the recommendations listed here support this approach (State of Hawai‘i, 2017).

These principles can be used across neighborhoods, like Waipahu, that have opportunities and challenges influenced by contextual particularities.

As the rail continues to be built and the surrounding communities are developed, it is critical that each community is viewed separately based on their needs and priorities. If done correctly, there will not be a one-size-fits-all TOD housing strategy that is used across all the rail stations. Instead, components of housing policy can extend to different rail stations and be adjusted to address individual neighborhoods.

Two guidelines should be followed to create the best housing policy for Waipahu and the future rail stations: 1) community engagement and 2) policy that serves the community. These guidelines can be accomplished by identifying key community leaders and establishing a trusting relationship that will allow the community and planners to devise housing options that are well-aligned with needs. Engaging with the community is an important part of the process. Establishing community goals at the very beginning of TOD projects will allow planners to involve other stakeholders who share similar views and goals as the community.

There are questions to consider about housing in Waipahu and elsewhere when planning TOD, such as how TOD will affect surrounding housing prices, how current residents will be impacted by the new development, if the new housing will serve the current population, and if demolished public housing will have a one-to-one replacement strategy. These questions will need to be explored in more depth with the community as the next step in the process of developing housing that will serve them adequately.

2.8 References

Austin, M., Brooks, A., Dong, W., Hickey, R. (2009). The Mixed-Income Housing TOD Action Guide. Center for Transit-Oriented Development.

Baker, M., & Lee, B. (2017). How Does Light Rail Transit (LRT) Impact Gentrification? Evidence from Fourteen US Urbanized Areas. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 1-15.

Caldwell, K. (2017). Implementing the Affordable Housing Strategy. Retrieved from https://www.

honolulu.gov/rep/site/ohou/Housing_Strategy_ Handout_2-16-17.pdf

Cervero, R., Murakami, J. (2010). Effects of Built Environments on Vehicle Miles Traveled: Evidence from 370 US Urbanized Areas. Environment and Planning A, 42(2), 400-418.

Chatman, D. (2013). Does TOD Need the T? On the Importance of Factors Other Than Rail Access. Journal of the American Planning Association, 79(1), 17-31.

Clagett, T. (2014). If It’s Not Mixed-Income, It Won’t Be Transit-Oriented: Ensuring Our Future Developments Are Equitable and Promote Transit. Transportation Law

CTOD. (2010). San Francisco Bay Area Property Acquisition Fund for Equitable Transit-Oriented Development: Feasibility of Report. Retrieved from http://bayareatod.com/wp-content/ uploads/2011/11/Bay_Area_TOD_Fund_ DrftRprt_SE11310.pdf

C&C of Honolulu. (2018). Ordinance 18-10. City Council for the City and County of Honolulu. Retrieved from http://www4.honolulu.gov/ docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-204886/ DOC004%20(8).PDF

Data USA: Waipahu, HI. (2016). [Graphic illustration of Waipahu Demographics]. Data USA. Retrieved from https://datausa.io/profile/geo/waipahu-hi/

DBEDT. (2015, March). Measuring Housing Demand in Hawaii 2015-2025. Retrieved from http://files. hawaii.gov/dbedt/economic/reports/2015-05housing-demand.pdf

Dela Cruz, D. (2010). Tax Increment Financing Can Spur Urban Redevelopment, Transit-Oriented Development and Infrastructure Improvements for Honolulu. Hawaii Reporter. Retrieved from http://www.hawaiireporter.com/tax-incrementfinancing-can-spur-urban-redevelopmenttransit-oriented-development-and-infrastructureimprovements-for-honolulu/

Duncan, M. (2011). The Impact of Transit-oriented Development on Housing Prices in San Diego, CA. Urban Studies. 48(1). 101-107.

Dayton, K. (2018). Lawmakers Commit $200M to affordable housing. Honolulu StarAdvertiser. Retrieved from https://www. pressreader.com/usa/honolulu-star-advertis er/20180425/281526521662841

Fogarty, N., Srivastava, S., & Cummings, J. (2017) Final Feasibility Analysis of Kaka‘ako Reserved Housing Rules

Gyourko, J., Saiz, A., & Summers, A. (2007, March 29). A New Measure of the Local Regulatory Environment for Housing Markets: The Wharton Residential Land Use Regulatory Index. University of Pennsylvania.

Hawaii Housing Finance and Development Corporation. (2017). [Graphic of income limits by family size based on HUD identified low income levels]. Honolulu County Income Schedule by Family Size. Retrieved from https://dbedt.hawaii. gov/hhfdc/files/2017/05/2017-HUD-IncomeLimits-ALL.pdf

Hawaii Tourism Authority. (2016, May). The Impact of Vacation Rental Units in Hawaiʻi. Retrieved from http://www.hawaiitourismauthority.org/default/ assets/File/Housing%20and%20Tourism%20 113016.pdf

Hawaii State Office of Planning. (2017, December). State of Hawaii Strategic Plan for Transit-Oriented Development. Retrieved from https://planning. hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/State-TODStrategic-Plan_December-2017.pdf

Hawaii Development Community Authority. (2016, March). Kaka‘ako Community Development District TOD Overlay Plan. Retrieved from https:// dbedt.hawaii.gov/hcda/files/2016/05/Final-TODOverlay-Plan-Draft-31816.pdf

HHFDC. (2016). State of Hawaii Low-Income

Housing Tax Credit Program 2016/2017 Qualified Allocation Plan. Hawaii Housing Finance and Development Corporation. Retrieved from https:// dbedt.hawaii.gov/hhfdc/files/2016/12/2016_2017QAP_Final.pdf

Hoffman, L. (2015). Public-Private Partnerships the Key to Transit-Oriented Development. Connecticut Law Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.pullcom. com/news-publications-697.html

Hofschneider, A. (2017). Is it Fair to Profit from Reselling Affordable Housing? Civil Beat. Retrieved from http://www.civilbeat.org/2017/05/ is-it-fair-to-profit-from-reselling-affordablehousing/

Hofschneider, A. (2016). Hawaii Will Open Section 8 Waitlist. Civil Beat. Retrieved from http://www. civilbeat.org/2016/08/hawaii-will-open-section-8waitlist/

Keating, F. (1998). Department of Housing and Urban Development Fair Housing EnforcementOccupancy Standards; Statement of Policy; Notice; Republication. Retrieved from https://www.hud. gov/sites/documents/DOC_7780.PDF

La Croix, Sumner. (2016). “New Perspectives on Land and Housing Markets in Hawaii: Implications for Industrial and Commercial Land Leasing.” UHERO.

Layfield, D. (2018). Affordable Housing in Waipahu. Retrieved from https://affordablehousingonline. com/housing-search/Hawaii/Waipahu

Levenda, A. & Huang, C. (2015). The Pearl District. Retrieved from http://energyinnovation.org/ wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Pearl-District-CaseStudy.pdf

Lincoln, M. (2016). Units in Kaka‘ako ‘Workforce Housing’ Condo Being Flipped for Big Profits Hawaii News Now. Retrieved from http://www. hawaiinewsnow.com/story/32078794/units-inkakaako-workforce-housing-condo-being-flippedfor-big-profits

Lucyshyn, W., Vitale, M., & Steinhoff, J. (2017). Using Public-Private Partnerships to Reduce Costs and Enhance Services. Journal of Government Financial Management Winter 2016-17. 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.kpmg-institutes.com/content/dam/ kpmg/governmentinstitute/pdf/2017/aga-ppps.pdf

McEvers, K. (2015). Utah Reduced Chronic Homelessness By 91 Percent; Here’s How. National Public Radio. Retrieved from https://www.npr. org/2015/12/10/459100751/utah-reduced-chronichomelessness-by-91-percent-heres-how

Nakaso, D. (2017). HUD: Hawaii still No. 1 in per capita homeless. Retrieved from http://www. staradvertiser.com/2017/12/06/breaking-news/ hud-hawaii-still-no-1-in-per-capita-homeless/

NCST. (2017). Affordable Housing in Transit-Oriented Developments: Impacts on Driving and Policy Approaches. National Center for Sustainable Transportation. Retrieved from https://ncst. ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/NCSTTO-027-Boarnet-Bostic-Affordable-TOD-WhitePaper_FINALv2.pdf

Palmatin. (n. d.). “Prefabricated House.” Retrieved from http://www.palmatin.com/prefabricatedhouse/

Pollack, S., Bluestone, B., and Billingham, C. (2010). Maintaining Diversity in America’s Transit Rich Neighborhoods: Tools for Equitable Neighborhood Change. Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.

Reid, C. (2017). Lessons for the Future of Public Housing: Assessing the Early Implementation of the Rental Assistance Demonstration Program. Retrieved from http://ternercenter.berkeley.edu/ uploads/rad_report.pdf

Riker, M. (2015). Hawaii Renters Among Most CostBurdened. Retrieved from http://www.civilbeat. org/2015/12/hawaii-renters-among-most-costburdened-in-u-s/

Rosenthal, T. (2018, February). Transit-oriented

development? More like transit rider displacement. LA Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes. com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-rosenthal-transitgentrification-metro-ridership-20180220-story. html

Seifel Consulting. (2013). Bay Area Transit-Oriented Affordable Housing Fund Assessment and Lessons Learned. Retrieved from http://www. greatcommunities.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/ TOAH_report.pdf

Social Explorer, Inc. (2016). [Map illustration of Waipahu Demographics]. US Demography 1790 to Present. Retrieved from https://www. socialexplorer.com/a9676d974c/explore

Star Advertiser. (2011, May 11). Public Housing Agency is cause of Public Housing Woes. Star Advertiser. Retrieved from http://www. staradvertiser.com/2011/05/11/editorial/islandvoices/public-housing-agency-is-cause-of-publichousing-woes/

Studio G Architects. (2003). Pushing the Green Envelope with Micro Housing. Retrieved from https://blogstudiog.com/2013/04/03/pushing-thegreen-envelope-with-micro-housing/

Urban Land Institute. (2015). The Macro View on Micro Units. Retrieved from https://uli.org/wpcontent/uploads/ULI-Documents/MicroUnit_full_ rev_2015.pdf

U.S. Census Bureau. (2012, March 19). Historical Census of Housing Tables. Retrieved from https:// www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/census/ historic/values.html

Van Meter Williams Pollack LLP. (2007). Waipahu neighborhood transit-oriented development plan: existing conditions report.

Zimbabwe, S., Britt, K., Wampler, E., Vincent, J., Bierbaum, A., McKoy, D., & Rhodes, M. (2012). Families and Transit-Oriented Development: Creating Complete Communities for All. Center for Transit-Oriented Development. Retrieved from

https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/homeand-family/livable-communities/2014-01/familiesand-transit-oriented-development-case-study.pdf

Abbreviations

BWS Board of Water Supply

C&C City and County of Honolulu

CPTED Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

DBEDT Department of Business, Economic Development & Tourism

DOH Department of Health

DLNR Department of Land and Natural Resources

HART Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transit

OP Hawai‘i State Office of Planning

SHADE Sustainable, Humanitarian, Architecture and Design for the Earth

TOD Transit-Oriented Development

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

3.1 Introduction

Placemaking is a collaborative effort to reimagine and reinvent public space to encapsulate shared values of a community. It emphasizes the physical, cultural, and social identities of a community, utilizing community-based participation (Project for Public Spaces, 2018). The approach to placemaking must be sensitive and inclusive of the community’s needs, assets, and strengths, and not simply a fresh coat of paint that hides social disharmony. Great placemaking provides opportunities for neighbors to meet randomly, become more involved in the community, and creates a “sense of welcome, of belonging, of pleasure, and of sharing” (Social Planning Tool, n.d.; Place Leaders, n.d.).

In a transit-oriented development (TOD), placemaking centers around a high-quality pedestrian experience in a mixed-income and mixed-use environment with less dependence on vehicles. “Trips to the store, to visit neighbors, to the park, or to sit in a coffee shop and watch the world go by should be

both negotiable on foot and a delight” for pedestrians (Dittmar & Ohland, 2004, p. 29). TOD can serve to highlight the wahi pana (legendary places) of each community, which can build community pride and encourage visitors (whether local or out-of-state) to explore a community’s unique sense of place. Sense of place is the identity of a place, which includes physical characteristics (eg. mountain backdrop, steep hills, high winds), neighborhood character (eg. design elements such as building form and lush verdant landscape), and residents’ shared memories (eg. stories, natural events, and social events). Furthermore, a sense of place is the conglomeration of the sights, sounds, people, and activities of a city. It defines neighborhood character and draws residents and visitors to the place because of it. A sense of place is felt as well as seen.

In this chapter, we explore placemaking with particular focus on open space networks, food access and citizenship, and beautification and urban design elements in the context of Waipahu. We review the role of placemaking in increasing environmental,

Figure 3.2. Age by Nativity in Waipahu, HI. Reprinted from DataUsa (2018).

cultural, and social capital by paying particular attention to community needs, and City and State TOD goals. Furthermore, equity, safety, and health are key themes addressed in each section (open space, food access, and beautification). Based on our analysis, we present policy and program recommendations that align with the State’s TOD Plan, the Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan, the Waipahu Town Action Plan, and community input from surveys, interviews and a speakout.

3.2 Background and Context

The desire of the community to celebrate Waipahu’s plantation history lies not in the architectural style or the heavy toil of labor, but in the coming together over shared life experiences and celebrating similarities and differences. Waipahu is home to multiple generations and longtime family; although there has been a steady outmigration of Waipahu residents since the plantation days, love for Waipahu continues to be strong. Placemaking is particularly important in

building social capital and capturing the shared values of the resident population, including its newest and second largest ethnic group of Micronesian descent.

Figure 3.1 shows that a little more than half the demographic makeup of Waipahu is Filipino, followed by a wide margin of Pacific Islanders, which may represent the recent influx of Micronesian immigrants. Figure 3.2 shows that from age 30 and above, the community is relatively even in nativity, which may indicate that the greater number of native-born compared to foreign-born residents for ages 24 and below are first-generation American offspring.

Waipahu is considered a bedroom community (H. Aquino, personal communication, October 30, 2017), with many who live in Waipahu working elsewhere. Likewise, many of the small business owners and people who work in Waipahu live outside of Waipahu city limits. Of note, the only 100 percent ADA-accessible, affordable apartment complex in the state is also in Waipahu. This apartment complex’s location correlates with the elderly population in Waipahu. The elderly population (age 61 and over)

is slightly higher in Waipahu than in the county or compared to the national average. The elderly population makes up 22 percent of Waipahu compared to 16 percent in Honolulu County (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017) and 19 percent in the nation (American Factfinder, 2017). The population of Waipahu youth is affected by immigrants moving to Hawai‘i to give birth to American citizens. Thus, persons under age 18 account for approximately 23 percent of Waipahu residents. Overall, the demographic makeup of Waipahu includes a diversity of ages, races, and ethnicities; this should be considered in developing Waipahu’s sense of place and encouraging building social capital among diverse people groups.

3.2.2 State, county, and city strategies.

State framework for TOD plans. The State’s report, “Leveraging State Agency Involvement in Transit-Oriented Development,” identified the overarching goals for TOD at the state, regional, and local levels (State of Hawai‘i Office of Planning, 2012). This report recommended that the State work in partnership with other levels of government, private organizations, and transit agencies to support TOD.

City and county identification of Waipahu community needs. The City and County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting surveyed Waipahu residents to get their input on potential transit-oriented development in Waipahu (2012). Survey categories included community amenities, neighborhood mobility, and development opportunities. General public spaces were rated as needing improvement in cleanliness, shading, landscaping, and lighting. Open spaces and parks were rated positively for sports and exercise, but lacking in space for children’s playgrounds, picnicking, and hanging out.

Additionally, the pedestrian, biking, and transit experiences were rated as needing improvement in sidewalk conditions, width and availability, bike lane conditions, safety, and availability, and bus stop shelter conditions and safety. Overall, the survey found that the community strongly supports building and improving places to sit outside, landscaping, bus shelters, bicycle parking, and plazas or small parks.

Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan. This 2014 plan defines the city’s goal of placemaking as creating “more walkable, healthier, economically vibrant neighborhoods [with] safe bicycling environments, convenient access to daily household needs and enhancement of local character.” The plan describes the sense of place around the Pouhala station as having a historic, plantation town character.

Waipahu Town Action Plan. This 2017 plan considers near and long-term strategies, some site-specific and some area-wide, with overall objectives focusing on placemaking, streets as places, development opportunities, and safety and maintenance. Eleven actions are listed, one of which is to implement placemaking strategies in partnership with private landowners. General placemaking actions mentioned across the action plan includes increasing pedestrian and bicycle connectivity, improving lighting, widening or repairing sidewalks, creating signage and wayfinding, landscaping, and creating more shade with trees.

Areas of opportunity. Placemaking areas of opportunity include open space connectivity, increasing healthy food accessibility and knowledge, and beautifying streetscapes and adding urban design elements for aesthetic purposes as well as for practical reasons like flood drainage. As Waipahu develops into an urban village as envisioned in the Waipahu Town Action Plan (2017), the state and the county should give careful consideration to designing, maintaining, and connecting open green spaces. Many of the safety concerns brought forth by the community may be addressed by the design of public spaces. Additionally, the “Strategic Plan for Transit-Oriented Development” (Hawai‘i Interagency Council for TOD, 2017) calls for equitable development, which includes access to healthy and affordable food. Placemaking around TOD and compact development can encourage greater food access by supporting community gardens as well as farmers markets and other avenues. In addition, Waipahu may be uplifted by adding urban design elements like a splash pad or large fountain that can absorb excess water from flooding as well as provide a beautiful gathering place downtown.

Intent of study. We chose to focus on open space, food access and citizenship through community gardens, and beautification and urban design elements because we saw these elements as foundational for building on the extant social, cultural, and environmental capital in Waipahu, in addition to being key elements of placemaking. We therefore explored the potential of open space, food access, and beautification to meet community needs and priorities such as increased safety, family spaces, and social activities. The results of this research mainly stem from the findings of the community survey and community input from the Waipahu Talk Story. The Talk Story was a community speakout that was primarily hosted by our Practicum class from the Department of Urban & Regional Planning in Waipahu on April 12, 2018. This chapter begins with introducing the concept of placemaking in the Introduction, and provides an outline of key principles and background information in the Background & Context section. We then describe our methodology, followed by a discussion of the distribution and use of open spaces. Despite the abundance of green spaces and parks in Waipahu, such spaces are disconnected from other public spaces such as shopping centers and are often difficult for pedestrians to access. Waipahu’s open space is concentrated in certain pockets of the city, limiting access and necessitating vehicular travel. In the remaining sections, we review opportunities for increasing food access, particularly within a half-mile radius around the Pouhala rail station where community members have limited access to local, fresh food sources, and proffer ideas for increasing Waipahu’s beautification and incorporating urban design elements. We conclude this chapter with an overview of our recommendations.

Placemaking principles. A community’s sense of place is largely formed through placemaking. The Project for Public Spaces is a nonprofit organization that focuses on placemaking and provides 11 key principles for placemaking (2018, paras. 3-14). The placemaking principles that also inform a sense of place are:

1. The community is the expert

2. Create a place, not a design

3. Look for partners

4. You can see a lot just by observing

5. Have a vision

6. Start with the petunias: lighter, quicker, cheaper

7. Triangulate

8. They always say “it can’t be done”

9. Form supports function

10. Money is not the issue

11. You are never finished

Observation and viewing the community as the expert are particularly important to keep in mind when placemaking and redeveloping an established city. Triangulation is grouping together urban design elements to encourage social activity. For example, pairing a picnic table with a sand box and a trash receptacle would encourage a young family to enjoy a picnic at the park.

Current sense of place. Our sense of place was primarily derived from field observations, as well as informal interviews and conversations with community members. While Waipahu serves as a sports and culinary destination, it does not feel inviting. Visitors and residents alike find Waipahu uncomfortably hot. The lack of sidewalks, and many disconnected strip malls position the automobile at the top of the hierarchy of transit modes. Large swathes of open green space, namely Waipio Soccer Complex, Hans L’Orange, and Waipahu District Park, are separated by roads and fences and are the green counterpart to the disconnected strip malls (Figures 3.3-3.6). The pedestrian experience is not only unpleasant, but it feels rather unwelcome; sidewalks are narrow, in disrepair, and in some cases, end randomly at a location which is not a destination. There is a lack of shade and street furniture along pedestrian paths, and bus shelters are inadequate in providing respite from the elements.

The many cyclone fences, which may be more apparent to pedestrians than to drivers, tend to create a negative perception of safety, particularly among those who are unfamiliar with Waipahu. This unwelcome environment is at odds with the presence of the many churches which signify tight-knit communities.

Despite the lack of trees in the public realm, one still gets a sense that greenery and

Figure 3.3. Aerial and street views of disconnected strip malls; highlighted in red are the strip malls. Adapted from Google Maps (n.d).

Figure 3.4. Close-up aerial of disconnected strip mall. Adapted from Google Maps (n.d).

Figure 3.5. Close-up aerial of disconnected strip mall. Adapted from Google Maps (n.d).

Figure

Close-up aerial of disconnected strip mall. Adapted from Google Maps (n.d).

edible gardening is important to the residents of Waipahu. Informal gardens appear along the fenced off channelized canal, and are found in pockets of space between fences in what might be a drainage ditch. Gardens stretch from private property to the streetscape along Farrington Highway.

Sense of place: history. Waipahu’s sense of place has changed over time, but its historical roots should not be forgotten moving forward. Our archival research highlights information found in newspaper archives, books, organizational websites, plantation archives, archive displays at the local YMCA, and interviews with residents.

Waipahu’s history prior to the plantation era is rich. It was given the name of Waipahu in 1849 (Nedbalek, 1984). Prior to that, the area of Waipahu was the capital of O‘ahu (Chong, 1998), likely because of the abundance of water and its central location on the island. The waters of Waipahu were known to be a favored place of the native Hawaiian royalty (Yamamoto, Sylva, Nina Yuriko Ota, & Yamamoto, 2005) and had several heiau (temples).

Plantation character. Waipahu’s TOD theme, “Celebrate Waipahu,” is anchored by a strong community desire to celebrate the plantation character of Waipahu since the O‘ahu Sugar Mill served as the economic foundation of the town and brought much cultural diversity through immigrant labor. The plantation era lasted over a century and the inhabitants faced many challenges, which brought them closer together and created a tight-knit community. In order for the plantations to succeed, rail lines were built to connect Waipahu to the rest of the island. Waipahu, due to its central location, was a natural intersection of multimodal transport from the leeward and windward sides of the island to the central harbor. Today Waipahu continues to be an important transit connector. Celebrating Waipahu should include the celebration of this legacy.

Waipahu has many notable people and places that continue to influence the community. For instance, the palaka print, common during the plantation era, was made famous by Zenpan Arakawa, a legendary figure of Waipahu whose family business ended with the closing of the sugar mill, but remains lodged in Waipahu’s collective memory. Today,

the Waipahu Plantation Marketplace stands where Arakawa’s was. The mixing of cultures from the many ethnic groups that came to work in Waipahu sugarcane fields, led to an interesting mezcla of food. One such cultural food is saimin, which represents many cultures (Korean, Chinese, Okinawan, Japanese, Filipino). Today, just as the North Shore of the island is a destination for locals and visitors, Waipahu is a culinary destination for locals.

Landmark gathering places, such as Hans L’Orange field and the Waipio Soccer Complex, invite communities beyond Waipahu. Western sport has been a very important part of the history of Waipahu that started with the plantation era. Other native forms of sport likely existed prior to the plantation era. Legendary figures of this time should be celebrated. From the 1800s to today, Waipahu has welcomed many immigrants to Hawai‘i and continues to serve as a beacon of hope for a better and more equitable life. Waipahu’s equity, safety, and health should be of prime importance moving forward, in part because Waipahu residents provide much of the labor that has historically and currently fuels Honolulu’s economy.

3.2.3 Open space.

The theme of “celebrate the land of gushing waters” resonates with Waipahu’s community action plans. As the name implies, the historical element of Waipahu’s bursting waters once indicated the richness of the precious resource that feeds the Waikele Stream. In present day, however, the significance of water has been lost in the urban form of Waipahu, which threatens to diminish the environmental quality and overall well-being of the community. Additionally, since water and land are interconnected, there is a growing concern about the lack of open spaces in certain areas of Waipahu. Residents found that the scarcity of open spaces was compounded by the urban heat island effect, moderate drainage, poor water quality, a sedentary lifestyle, and a lack of social interaction in open green spaces.

Open space refers to areas that blend the natural landscape with elements of the surrounding environment, usually with limited development (Griffith, 2010). Types of open spaces include vacant lots, recreational areas such as schoolyards and

playgrounds, social gathering areas such as public and transit plazas, and green spaces which include parks, community gardens, and small parklets. Most open spaces are characterized by aspects pertaining to environmental, cultural and social themes. In general, open spaces nurture activities for recreation to improve the public’s physical and mental health, serve ecological purposes like habitat restoration, provide opportunities for the expression of cultural and social identity, and can provide a blank canvas for aesthetic improvements to the urban form for garnering social capital and economic development.

Specifically, enhancing the “Green Network” is a concept to provide a network of green spaces linking important parks and open spaces and connecting the residents and pedestrians to the natural environment (Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan, 2015). The need to improve the quality and amount of open spaces were key points of discussion in community meetings conducted by the C&C of Honolulu. With two transitoriented development stations in Waipahu—Ho‘ae‘ae and the Pouhala stations—it is imperative to connect open spaces to the transit stations via inviting, green, pedestrian pathways to facilitate the use of public

Figure 3.7. Radial graph of open spaces in relation to the Pouhala Rail Station. Reprinted from Aida Airik, Luke Sarvis, Rocco Tramantano (2017).

transportation.

Existing conditions. Waipahu lies in the Waikele ahupua‘a (land boundary), which includes the Waikele Stream, Kapakahi Stream, Wailani drainage canal, Pouhala Marsh, and the Pearl Harbor waterfront. The area encompasses several smaller districts of Kunia, Waikele, and Waipio. Using the Pouhala Station as the center, the closest open space— Hans L’Orange Park—falls within the half-mile radius which equates to a five-minute walk from the park to the station. The next closest open spaces are the Waipahu District Park and the Hawai‘i Plantation Village; both fall within the one-mile radius and are approximately a 10-minute walk to the station. A 10-minute walk or less is a reasonable walking distance for most people (Yang & Diez-Roux, 2012). However, the Waipio Soccer Complex, Ted Makalena Golf Course, Pupu‘ole Neighborhood Park, Waipahu Uka Neighborhood Park, and the Patsy Mink Regional Park fall within the 5-mile radius, which is not a reasonable walking distance and requires the usage of public transportation or personal vehicle to reach the station. Figure 3.7 shows the placement of these parks in relative distance to the Pouhala Rail station. Currently, Waipahu is heavily urbanized and resembles a collection of strip malls. Grey infrastructure in the form of roads, sidewalks, and parking mainly dominates the built form, which accentuates the inadequacy of open spaces. Waipahu’s elevation is roughly flat, with the highest point of elevation at 90 feet (Hawai‘i Statewide GIS Program, 2017). This low elevation explains why the majority of Waipahu is categorized as a high-risk floodplain. All waterways feed into the West and Middle Lochs, which forms a floodplain (Board of Water Supply (BWS), 2007). In particular, heavy rainfall causes noticeable flooding near major streams and low elevation areas. Drainage is relatively moderate in most parts of Waipahu, consisting of clastic soils that are mixed and fine (USDA, 2001). Furthermore, the abundance of nonporous cement does not permit a more equitable distribution of water runoff that could help with proper drainage.

The notable types of open spaces are neighborhood parks and recreation or sports-focused parks. These parks are generally well-maintained as they are overseen by the Department of Parks and Recreation. Other notable green spaces include the

preservation area of the Pouhala Marsh, which is managed and maintained by the State Department of Land and Natural Resources (DNLR). This is a protected sanctuary of native Hawaiian flora and fauna. In addition to the Pouhala Marsh as a preservation of native plants and historical ties, the Hawai‘i Plantation Village was historically linked to Waipahu’s water as a major resource for growing sugar. Currently, the inadequate open spaces and abundant use of grey infrastructure render the pedestrian experience dull. Moreover, the impervious surfaces account for an urban heat island effect (see the Climate Change section for a more in-depth look at the urban heat island effect in Waipahu). Connectivity of key open spaces in Waipahu is poor, compelling some users to drive to the parks. These spaces are mostly connected by roads and have some sidewalks. Some of the sidewalks are narrow and not ADA-accessible. This lack of accessibility raises concerns about safety on sidewalks and the inability to reach open spaces. The distribution of open spaces is also problematic and adds to the difficulty of pedestrian access and connectivity. While dirt or grassy pathways may not be as accessible for wheelchairs, the drainage and health benefits of natural paths could also be implemented in parks and help connect open spaces. Ideal locations for natural pedestrian connections would be along the waterways of Kapakahi, Wailani, Waikele Streams and the Pearl Harbor Waterfront. However, property fences and poor maintenance can potentially pose barriers to the creation of natural paths and accessibility.

The environmental characteristics of open spaces play a role in the appreciation and enjoyment of these spaces. The poor water quality is easily observed in the Waikele and Kapakahi streams, and in the Wailani Drainage canal with the influx of runoff in rain events. These rain events leave the waters turbid and high in nutrient concentrations (BWS, 2007). A report from the Board of Water Supply indicates that the streams are fed with urban pollutants from industrial usage and urban trash (2007). This can be confirmed with the survey results, where 34 out of 61 respondents, roughly 60 percent, ranked Waipahu’s water quality a three on a scale of one to five. Based on the 2016 Priority Based Schedule for Inspection Report by the Hawai‘i Department of Health (DOH), Kapakahi was considered high in priority for outfall

determination. Additionally, the Waikele Stream has turbulent water characteristics and its Hawaiian name translates to “muddy.” Waikele was categorized as an area of priority for inspection by DOH. Open spaces in the vicinity of these waterways pose a concern of exposing park-goers to the risks of the urban contaminants in the water.

Based on observation, open spaces are mostly used for recreation. A good example would be Waipio Soccer Complex where high usage is due to soccer tournaments. In addition, Hans L’Orange Park is used for baseball games hosted by various universities and little leagues. Waipahu District Park also has times of high-peak usage for their many recreational activities, which include football, softball, basketball games, and tennis matches. In the case of open spaces with cultural or historical resources, such as the Hawai‘i Plantation Village or the Pouhala Marsh, the usage is somewhat low. Low usage is primarily due to these places not being open to the general public unless it is open for an exhibition or a private, guided tour. Table 3.1 summarizes the frequency of use and types of usages of public spaces and are categorized by type. Leisure activities are not often seen in the parks as there are insufficient tables and benches to accommodate the users. Nightly activities in parks are restricted to the amount of available lighting, which in the case of Hans L’Orange is only available up to a certain time or during major games. The existing conditions of open space in Waipahu can be improved upon, resulting in greater public benefits.

Benefits of open space. As Waipahu is increasinglt urbanized, the benefits of incorporating more open spaces and walking paths will not go unnoticed. One benefit of open space is improving health and reducing noise pollution—key takeaways from our research. In particular, active transportation such as walking and bicycling increases physical activity and therefore reduces obesity (Giles-Corti et al, 2003; Wolch et al, 2010). A second benefit of open space is that revitalization of neglected areas, including centerline medians, along rail lines, and near canals, can lessen the environmental constraints of urban heat island effect, flooding and stormwater runoff (Yang et al, 2008). Third, aesthetic values and appreciation of the surrounding environment were observed in open spaces as further improving mental well-being

through the concept of “attentive restorative theory” (Berto, 2014). This theory holds that mental fatigue is reduced through the exposure to nature.

On the grounds of improving environmental justice, a study revealed that the underutilization of open spaces can be attributed to socio-cultural preferences as well as socio-spatial determinants (Wolch, Byrne, & Newell, 2014). In particular, socio-spatial aspects of open space can be improved through adaptive uses of obsolete urban infrastructure while creating opportunities for more physical and interactive activities and addressing environmental concerns (Wolch et al, 2011; Newell et al, 2013). See the Beautification section for a discussion of dualpurpose urban design elements. Additionally, obsolete urban infrastructure and open space can be restored and preserved with historical site restoration. For example, the preservation of major historical sites, like China’s restoration of the pagoda called the City of God Temple, went hand-in-hand with the integration of open space preservation precincts (Qin Tong, 2011; Wu et al., 2012). Waipahu does not necessarily need additional parks, but preserving, restoring, and connecting these green open spaces can help encourage park use and help ease access to public transportation like the rail.

Community input and survey data. Based on the Waipahu Community Survey conducted by the City and County in 2012, the public expressed an increased desire for open spaces with 36 percent of respondents selecting walking paths and trails ranked, 30 percent of respondents requested more children’s playgrounds, 25 percent wanted more parks, 24 percent selected sports facilities in the form of gyms and field, and 23 percent of Waipahu Community Survey respondents wanted community gardens. To supplement the City’s findings, our survey asked what additional amenities Waipahu residents and visitors would like to see. Open space ranked at the top of the list for desired amenities with 59 percent (36 of 61) of respondents requesting more parks and open spaces. Moreover, respondents stated that this desire for open space is influenced by recreation, health, and exercise concerns more than by leisure and environmental concerns. The importance of health and recreation plays a big part in the role of open spaces in Waipahu;

of Use and

of

46 of 61 respondents (75 percent) said that they would like more open spaces to accommodate these health and sport activities. Due to the placement of the parks, which are located near key water resources, it would seem that the parks’ prime function would be to address environmental concerns like drainage issues. From the survey, some respondents felt that open spaces can improve social interactions and lessen environmental constraints through this was selected less often than for health and recreation reasons.

Interviews with community members indicated that existing open spaces are not accessible and do not accommodate their needs. The ADA community expressed that the sidewalks are not well-maintained and are too narrow to travel on with wheelchairs. Disabled interviewees also preferred to see more social and leisure types of open space, and smaller parks to enjoy shade and the scenery. Maintenance of the public facilities in existing open spaces also plays a factor in their usage, as a few expressed that they are discouraged to use the parks due to the poor condition of bathrooms and other public amenities. From the Waipahu Talk Story community meeting, it seemed that safety is also a major factor in improving the usage of open spaces. See the Beautification section for an in-depth discussion of safety and design.

3.2.4 Food security and access.

Studies demonstrate that Hawai‘i’s level of dependence on imported foods indicates low food security (Page, Bony, & Shewel, 2007). Food security is a concept that ranges from global to individual scales, but it is the individual or household level that is most vulnerable to food insecurity. The United Nation’s Food and Agricultural Organization’s (2003) working definitions of food security and insecurity are:

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Household food security is the application of this concept to the family level, with individuals within households as the focus of concern. Food insecurity exists when people do not have adequate physical, social or economic access to food as defined above

(para. 17).

Growing more food locally supports food security and is an opportunity for economic growth (Leung & Loke, 2008; Office of Planning (OP) & Department of Business Economic Development and Tourism (DBEDT), 2012) and health (Grewal & Grewal, 2011; Hale et. al, 2011). To address food insecurity, the New Day Plan and the Aloha+ Challenge put forth by Governor Abercrombie in 2010 and 2014, respectively, calls for the doubling of local food production by 2030. Twenty to thirty percent of this increased local food production is expected to be consumed locally. The State of Hawai‘i Strategic Plan for Transit-Oriented Development (2017) offers these food related principles to guide state investment in TOD projects:

Principle One: sustainable land use patterns may help preserve agricultural lands and promote food security; Principle Seven: equitable TOD development, among other things, is about access to healthy and affordable food (pp. 1-12, 1-13).

While localism has some criticisms (Born & Purcell, 2006), evidence largely supports increasing food selfsufficiency—a component of food security—through increasing local food production (OP & DBEDT, 2012; Sims, 2009).

Another component of food security is food access. Food access is defined by USDA as:

Accessibility to sources of healthy food, as measured by distance to a store or by the number of stores in an area; Individual-level resources that may affect accessibility, such as family income or vehicle availability; Neighborhood-level indicators of resources, such as the average income of the neighborhood and the availability of public transportation (para.2).

Low food security and access are related to lower levels of health, including physical and mental health (Food and Research Action Center, n.d.; Gregory & Coleman-Jenson, 2017).

Existing conditions. The 2015 USDA Food

Access Research Atlas, which looks at census tracts, shows Waipahu as vulnerable to low food access due to its poverty rate of 20 percent or higher, or tracts with a median family income less than 80 percent of the median family income for the state or metropolitan area. Waipahu is also considered to have low food access in that at least 500 people or 33 percent of the population live further than one-half mile from the nearest supermarket for urban areas, or further than 10 miles for rural areas.

The State Office of Planning (OP) conducted a food analysis map of O‘ahu in 2016. Findings for the Waipahu house district include (these specific maps are included in the appendix A-H):

Convenience store count (4-7)

Ethnic store count (2-3)

Farmers markets (2)

Fast food restaurants in districts (5-11)

Health stores in districts (3), one more in Waipahu than in Waikele/Waipio

Homeless kitchens (1)

Liquor stores (3), compared to 0 in Waikele/ Waipio Supermarkets (1)

We created a food options asset map (Figure 3.8 & Table 3.2) for the half-mile distance around the Pouhala Rail Station using information found online as well as from site observations. Our findings include:

Figure 3.8. Food Asset Map showing Waipahu’s food options within half mile radius of Pouhala Rail Station. Adapted from Google Maps (n.d.).

Convenience stores (4)

Fast food restaurants (7)

Snack storse (3)

Grab-n-go/takeout restaurants (9)

Food trucks (2)

Farmers markets (2)

Grocery store/ethnic storse (5)

Supermarkets (1)

Food markets (2)

Sit-down restaurants (10)

What we find in the asset map is that while many food options exist, fresh healthy food vendor options were quite limited. Options for fresh healthy foods include the supermarket (Times), a food market (Festival Marketplace), and the City and County farmers market with limited hours (Waipahu District Park, Tuesdays 8:15am-9:15am). One other source of fresh produce might exist at the Waipahu Plantation Marketplace, but availability and hours could not be confirmed online or by telephone. Additional food option observations from site visits include edible gardens spilling out and extending beyond property lines, informal gardens along the canal, and in drainage ditches.

While it may appear that current and future Waipahu residents living within the half-mile radius of the Pouhala rail station have many options for food, pedestrian access to food sources is impeded by distance as well as interrupted sidewalk access. Sidewalks typically end and require multiple street crossings to get to food destinations.

Benefits of increased food security and access through gardens. Access to affordable healthy foods leads to better health outcomes, including lower rates of obesity, as noted above. Community and school gardens provide an environment that promotes fresh air, exercise, and direct access to fresh, healthy foods; these gardens also increase awareness of environmental processes. Hands-on participation in gardening also increases the willingness of children to try new foods (Langellotto & Gupta, 2012). Gardens offer space within urban environments to build social cohesion; different populations can come together to share gardening activities, stories, and food, and to build relationships (Shinew, Glover & Parry, 2004). The aesthetics of a garden fosters community pride,

softens the urban environment, and adds to sense of place. Gardens are also found to increase safety and reduce crime (Allen, Alaimo, Ela,m & Perry, 2008; Kuo & Sullivan, 2001). Excess garden produce may be donated to food pantries or shared with neighbors, or the communities or organizations that manage the gardens may decide to have mission-driven gardens that support specific sectors of the population. While community, organizational, and school gardens cannot be expected to be the only answer to food self-sufficiency, they serve as one more arrow in the quiver towards food security. The recent floods in the islands show that it is necessary to not only have diversified types of agriculture, but to also have a diversification of the location of gardens to help ensure that we are not growing food in concentrated land areas only.

Community input and survey data. To assess the interest of the community in community gardens, we implemented a brief survey and conducted more in-depth interviews. We found that there is interest in having increased availability of community gardens in Waipahu, and that a primary reason one might participate in community gardens was to have access to fresh herbs, fruits, and vegetables. The secondary reason respondents would participate in a community garden was for socializing and recreation. The term “community garden” was not recognized by some, but respondents were very supportive when we explained that a community garden is a shared space where edible gardening can occur.

3.2.5 Beautification and urban design elements.

Beautification in this context is creating aesthetic improvements in urban areas like Waipahu. Urban design elements are the components of city architecture, landscapes, and streetscapes. “These structures, symbols and spaces make up the urban form that reflects the city’s cultural, historical and societal values,” (City of Dallas, 2016, p. 11-5-1). Urban design elements form the city’s identity and “capture its values in the visual and physical qualities of its urban landscape” (p. 11-5-1).

The following information is a summary of the key strategies that informed beautification and urban design element recommendations for Waipahu near the Pouhala Station. As noted above, the State

recommended funneling resources to support walkable and bicycle-friendly TOD communities in “Leveraging State Agency Involvement in TransitOriented Development Final Report,” (State of Hawai‘i Office of Planning, 2012). The state strategies from this report provide the framework for the city’s process. The Waipahu Town Action Plan suggests specific improvements for Waipahu, in part, based on the State’s TOD strategies in Waipahu (2017). This action plan was created with input from multiple agencies, organizations, community members, businesses and other stakeholders in an effort to build on Waipahu’s historic, plantation town character. Among other suggestions, and particularly relevant to beautification and urban design elements, stakeholders requested brighter street lighting for safety, more bike lanes, more crosswalks and sidewalks, and street trees.

Existing conditions. Urban design elements in Waipahu within one-half-mile radius of the Pouhala Transit Station include sidewalks near the public library, trees along Mokuola Street, some street lighting, and local plants around businesses. Currently, passersby first impression of Waipahu from the rail station “is not a particularly inviting one,” (Waipahu Town Action Plan, 2017, p. 9). Prior to the rail infrastructure, trees lined Farrington Highway and Moloalo Street. Now the shadowy, cement rail infrastructure towers fill the space. Waipahu’s Action Plan illustrated the proposed redesign of Moloalo Street and Farrington Highway near the Pouhala Station, which re-incorporated street trees and substituted one vehicle lane for a split parking and bike lane. The Pouhala station renderings also included a “kiss-and-ride” passenger drop-off location to help facilitate rail use (Waipahu Town Action Plan, 2017). See an aerial view rendering of the station on Farrington Highway in Figure 3.9.

Benefits of beautification and urban design elements. Beautifying Waipahu through urban design elements aims to restore its natural beauty and create a positive sense of place. Outdoor dining space, wall and street murals, native plant landscaping, bicycle parking, and historic town signage can also help ensure character preservation in the wake of the rail. Implementing beautification elements can help turn the currently not-so-inviting rail hub into a more

Figure 3.9. Pouhala station aerial rendering. Reprinted from Waipahu Town Action Plan (2017).

inviting place to gather and to hop on and off the rail.

Improvements to city features and building additional urban design elements can help create a stronger sense of place and community. Additional community gathering spaces and beautification elements near public transit can increase ridership and make the public transit experience safer and more enjoyable. Additional and wider sidewalks, brighter street lighting, lighted benches, murals, river cleanup, and native plants and trees can also create a more inviting, pedestrian-friendly atmosphere.

Urban design elements can also have a dual or multipurpose function. For example, a rail passenger waiting area near the station can serve as a community gathering place and provide flood management. If a waiting platform is created with a permeable surface area like grass with latticed cement or stones, or a green roof covers the waiting area, this gathering place can also mitigate flooding. Waipahu’s flash floods should not prevent Honolulu’s workforce from commuting to work by rail if pathways and waiting areas are properly designed.

Community input and survey data. In addition to city-owned land, multiple state parcels within a one-half mile radius of the Pouhala Station may also be redeveloped. The Placemaking Survey (Appendix I) included a question on what extra amenities these Waipahu residents and visitors would like to see more of, and a follow-up question regarding the benefits of these amenities. Most respondents desired more parks and community gardens, which are amenities that are not typically considered urban design elements. However, the follow-up question—of what benefits the parks, community gardens, and other amenities would yield—sheds more light on urban design elements development. “More safety”

and “making Waipahu look better” were most often selected as the best benefits to additional amenities. Forty-seven percent of respondents thought additional amenities would increase safety, and about sixteen percent of respondents thought improved aesthetics was the number one benefit of new amenities. It was not parsed out what benefit paired with which amenity in these multiple-response questions. Nonetheless, not only did the selection of more safety far outweigh the selection of improved aesthetics, safety was also selected over each of the two remaining listed options of more shade and greater walkability by a margin of about three to one. From these responses, it was extrapolated that the frequency of the selection of increased safety indicated a desire or need for safer streets and pedestrian gathering places in Waipahu. Beautification and urban design suggestions from Waipahu Talk Story participants included safety and aesthetic recommendations. For enhancing public safety, residents suggested building mini police stations throughout Waipahu. One aesthetic recommendation was to create a community stone garden where residents paint stones to enhance public spaces like under the railway. For example, this photo is of an elementary school rock garden in South Glen Falls, New York (Figure 3.10). Personal artwork like painted stones or murals displayed in public spaces can also help connect people to the land and increase pride for their hometown, which can also increase the desire to care for the land, the built environment, and for each other.

3.3 Methodology

One of the main goals of placemaking research was to discover the heart and character of Waipahu, and discover how to enhance Waipahu’s sense of place. This research was informed by past community data collected in workshops conducted by the Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transit (HART), the C&C of Honolulu, PBR Hawai‘i, and Sustainable, Humanitarian, Architecture and Design for the Earth (SHADE). In addition to reviewing secondary data, we also conducted a survey, interviewed residents and talked story at the speakout, and made field observations. This primary research allowed us to get a boots-on-the-ground perspective and focus specifically on open space, food access, and beautification while

Figure 3.10. Community Stone Garden. Reprinted from Harrison Avenue Elementary.

keeping the community engaged with each step of development of the rail and surrounding parcels. Community engagement through the speakout was also important to our research because the community has a stake in the future generations of Waipahu and in developing a positive sense of place in Waipahu.

Viewing the community as the expert, we gathered data through a personally-administered survey questionnaire. We based the survey on the following assumptions: the community desires shade and safe spaces; 60 surveys would be sufficient for an adequate sampling of community input on placemaking; survey respondents answered questions truthfully to the best of their ability, and the community wanted a sense of place that includes a relationship with the natural environment.

Data on open space was mostly gathered from past community workshops with needs-based assessments, and from the City and County Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan that delineates types and placement of open spaces and outlines implementation strategies. In addition, we mapped open spaces using GIS and conducted field observations to provide a more diversified exploration. To understand the accessibility and connectivity of open spaces, the placemaking group visited several parks including the Waipio Soccer Complex, Ted Makalena Golf Course, Waipahu District Park, Hans L’Orange Park, and the Waipahu Uka Park, all of which fall within a one-halfmile radius from Pouhala Station.

Research on food access was informed by the Waipahu Town Action Plan (2017), statewide Aloha+ Challenge set forth in 2010, the Hawai‘i Department of Health Baseline study on Hunger and Food Security, the Increased Food Security and Self-Sufficiency Report (Hawai‘i Office of Planning, 2012), USDA Food Access Research Atlas, Hawai‘i State Office of Planning Food Analysis Map, journal articles, and case studies on transit stations and community gardens within the U.S. and abroad. In addition, we used GIS and field observations to create an asset map of food access points, administered a survey, and conducted interviews with key informants, including community members who may be marginalized and unlikely to have participated in community workshops. Beautification research was also gathered from the variety of sources noted above, and case studies primarily informed beautification and urban design elements recommendations.

3.4 Recommendations

3.4.1 Open space.

It is essential to develop policies to ensure the process of implementing open spaces are done equitably and serves on the basis of environmental justice. The following policy recommendations address three aspects of open space: resource conservation, public safety, and community stability. These three aspects are drawn from policy examples from the City of Los Angeles’ General Plan, Framework Elements of Open Space and Conservation Policies and they provide a case study model for Waipahu’s open space policies (n.d.). The C&C also developed a list of recommendations to improve existing open spaces as well as propose areas for future development of open spaces (Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan, 2014).

Open space recommendation 1: manage and conserve resources. “Research conservation management considers appropriate methodologies to protect significant remaining open spaces for resource protection and mitigation of environmental hazards, such as flooding in the and on the periphery of the city” (City of Los Angeles, n.d.).

This addresses the need of implementing more open spaces in the periphery of major waterways and resources. In the case of flooding and runoff, open

spaces can mitigate human exposure to health risks concerning water quality in poorly drained areas. Therefore, water resources such as the Kapakahi Streams and the Pouhala Marsh would need to undergo restoration efforts to improve the safety and quality of water in open spaces.

Open space recommendation 2: promote public safety through well-connected and visible open spaces. “Open space public safety policies utilize development standards to promote development of public open space that is visible, thereby helping to keep such spaces and facilities as safe as possible,” (City of Los Angeles, n.d.).

In order to improve public safety, connectivity, and accessibility, open spaces should be implemented in areas in the vicinity of the TOD stations. Creating linkages between open spaces should incorporate the natural as well as the built environment, utilizing landscape design elements to improve the flow and usage of open spaces. See Figure 3.11 for an example of connectivity utilizing landscape design.

Open space recommendation 3: create community stability through social connections. “Creating stable communities encourages the incorporation of small-scaled public open spaces within transit-oriented development. Small open spaces can be plazas and small parks associated with transit stations and areas of public access in private, joint development locations near transit stations” (City of Los Angeles, n.d.).

Incorporate mini parks and transit plazas to help foster social gatherings in the proximity of the

Figure 3.11. Image of Corktown Common, Toronto. Google Images (n.d.).

Waipahu TOD stations. Some community members felt that smaller spaces can improve the aesthetic quality as well as open opportunities for more interactions, as opposed to the larger scale parks that are mainly used for recreation and are less intimate.

One concept to improve pedestrian connectivity and accessibility is the enhancement of the “Green Network.” The Waipahu TOD Plan recognizes that the Pearl Harbor Historic Trail is underutilized and not well connected to major parks and open spaces (2014). This Plan proposes connecting existing spaces to stabilize the community and serve as important assets for the community.

To better improve connectivity, the City of Waipahu (Waipahu TOD Plan, 2014, p. 31) proposed that streets in Waipahu should have the following:

• Good emergency service access

• Safe streets

• Green streets - trees, landscaped medians, reduced stormwater runoff

• Corridors planned and designed for use by all modes

• Well-connected network Reconnecting the community to its history can revitalize the town’s ties to its land of bursting waters. Since water is a main component of Waipahu’s landscape and identity, it is important to incorporate open space design elements to bring awareness to the community. Data collection revealed that residents were not aware that they lived near the Pearl Harbor waterfront or that their exposure to flooding is high. Bringing awareness to the Pearl Harbor shoreline can assist in implementation of smaller mini parks through community support. These mini parks can help buffer environmental constraints and provide an equal distribution of open spaces within the community.

The City has proposed several areas for development of these open spaces, most notably in the Pouhala Station (Figure 3.12) and Ho‘ae‘ae Station (Figure 3.13). Canal and stream restoration can create natural greenways, further improving connection and accessibility. With the development of the rail stations, it is expected that density in Waipahu will increase and require additional housing development. The Plan noted that with housing developments greater than 30 units, 30 percent of common spaces would be allocated to open space or mini parks.

Challenges and Constraints to Implementation.

As with most plans and proposals, there are bound to be drawbacks in the implementation process. One thing to account for is that the community expressed the desire for more open spaces. However, the placement of these spaces needs to be considered carefully. The Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan proposed sites for open space development; it is unclear how these sites were chosen. When developing these spaces, the criteria for location placement should be discussed with the community. As safety was a main determinant of the feasibility of open spaces, it should be factored in with their placement. It is then recommended to develop the remaining list of

Figure 3.12. Areas for proposed open spaces near Pouhala Rail Station. Reprinted from the Waipahu Neighborhood TOD plan (2014).

Figure 3.13. Areas for proposed open spaces near Ho‘ae‘ae Rail Station. Reprinted from the Waipahu Neighborhood TOD plan (2014).

criteria, in addition to location placement factors, to help ensure an equitable distribution of open spaces throughout the neighborhood.

Potential gentrification is another constraint. Studies have shown that with the implementation of new open spaces, neighborhoods would be subject to more upscale development and overall increasing property values (Patrick, 2011). Gentrification has been observed in many areas such as New York with its reconfigured High Line (Figure 3.14) as a pedestrian walkway which increased property values by 103 percent (New York City Economic Development Corporation, 2011).

Korea also experienced gentrification with its restored Cheonggyecheon Waterway where nearby urban development drew in more affluent stakeholders and pushed out the less affluent (Wolch, Byrne, & Newell, 2014). As community members have expressed, bringing back the historical character of Waipahu as a Plantation Village may be hindered with increased density and property costs. Ultimately, there needs to be careful consideration to providing open spaces as environmental, cultural, and social resources for the Waipahu community and not just for improving economic development and capital.

Case studies. The lack of green open space is detrimental when it concerns the communities’ health and safety. As seen in Waipahu, the lack of open spaces or lack of functionality impacts its people and its resources pertaining to environmental

quality, where the area can be categorized as heavily urbanized with concrete and impervious surfaces. Such areas of concern fall within the one-half-mile TOD radius around the Leoku Station where the C&C has identified problem sites as well as opportunities for improvement to existing open space resources within the one-half-mile TOD radius for the Pouhala Station (Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan, 2014). Strategic implementation of open spaces can mitigate the effects of environmental degradation from stormwater runoff, and property and habitat damage that is currently felt and seen in Waipahu. To overcome barriers of open space implementation and phasing in open space development, a case study from Denver, Colorado can provide some guidance for the Waipahu Rail Corridor.

Figure 3.14. New York’s Highline, reconfigured from skytrain to pedestrian walkway. Reprinted from Google Images (n.d.).

CASE STUDY:

Denver, Colorado, Blake TOD site: phasing in open space development.

This case study area focuses on a 1.44 acre TOD development site with characteristics of blighted infill and impermeable landscape (see Figure 3.15). The issue centers in on stormwater management, where urban runoff pollutes Denver’s key water resource: the South Platte River. This polluted runoff poses risks to the area’s ecological system and human health. In an effort to revitalize the “early spirit of the neighborhood” and enhance the livability of the community, the Blake site project used development phasing of green infrastructure to address key issues (U.S. EPA, 2013). Using Urban Land Conservancy parcels, the Blake project plan was split into three phases where analysis on site location and sizing, cost estimates, and stormwater control measures were taken into consideration. The Blake project involved implementing green infrastructure to address those needs, similar to the city’s vision of incorporating green open space.

Similarly, Waipahu can take elements of this project by incorporating open spaces through phase development and using state-owned parcels to implement the open space strategies. By using a phased-in system, the state can observe community interaction with the newly implemented open spaces, make adjustments as needed along the way, and note the effects of green space on park-goers’ quality of life.

Like Waipahu, the Denver community felt a strong need to revitalize the old feel of the neighborhood and improve their water resources. With phasing, the state can break down the analysis of environmental quality and community interaction with open spaces through several criteria throughout the project. Strategic planning for location, size, functionality, design, and implementation is vital and project phases can provide a feasible option for designing and connecting green open spaces.

Figure 3.15.

Blake TOD Site. Reprinted from Google Images.

CASE STUDY:

Toronto, Ontario: linking open spaces and waterfront.

The City of Toronto identified the need for a network of open spaces to increase community interaction as well as connect residents to the waterfront. They did this by using hydro corridors. Examples like park networks in the Fort York neighborhood (Figure 3.16) aim to bridge connections between the waterfront, the city’s bike trails, and its historical, cultural, and neighborhood resources. As noted in the Waterfront Toronto project, “Parks and public spaces are the spines [of the development of new neighborhoods],” (Toronto Park People 2015, p. 9). Since 2004, Waterfront Toronto created 23 newly-developed or improved open spaces, including Corktown Common. The City developed several projects that incorporate existing or newly-implemented paths to bridge the connection between the amenities and the waterfront. With the case of Corktown Common, the project renovated and revitalized the established Lower Don Trail to connect Corktown and the waterfront to the north through the Don Valley Ravine (see Figure 3.11).

Also, to create a more unified network of open spaces, the Garrison Creek Linkage Plan of 1996 identified areas in need of connection. The Garrison Creek Plan proposed greenways through wayfinding, strategic bench seating placement, and landscape design, which eventually led to increased greenery and social interaction. The city took an interesting strategy of focusing on built parks and open spaces as the foundation for development. Open spaces were considered first in Toronto development rather than as an afterthought.

The city of Toronto also stressed the concept of identifying a network of greenway routes and then weaving in gray spaces like sidewalks, streets, and laneways in open space development. Waipahu can also focus on green networks by adding gray connectors where necessary to enhance public connections to the waterfront. Waipahu, like Toronto, recognizes the need to link its open space system and bridge a connection to the waterfront to increase community engagement (Lester H. Inouye & Assoc., Inc, 2009). Open spaces should not be an afterthought; they should serve as the backbone of community development. For communities with rigid development, it is important to identify and enhance existing networks. Revitalizing water resources as hydro corridors can also bring awareness to the waterfront and enhance connectivity in Waipahu.

Figure 3.16. Park in Fort York Neighborhood. Reprinted from Google Images.

3.4.2 Food security and access.

Food security and access in TOD areas must emphasize removing transportation barriers and improving walkable and bikeable routes to healthy food. This will also improve connectivity to other community destinations, and create more and safer places for people to be physically active. Stronger policies prioritizing access to healthy and affordable foods is also necessary. The language in the various State of Hawai‘i reports finds that increasing food security is necessary in the state, and it recognizes that access to healthy and affordable food is part of equitable TOD development. The following recommendations are by no means exhaustive, but are based on the 2012 report by OP & DBEDT and other state and local government policies.

Food security and access recommendation 1: support the creation of community gardens on state land in TOD. The Waipahu community’s interest in gardening is clear, and the long waitlists for city and county garden plots indicate that interest in community gardening extends beyond Waipahu, too. Generally, the state can designate vacant lands for the purpose of community gardening.

Specifically, on Hikimoe street, across from the landing for the Pouhala Rail Station, and along the busy bus depot sits a parcel of state land that is two-thirds parking lot. The other third of the parcel is occupied by a Harry and Jeanette Weinberg building with youth programs, but the building itself is underutilized. We propose that this parcel is redesignated as a community garden. Different styles of gardening and property layout may be utilized on this parcel, such as raised beds and individual plots. This location is also near elderly, affordable, and ADAaccessible housing. The central location is ideal; as one community member shared with us, “gardens are places to see and be seen.”

Creating a network of gardens along the rail would add to the aesthetic of each neighborhood that has a rail landing. Each garden can have a theme pertaining the neighborhood it is designed in and each garden can be distinct. For example, raised beds can be used near where elderly communities reside so it is easier to weed the gardens without having to bend over too low.

At the Waipahu Talk Story, community

members had the following suggestions for additional locations and organizations for community garden partnerships:

• Corner of Pupukahi apartments and Pupukoai

• Places with higher density

• Hawai‘i Plantation Village

• School gardens

• Churches

In particular, the Hawai‘i Plantation Village previously had community gardens, naturally has abundant space, and already serves as a community node. A comment we received from the community regarding the design of relaxation spaces in community gardens was to be cognizant of the major ethnic groups (i.e. Filipino and Pacific Islanders—Micronesian and Chamorro) and their culturally preferred way of sitting. These Waipahu residents prefer to sit closer to the Earth than on benches. Instead of having benches that are set at the typical Western height of above the knee, lower seating is preferred. Thus, community gardens should have space to lay out mats for reclining on the ground. A potential drawback to creating a community garden on the state parcel of land off of Hikimoe Street is that redesignating a parking lot in a central location is at odds with the communities’ desire for more parking, as expressed in the 2012 Waipahu Community Survey. However, since the question of whether residents wanted a community garden was not asked in that survey, it may be difficult to know how much support or backlash the general community might give. From the conversations, surveys, and interviews we had with residents, a centrally located community garden was highly desirable even though some parking could be displaced.

Food security and access recommendation 2: create a statewide standard for sidewalk vending on State parcels, or minimally in TOD zones. Farmers markets, mobile food markets and food trucks are a low hanging fruit in increasing food access. Allowing for and encouraging these uses, perhaps by licensing or permitting, particularly in TOD areas, will add to the liveliness of the neighborhood while also drawing in those living outside the TOD area. Mobile food markets have the added benefit of increasing healthy fresh food access for those who are less mobile, as well as those in underserved neighborhoods.

California might serve as an example for statewide provisions on sidewalk vending, as they recently established a statewide provision (SB 946, 2018) for how local authorities may regulate sidewalk vending. A sidewalk vendor is defined as “a person who sells food or merchandise from a pushcart, stand, display, pedal-driven cart, wagon, showcase, rack, or other non-motorized conveyance, or from one’s person, upon a public sidewalk or other pedestrian path” (SB 946, sec. 2a, 2018). The bill ensures that permit programs are designed for public health and safety as determined by the local authorities, and decriminalizes street vending. Prior to this bill, creating a permit program was up to local government, with regulations varying widely. In certain counties without a permitting process, punishment for vending involved criminal charges.

Sidewalk vendors should be recognized as entrepreneurs who can positively impact the state’s economy and provide localized food access. A statewide or TOD standard may encourage local governments to support street vendors.

Food security and access recommendation 3: establish a statewide backyard gardener certification program so gardeners can sell excess produce. Provided that gardeners follow all health and food handling laws, produce can ostensibly be collected at a local food hub or cooperative to be sold. Produce might also source food trucks or mobile markets. Certified garden produce may also be donated to food pantries. Allowing microvending can support local economic development as well as add to the sense of place as visitors can enjoy hyperlocal produce from food trucks or other local eateries.

Tennessee serves as an example of a state that authorizes the sale of produce from community gardens. These sales are not subject to state or local sales tax (Tenn. Code Ann. §67-6-301(a)(1), 2013).

Tennessee also prioritizes garden permits for those who are 60 years and older, as well as those who live under the poverty level.

Food security and access recommendation 4: re-establish a statewide food policy council. A Hawai‘i Food Policy council appears to have existed from 2010 until it ended abruptly in 2016; perhaps it was reorganized into a nonprofit advocacy organization.

A Statewide Food Policy Council could serve to bring together stakeholders from different sectors across the food system, engage and educate the public on sustainable food systems, coordinate a public vacant land inventory, assist in the development of community gardens on vacant lots, coordinate grant programs to support community gardens or organizations that want to start up community gardens, and assist in creating or supporting a network of food cooperatives or food hubs on state land (Food Policy Networks, n.d). The food policy council could also partner with the Department of Health to run a food map study similar to the Healthy Foods Assessment done by Siler City, North Carolina (2013). This Siler City case study is described below, along with a couple of other case studies that support community gardens in TOD sites.

3.4.3 Beautification and urban design elements. This section provides policy and program recommendations for state land parcels near the Pouhala Transit Station. Additionally, case studies, with best practices on beautification and urban design elements that potentially can be incorporated in Waipahu, are discussed below.

Waipahu is ripe for change. Residents want safer and cleaner streets and sidewalks. Residents want more shade and protection from flooding. Residents want native plants and more trees adorning the city streetscapes and shop facades. Residents want rail pillars covered in greenery or local murals painted on the cement towers to deter graffiti. From personallyadministered surveys to the community talk story in Spring 2018, Waipahu residents and visitors expressed interest in a revived place to call home.

Beautification recommendations from Waipahu residents primarily stem from a desire for increased safety, protection from the rain and sun, and relief from blight and city demise. Waipahu beautification recommendations include:

Beautification and urban design elements recommendation 1: use crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). CPTED is the art and science of designing out crime. CPTED is a multidisciplinary approach to create a safer environment through the built world (International CPTED Assoc., 2018). The focus of CPTED is on

CASE STUDY:

North Carolina, Healthy Foods Assessment.

Information on this case study is derived from a webinar through the Healthy Food Policy Project (Jones, Zelek, & Mee, 2018), and the USDA MyPlate guidelines (USDA, n.d.). A quarter of the Siler City population lives in poverty, and the two census tracts making up the city is considered a food desert (being both low income with low access to food) (USDA, 2017). Many residents are without personal automobiles, and the city lacks in public transportation as well as safe pedestrian routes to healthy food. Unhealthy weight is cited as a concern for the city, the county, and the state (Jones, Zelek, & Mee, 2018). Many of the limitations found in pedestrian access to fresh food for the residents of Siler City also limit residents of Waipahu (Healthy Food Policy Project, n.d.). These limitations include:

• Roadways act as barriers

• High priority locations have sidewalk gaps

• Several sidewalks are deteriorating or obstructed by vegetation or utilities

• Many roadways lack shade and pedestrian lighting

• Intersections often lack ADA-accessible facilities, such as curb ramps

• Lack of safe connections between neighborhood areas, recreation areas, and healthy food opportunities

The 2013 Healthy Foods Assessment in North Carolina informed the neighborhood pedestrian master plan, created through a partnership between Chatham County Public Health and County planners. This two-part study assessed County walkability and food access, and was based on the Nutrition Environmental Measures Survey and the Food Retail Outlet Survey Tool. The study used two criteria: (1) availability of fresh fruits and vegetables, which rated restaurants and grocery stores as: having no fresh fruits or vegetables, less than five fresh fruit or vegetable options, or more than five options for fresh fruits and vegetables; and (2) availability of ingredients to create a complete MyPlate that includes at least one option from each food group: fruit, vegetables, protein, grains, and dairy. This information was mapped and distances to neighborhoods were calculated. The assessment found that only two of twenty-one neighborhoods had pedestrian access to healthy food.

The resulting pedestrian master plan prioritized pedestrian access to healthy food by connecting all 21 neighborhoods of Siler City to locations that offered more than five options of fruits and vegetables and also fulfilled the MyPlate criteria. Anticipated impacts of this pedestrian master plan include improved health through greater access to safe pedestrian routes and healthy food access, and increased resident quality of life.

creating well-lit, inviting spaces around the clock that can be seen from multiple angles and by multiple people to stop crime before it starts.

Thin trees, as was requested by Waipahu residents in our research, and short bushes are preferred over thick hedges in CPTED so that criminals cannot hide behind large trees and bushes. As Waipahu is redeveloped near the Pouhala Station, particular attention should be paid to the spacing of bushes and thin trees, as well as designing inwardfacing buildings and ensuring that windows overlook gathering spaces and pathways.

Lighting. Lighting is also critical to CPTED, and community members continue to request brighter and more lighting near sidewalks, streets, corners, and alleys. Creating benches that are lit beneath the seat with electricity or using solar power to light bus stops can also increase safety. Community Talk Story attendees highlighted that parking lots need better lighting to cut down on crime, especially for attacks on the elderly. Attendees also requested that mini police stations be scattered throughout Waipahu to deter crime like in some cities in Japan. Mini police stations are called kōbans in Japan. See Figure 3.17. More research should be conducted on kobans before implementing them in Waipahu.

Brighter and more lighting can easily be incorporated on state lands and is already on the city’s radar. Drawbacks to adding more lighting primarily come from installing solar panels and the use of solar power. While cost effective in the long-run, solar panels can be somewhat expensive to install. Moreover, solar panels can be easily vandalized.

Designing Out Crime is not a new concept, but this discussion can serve as a reminder that Waipahu’s residents often live in fear of being attacked and robbed, and are not as willing to leave the car at home and walk places. Thus, the better designed Waipahu is, even if there is only a slight increase in a feeling of security, will yield huge benefits in increasing rail ridership as well as reviving a rough neighborhood. Through the use of consultants familiar with CPTED, it is feasible for the state to implement the latest in CPTED; the benefits of less crime, less blight, and a more stable, secure community would outweigh the costs. Drawbacks to using CPTED and other thoughtful designs are limited.

Beautification and urban design elements recommendation 2: dual-purpose parklets and gem lots. For a town known for its gushing waters and frequent flash floods, state land beautification and urban design elements should incorporate flood mitigation techniques with each additional improvement or renovation. Parklets are typically a resting space carved out of a sidewalk or street with unique seating and greenery, like a bus stop with rocks to sit on and a trellis of greenery for shade. Building a permeable surface for a parklet, such as porous cement or grass, can give the parklet a dual purpose: public seating and flood mitigation. It is recommended that Waipahu improvements try to replace impervious surfaces with permeable surfaces wherever possible, considering load-bearing capacity. For most pedestrian areas the weight load would not exceed capacity.

Another recommendation is to include turning vacant lots into gem lots. For example, public walking trails and exercise areas, a splash pad for youth, or a gathering place around a fountain like in Norfolk, Virginia (a case study discussed in this section), can lead to community-wide health and safety benefits.

Figure 3.17. Kōban police station. Reprinted from Google Images (n.d.).

CASE STUDY:

Texas, Mi Jardín (my garden):

Transit-oriented pedestrian plaza with integrated rainwater-fed community garden.

Mi Jardín is an acrostic that stands for:

J - Juntos (united/together)

A - Acequia (community-operated irrigation system)

R - Recreación (recreation)

D - Diversidad (diversity)

I - Imaginación (imagination)

N - Naturaleza (nature)

This is a notable crowd-funded community garden project in the East Riverside neighborhood of Austin, Texas. The project began in 2015, and is slated to be completed by Fall 2019. Phase I (designs, community garden preparation and planting, and block party) has been completed. Phase II is ongoing and includes manufacturing, engineering, and execution. Phase III is continued education to the community about Mi Jardín.

The East Riverside is the highest density of low-income population in Austin, and has a strong Hispanic and African-American population, who have often been underserved. Development started moving towards this neighborhood, so the community came together to placebuild in order to celebrate past, current, and future community. (Mi Jardín ATX, 2016).

The site of the improved transit-oriented pedestrian plaza is the highest used bus stop by pedestrians in Austin. Community thoughts were taken into consideration at a design charrette, and continued outreach efforts include surveys and interviews at the bus stop. (Mi Jardin Ph.3, CapMetro Stop ID 5779, n.d.). The project took into consideration the surrounding environment as well as culture, and sought to serve multiple uses using sustainable designs that would alleviate urban heat, tell a story, celebrate native plants, and create a space for people to gather and linger. (Mi Jardín ATX, 2016).

The design of the three overhead shelters were initially inspired by sombreros, because sombreros offer shade as well as capture water for drinking (Mi Jardín ATX, 2016). The sombreros were to be attached to posts, and captured rainwater would funnel into the posts which would slow release into the ground. Surrounding these posts is the community garden, which is built into swales to slow and retain water (Frail, 2016). The sombrero idea evolved into the shape of fans associated with the rhythm and movement of flamenco dancer’s fans and flowing dresses (Mi Jardín ATX, 2016). Community designs for the fans were incorporated in the final design (Figures 3.18, 3.19). The design was created with social economic environmental design (SEED) network design principles.

For more information, see: https://www.ioby.org/project/mi-jardin-ph3-capmetro-stop-id-5779

CASE STUDY:

Texas, Mi Jardín (my garden):

Transit-oriented pedestrian plaza with integrated rainwater-fed community garden. (continued)

The Mi Jardín population is similar to Waipahu demographically in that it has diverse cultures and most residents are blue collar laborers. The Austin site of improvement was near the busiest bus stop, similarly situated to the suggested site in Waipahu. The Mi Jardín community garden has native xeriscape plants and a few edible plants, and has educational signage to inform the community and visitors. The design of the shelter are symbols of local identity and culture which reinforce pride. The feeling of the space is community-owned and inviting to the general public. Table 3 provides information on partnerships with the Mi Jardín project, and a preliminary corollary for Waipahu.

Figure 3.18. Community input on fan designs. Reprinted from Mi Jardín Facebook Photos.

Figure 3.19. Mi Jardín conceptual rendering. Reprinted from Mi Jardín Facebook Photos.

Building parklets in Waipahu would most likely require cooperation with the C&C of Honolulu if built on city-owned streets or sidewalks. Nonetheless, the state can add public areas of respite on state parking lots or other cement-covered areas that could benefit from permeable surfaces, shade, and public seating or children’s play areas. Gem lots, like exercise trails, may be more feasible to build on state lands because these can be wholly incorporated on vacant state lands in Waipahu versus a typical parklet that sits on a city street. Replacing vacant lands with beautification design elements or “gems” can help alleviate city blight and crime.

One drawback to building dual-purpose parklets is the difficulty of finding appropriate sidewalks or streets that are wide enough to permit passersby and hold a miniature park, garden, or seating area in the same space. Also, cement typically has to be broken up to install parklets, which can potentially disrupt utilities piping or create other load-bearing capacity concerns. Drawbacks to gem lots include creating a space for criminals to transact business if CPTED is not used in designing gem

lots, and gem lots with exercise equipment could create additional liability for the state in the event of accidents and the failure to maintain equipment to certain standards.

Beautification and urban design elements recommendation 3: incorporate vertical greenery, native and cultural plants, and aquaponics education. Island cities are often tight on space, and vertical greenery should be incorporated in state designs. Local residents would not only like to see Native Hawaiian plants, but also greenery and plants from their respective cultures. Filipino and Micronesian native plants, for example, could be further researched regarding environmental concerns and potentially incorporated in the placemaking of Waipahu. The state could also host aquaponics education courses or add aquaponics and its recycled water system to a community garden or other public outreach facility built on state lands.

Planting culturally significant plants are feasible on most state lands, based on the soil quality and the noninvasive nature of the species. The aesthetic beauty

CASE STUDY:

322 Bus stop route, South London - The Edible Bus Route: from brutal to beautiful. Stockwell, Crystal Palace, West Norwood.

The Edible Bus Route began with an inner city community’s desire to reclaim a small segment of land for the community to garden. The project began in 2011 with a single guerilla garden that was transformed in a matter of months. This success and newfound community pride prompted a formal redesign of the site that was community-driven and approved by the local government. Other communities took notice and wanted to participate in the reclamation of unused land to transform into it a pocket park garden. With support of local government, this singular edible bus stop grew into more bus stop gardens and became the Edible Bus Route (The Edible Bus Stop, n.d.) (Figures 3.20, 3.21).

Bus routes naturally lend themselves as lifelines of the city, and bus stops are natural nodes for gathering. The Edible Bus Route currently includes three “neglected and disused sites” located in lower-income communities that have been transformed into pocket-park gardens codesigned with community and the nonprofit organization Edible Bus Stop (a byproduct of the success of the first stop). Funding for the three parks was provided by local government and nonprofits. Planting and maintenance of the garden is provided by community volunteers. The pocket parks have become symbols of pride for the community, and local landmarks that nurture community empowerment and inclusivity. Green spaces also improve the experience of both foot and transit travel, which benefits the community as well as folks traveling through. The high visibility of these pocket-park gardens is different from most community gardens which are often somewhat hidden away from the main road. Vandalism is practically nonexistent, and since the site locations tend to be in high traffic areas, people without time for the daily care of a garden are able to participate in communal gardening in small ways that have huge impacts for their mental and physical health. Community gardening in public spaces maintains these spaces as accessible public assets.

Figure

Hoopla Gardens. Adapted from The Edible Bus Stop (n.d.).

and environmental benefits from landscaping with native or cultural plants are relatively inexpensive additions that can uplift areas around the Pouhala Station. The added beautification from plants can help create the desired environment to attract a diversity of rail passengers. Drawbacks to additional greenery are limited, but the invasiveness of species and whether or not the plants help mitigate flooding should be considered before planting.

Urban design elements mini case studies.

Safety and aesthetics. Lighting is one of the most common ways to increase safety in a public space. The most important places to add bright lights are activity areas and primary walkways (Project for Public Spaces, 2008). In regard to urban design elements that aim to enhance beautification and provide safe gathering spaces in Waipahu, bench lighting is one option that can meet both goals. Benches can be lit from beneath the bench with traditional lighting, as displayed in Figure 3.22.

Figure 3.22. Bench with seat lighting. Reprinted from Google Images.

Figure 3.21. Samples of Edible Bus Stop projects. Reprinted from The Edible Bus Stop (n.d.).

Figure 3.23. Picnic table run on solar power. Reprinted from Google Images.

In addition to electrical lighting, solar panels can provide shade above a bench or table and light the space. These solar panels can also provide enough energy to charge a cell phone or laptop. Figure 3.23 shows a picnic table at the University of California at Long Beach that runs on solar power and provides electronic charging options, shade, and seating.

While solar panels might initially cost more to install, not relying on electricity can provide sustainable, environmentally-friendly, cost-saving options in the long run. Theft or damage to solar panels could be an issue, depending on the design and the installation height, but supplementing the gathering area with 24/7 bright lighting and video cameras can also help create a safer environment where theft and vandalism occur less frequently. Also, asking local graffiti artists to create a mural out of graffiti paint can give purpose to would-be vandalizers and highlight local community talent.

Moreover, designing buildings and sightlines to face public gathering spaces and encouraging mixed use around the clock can enhance community safety. With more hours of eyes on the streets, parklets, courtyards, and shops, crime will likely decrease overall. Additionally, if community ties are developed through social activities like block parties and exercising together at the YMCA, an informal

neighborhood watch can develop. Just by knowing the neighbors or finding something in common among a diverse heritage or a diversity of ideas can bond the community to look out for one another and the places where they enjoy spending time.

Parklets. Parklets can be as simple as a bench with a pot of flowers, or a more developed mini park such as gem lots with trails and exercise stations. Since Waipahu is prone to flooding and is known by its namesake of gushing waters, parklets should also serve as flood retention ponds or drains for stormwater management. Permeable surfaces, such as soil or pebbles with native plants, sand, or latticed cement with grass growing up between the porous cement are recommended. Not only can parklets or other gathering spaces enhance the community’s character and pedestrian-friendly atmosphere, they can also help alleviate flooding for the community and be a reusable, sustainable amenity if designed with an environmental and functional dual purpose.

Examples of parklets include, but are not limited to: fountains with benches, small playground equipment, and flowerbeds on streets and sidewalks. Playground parklets, in particular, can include gardens, various permeable surfaces, and sensory wayfinding so that kids can smell, feel, see, and hear a green and vibrant space. A photo of a playground parklet is shown in Figure 3.24.

Figure 3.24. Playground parklet. Reprinted from Google Images.

Beautification case studies. The following two key examples show urban beautification options that can be incorporated in Waipahu. The focal points of these examples are dual-purpose urban design elements that benefit both the environment and the community.

CASE STUDY: Virginia gem lots.

Adaptive spaces and places can have multiple functions that foster community outdoor living and help mitigate flooding or serve other environmentally sustainable purposes. Gem lots are lots that are too narrow to develop, such as an awkwardly-shaped lot or alleyway that is not needed for deliveries and refuse. In Norfolk, Virginia, the city created mini parks and trails, added outdoor exercise equipment, planted trees for shade, and provided a smattering of outdoor seating and picnic tables in various gem lots (Community Design Assistance Center, 2015). For example, the fountain in Figure 3.25 is one of Norfolk’s gem lots.

Figure 3.25. Gem lot in Norfolk, Virginia. Reprinted from Google Images.

Norfolk locals now use these gem lots or parklets to rest while shopping downtown, to exercise, or to meet over coffee with a friend. Adding a home-away-from-home through gem lots invites the community to let down its guard in a safe and pedestrian-friendly environment. Converting a rundown lot or a building on unused space into a gem lot in Waipahu would help beautify Waipahu and create a healthier, happier community. Building an outdoor amphitheatre was one local recommendation that emerged from the community talk story. The amphitheatre would provide outdoor public seating and opportunities for local singing talent and the practice of cultural song or theatre art. See an example of an outdoor amphitheatre in Figure 3.26.

Figure 3.26. Outdoor Amphitheatre. Reprinted from Google Images.

CASE STUDY: Virginia Gem Lots. (continued)

Additionally, a gem lot could be built with a health and exercise focus. Simple outdoor exercise equipment, like a pull-up bar, sit-up bench, and tiered steps to jump on, scattered throughout the lot and connected by a serpentine walking path, complemented by tree shade can encourage increased fitness. Physical health improvements in the community can also translate into lower personal and public health bills, increased focus at school, increased work productivity, and improved emotional health.

A gem lot can also increase safety by turning a vacant space into a dynamic social space. If the gem lot is well-lit and it invites families and individuals to occupy the space for healthy, artsy and culturally-significant activities around the clock, the gem lot essentially puts more eyes on the streets to deter crime. Safe, public spaces like gem lots provide an equitable and accessible medium for all of Waipahu’s residents and visitors to enjoy.

Vehicle exhaust, cement, and dirty streets can be split up with a parklet of respite that can function as a bus stop or an outdoor place to rest while walking or shopping. London’s innovative parklet incorporates wooden bench seating that looks like the inside of a piano with living plants flocking the edges. The seating faces the shops, not the street, and the zig-zag design of the bench allows for multiple parties to have a nook where they can face each other and talk with some privacy. See the London parklet in Figure 3.27.

Figure 3.28. Filipino walking path shaded by bamboo. Reprinted from Google Images.

Dual-functionality and native plants. Waipahu can adopt culturally significant parklets and gathering spaces that also help control flooding. For example, this Filipino walking path (Figure 3.28) provides shade from bamboo, permits drainage through its permeable pathway, and is a design from the Philippines that honors many of Waipahu’s residents’ heritage.

Figure 3.27. London bus stop parklet. Reprinted from Google Images.

CASE STUDY:

Beijing vertical greenery and aquaponics.

When cement walls box community members in, sometimes the only way out is to look up. Tight on space, Beijing is doing just that. Vertical greenery, pictured in Figure 3.29, adorns the sides of buildings and roofs in Beijing (Li, Wang, Paulussen, & Liu, 2005). “Urban greenspace improves the urban environment, contributes to public health and increases the quality of life of urban citizens,” (p. 326). Beijing’s vertical forests also produce fresh oxygen for the smoggy city.

Figure 3.29. Vertical greenery in Beijing. Reprinted from Google Images.

Figure 3.30. Aquaponics.

Reprinted from Google Images.

Greenery benefits are voluminous, including having a cooling effect on cities that tend to have hotter air temperatures due to impermeable surfaces and buildings blocking wind and trapping heat. As Waipahu continues to heat up temperature-wise, and as more residents move to the area with the accessibility of the rail, Waipahu can benefit from public and private vertical greenery. Respiratory and other health benefits, as well as beauty that can be gleaned from plants, does not need to be confined to ground space. Even vertical vegetable gardens are an option for apartment and public-housing dwellers in Waipahu. Growing vegetables can improve the community’s health and benefit the environment. Flowers and other greenery add to the beauty of a lackluster apartment facade and can promote equity as vertical greenery can be an outdoor, green art museum for all.

In addition to vegetables scaling walls, aquaponics can be incorporated in small spaces. Aquaponics involves growing fish and aquaculture and recycling this water for plants and fish, as pictured in Figure 3.30. At the Waipahu Talk Story on April 12, 2018, local attendees requested education on vertical greenery and aquaponics. Educating Waipahu residents on the benefits of fresh produce, and giving them the skills necessary to grow healthy food at home, can help create a greener, healthier, and more walkable community. From Beijing to Waipahu, vertical growing is a skill that can lead to an increase in residents’ quality of life.

In addition to the design itself, the use of bamboo honors Filipinos. “Bamboo is integral in the lives of the Filipinos and its endless uses affect them from birth through their life” (Roxas, 1998). Filipinos use bamboo to build homes and musical instruments, in cooking and to make utensils, and even to cut off the umbilical cord in the birthing process. Bamboo is culturally significant to the largest population group in Waipahu, and while bamboo is not considered an invasive species in Hawai‘i (Hawai‘i DLNR, 2018), bamboo does not tolerate excessive water well. Thus, a soil and climate analysis and/or environmental impact assessment should be conducted before planting bamboo in Waipahu.

Likewise, the environmental impact of planting other cultural, nonnative plants should be assessed prior to implementation. This assessment is particularly important because some nonnative plants can be invasive. That is, if a nonnative plant “could cause harm to agriculture, natural resources, economy, or human health” it is considered an invasive species by federal and state standards (Hawai‘i DLNR, 2018). Incorporating native Hawaiian plants in parklets, near the rail, and throughout Waipahu honors the history of ‘āina that all Waipahu residents now share as their new homeland.

Waipahu would benefit the most from native plants and trees that provide shade and prevent soil erosion from flooding. Whether from the community event or the survey, Waipahu locals and visitors were very supportive of adding native plants to spruce up the area surrounding the Pouhala station. Native plants like a‘ali‘i (Hawaiian hopseed bush) can provide erosion control as well as provide a bright, fun burst of color to spruce up a drab sidewalk or rail median. The a‘ali‘i is pictured in Figure 3.31.

Figure 3.32. Hau. Reprinted from Native Plants Hawai‘i.

Hau (sea hibiscus) can provide shade and wind cover, help stabilize the soil, and can tolerate ocean air and salty soil. Hau is pictured in Figure 3.32.

Figure 3.33 is an example of landscaping with other native Hawaiian plants. Planting more trees and native plants is a relatively low-cost option for the state to improve the sense of place and aesthetics of Waipahu and mitigate the impact of flooding and the urban island heat effect.

Figure 3.31. A‘ali‘i. Reprinted from Google Images.

Figure 3.33. Landscape with native Hawaiian plants. Reprinted from Google Images.

Conclusion

Sense of place is lived in the present and remembered as part of the past. Sense of place varies between individuals, changes throughout history, and is generally rooted in a shared feeling of belonging and a common understanding of identity (Basso, 1996). Waipahu’s sense of place or placemaking revitalization stems from its current position of an overlooked, affordable suburb that attracts recent immigrants. On the outskirts of Honolulu, Waipahu can and will serve as a key stop for the rail to take workers and leisure enthusiasts downtown. But the rail stations in Waipahu, in particular the Pouhala rail station, do not come without this former plantation town taking a hit to its identity and sense of place. The trees that once lined Farrington Highway are now replaced by a cement rail structure that is seen as more of an intrusion than a pathway to a more sustainable, affordable, less stressful way of commuting.

Despite the initial and persistent opposition to the rail in Waipahu and in general, the train is coming. In light of that fact, residents expressed an interest in preserving their sense of place of a traditional, historic plantation town and wanted to see more fresh produce and community gardens, open space and connected networks of green spaces, and beautification improvements instead of increased crime near the Pouhala station. Placemaking recommendations can be summed up under three umbrella themes that permeate through food security and access, open space and green networks, and beautification and urban design elements. These three key themes are equity, safety, and health.

The key takeaways and recommendations for placemaking are listed by each section below. For a more detailed explanation of each recommendation, including the feasibility and drawbacks of implementation, please see the Recommendations subsection under each of the following sections above: Open Space, Food Security and Access, and Beautification and Urban Design Elements.

3.5.1 Open space.

We recommend that the state add mini parks to infill development. In addition, Waipahu would benefit from restoring the Kapakahi stream, the Pouhala Marsh, and drainage channels. Furthermore,

transit plazas should be built in Waipahu, and connecting paths between plazas, parks, and the rail can ease pedestrian access to these public amenities.

3.5.2 Food security and access.

We also recommend that the state create community gardens on state lands. Community gardens help encourage healthy lifestyles, which can provide long-term benefits for residents and state programs. Additionally, local food trucks can be sourced by community gardens through implementing backyard gardening certification. The state should also re-establish a Food Policy Council to support increasing food security and access.

3.5.3 Beautification and urban design elements.

We further recommended that the state utilize CPTED concepts for new or renovated lots and projects, and create dual-purpose parklets and gem lots. The state should also add more lighting outside buildings, in courtyards and near sidewalks, create lighted benches, and widen sidewalks or paths for safety. Finally, we recommend that the state incorporate vertical greenery, native and cultural plants, and educate the community on aquaponics.

In sum, placemaking is designing a community around a central theme based on the community’s values and history, and the residents’ sense of identity and belonging. Waipahu is a beacon of hope for job opportunities and prosperity, the land of gushing waters by name, and historically a neighborly community where plantation iced tea was sipped on front porches where residents could sit and watch the world go by. Plantation-style architecture, blue hues that highlight the gushing springs of Waipahu in urban design elements and connecting paths, plus more greenery and opportunities to grow fresh produce, would re-energize Waipahu and give it an improved sense of place. Placemaking requires visualizing each project as one piece of the tapestry of Waipahu, which can encourage residents to take the rail to and be proud to call Waipahu home.

References

Agsalud, J. (1981). My perceptions of the plantation experience: Influences that shaped my views on the Americanization process. Honolulu: J.C. Agsalud.

Basso, K.H. (1996). Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: UNM Press.

Berto, R. (2014). The role of nature in coping with psycho-psychological stress: A literature review on restorativeness. Behavioral Sciences, 4(4), 394-409. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs4040394

Board of Water Supply (2007). Central Oahu Watershed Study: Final report. Retrieved from https://www.boardofwatersupply.com/bws/media/ files/watershed-study-central-oahu-final.pdf

Born, B., & Purcell, M. (2006). Avoiding the local trap: Scale and food systems in planning research. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 26(2), 195-207. https://doi. org/10.1177/0739456X06291389

Chong, D., & Waipahu Tsoong Nyee Society (1998). Ancestral Reflections: Hawai‘i‘’s Early Chinese of Waipahu, an Ethnic Community Experience. 18851935.

City and County of Honolulu (2014). Celebrate Waipahu: Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan. Retrieved from https://www.honolulu.gov/rep/site/ dpptod/waipahu_docs/Reso_14-47_Combined_ Exhibit__Reso.pdf

City and County of Honolulu (2017). Waipahu: Waipahu Town Action Plan. Retrieved from https:// www.honolulu.gov/rep/site/dpptod/waipahu_docs/ Waipahu_Town_Action_Plan_9-17.pdf

City of Dallas (2016). forwardDallas! Policy Plan: Urban design element. Retrieved from http://dallascityhall.com/departments/pnv/ strategic-planning/DCH%20Documents/pdf/ UrbanDesignElement.pdf

City of Los Angeles (n.d.). City of Los Angeles General Plan: Ch.6, Open space and conservation. Retrieved from http://cityplanning.lacity.org/cwd/framwk/ chapters/06/06.htm

Clay, Edward (2003). Trade reforms and food security: Conceptualizing the linkages, Ch. 2 Food security: Concepts and measurement. FAO. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4671e/y4671e06. htm#TopOfPage

Community Design Assistance Center (2015). Greater park place: Community gateway and neighborhood beautification. Prepared for the Park Place Community, Norfolk, VA. Retrieved from https:// vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/71437

DataUSA. (2018). Waipahu, HI, Age by Nativity. [Chart]. Retrieved from https://datausa.io/ DataUSA. (2018). Waipahu, HI, Race and Ethnicity. [Chart]. Retrieved from https://datausa.io/

Dept. of Facility Maintenance, Storm Water Quality Branch, City and County of Honolulu (2016). Priority-based system inspection and maintenance plan. Retrieved from https://www.honolulu.gov/ rep/site/dfmswq/dfmswq_docs/swq_swmpp_ F3.pdf

Dittmar, H., & Ohland, G. (2004). The new transit town: Best Practices in transit-oriented development. Island Press.

Edible Bus Stop, The. (n.d.). The Edible Bus Route. Retrieved from http://theediblebusstop.org/ediblebus-route/

Food Policy Networks (n.d.). Food Policy Council map. Retrieved from http://www.foodpolicynetworks. org/fpc-map/

Food Research & Action Center (2018). Why lowincome and food-insecure people are vulnerable to poor nutrition and obesity. Retrieved from http://frac.org/obesity-health/low-income-foodinsecure-people-vulnerable-poor-nutrition-obesity

Frail, B. (2016). Seven steps for architects to improve their communities. Retrieved from https://www.aia. org/articles/17041-seven-steps-for-architects-toimprove-their-communities

Garvin, E.C., Cannuscio, C.C., & Branas, C.C. (2012). Greening vacant lots to reduce violent crime: A randomised controlled trial. Injury Prevention, 19(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ injuryprev-2012-040439

Gilchrist, M. (2014). The Edible Bus Stop- Changing the world in tiny steps. Retrieved from https://www. marshalls.co.uk/commercial/blog/article-theedible-bus-stop-8211-changing-the-world-in-tinysteps-3250

Giles-Corti, B., Macintyre, S., Clarkson, J.P., Pikora, T., & Donovan, R.J. (2003). Environmental and lifestyle factors associated with overweight and obesity in Perth, Australia. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1), 93–102. https://doi. org/10.4278/0890-1171-18.1.93

Google Images (2018). Search: Images. Retrieved from: https://www.google.com/

Gottlieb, R., & Fisher, A. (1996). Food Access for the Transit Dependent. Access Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.accessmagazine.org/wp-content/ uploads/sites/7/2016/07/access09-04-food-accessfor-the-transit-dependent.pdf

Green Infrastructure Technical Assistance Program (2013). Conceptual Green Infrastructure Design for the Blake Street Transit-Oriented Development Site, City of Denver. Urban Land Conservancy Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/sites/ production/files/2015-10/documents/denver_ blakestreet_concept_design.pdf

Gregory, C. & Coleman-Jenson, A. (2017). Food insecurity, chronic disease, and health among working-age adults. USDA: Economic Research Service. Retrieved from https://www.ers.usda.gov/ publications/pub-details/?pubid=84466

Griffith, J. (2010). Green infrastructure: The imperative

of open space preservation. Urban Lawyer, 42(4), 259-306.

Grewal, S.S., & Grewal, P.S. (2011). Can cities become self-reliant in food? Cities. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cities.2011.06.003

Hale, J., Knapp, C., Bardwell, L., Buchenau, M., Marshall, J., Sancar, F., & Litt, J.S. (2011). Connecting food environments and health through the relational nature of aesthetics: Gaining insight through the community gardening experience. Social Science & Medicine, 72(11), 1853-1863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.044

Hawai‘i DLNR (2018). Invasive species profiles. Retrieved from http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/ invasive-species-profiles/

Hawai‘i Interagency Council for Transit-Oriented Development (2017). Report to the Twenty-Ninth Legislature: Regular Session of 2018. Retrieved from http://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/annuals/2017/2017hictod.pdf

Hawai‘i State Office of Planning & Dept. of Business Economic Development (2012). Increased food security and food self sufficiency strategy Hawai‘i. Retrieved from http://ploneadmin.hawaii.gov/ hdoa/planning/increased-food-security-and-foodself-sufficiency-strategy/?searchterm=None

Hawai‘i Statewide GIS Program (2017). Oahu elevation contours 5ft. Retrieved from http://geoportal. hawaii.gov/datasets/oahu-elevation-contours-5ft

Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association Plantation Archives (1984). Oahu Sugar Company history. Retrieved from http://www2.hawaii. edu/~speccoll/p_oahu.html

Healthy Food Policy Project (2013). How Siler City, NC: Integrated healthy food access into pedestrian planning. Retrieved from http:// healthyfoodpolicyproject.org/case-studies/silercity-nc

Jones, M., Zelek, M.,& Mee, B. (2018, March 22).

Policy: One step on the path to walkable healthy food access [Webinar]. In Safe Routes to School National Partnership Webinars. Retrieved from https://www.saferoutespartnership.org/resources/ webinar/healthy-food-access

Kuo, F.E., & Sullivan, W.C. (2001). Environment and crime in the inner city: Does vegetation reduce crime? Environment and behavior, 33(3), 343-367. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916501333002

Langellotto, G.A., & Gupta, A. (2012). Gardening increases vegetable consumption in schoolaged children: A meta-analytical synthesis. HortTechnology, 22(4), 430-445. Retrieved from http://horttech.ashspublications.org/ content/22/4/430.full

Lebra, J. (1999). Shaping Hawai‘i: The voices of women. Publisher: Goodale Pubs.

Lennon, M., Scott, M., & O'Neill, E. (2014). Urban Design and Adapting to Flood Risk: The Role of Green Infrastructure. Journal Of Urban Design, 19(5), 745-758. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2 014.944113

Leung, P., & Loke, M. (2008). Economic impacts of increasing Hawai i’s food self-sufficiency. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Retrieved from https://www. ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/EI-16.pdf

Inouye, L.H. & Associates, Inc. (2009). Waterfront passive park & Waipahu Depot Road improvements: Waipahu, Oahu, State of Hawai‘i. [Draft Environmental Assessment.] Retrieved from http://oeqc2.doh.hawaii.gov/EA_EIS_ Library/2009-05-08-OA-DEA-Waterfront-PassivePark-Waipahu-Depot-Rd.pdf

Li, F., Wang, R., Paulussen, J., & Liu, X. (2005). Comprehensive concept planning of urban greening based on ecological principles: A case study in Beijing, China. Landscape and Urban Planning, 72, 325-336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.04.002

Mi Jardín ATX (2016, February 29). Mi Jardín. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?time_continue=2&v=mUVzcbCJnNI

Mi Jardín Transit Oriented Pedestrian Plaza, East Riverside Neighborhood Project, Austin, Texas (2018). Mi Jardín Ph.3, CapMetro Stop ID 5779. Ioby. Retrieved from https://www.ioby.org/project/ mi-jardin-ph3-capmetro-stop-id-5779

National Conference of State Legislatures (2014). State statutes and programs concerning community gardens. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/ research/agriculture-and-rural-development/ community-gardens-state-statutes-and-programs. aspx

Nedbalek, L. (1984). Waipahu: A Brief History Wahiawa, HI: Wonder View Press.

Newell, J.P., Seymour, M., Yee, T., Renteria, J., Longcore, T., Wolch, J.R., & Shishkovsky, A. (2013). Green alley programs: Planning for a sustainable urban infrastructure? Cities, 31, 144–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2012.07.004

New York City Economic Development Corporation (2011, August). Economic snapshot: A summary of New York City’s economy. Retrieved from http://www.nycedc.com/ sites/default/files/files/economic-snapshot/ EconomicSnapshotAugust2011.pdf

Ober Allen, J., Alaimo, K., Elam, D., & Perry, E. (2008). Growing vegetables and values: Benefits of neighborhood-based community gardens for youth development and nutrition. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 3(4), 418-439. https://doi.org/10.1080/19320240802529169

Page, C., Bony, L., & Schewel, L. (2007). Island of Hawai’i Whole System Project Phase I report. Rocky Mountain Institute. Retrieved from http:// www.kohalacenter.org/pdf/hi_wsp_2.pdf

Park People: Toronto Alliance for Better Parks (2015). Making connections: Planning parks and

open space networks in urban neighbourhoods. Retrieved from https://parkpeople.ca/wp-content/ uploads/2016/02/Making-Connections_web-2.pdf

Patrick, D.J. (2011). The politics of urban sustainability: Preservation, redevelopment and landscape on the High Line (M.A. Thesis). Budapest: Central European University.

Project for Public Spaces (2008). What role can design play in creating safer parks? Retrieved from https:// www.pps.org/article/what-role-can-design-playin-creating-safer-parks

Project for Public Spaces (2018). Eleven principles for creating great community places. Retrieved from https://www.pps.org/article/11steps

Purvis, K. (2014, April 28). The Edible Bus Stop: Promising patch of possibility to blooming success. The Guardian. Retrieved from https:// www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/apr/28/ edible-bus-stop-promising-patch-of-possibility-toblooming-success

Qin-Tong, D. (2011). The expanded utilizations of urban waterfront green spaces-three cases in Hangzhou. 2011 International Conference on Multimedia Technology (ICMT), 4190–4193. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar. org/paper/The-expanded-utilizationsof-urban-waterfront-green-Qin-Tong/ ca3464412afa64573bfc45c04b6e38412c3c4b57

Ribeiro, L., & Barao, T. (2006). Greenways for recreation and maintenance of landscape quality: Five case studies in Portugal. Landscape and Urban Planning, 76(1-4), 79-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.09.042

Roxas, C.A. (1998). Bamboo research in the Philippines, in Bamboo - Conservation, Diversity, Ecogeography, Germplasm, Resource Utilization and Taxonomy, A.N. Rao and V. Ramanatha Rao (eds.). IPGRI and INBAR. Retrieved from https:// www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/ bioversity/publications/Web_version/572/ch30. htm#Bamboo%20research%20in%20the%20

Philippines%20Cristina%20A.%20Roxas

Senate Bill 946: Sidewalk Vendors. Cal. Legis., 20172018 Regular Session. Retrieved from https:// leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient. xhtml?bill_id=201720180SB946

Shifren, R., Lawry, C.A., & Bhappu, A.D. (2017). Engaging consumers’ sense of place through food citizenship. Archives of Psychology, 1(3). Retrieved from https://archivesofpsychology.org/index.php/ aop/article/view/36

Shinew, K.J., Glover, T.D., & Parry, D.C. (2004). Leisure spaces as potential sites for interracial interaction: Community gardens in urban areas. Journal of Leisure Research, 36(3), 336-355. https:// doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2004.11950027

Sims, R. (2009). Food, place and authenticity: Local food and the sustainable tourism experience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), 321-336. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580802359293

State Office of Planning (2012). Leveraging state agencyinvolvementintransit-orienteddevelopment to strengthen Hawaiʻi’s economy: Final report. Retrieved from https://planning.hawaii.gov/ wp-content/uploads/2013/04/HI-State-TODStrategies-Final-Report-FINAL.pdf

State Office of Planning & Hawai‘i Housing Finance and Development Corporation (2017). State of Hawai‘i strategic plan for transit-oriented development. Retrieved from https://planning. hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/State-TODStrategic-Plan_December-2017.pdf

Tenn. Code Ann. § 43-24-103. Tennessee Community Gardening Act.

Tenn. Code Ann. § 67-6-301. Agricultural Products Sales and Use Taxes Exemptions.

Torero, Maximo (October 15, 2014). Food security brings economic growth- not the other way around. International Food Policy Research Institute.

U.S. Census Bureau (2017). QuickFacts, Honolulu County. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/ quickfacts/fact/table/honolulucountyhawaii/ AGE775216#viewtop

U.S. Census Bureau (2018). American FactFinder. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/ nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) (n.d.). ChooseMyPlate.gov: 2015-2020 dietary guidelines. Retrieved from: https://www.choosemyplate.gov/ dietary-guidelines

USDA (2001). Waipahu series, in National Cooperative Soil Survey. Retrieved from: https://soilseries. sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/W/WAIPAHU.html

USDA Economic Research Services (2017). Food access research atlas: Go to the atlas. Retrieved from: https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/foodaccess-research-atlas/go-to-the-atlas/

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, & Urban Land Conservancy (2013). Conceptual green infrastructure design for the Blake Street transitoriented development site, City of Denver. Retrieved from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ files/2015-10/documents/denver_blakestreet_ concept_design.pdf

Wilkins, J.L. (2005). Eating right here: Moving from consumer to food citizen. Agriculture and Human Values, 22(3), 269-273. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10460-005-6042-4

Wolch, J., Newell, J., Seymour, M., Huang, H.B., Reynolds, K., & Mapes, J. (2010). The forgotten and the future: Reclaiming back alleys for a sustainable city. Environment and Planning A, 42(12), 2874–2896. https://doi. org/10.1068/a42259

Wolch, J.R., Byrne, J., & Newell, J.P. (2014). Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities ‘just green enough.’ Landscape and Urban Planning,

125, 234-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landurbplan.2014.01.017

Wu, W.T., Zhao, H.Y., Ren, Y., Tian, M.M., & Shen, D. (2012). Investigation on shading effect of urban greenspace in summer in Hangzhou. Advanced Materials Research, 424, 916–919. https://doi. org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.424-425.916

Yamamoto, M., Sylva, N.Y.O., & Yamamoto, K.N. (2005). Waipahu recollections from a sugar plantation community in Hawai‘i. Publisher: Michael Yamamoto.

Yang, W., Chang, J., Xu, B., Peng, C., & Ge, Y. (2008). Ecosystem service value assessment for constructed wetlands: A case study in Hangzhou, China. Ecological Economics, 68(1-2), 116–125. Retrieved from: https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ ecolec/v68y2008i1-2p116-125.html

Yang, Y., & Diez-Roux, A.V. (2012). Walking distance by trip purpose and population subgroups. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43(1), 11–19. Retrieved from: http://doi.org/10.1016/j. amepre.2012.03.015

4 CLIMATE CHANGE

Abbreviations

ACS American Community Survey

CDC Center for Disease Control and Prevention

GHG Greenhouse Gas

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

GIS Geographic Information Systems

HHARP Hawai‘i Hazard Awareness and Resilience Program

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association

SLR Sea-Level Rise

SLR-XA Sea-Level Rise Exposure Area

TOD Transit-Oriented Development

UHI Urban Heat Island effect

Introduction

Scientific evidence suggests that the Earth’s climate is changing (Field et al., 2014). Increasing global temperatures, erratic precipitation patterns, more frequent and severe storms, as well as other extremes are all observable elements indicating global climate change (CMB, 2017). Utilizing climate reference stations, weather stations, ships, buoys and autonomous gliders in the oceans that are supplemented by satellite measurements, these measurements are combined to produce a time series of global average temperature change. These measurements and independent methods of calculating global temperature change all point to a clear warming trend, and have been confirmed by independent observations like glacial melting on every continent, reductions in snow cover, earlier onset of plant blooming in Spring, ocean heat content, decreased arctic sea ice, and rising sea levels (Field et al., 2014; CMB, 2017).

While observed increases in global surface temperatures may not appear every year, global average temperature has increased by 1.40F since the early 20th century (Figure 4.1). Climatic processes like El Niños, La Niñas, and volcanic eruptions can influence year-to-year temperature fluctuations, but notably, the warmest years on record have all occurred within the last 20 years, suggesting an overall warming trend of the global climate. These observations and effects of increased global surface temperatures have been evident in the U.S. (CMB, 2017).

Another important effect of climate change and global warming is sea level rise (SLR). Over the past hundred years, the global mean sea level has risen at an average rate of 1.7mm per year (Figure 4.2). This rate is significantly higher than what has been the typical trend over the last several thousand years. Sea levels have risen at an accelerated rate of 3.5mm per year since 1993, as an associated effect of increased global temperatures causing the oceans to expand (Figure 4.3) (CMB, 2017). The seas are expected to rise at an even more accelerated rate as glacial melting will play a greater role in future SLR. The loss of glaciers also has an impact on water supplies for different parts of the world. In addition to contributions from melting glaciers, SLR is also being fueled by ocean currents which are directly influenced by weather and wind

Figure 4.1. Graph of global temperature increase over the 20th century (CMB, 2017).

Figure 4.2. Annual averages of sea level rise from 18702010 (CMB, 2017).

patterns. With increased variability in these patterns as a result of higher global temperatures, the ocean heat content is climbing consistently with SLR, and as the ocean expands as it warms (CMB, 2017).

4.2 Background

4.2.1 Climate change & Hawai‘i.

Figure 4.3. Accelerated increase in sea level rise since 1993 (CMB, 2017).

A substantial amount of evidence shows that human activity is the primary driver of current global warming patterns. Our understanding of how greenhouse gases trap heat in our atmosphere, indirect evidence from natural archives of climate variations like trees and corals, and computer modeling of climate conditions influenced by certain human behaviors all show that recent temperature rise is unusual and likely caused by human activities. The increase in CO2 emissions and concentrations through the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation are direct effects of human activity.

Global temperatures and carbon dioxide levels, previously shown in Figure 4.1, have steadily increased since the 1940s (CMB, 2017). While human activities are the biggest drivers of climate change and SLR, these slow-creeping hazards will significantly alter human behavior and activity. This is especially true for the state of Hawai‘i which is dependent on certain environmental qualities, benefits from a variety of resources, and is surrounded by the seas.

The state of Hawai‘i is already vulnerable to weather patterns, such as hurricanes, heat, and sea-level rise. The onset of climate change could increase these issues and pose new threats, which could have a variety of social and economic impacts (Pope, 2017). Coastal development is widespread throughout Hawai‘i, and the state and its residents heavily rely on its beaches and coastal areas as social, cultural, and economic assets as depicted in Figure 4.4 below (Pope, 2017; Spanger-Siegfried et al., 2017). Coastal erosion, seasonal flooding, inundation, wave effects, and pressures on the groundwater table all pose serious threats to economic assets like property and infrastructure such as roads, communications, water systems, government facilities, schools, and businesses. Improving or upgrading these systems and assets to make them more resilient to the impacts of climate change and SLR all carry significant financial costs (Pope, 2017).

Figure 4.4. Social, cultural, and economic assets on Hawai‘i’s shoreline (hotels, heiau, people).

While many of the extreme impacts associated with climate change and SLR are predicted to happen by mid- to late-century, Hawai‘i has already experienced a strong El Niño year in 2015 with periods of record-setting rainfall, exceptional heat waves, an abnormally active hurricane season (see Figure 4.5), and sea levels that have remained 6 inches above predicted amounts for the year (Pope, 2017). These unusual conditions have all had an effect on critical infrastructure and offered a glimpse into the long-term future of these impacts. Many experts have argued that a combination of short-term and long-term planning will be needed to make Hawai‘i’s communities more resilient to the effects of climate change and SLR. Planners must decide whether to adapt or retreat, but an uncertainty surrounds exactly when and to what level the impacts of climate change and SLR will be felt. Despite the uncertainty around when these effects will occur, and the high costs associated with adaptation or retreat, the near-term benefits and costs are modeled to be cheaper than if adaptation or retreat measures are put off to some point in the future.

In response to these looming threats to the state, Act 83 is part of Hawai‘i’s effort to confront climate change and its impacts while attempting to create a sustainable path forward. The act helped create the interagency Climate Adaptation

Committee, composed of various stakeholders, that has recently released the Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report (Figure 4.6) with the intent of helping inform a state adaptation plan (Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Commission, 2017; Pope, 2017). This report provides an assessment of the state’s exposure to SLR and its potential impacts to social, economic, and environmental assets across the main Hawaiian islands. The report attempts to paint a picture of what and how the state might look like under 3.2 feet of

Figure 4.6. Cover of Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report.

Figure 4.5. Named tropical storms near Hawai‘i in 2015 (NOAA, 2015).

global SLR by the end of this century, in order to encourage future planning and adaptation measures. The state’s report is also meant to serve as a framework for addressing other climate-change-related threats and impacts that Hawai‘i is likely to experience.

4 2.2 Climate Change & Waipahu.

Situated at the base of the Waipio, Waiawa, and Waikele watersheds, the low-lying coastal area of Waipahu is highly prone to rain-induced flooding as well as SLR (Figure 4.7). The frequency of flood events will increase with climate change, which has been fueled by greenhouse gas emissions (SpangerSiegfried et al., 2017). While addressing flooding has been identified in the City and County and State’s TOD plans, they have not formally included the potential for SLR to affect the development of Pouhala station and the Waipahu area. SLR threatens to permanently flood parts of the proposed TOD zones near the Pouhala station through groundwater inundation and coastal flooding. Six feet of SLR will affect 517.61 acres of land with a current building

footprint of 878,222.35 sq ft along with 16,233.43 ft of roads. Although these projected numbers significantly increase with rain-induced flooding from a 30-year and 100-year flooding event, SLR is a higher concern because of the frequency with which the higher sea levels and groundwater tables are expected to affect daily routines (Table 4.1). More importantly, 18,011 Waipahu residents could be affected or displaced by these types of flood events. While rain-induced flooding and SLR are caused by different phenomenon, they can be addressed by similar adaptation strategies.

Figure 4.7. Map of Waipahu.

Note. Data sourced from Hauer et al. (2016) & Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Commission (2017).

One of the main objectives in the City and County’s Waipahu Town Action Plan is to develop “streets as places” to help facilitate TOD and resident’s transition to multi-modal transportation (Waipahu Town Action Plan, 2017). Current TOD zoning and land use regulations call for increases in building and population density, and placement of buildings close to the street with building facades that have transparent windows and entrances at the ground level to foster active streets and spaces. Without setting buildings further back and elevating sidewalks and other important infrastructure, these zoning and land use regulations will increase the potential damage caused by rain-induced flooding and SLR. Increases in building and population density are also associated with decreases in green space and an expansion of impervious surfaces. Replacement of green space with impervious surfaces can exacerbate flooding issues due to channelization and pluvial and stormwater runoff that can overload infrastructure as well as existing watersheds (Siekmann & Siekmann, 2015). Since much of the TOD around Pouhala station will depend on creative cost-effective public and private partnerships, and affect large portions of vulnerable populations in Waipahu, policies should be implemented to leverage existing or proposed assets and provide resources to stakeholders that encourage

flooding adaptation and mitigation measures which also increase the capacity of the social and built environment (State of Hawai‘i, 2017).

While SLR and flooding caused by more severe and frequent rain events are expected climate-changerelated impacts in Waipahu, an overlooked aspect is the increased probability and severity of heat waves with increased temperatures as a result of global warming and climate change (Table 4.2).

The urban heat island effect has been found to further the effects of heat waves which can lead to negative health impacts among vulnerable populations. Further decreases in precipitation and the prevailing northeasterly trades will escalate localized warming patterns in a hot climate like Waipahu (Figure 4.8). Thermal stress for plants and animals, and human heat-related illnesses coupled with expanded ranges of pathogens and invasive species could be caused by increased localized warming trends (Eversole & Andrews, 2014). While the increased probability and severity of heat waves caused by global warming poses serious issues, some of their impacts can be mitigated by building design and the use of green practices like eco-friendly and energy-efficient materials as well as the use of green infrastructure.

Figure 4.8. Waipahu community input on climate.

Figure 4.9. Urban heat-island effect Reprinted from Yang et al. (2016).

Following similar methods and the framework used in the Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report, the purpose of this document is to further contextualize the issues of climate change and SLR as they relate to Waipahu. With the rail and TOD coming to the area, Waipahu stands at a critical point in its history in relation to navigating a sustainable and resilient future. By building on the state’s work with regards to its SLR vulnerability report, this document will expand on identifying social, economic, and environmental impacts in Waipahu according to various climate change risk modeling: Sea level rise, storm surge, riverine flooding and heat exposure.

Sea Level Rise. “Rising sea level causes coastal areas to experience permanent inundation regardless of the weather. In addition, a higher sea level expands the areas at risk of storm surge. By 2100, sea levels are estimated to rise between two and six feet above current levels (NOAA 2012; SIRR 2013)” (Freudenberg et al. 2016, p. 10).

Storm Surge. “Storm surge develops when a combination of storm related weather phenomena causes abnormally high tidal flooding. The nature of each storm surge can vary greatly depending on the velocity of the storm and the geophysical characteristics of its location. When flooding is accompanied by force, structures can be severely damaged, but this is generally limited to buildings directly on the coast” (Freudenberg et al., 2016, p. 10).

Riverine flooding. “Riverine or riparian flooding occurs when rivers and streams overflow their banks, often following heavy rains. This kind of flooding is usually seasonal, but it may also occur after severe storms. It is the main cause of flooding in upland areas and flood-related damage in the United States (Wright, 2007). The growing intensity and frequency of storms due to climate change increases the occurrence of such flooding” (Freudenberg et al. 2016, p. 10).

Heat exposure. “Heat waves or exposure is two or more consecutive days of daytime high temperatures greater than 105°F and nighttime greater than 75°F” (Luber & McGeehin, 2008, p. 432).

The added risk from event-based coastal flooding caused by tropical storms and hurricanes and exacerbated by SLR was not included in the state’s report, but is included here (Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation & Adaptation Commission, 2017). While the state’s report has framed their assessments around recommended and agreed-upon hazard scenarios, this report takes these scenarios a step further in regards to more recent research pointing to more extreme yet plausible outcome. The following additional climate change risk factors were included: riverine flooding projections; heat analysis for mid- and late-century temperature increases; SLR extended to 6ft by the end of the century; and storm surge modeled off a Category 4 hurricane—the strength of Hurricane Iniki. This

Note. Adapted from from Eversole & Andrew (2014).

report seeks to also identify these climate change risks temporally from present to the end of the century (2100) over 10-year intervals as well as spatially at the regional, station, and state parcel scale to help paint a more vivid picture of climate change impacts in Waipahu. Furthermore, this vulnerability assessment will help pinpoint and prioritize specific areas in Waipahu according to their exposure to risk and vulnerability by using Table 4.3. As the table shows: High Vulnerability + High Risk = Should be priority planning area; High Vulnerability + Low Risk = May be priority planning area; Low Vulnerability + High Risk = May be priority planning area; Low Vulnerability + Low Risk = Unlikely to be priority planning area (Eversole & Andrew 2014). Categorizing these areas will help set preparedness goals and implementation of adaptation strategies that could reduce the loss of life and property in the Waipahu area as well as ensure that TOD is pursued in a climate-ready manner.

After identifying climate risks and hazards in Waipahu, the report will end with recommendations based in policy, programs, and design. Each hazard identified, such as sea level rise, will have specific recommendations on how to adapt the areas affected by the hazard.

The goals of this report are to identify shortterm and long-term climate adaptation and mitigation strategies, provide a framework for what climate change risks need to be assessed and addressed for future TOD, and reduce social and economic impacts around the rail stations and the Waipahu area.

4.3 Methodology

Climate change is the greatest environmental challenge of the 21st century. It poses a serious threat not only to Hawai‘i’s natural treasures—beaches, coral reefs, and native vegetation and wildlife—but also to Hawai‘i’s infrastructure, residents, and economy. Observations of the past shape our understanding of the future impacts climate change will have on Hawai‘i. In a changing climate, projections of future climate conditions must be combined with historical trends to assess the social, cultural, economic, and environmental vulnerabilities to SLR and other climate related hazards (Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation & Adaptation Commission, 2017).

Utilizing the best available data and resources, we have assessed the potential exposure of Waipahu to four different climate change risks that will be impacting not only our study area, but the entire state in years to come. Using the results yielded from the climate change risk assessment, vulnerability was assessed to determine recommendations for the short and long term (within 10 years & 30+ years) for each of the scenarios.

4.3.1

Climate change risk assessment. Hawai‘i currently experiences coastal flooding and erosion due to high waves and tides, and infrequent events such as storm surge; with climate change, these irregular events will become more common (Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation & Adaptation Commission, 2017). Unpredictable weather patterns will increase the probability of hurricanes and rainfall flooding, likely causing an impact on infrastructure, buildings, and residents located near shorelines or streams. In 2017, the Hawai‘i State Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report looked at the exposure of coastal areas to the flooding risks associated with SLR for the entire state, determining the areas most exposed to sea-level rise. Using data from that state report, this study looks to provide a further assessment of four climate-change-related risks in Waipahu: (1) SLR, (2) riverine flooding, (3) storm surge, and (4) heat. Flood inundation and critical infrastructure assessments of coastal areas are a multi-component and multi-leveled process requiring several steps to yield accurate results (Young et al., 2007). Using GIS in coordination with statistical projection tools, this report provides an assessment framework for future TOD near or along the coastline.

Sea-level rise assessment. For coastal communities, as the effects of SLR are increasingly felt, so will the toll on the built and natural environment that distinguishes them. SLR inundation of Waipahu was assessed by looking at three different scenarios of SLR— 1.1ft, 3.2ft, and 6ft—by using modeling results from the 2017 state report and NOAA (Figures 4.11, 4.12, & 4.13).

The scenarios of 1.1ft and 3.2ft were assessed by the modeling completed in the 2017 state report. The report modeled three different coastal hazards:

(1) passive flooding, (2) annual high wave flooding, and (3) coastal erosion with SLR. These three hazards were combined to create a SLR exposure area, known as SLR-XA. The report looked at 1.1ft (2050), 2.0ft (2075), and 3.2ft (2100) as different SLR exposure scenarios, and used 2013 IPCC projections for each one of these scenarios, but in the last four years research suggests that these dates are coming quicker than expected. Anderson et al. (2015) states that the current (2014) IPCC projections underestimate SLR because they do not account for recent publications indicating accelerated ice melt in Antarctica and Greenland. To account for accelerated SLR, Waipahu was also assessed through the scenario of 6ft of SLR. The 6ft of SLR data was retrieved from the NOAA SLR Viewer. This data modeled 6ft of SLR using bathtub flooding, not accounting for different coastal hazards as seen in the 2017 state report. Even though the 6ft of SLR does not account for all of the coastal hazards, the assessment of a more extreme SLR case is needed to

illustrate the potential inundation of Waipahu.

Riverine flooding assessment. Climate change will impact not only the oceans, but also weather and rainfall patterns (Scharpido, 2016). Floods are low-chance, high impact events that overwhelm infrastructure and social resilience and result from rainfall, surface runoff, sea level, wind, and local topography (McMichael, 2006). In Waipahu, the community has identified rainfall flooding as one of the biggest threats to the community. To assess the inundation of riverine flooding in Waipahu, the neighborhood was assessed through three different riverine flooding scenarios: 1-year flood, 30-year flood, and 100-year flood (Figures 4.14, 4.15, 4.16). Each of the scenarios were assessed using results yielded from the HAZUS riverine flooding tool. HAZUS is a hazard scenario tool that is used in combination with GIS to estimate the potential social, physical, and economic loss from earthquakes,

Figure 4.11. 1.1ft of SLR in Waipahu.

hurricanes, and floods (FEMA Flood Map Service, 2017). Using HAZUS, Waipahu riverine flooding exposure was determined by single return intervals for each of the three scenarios based on the 2017 average cubic ft/s in each of the streams in Waipahu. The flood scenarios illustrate specific levels of riverine flooding exposure. The 1-year flood displays Waipahu’s exposure to an annual rainfall event. The exposure from a 10-year flood was the standard for municipality planning, but due to heavy rainfall in smaller time frames and constant inundation, 30-year flood exposure is becoming the new municipality planning standard (Burch et al., 2010). The last scenario, 100year flood, displays an extreme rainfall event which has been occuring every 20-40 years throughout the United States (Scharpido, 2016).

Storm surge assessment. Storm surge is a rising of the sea as a result of atmospheric pressure changes and wind associated with a storm. With increased climate variability causing more extreme weather events like hurricanes, coastal communities will be more frequently impacted by storm surge and coastal flooding (Gurran et al., 2008). Over the last century, governments at all levels across the United States have emphasized programs that ease the development and use of land exposed to hazards, with little attention to the long-term sustainability of that development. The programs most familiar to the public—beach nourishment, flood control works, disaster relief, emergency warning and evacuation, flood and disaster insurance, and others—have encouraged a phenomenal increase in exposure to loss in natural disasters (Burby et al., 2000). In September of 1992, Hurricane Iniki devastated the island of

Figure

3.2ft of SLR in Waipahu.

Kaua‘i, 108 miles northwest of O‘ahu, leaving physical and economic impacts that can still be seen and felt today. If the path of Iniki was shifted 100 miles to the southeast, Honolulu would have been in the direct line of the hurricane.

The storm surge inundation scenario (Figure 4.17) was based on a hurricane mode completed by Dr. Ning Li in the School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) in the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa. The hurricane mode was modeled after Hurricane Iniki and made landfall along the south shore near the Daniel K. Inouye International Airport. The Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report did not include the impacts of storm surge in its assessments. Since Waipahu is a coastal community and there is an increased probability of more storm activity with climate change, storm surge inundation was included in this

document’s assessment of climate-related impacts.

Heat assessment. In the unseasonably warm El Niño year of 2015, residents of O‘ahu were warned of ‘rolling blackouts’ due to the increased energy demand that air conditioning units would place on the grid (Mykleseth, 2015). Predicted warming of temperatures could increase the likelihood of these energy spikes putting more pressure on the grid.

Residents of Waipahu have identified the need for more trees to provide shade, implying that Waipahu is hot. In a community survey conducted by the authors on February 1, 2018, many respondents said Waipahu in general is a hot place when asked to identify specific areas in the community that were unusually warm. It is important to understand how future temperature increases and impacts could affect the community and its energy needs.

Figure 4.13. 6.0ft of SLR in Waipahu.

The heat assessment of Waipahu (Figures 4.18 & 4.19) was based on projected air temperature data from 2017 National Climate Assessment. The report projects that air temperatures in the United States will increase between 3º to 9º over the next few decades. For our assessment we projected a low and high temperature (low: 1º increase; high: 3º increase) for mid-century (2050) and the end of the century (2100) using the average air temperature from the last 10 years, as recorded by NOAA. Utilizing community input gathered, we overlaid the identified warm areas of Waipahu with the projected air temperature to illustrate the areas most exposed to heat inundation.

4.3.2 Vulnerability assessment.

Coastal hazards modeling provides the projected future exposure of the coasts to multiple climate change risks. A vulnerability assessment

estimates the potential social, cultural, economic, and environmental impacts of this exposure and provides important information needed to design appropriate strategies and tools to adapt to different climate-related risks in future TODs. Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change risks including climate variability and extremes (IPCC, 2007). The Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report was a first attempt to measure the state of Hawai‘i’s vulnerability to SLR and to reduce exposure and sensitivity to this hazard. In this endeavour, the State assessed SLR-associated risks on a state- and island-wide level. Impacts from SLR were based on private losses of structures and lands (Table 4.4).

Figure 4.14. 1-year riverine flood in Waipahu.

Figure 4.15. 30-year riverine flood in Waipahu.

Figure 4.16. 100-year riverine flood in Waipahu.

Figure 4.17. Storm surge map in Waipahu.

Figure 4.18. 2050 heat map of Waipahu.

Figure

2100 heat map of Waipahu.

This climate change report attempts to build on the State’s efforts by applying a similar approach to a specific municipality on the island of O‘ahu: Waipahu. This report includes updated potential climate change scenarios for SLR and additional hazards that were not included in the State’s analysis, as projections for these hazards have changed. For instance, the State used the IPCC’s extreme end-of-the-century case for sea level rise of 3.2ft (IPCC, 2014). This report instead analyzes up to 6ft of SLR as recent projections are trending towards this increase in sea level by 2100. The report also includes the potential impacts of temperature increases caused by global warming as this hazard is often overlooked and could have large impacts in a tropical setting like Hawai‘i. In addition to inclusion of updated projections, this report includes more detailed information on the more vulnerable assets and populations impacted by climate change hazards. Vulnerability throughout the four different scenarios (SLR-XA, storm surge, riverine flooding, and heat) is assessed as the estimated potential loss of land, structures, housing units, and people displaced from exposure to climate change risks. While this report largely examined the value of private structure and land loss, public structures were included as well. Social impacts of climate change were also included in this analysis to understand who might be affected by these hazards. A GIS analysis was used to estimate: potential economic loss; number of people displaced; and housing units, area of land, length of roads, and other infrastructure features inundated. This level of analysis is important because Waipahu will be undergoing a physical and social transformation with the TOD around the West Loch and Pouhala stations. The TOD offers an opportunity to address the potential impacts of climate change and help those groups who might be most affected. A more detailed understanding of these impacts will help the State create a more resilient path forward as it pursues TOD in Waipahu, and inform on who will need to be engaged in collaborative conversations to reduce their exposure and vulnerability.

Assessment of potential economic, social, and physical impacts in the climate change risks exposure areas. Each vulnerability assessment uses GIS data collected from federal, state, and county agencies. The Hawai‘i Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation

Report served as a model for assets to examine in a coastal vulnerability assessment; in addition to those assets, our analysis added several different assets to be examined. Data on valued assets (Table 4.4) was compiled and analyzed at the parcel level. The most recent county tax parcel data published by the C&C of Honolulu was used to obtain the parcel-level value of land and buildings. Datasets from the C&C also provided information such as the building footprint, building type (eg. residential), building owner (eg. government), public utilities (eg. roads), and critical facilities (eg. hospitals). Data layers from the 2015 American Community Survey (ACS) were used to augment the valued assets for population, housing units, housing units in poverty, and renter/homeowner proportions, to show the impacts of the four climate change risks.

This approach to assessing vulnerability shows the value of modeling several climate change risks. As shown in the diagram in Figure 4.20, the combination of SLR (SLR-XA), storm surge, riverine flooding, and heat projections are used as the scenarios to define vulnerability to climate change risks. By conducting the analysis in separate scenarios, it is possible to see what areas and assets are inundated by the severity of different climate change risks.

Vulnerability

Figure 4.20. Flowchart of methodology. (Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation & Adaptation Report, 2017)

Potential economic loss is based on the value of the land and buildings inundated in each severity of the different climate change risks. The area exposed to each modeled scenario (SLR: 1, 3.2, and 6 ft; riverine flooding: 1, 30, and 100 year; storm surge: Category 4 hurricane; and heat: 1º or 3º increase) is overlaid with tax parcel data to determine the quantity, type, owner, value of buildings, and value of land in each severity of models. Maps of the potential economic loss to SLR, riverine flooding, storm surge, and heat are shown in Figure 4.21. To explore the feasibility of potential buyouts of residential parcels, the assessed value of inundated housing stock was compiled by subtracting the land and building values of non-residential parcels.

The number of people displaced and housing stock inundated in each scenario was estimated by structure type (single-family or multi-family residence) based on data from county tax parcels and the 2015 ACS (Figure 4.24). For each parcel, the total block group of livable units was divided by the parcels number of livable units and then multiplied by the population of the block group, resulting in an estimated per-parcel population and average household size (Figure 4.22). This formula was used to assign a number of individuals and households that are in poverty and renter/homeowners per parcel.

Potential impacts to roads, sewage mains

and laterals, stormwater conduits and drains, parks, and government buildings are assessed in terms of exposure to climate-change-related risks, but were not monetized. Each severity of climate change risk (Figure 4.23 & 4.25) was overlaid with these assets to determine the miles, number, or area extent in acres of assets inundated by exposure to SLR, riverine flooding, storm surge, and extreme heat.

Figure 4.21. Economic loss from SLR, riverine flooding, storm surge, and extreme heat.

Figure 4.22. Per-parcel data formula.

Figure 4.23. Physical impacts of SLR, riverine flooding, storm surge, and extreme heat.

Figure 4.24. Population impacted by SLR, riverine flooding, storm surge, and extreme heat.

Figure 4.25. Composite map showing high- and low-vulnerability parcels.

Recommendations

Recommendations for each hazard will be either an adaptation approach or mitigation approach. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines adaptation as “the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In natural systems, the process of adjustment to actual climate and its effects; human intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate” (IPCC 2012, p. 556).

The IPCC defines mitigation as “human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases” (IPCC 2012, p. 561).

4.4.1 Sea level rise, storm surge, & riverine flooding recommendations.

SLR, storm surge and riverine flooding all pose threats of flooding to Waipahu and surrounding areas. In order to address these issues, there must be multiple approaches to lower risks of potential flooding.

Short-term recommendation: community resiliency. For a short-term strategy concerning neighborhoods and businesses in flood zones, achieving community resiliency is recommended. Community resiliency is a way to make a place livable over the long term, even when faced with a natural disaster, by utilizing a community’s capacity to respond and plan for further disasters. This is currently an approach conducted throughout the U.S. and Hawai‘i, through federal and state programs which work with communities on place-based approaches to resiliency. One of the most successful cases of this approach is the city of Roseville, California. Roseville is affected by heavy storms which cause isolated flooding and overflowing creeks, leading to inundation of hundreds of homes and businesses in 1983 and 1986. The city was compelled to act, and local government and community members initiated several methods to address the flooding issues.

Among the measures that worked best for Roseville were funding of flood-control efforts using general funds dollars and developer fees. Their $138 million general fund includes these flood-control efforts. They also source from this fund to create a “full-service” city, meaning the city provides its own

fire protection, drinking water treatment, wastewater treatment, and operates its own electric utility. This results in reliable and accountable services for the city. Among other resiliency methods in Roseville are improved flood warning systems: 30-stream monitoring and precipitation gauges that report conditions in real time, by radio signal, to alert officials and residents about approaching flood risk. The city has a system which includes a reverse-911 warning system that calls residents when flooding is expected in their neighborhood, and a website where anyone can monitor streamflow. Lastly, bridge replacements, stream channel widening, flood walls, and stormwater bypass channels and managed retreat were all incorporated (Weiser, 2015).

As a result, Roseville now constitutes as a “Class 1” ranking with FEMA under the Community Rating System overseen by the agency. The Community Rating System rates participating communities on their efforts towards comprehensive floodplain management, reducing flood damages to insurable properties and supporting insurance aspects of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) (FEMA, 2017). Because of their “Class 1” ranking status, local property owners in Roseville receive a 45% discount on flood insurance (Weiser, 2015).

In Hawai‘i, the Hawai‘i Emergency Management Agency (HEMA) houses the Hawai‘i Hazards Awareness and Resiliency Program (HHARP), which works with communities to strengthen themselves against natural disaster. There are currently five communities which have gone through the program: Waimanalo, Kailua, JointBase Pearl Harbor Hickam, Aina Haina, and Mānoa (HHARP, 2015). Benefits include a 12-to 18-month site-specific plan, in which disaster management professionals work closely with residents to identify risks and increase awareness and adaptation responses.

HHARP works closely with 6-8 community leaders, who organize monthly meetings to work with the larger community to execute a 10-point program. This program includes: community awareness of hazards; information to understand official warning systems indicating response actions for communities; identifying personal preparedness methods; identifying useful skills and resources the community already has; education around appropriate hazard mitigation measures; development of emergency plans

and exercises; support in community outreach events; and identifying opportunities for additional training and education (HHARP, 2015).

Having Waipahu work with HHARP could maintain and strengthen the responses of current flooding and other natural disaster issues in Waipahu. By maintaining a resilient community, Waipahu could achieve a “Class 1” ranking with FEMA, leading to discounts on flood insurance for Waipahu businesses and residents. When this approach is coupled with the continual adaptation to flooding for the coming years, Waipahu could become strong in its ability to remain a thriving city in the face of a changing climate.

Short-term recommendation: restore natural ecosystems. For SLR, storm surge, and riverine flooding, there are overlaps of flooding of Pouhala Marsh, the adjacent Ted Makalena Golf Course, Waipahu District Park, and the residential area

between the Waikele Stream and Wailani Drainage Canal. Because Waipahu is a coastal community built in between natural rivers and on top of marshland, flooding of the area is a natural occurrence.

In order to minimize extreme flooding, there needs to be efforts to restore natural ecosystems of Waipahu, allowing natural floodable areas to continue to flood. This approach builds resilience to the flooding, as the city will allow and live with periodic floods. By allowing floods to enter the city, there are opportunities to learn from them and gain perspective for more extreme future flooding (Liao, 2012).

Flood resilience is used throughout many cities worldwide. The most outstanding city which has adapted to flooding while maintaining their resilience and livability of the place is Rotterdam, Netherlands. Rotterdam uses a multitude of techniques that their Resilience Planning team refers to as storm-water

management in conjunction with social welfare and neighborhood improvement. Their methods could guide the improved resilience of Waipahu flooding with methods such as floodable green areas, pervious concrete, and dikes.

Restoring the natural ecosystem of Waipahu is an approach that allows natural flooding to happen, thereby working with the natural systems of the area (Figure 4.26). Waikele Stream, Kapakahi Stream and Wailani Drainage Canal should be restored so they are able to flow with a predicted increase in water. With riverine flooding, in the case of a 100-year flood, Waikele stream would be affected with a heavy increase in water. With SLR, all three of these streams would be affected. For storm surge, these rivers would act as drainage from the city. Allowing more room for these waterways to flow would prevent overflow into residential and business areas; this method is supported by planners in Rotterdam, Netherlands (Kimmelman, 2017).

With the remaining green spaces in Waipahu, including Hawai‘i Plantation Village, Waipahu District Park, and Pouhala Marsh, a recommendation is to maintain these green spaces and improve them as acting detention or drainage basins. Liao (2012) states that floodplains, which could be detention basins, function to store high flows of rivers and resulting sediments. The benefit of floodplains is the land capability of storing the floodwaters without incurring damage locally and elsewhere.

With Waikele Stream overflowing due to riverine flooding in a 100-year flood, water would then lead to Hawai‘i Plantation Village. Because this is already a green area, this park should be improved to be able to withhold high amounts of water, acting as a detention basin. Water-retaining trees and plants should be planted in Hawai‘i Plantation Village for their ability to hold water.

As storm surge, riverine flooding, and SLR would flood Waipahu District Park, this park should act as a detention basin to hold water in floods, avoiding overflow into housing or businesses. In the case of Rotterdam, the city has created plazas with fountains, gardens, and basketball courts, which doubly serve as retention ponds. As shown in Figure 4.27, this water plaza in the Spangen neighborhood of Rotterdam is meant to capture floodwater.

Waipahu District Park and Hawai‘i Plantation

Figure 4.27. Rotterdam Water Plaza (Kimmelman, 2017).

Village are zoned as P-2 General Preservation Districts. This area is meant to be in contrast to the urban built environment to provide relief from the city landscape and maintain its natural resource value. This suggests that the State of Hawai‘i P-2 designation is appropriate for the proposed maintenance of this green area and enhanced detention basin aspects. There are no zoning policies restricting the transformation of these areas into detention basins, but there are no policies which actively support this transformation (ROH, 2017).

Concerning Pouhala Marsh, this area would be ideal to be restored as a marsh. In its current state, the urban development of Waipahu has severely affected the wetlands with silt accumulation, water pollution, and invasive species (Pouhala Wetland Marsh, 2015). As stated on the Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) Division of Forestry and Wildlife website, Pouhala Marsh historically served to hold freshwater from Waikele and Kapakahi Streams in instances of high flows. With urban development, about an 8-acre area was changed with fill material when the area was being prepared to use as a landfill. As a result, the marsh remains dry in the 8-acre area and unable to hold water, in contrast to the marsh’s previous capacity (DLNR, 2015).

For SLR, storm surge, and riverine flooding, the marshlands will flood; if restored, this area could

hold higher amounts of water. Because Waipahu rests at sea level, and residential areas were built on previous marshland, these areas are currently at risk of flooding. During community input data collection, community members identified Farrington Highway as an area which floods consistently, causing transportation issues with flooded roads.

There are currently efforts by DLNR to restore the marsh to its original state through a series of means such as invasive plant removal, trash removal, and native plant restoration (DLNR, 2015). With this restoration, Pouhala Marsh could make a significant difference in flooding adaptability of Waipahu.

Long-term recommendation: managed retreat. To address the flooding areas that are built over, such as the residential area between Kapakahi Stream and Wailani Drainage Canal, a long-term strategy would be managed retreat.

Managed retreat is the strategy of moving homes and buildings out of high-risk flood zones in order to avoid flooding and building damage. Such preventative measures have been conducted in the state of New York after Hurricane Sandy (2012) and Hurricane Irene (2011) with success. The benefits include moving buildings, homes, and human lives out of risk from damage and onto safer ground, ensuring protection. This is best shown by Figure 28, where the house is neither defended or adapted, but moved out of the flood risk zone. Managed retreat is recommended for Waipahu because there are funding programs offered by FEMA to support this method.

Buyout programs have been a means to accomplish managed retreat. As Freudenberg et al. (2016) have described, buyouts are funded by federal or state dollars and managed at state or county levels, providing monetary support for residents or businesses wanting to move out of high-risk zones.

Federal funding is available through FEMA for developed lands, such as the residential and business areas of Waipahu, which are located between Kapakahi Stream and Wailani Drainage Canal. FEMA funds this through their Hazard Mitigation Assistance (HMA) grants, which acquire properties and require them to be relocated or demolished from the site within 90 days (Coastal Protection & Restoration, 2017).

The residential area between Kapakahi Stream and Wailani Drainage Canal are zoned as residential

Figure 4.28. Defend vs. adaptation vs. managed retreat (Williams et al., 2018).

(R-7.5 and R-5) and BMX-3, a community business mixed-use district. FEMA supports managed retreat to residential and business zones as long as the flood zone is a high risk, so these areas should be wellsupported in moving when there is a need.

Long-term recommendation: building design and surrounding areas. In terms of future rail development, new buildings in the TOD area should consider two factors: (1) that the proposed station on Hikimoe St. is currently a flood zone, and (2) that with time, flooding is predicted to increase with SLR, riverine flooding, and storm surge (State of Hawai’i, 2018). Development in the area should take a noregrets approach by ensuring first-floor elevation of new buildings. This was proposed in New York after

Hurricane Sandy as Advisory Base Flood Elevation (ABFE). The benefit of this approach is that property owners save money by reducing their vulnerability to flooding, thereby reducing flood insurance premiums based on flood risk (City of New York, 2018).

Figure 4.29 shows how first-floor elevation of buildings can create an initial high cost for property owners, but the cost lowers with time. In the case of not adjusting first-floors, the cost is initially low, but grows over time with flood damages. The Waipahu TOD area is zoned BMX-3, a commercial mixed-use district. In this district, restrictions on building heights exist which could affect the desirability of first-floor elevation. Hawai‘i land ordinances state: “Within the BMX-3 district, no portion of a structure shall exceed a height equal to twice the distance from the structure to the vertical projection of the center line of any street” (ROH, 2017, p. 57).

In New York City, an executive order was released to address building code height restrictions.

This executive order relaxed zoning height limitations so that buildings could be changed immediately and be built to the recommended higher standards (City of New York, 2018). For Hawai‘i, this approach should also be used.

While first-floor elevation could be a concern to businesses, design recommendations suggest allowing entrance by stairs. This allows businesses to operate while avoiding flooding. Other recommendations include moving equipment and electrical panels to above flood levels when possible (City of New York, 2018).

Surrounding the areas of the building should be pervious concrete and water-retaining grasses. Pervious concrete pavement allows for rainwater and stormwater to flow through the pavement into a gravel layer underneath the pavement or into the soil, retaining the water (Haselbach et al., 2006). Water sedge thrives in areas where the water table is near the soil surface and can withstand 1-2 months of water

Figure

costs with and without first-floor elevation (City of New York, 2018).

submersion, which is ideal for the flood-prone TOD area (Tilley et al., 2011).

4.4.2 Heat recommendations.

During the summer of 2015, extreme temperatures and humidity set 50 high-temperature records across the State of Hawai‘i (Kubota, 2015). Although these record-setting high temperatures were primarily attributable to the effects of an unusually strong El Niño year, they offer a glimpse into the future Hawai‘i should prepare for if GHG emissions are not significantly reduced to halt global warming and climate change.

Extreme heat events are a leading cause of extreme-weather-related deaths in the US, with an average of 618 deaths a year from the years 19992010. Heat stress, a heat-related illness caused by the body’s inability to properly cool itself down, can affect anyone, but the following groups are at higher risk of suffering from heat stress or heat related deaths when exposed to abnormally high temperatures for extended periods of time: infants and children up to four years of age, people 65 years of age and older, people who are overweight, and people who are ill and on certain medications (Climate Change, 2016).

As mentioned above, many Waipahu residents the authors spoke with during a community mapping exercise stated that “all of Waipahu is hot.” Much of the perceived hot climate of Waipahu is likely influenced by the lack of urban canopy and high amounts of impervious surfaces, exacerbated by the area’s proximity to the leeward side of the island. Along with climate change and global warming, the high amounts of impervious surfaces and deficiency of green spaces or open spaces contribute to the Urban Heat Island effect (UHI). The UHI effect is a product of converting natural land cover surfaces such as trees and vegetation with the anthropogenic surfaces like streets and sidewalks, parking lots, roofs, buildings (industrial and commercial), and housing developments (Stone et al., 2013). With proposed density and impervious surface increases associated with TOD, rises in temperatures due to global warming could pose serious health and wellbeing threats to vulnerable populations like the youth and elderly in Waipahu.

Short-term recommendation: public service announcements (PSAs). One strategy to address

extreme heat waves is through the use of PSAs. Shortterm weather forecasts can fairly accurately anticipate the onset of heat waves (Fountain, 2016). Seasonal, long-term forecasts are becoming increasingly more precise as scientists and meteorologists have a better understanding of how climatic patterns will affect future weather anomalies (McKinnon et al., 2016). With more advanced notice and lead time, emergency planners and health workers can help communities prepare for the potential impacts of extreme heat waves. Providing vulnerable populations with information and measures they can take to ready themselves for these events is a critical objective of PSAs, as seen in Figure 4.30.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has created a number of PSAs and podcasts to help people prepare and protect themselves as well as loved ones before, during, and after extreme heat events. The CDC’s PSAs use a variety of tools to communicate important strategies to reduce vulnerability to heat waves. These tools include audio messages, youtube videos, infographics, and social media posts. Some of the

Figure 4.30. Climate change extreme heat information handout (Climate Change, 2016).

CDC’s recommendations in these PSAs are: keep cool by staying indoors, find a public air-conditioned gathering space such as a mall or public library, wear light clothing, stay hydrated by avoiding alcohol or sugary drinks, and check on others who might be susceptible to the effects of extreme heat. This includes messages about what to do in the event of a power outage caused by a heat wave, and could be expanded to include information about energy conservation in the lead-up to an extreme heat event.

The City of Rotterdam in the Netherlands is actively pursuing PSAs to inform its citizens of the potential effects of extreme heat. As part of Rotterdam’s Climate Change adaptation strategy, the city will ensure that specific target groups like the elderly are aware of the risks posed by extreme heat, and will be informed about the measures they can take to experience a healthy and pleasant living environment (Rotterdam Climate Initiative, 2013). The City of Rotterdam is making the provision of information and actions an important element of measures in addressing the potential for increased temperatures and extreme heat events caused by climate change.

The use of PSAs to address the potential impacts of extreme heat events could be an effective strategy in Waipahu. Due to the community’s cultural diversity, PSAs in Waipahu will need to reflect the cultural makeup of the area and therefore be translated to Samoan, Chuukese, Marshallese, Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Ilocano, Tagalog, etc. Despite the potential cultural constraints, they can be a relatively cheap and effective way to reach large groups of people as most media outlets offer airtime for PSAs for free or at discounted prices. PSAs are a simple way to provide people with necessary information and actions that can reduce their vulnerability to extreme events. The State-held parcels near the Pouhala Station contain vulnerable populations within their borders, with two structures dedicated to elderly housing as well as a neighboring property catering to those with disabilities. One of the takeaways from the Talk Story event held in Waipahu was the importance and influence that the various church groups hold in the area. The churches and their leaders could be very useful in disseminating critical information and these church networks should be utilized in a PSA campaign.

In addition to church networks, the Waipahu Civic Center and the various community services provide channels to reach groups who need the additional support provided by the State. The Civic Center offers another avenue to provide information to vulnerable populations. The authors found the Waipahu Civic Center to be very supportive of efforts to improve the community; they helped circulate flyers, attended the Talk Story event, and were a key source of input in the community mapping exercise. If the Waipahu Civic Center is transformed for alternative uses during redevelopment of the State’s parcels, the State should give strong consideration to how the informational channels provided by the services housed there might be replaced. Presently, the various church networks and the Waipahu Civic Center offer excellent resources that should be utilized in a PSA campaign.

A PSA campaign addressing the potential impacts of climate change and extreme heat effects could have immediate benefits within this vulnerable community, as information and networking could be spread with some ease. In addition to reducing GHG emissions and increasing energy efficiency as a response to climate change and the threat of extreme heat events, any redevelopment of the State-held parcels should consider the provision of public space for facilitation of PSAs and to accommodate nearby vulnerable populations that may not have access to air conditioning. The use of PSAs to address the impacts of heat waves could be developed and deployed in a relatively short amount of time.

Short-term recommendation: building codes/ built form. A disturbing number of coastal states have eased their building codes because of pressure from developers who see the upfront costs associated with building codes as too expensive (Urbanek, 2018). The State should not follow this trend, and continue to update and enforce current design standards. Incentives should be investigated to entice developers to exceed building standards. The National Institute of Building Sciences in its National Hazard Mitigation Save: 2017 Interim Report found that investing in hazard mitigation measures exceeding select requirements of the International Code Council would help the nation save $4 for every $1 spent (Multihazard Mitigation Council, 2017; Hill &

Kakenmaster, 2018). Figure 4.31, “Benefit-Cost Ratio,” shows the potential benefits in savings by investing in built form mitigation measures for five different potential hazards.

After a year where 16 separate weather events totaled a record-breaking $306.2 billion in costs, the State should use building codes as an adaptation measure for future extreme heat waves in Waipahu (NOAA, 2018). Homes or buildings that are more insulated and have higher quality windows with a slower heat gain coefficient and a tighter structural envelope will stay cooler in the heat of summer, despite power outages and the loss of electricity (Urbanek, 2018). Additional measures could include codes that: permit highly reflective or light colored roof materials; incorporate natural ventilation into the design of a structure as well as its east/west orientation to the sun; optimize daylighting to decrease energy consumption; identify high-efficiency lighting and equipment to reduce waste-heat generated; allow for the harvesting of rainwater to limit runoff and water consumption; and encourage carefully crafted landscaping spaces to provide shading (Ward & Wilson, 2009). Some of these codes and features will help the structure’s performance as well as the passive survivability of the building if the power were to go out during an extreme heat wave, particularly for vulnerable populations.

Building codes that address heat through these features have the added benefit of potentially reducing GHG emissions by reducing a structure’s energy consumption, thus confronting a main contributor to global warming and extreme heat waves. Hawai‘i Revised Statutes 196-9 requires newly constructed or substantially renovated state-owned facilities to be built to LEED Silver standards, as in the home shown in Figure 4.32 (ACEEE, 2018). Although LEED Silver certification addresses some levels of energy efficiency, it mainly focuses on HVAC and lighting performance issues. The State has already embarked on an aggressive campaign to become more energy efficient with its goal of 100% renewable energy generation by 2045 (Coggin, 2017). In addition to these efforts, steps should be taken to achieve Net Zero Standards meaning that the structure is utilizing integrated energy-saving technologies and practices to achieve very low energy use and carbon emissions, and produces energy from renewable sources. An effective way to help new or renovated structures in Waipahu achieve Net Zero Standards is with increased uptake of solar, and potential for site generation/use and storage. Further partnering with the Department of Energy’s SunShot program could make solar cost competitive without subsidies by reducing some of the soft costs for installation like permitting, labor and installation,

Figure 4.31. “National Benefit-Cost Ratio Per Peril” infographic (Multihazard Mitigation Council, 2017).

Figure 4.32. Example of a LEED home (Ward & Wilson, 2009).

and grid connectivity. Public-private partnerships could help in this endeavour, and have been implemented recently; Tesla’s Powerwall is currently using the sun’s energy to cool ‘Ewa Beach schools without increasing energy consumption. Minimally, new buildings for Waipahu should be designed for easy solar installation in the future. Precedents for building codes exceeding current standards and addressing extreme heat through reduced energy use can be found in New Orleans and Miami. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, Global Green used The Holy Cross Project, a sustainable design competition, to help New Orleans rebuild green. Located in New Orleans’ Lower Ninth Ward, the Holy Cross Project placed an emphasis on adaptation through passive survivability, or the idea that a structure should guard human health and safety in the event that electricity and other utilities have been lost during a natural disaster. The net-zero-energy and carbon neutrality community involves single family and multifamily residential structures based on these adaptive concepts of passive survivability. These Holy Cross structures include design features like rainwater collection and filtration systems providing water in emergency situations, solar panels, and power storage to allow for emergency refrigeration, which in total have enabled these structures to produce 70-80% of their electricity from photovoltaics on-site (Ward & Wilson, 2009). Other

design features include elevating the structures by four feet for flood protection, air flow underneath the building, shading elements and building orientation to limit east-west glazing, and natural ventilation. Target residents are teachers, architects, and nonprofit professionals (Pyne, 2015). One resident of the Holy Cross Project reported that her highest monthly gas and electric bill was $29 - significantly lower than average. Addressing heat adaptation hrough reductions in energy consumption and passive survivability have financial savings as well.

On a larger scale, the Brickell City Centre (Figure 4.33) is a 9-acre mixed-use complex of luxury condos, premier office buildings, a five star hotel, and a massive open-air shopping center constructed in Miami’s urban core (Lima, 2016). The Brickell City Centre is also located near a mass-transit station. Although the intended users are quite different from those in Waipahu, the Swire Group’s track record of success with mixed-use developments has helped these developers to think progressively about climate change. Their work could help inform similar resilient designs around the West Loch and Pouhala stations.

While most developers focus on a relatively short time frame between construction and sale, the Swire Group has taken a long-term approach to potential returns by building beyond many design standards and incorporating a number of adaptation strategies into the design of the Brickell City Centre. These strategies include: building higher than the current flood plain; a network of elevated platforms;

Figure 4.33. Brickell City Centre (Lima, 2016).

flood gates; elevated seawalls; landscaping featuring native plants and greenroofs; and its unique climate ribbon. The climate ribbon is constructed of steel and insulated glass for the purposes of shading and capturing bay winds; it cools the structure while also collecting and storing rainwater for irrigation (Figure 4.34). Bucking the trend of short-sighted developers advocating for fewer design constraints, the Swire Group understood and addressed some of the potential long-term challenges that climate change and specifically heat could have on the intended users.

Another lesson gleaned from the Brickell City Centre, the Swire Group, and its developmental interest in Miami has been the firm’s willingness to take the long view rather than focus on quarterly returns (Lima, 2016). Since the company’s roots stem from its beginnings in Hong Kong and Eastern Philosophies, they do not look at investments for short-term returns. Like many other Asian companies, the Swire Group does years of research prior to investing. Once the decision has been made to invest in a project, like the Brickell City Centre, the Group is prepared to make years and years of investment by retaining the management of its condos as well as ownership and operation of commercial space. This long-ranging project relationship is different from the approach that many U.S. developers take with a site, as they usually rid themselves of management contracts once construction is completed. The Swire Group has exhibited commitment and more importantly foresight due to its vested interests and the resiliency measures

incorporated into the Brickell City Centre. These Eastern investment philosophies and approaches to development should be considered as an essential element of potential development in TOD areas in Waipahu, especially in the context of climate change. Further research into similarly-minded developers should be given more consideration as partners as the State continues to pursue public-private partnerships. Additionally, other Asian development corporations could have the necessary backgrounds and understanding of features appropriate for the diverse cultures of Waipahu.

Short-term recommendation: increase the urban tree canopy. On March 1, 2018, Mayor Kirk Caldwell kicked off the City and County’s commitment to increasing Honolulu’s urban tree canopy to 35% by 2035 with a tree planting event at the Ala Wai Golf Course (Peterkin, 2018). To help reach the target of covering 35% of Honolulu with an urban tree canopy by 2035, Mayor Caldwell has set the goal of planting 100,000 trees by 2025. In order to formally declare these actions to O‘ahu’s general public and increase support for this urban forestry campaign, Mayor Caldwell signed a Proclamation on March 9, 2018 (Peterkin, 2018).

As a short-term goal to address extreme heat effects in Waipahu, the State should work with the City and County to use the their urban forestry campaign to increase Waipahu’s urban canopy. As the City and County’s 2012 Waipahu Community Survey reports, 67% of respondents strongly supported the planting of trees as a means of improving streets near major transit centers like the West Loch and Pouhala rail station as well as the Waipahu Transit Center. This survey result suggests that there is a want and need for an increased urban canopy in the Waipahu community. The State and the City and County should seize this opportunity to work with the community to address the impacts of extreme heat through an expansion of the urban forest in Waipahu. Besides the major transit centers, participants of the community mapping exercise indicated additional areas of Waipahu that could be improved with added greenery. Although the sample size was small, the map provides a platform and baseline for State plans.

Increasing the urban canopy in and around Waipahu could have immediate benefits for Waipahu’s

Figure 4.34. Climate ribbons implemented in the Brickell City Centre (Lima, 2016).

hot climate while protecting against more frequent and intense heat waves. The preservation and planting of more trees in Waipahu will play an important role in keeping the area cool as temperatures increase with climate change and global warming. Precedent for an improved urban canopy includes a partnership with Georgia Tech’s Urban Climate Lab and the Texas Tree Foundation, where the City of Dallas conducted an urban heat management study (Hardin et al., 2017).

The city of Dallas is vulnerable to the UHI effect and extreme heat waves due to its humid subtropical climate and high amounts of impervious surfaces. During summer, temperatures in Dallas average in the 90s for the months of June, July, and August (U.S Climate Data, 2017). The study reports that in 2011 there were an estimated 112 heatrelated deaths during the warm season (May through September) when average monthly temperatures ranged from a low of 72.8º in May to a high of 93.4º in August, and the city set a record for highest number of days over 100º ever recorded (U.S Department of Commerce & NOAA, 2018; Butchman, 2011). Using modeling that the authors developed, the Dallas Urban Heat Management Study found that greening strategies like tree planting, in conjunction with design strategies such as reflective roofing, can reduce the number of heat fatalities by an estimated 20% (Stone et al., 2017; Hardin et al., 2017). As much as 15º of cooling during summer days in part of Dallas could be achieved by greening strategies, and tree preservation and planting were found to be 3.5 times more successful in decreasing temperatures than cooling material strategies. The study suggested that Dallas could realize significant cooling benefits by planting around 250,000 trees (Stone et al., 2017).

Another urban area pursuing an increased urban canopy is Melbourne, Australia. The city of Melbourne is, like Honolulu, a member of the 100 Resilient Cities network. Melbourne’s “Urban Forestry Strategy” states that the city is currently facing three significant challenges: climate change, population growth, and urban heating (City of Melbourne, 2014). These are challenges that the State and Waipahu share with this Australian city. Melbourne has dedicated themselves to planting trees to reduce the impacts of urban heat island. The city has experienced significant temperature drops since planting these trees, and strives to continue increasing their canopy cover each

year. Currently, the city maintains more than 700,000 trees. One of Melbourne’s leading experts in urban forestry helped spearhead this project. He recently spoke in Honolulu and endorsed the City and County’s efforts in expanding its urban canopy. The benefits of planting more trees in Waipahu could also address flooding issues by dissipating downpours.

The State-held parcels currently have a 15% tree canopy coverage. Some areas could be immediately improved with more tree planting near the parking lots and bus stops near the parcels. If the parcels are redeveloped and building footprints altered to accommodate proposed density increases, the State should account for how this could affect Waipahu’s tree canopy. The State could leverage efforts by making it a community engagement event. Former parking lots could be turned into expanded community gardens or floodable parks designed to benefit the immediate area. Organizations like depave.org in Portland are good examples of groups overcoming social and environmental issues associated with overpaved places by bringing various community groups together to reconnect socially and environmentally. The State would have to find other willing agencies, public and private, to lend a hand in reducing the amounts of impervious surfaces on its properties; utilizing a nonprofit like Depave or Trees for Honolulu to help with such efforts could have multiple benefits beyond addressing the urban canopy in Waipahu.

Long-term recommendation: reduction of impervious surfaces and strategic use of urban form. As mentioned above, many Waipahu community members stated to the authors that all of Waipahu is hot. Waipahu’s warmer climate can primarily be attributed to its proximity to the coast of Pearl Harbor and the leeward or drier side of O‘ahu. Some current conditions contributing to the UHI effect in Waipahu are high amounts (63% of groundcover) of impervious surfaces likes streets and sidewalks, parking lots, roofs, buildings, and housing developments, and the lack of an urban canopy or sufficient green open spaces (Pearlman, 2016). These anthropogenic alterations to land surfaces disturb the surface energy balance and have three important effects on urban areas like Waipahu. First, they reduce the evaporative cooling effects that natural and vegetated surfaces can provide. Secondly,

impervious surfaces such as asphalt and concrete soak up more solar energy due to decreased reflectance of these materials, while releasing heat more slowly which can last well into the night. Finally, the urban form with tall and wide buildings can decrease the cooling effects of airflows, and increase surface area for heat absorption of solar energy. The impact of the UHI has been estimated in some areas to be in the range of less than 1º to over 8º in urban areas across the world (Stone et al., 2013). As the City and County and the State pursue TOD in Waipahu, anthropogenic surfaces and the urban morphology will increase, and expand the hot climate and UHI effects of Waipahu. Future global warming, climate change, and heat waves will amplify UHI in this community unless steps are taken to mitigate the loss of natural surface cover.

The State and City and County’s pursuit of smart growth in the form of TOD in Waipahu could aid in mitigating the effects of UHI effect over the long term. Through emphasizing more compact development, mixed uses, and alternative-transit patterns of growth (walking and biking) that are shared goals of TOD and smart growth, the State could use urban design to further mitigate impacts of UHI and rising temperatures (Stone et al., 2009). First, providing higher-density housing (including affordable housing) in TOD areas, rather than singlefamily homes, could preserve adjacent land for green spaces. Second, walking and biking pathways offer the opportunity to conserve land as they typically require less space than vehicular roads; the increased space could be used to provide more greenery and shade, additionally encouraging usage of these transit methods. These design elements present the opportunity to create a network of green corridors that could potentially diminish the impacts of UHI and decrease carbon emissions.

According to the Housing and Affordability Index created by the Center for Neighborhood Technology, Waipahu is a municipality with above-average access to jobs, public transport, and neighborhood compactness (CNT, 2017). However, the Index rates Waipahu’s locational efficiency as 0%, suggesting that residents in Waipahu need to get in their cars in order to perform daily tasks or enjoy recreational opportunities. Some of these problems will be addressed through TOD and its associated mixed uses. The greatest long-term challenge will be

in reducing the area’s reliance on cars and integrating the surrounding residential neighborhoods, which also offer opportunities to implement green spaces within their boundaries. As a method to integrate these areas, the peripheral parts of the proposed TOD zones that extend into single family home neighborhoods should be examined. Strategic placement of businesses like grocery stores or a movie theatre could provide incentives encouraging residents to avoid using their cars. The changes to land use and development patterns associated with smart growth principles and TOD could help mitigate the effects of UHI and climate change in this regard (Stone et al., 2009).

4.5 Conclusion: Overall Climate Change Recommendations for Waipahu

4.5.1

The six state-held parcels and the TOD around the West Loch and Pouhala Stations are an opportunity for change.

As the initial effects of climate change begin to impact communities across the globe, the realization that mankind has ignored previous warning signs and built in hazardous areas will become increasingly apparent. Although the City and County have already adopted the TOD zoning, ground has not been broken on the surrounding areas and neighborhoods for associated projects. There is still time to consider the impacts of flooding, sea level rise, storm surge, and extreme heat, especially as these hazards are expected to increase in the future. The analysis of these hazards and their potential impacts to the rail stations, their TOD areas, and the Waipahu community suggest that the State can play a significant role in reducing the risk and vulnerability this area faces. The State should take this opportunity to amend the TOD zoning and steer potential developments away from the hazardous areas identified by this analysis.

4.5.2 The State can show its commitment and leadership in addressing the issues of climate change and its associated impacts through the potential redevelopment in Waipahu.

The State of Hawai‘i is the only U.S. state to have a legally-mandated state government office dedicated to climate change. TOD in Waipahu is a chance for the State to demonstrate and continue its leadership by confronting the issues associated with

climate change. Besides steering TOD away from areas that will be impacted by the effects of climate change, the State can provide the leadership required to implement mitigation and adaptation strategies that decrease activities contributing to GHG emissions and climate change.

An alternative approach to developments around the West Loch and Pouhala stations that State should consider is EcoDistricts. EcoDistricts put more of an emphasis and holistic view on addressing climate change issues and some of the underlying problems that can lead to blighted urban areas. A primary goal of an EcoDistrict is to achieve carbon neutrality; confronting our reliance on the automobile is a factor in achieving that goal. Funding revenues such as ‘Green Bonds’ could help the State designate Waipahu as an EcoDistrict. This designation could aid the State in implementing climate change policies and strategies, similar to Honolulu’s membership in the Rockefeller’s 100 Resilient Cities program. For more information on EcoDistricts and Green Bonds, please see Appendices A and B.

4.6 References

ACEEE. (2018). Hawai‘i. ACEEE. Retrieved from www.database.aceee.org/state/hawaii

Advocate. (2015). Understanding the role of river restoration in maintaining good water quality. Retrieved from http://www.theadvocateproject.eu/ blog/

Amundsen, H., Berglund, F., & Westskog, H. (2010). Overcoming barriers to climate change adaptation—a question of multilevel governance? Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 28(2), 276-289.

Anderson, T.R., Fletcher, C.H, Barbee, M.M., Frazer, L.N., Romine, B.M. (2015). Doubling under coastal erosion from sea level rise by mid century in Hawaiʻi. Natural Hazards, 15(1), 75-103.

Burch, S., Sheppard, S.R., Stephen R.J., Shaw, A., Flanders, D., & Cohen, S. (2010). Planning for Climate Change in a Flood-prone Community: Municipal Barriers to Policy Action and the Use of

Visualizations as Decision-support Tools. Journal of Flood Management, 3(2), 126-139.

Butchman, H. (2011). Dallas Breaks Record for Most 100-Degree Days in a Year. Retrieved from https:// www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/dallasbreaks-record-for-most/55022

Church, J.A., & White, N.J. (2011). Sea-Level Rise from the Late 19th to the Early 21st Century. Surveys in Geophysics 32(4-5), 585-602.

City of Melbourne. (2014). Urban Forest Strategy: Making a Great City Greener 2012-2032. City of Melbourne: Urban Forestry.

City of New York. (2018). New Flood Standard Impacts. Retrieved from http://www.nyc.gov/html/recovery/ html/resources/abfe.shtml

Climate Change. (2016, October 26). Extreme Heat. Retrieved from https://ephtracking.cdc.gov/ showClimateChangeExtremeHeat.action

CMB. (2017). Global Climate Change Indicators. Retrieved from https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ indicators/

CNT. (2017). Municipality: Waipahu, HI. Retrieved from https://htaindex.cnt. org/fact-sheets/?lat=21.3866667&lng=158.00916670000004&focus=place&gid=5822#

Coggin, J. (2017, July 17). 3 Ways Hawai‘i Is Becoming More Energy Efficient. Department of Energy. Retrieved from: www.energy.gov/eere/articles/3ways-hawaii-becoming-more-energy-efficient

Department of Land and Natural Resource. (2015). Pouhala Marsh. Retrieved from http://hbmpweb. pbrc.hawaii.edu/dlnr/projects/sanctuaries/pouhala

Ecodistricts.org. (2017, August). AVE EcoDistrict, Atlanta, Georgia. Retrieved from http:// ecodistricts.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/edcase-study-ave-FINAL-august-3-2017.pdf

ECRR. (2014). What is river restoration? The

network for best practices of river restoration in Greater Europe. Retrieved from http://www.ecrr. org/RiverRestoration/Whatisriverrestoration/ tabid/2614/Default.aspx

EPA. (2016, August). What Climate Change Means for Hawaiʻi - US EPA. Retrieved from https:// www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/ documents/climate-change-hi.pdf

Eversole, D., & Andrews, A. (2014). Climate Change Impacts in Hawai‘i: A Summary of Climate Change and its Impacts to Hawai‘i’s Ecosystems and Communities. University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Sea Grant College Program, Honolulu, HI. Retrieved from http://seagrant.soest.Hawaii. edu/sites/default/files/publications/smfinalhawaiiclimatechange.pdf

FEMA. (2017, October). National Flood Insurance Manual. Retrieved from https://www.fema.gov/ media-library-data/1503240360683-30b35cc754f4 62fe2c15d857519a71ec/20_crs_508_oct2017.pdf

Field, C. B. (Ed.). (2012). Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, MA.

Field, C. B., Barros, V. R., Dokken, D. J., Mach, K. J., Mastrandrea, M. D., Bilir, T. E. & Girma, B. (2014). IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Fountain, H. (2016, March 28). Scientists Find a Way to Predict U.S. Heat Waves Weeks in Advance. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes. com/2016/03/29/science/heat-wave-predictionsweather.html

Freudenberg, R., Calvin, E., Tolkoff, L., & Brawley, D. (2016). Buy-In For Buyouts: The Case for Managed Retreat from Flood Zones. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

FEMA Flood Map Service Center: Hazus. (2017). Retrieved from https://msc.fema.gov/portal/ resources/hazus

Gurran, N., Hamin, E., & Norman, B. (2008). Planning for climate change: Leading practice principles and models for sea change communities in coastal Australia. University of Sydney, Faculty of Architecture Design & Planning.

Hardin, A. W., Liu, Y., Cao, G., & Vanos, J. K. (2017). Urban heat island intensity and spatial variability by synoptic weather type in the northeast US. Urban Climate.

Hayoe, K., Kossin, J., Kunkel, K., Stephens, G., Thorne, P., Vose, R., Wehner, M., & Willis, J. (2014). Our Changing Climate: Climate Change Impacts in the United States. The Third National Climate Assessment, U.S. Global Change Research Program, 19-67.

Haselbach, Liv M., Valavala, S., & Montes, F. (2006) Permeability predictions for sand-clogged Portland cement pervious concrete pavement systems.” Journal of Environmental Management 81(1), 4249.

Hauer, M.E., Evans, J.M., & Mishra, D.R. (2015). Millions projected to be at risk from sea-level rise in the continental United States. Nature Climate Change 6, 691-695.

Hawai‘i Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Commission. (2017). Hawaiʻi Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report. Honolulu, HI: Tetra Tech, Inc. and the State of Hawaiʻi Dept of Land and Natural Resources, & Office of Conservation and Coastal Lands.

Hill, A. C., & Kakenmaster, W. (2018). An overview of “resilience” and climate change. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 74(2), 61-65.

Hawai‘i Hazard Awareness and Resilience Program (HHARP) (2015, May 1). [Brochure]. Hawai‘i Emergency Management Agency. Retrieved from

https://21maile.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/1hharp-brochure.pdf

KBC (2009). Secular Growth Opportunities in Global Equities. Environmental Journal 2009, 145-159.

Kimmelman, M. (2017, June 15). The Dutch Have Solutions to Rising Seas. The World is Watching. The New York Times. Retrieved from https:// www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/15/world/ europe/climate-change-rotterdam.html?_r=0

Kubota, L. (2015, September 8). Sizzling Temperatures in Record Setting Summer. Star Advertiser. Retrieved from http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/ story/29986435/sizzling-temperatures-duringrecord-setting-summer

Liao, K. (2012). A theory on urban resilience to floods—a basis for alternative planning practices. Ecology and Society 17(4), 48.

Lima, D. (2016, May 15). City in a city: Brickell City Centre set to transform downtown Miami. Retrieved from http://www.miamiherald.com/realestate/article77579307.html

Luber, G., & McGeehin, M. (2008). Climate change and extreme heat events. American journal of preventive medicine, 35(5), 429-435.

Mach, K., & Mastrandrea, M. (2014). Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability (Vol. 1). C. B. Field, & V. R. Barros (Eds.). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

McKinnon, K. A., Rhines, A., Tingley, M. P., & Huybers, P. (2016). Long-lead predictions of eastern United States hot days from Pacific sea surface temperatures. Nature Geoscience, 9(5), 389.

McMichael, A. J., Woodruff, R. E., & Hales, S. (2006). Climate change and human health: present and future risks. The Lancet, 367(9513), 859-869.

Multihazard Mitigation Council. (2017). Natural Hazard Mitigation Saves 2017 Interim Report: An Independent Study. Principal Investigator Porter,

K.; co-Principal Investigators Scawthorn, C.; Dash, N.; Santos, J.; Investigators: Eguchi, M., Ghosh., S., Huyck, C., Isteita, M., Mickey, K., Rashed, T.;P. Schneider, Director, MMC. National Institute of Building Sciences, Washington.

Mykleseth, K. (2015, January 13). HECO says no rolling blackouts Tuesday night. Retrieved from http:// www.staradvertiser.com/2015/01/13/business/ heco-says-no-rolling-blackouts-tuesday-night/

Nerem, R.S., Chambers, D.P., Choe, C., & Mitchum, G.T. (2010). Estimating Mean Sea Level Change from the TOPEX and Jason Altimeter Missions. Marine Geodesy 33(1), 435-446.

NOAA. (2018, January 18). Office for coastal management. Retrieved from https://coast.noaa. gov/states/fast-facts/hurricane-costs.html

Pachauri, R. K., Allen, M. R., Barros, V. R., Broome, J., Cramer, W., Christ, R., & Dubash, N. K. (2014). Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 151.

Penning-Rowsell, E., Johnson, C., Tunstall, S. (2006). Signals from pre-crisis discourse: lessons from UK flooding for global environmental policy change? Global Environmental Change 16, 323-339.

Perlman, H. (2016). Why is this house wearing stilts? Retrieved from https://water.usgs.gov/edu/ impervious.html

Peterkin, O. (2018, March 1). Mayor kicks off urban canopy project with tree planting ceremony Retrieved from http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/ story/37629077/mayor-kicks-off-urban-canopyproject-with-tree-planting-ceremony

Pope, K. (2017). Paradise In Peril. Planning, 83(8), 1421.

Pouhala Marsh Wetland Restoration. (2015, July 10). Retrieved from http://www.oceanit.com/pouhalamarsh-wetland-restoration

Pyne, M. (2015, August 18). Holy Cross Project. Retrieved from https://www.globalgreen.org/blog/ i2qsa9ye9xmdtwmukf5fv2hvo0vubk

Rasche, A. (2009). “A Necessary Supplement” What the United Nations Global Compact Is and Is Not. Business & Society, 48(4), 511-537.

ROH Chapter 21. (2017, October 17). Retrieved May 5, 2018, from https://www.honolulu.gov/ocs/ roh/193-site-ocs-cat/975-roh-chapter-21.html

Rotterdam Climate Initiative. (2013). Rotterdam Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Rotterdam Climate Initiative: Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Scharpido, M. (2016). The End of Stationary: Searching for the New Normal in the Age of Carbon Shock. Chelsea Green Publishing: White River Junction, VA.

Spanger-Siegfried, E., Dahl, K., Caldas, A., Udvardy, S., Cleetus, R., Worth, P., & Hammer, N.H. (2017). When Rising Seas Hit Home: Hard Choices Ahead of Hundreds of US Coastal Communities. Union of Concerned Scientists: Cambridge, MA.

State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land and Natural Resources. (2018). Flood Hazard Assessment Tool. Retrieved from http://gis.hawaiinfip.org/fhat/

Stone Jr, B., Mednick, A. C., Holloway, T., & Spak, S. N. (2009). Mobile source CO2 mitigation through smart growth development and vehicle fleet hybridization.

Stone Jr, B., Vargo, J., Liu, P., Hu, Y., & Russell, A. (2013). Climate change adaptation through urban heat management in Atlanta, Georgia. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(14), 77807786.

Thompson, P.R., Merrifield, M.A., Leuliette, E., Sweet, W., Chambers, D.P., Hamlington, B.D., Jevrejeva, S., Marra, J.J., Mitchum, G.T., & Nerem, R.S. (2017). Global Oceans: Sea level variability and change. Bulletin of the American Meteorological

Society 98(8), S79-S81.

Tilley, D., Ogle, D., & St. John, L. (2011). Plant guide for water sedge (Carex aquatilis). USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Idaho Plant Materials Center: Aberdeen, ID.

Urbanek, L. (2018, April 05). The Climate is Changing. So Why Aren't State Building Codes? Retrieved April 18, 2018, from https://www.nrdc.org/experts/ lauren-urbanek/climate-changing-why-arent-statebuilding-codes

U.S Climate Data (2017). Temperature - Precipitation - Sunshine - Snowfall. Retrieved from https://www. usclimatedata.com/climate/dallas/texas/unitedstates/ustx1575

U.S Department of Commerce, & NOAA. (2018, April 01). DFW - Monthly and Annual Average Temperatures. Retrieved from https://www. weather.gov/fwd/dmotemp

Ward, A., & Wilson, A. (2009, August 28). Design for Adaptation: Living in a Climate-Changing World. Retrieved from https://www.buildinggreen. com/feature/design-adaptation-living-climatechanging-world

WASDOT. (2013). The EcoDistricts Framework: Building Blocks for a Sustainable City. Olympia, WA: Washington State Department of Transportation.

Weiser, M. (2015). Water Warrior: When the next flood comes, Roseville, California will be ready. Planning Publications. Retrieved from https://www. planning.org/planning/2015/aug/waterwarrior.htm

Williams, A., Rangel-Buitrago, N., Pranzini, E., & Anfuso, G. (2018). The management of coastal erosion. Ocean & Coastal Management 15(4), 1-18.

Yang, L., Qian, F., De-Xuan, S., Zheng, K. (2016). Research on Urban Heat-island Effect. Procedia Engineering 169(2016), 11-18.

Yi, S., Sun, W., Heki, K., & Qian, A. (2015). An

increase in the rate of global mean sea level rise since 2010. Geophysical Research Letters 42(10), 3998-4006.

Young, G. E. (1955). Contributions of the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act to Over-all Water Policies. US Soil Conservation Service.

Appendices

A. Ecodistricts

EcoDistricts were developed as a means of achieving holistic communities that move beyond just sustainability. According to the Washington State Department of Transportation (WASDOT) website, EcoDistricts are an all-inclusive action plan to advance sustainable development at the neighborhood scale by blending building and infrastructure projects with community and individual actions. The focus on the neighborhood and community scale is important to an EcoDistrict’s sustainability because this level is small enough to encourage manageable innovation yet big enough to have a noticeable impact. EcoDistricts strive to support the advocates and voices in the community to build better partnerships and buy-in from the various levels of stakeholders, ranging from community members all the way up to developers and government officials.

community participation, new patterns of human behavior, and an emphasis on local economic development. The goals of EcoDistricts share similar characteristics and intended outcomes of TOD without the heavy focus on transportation, while understanding the role of transportation in sustainable development.

In order to have a neighborhood or area certified as an EcoDistrict, a community must commit to the EcoDistrict Protocol (Figure 4.35) and its first steps of pledging action towards the Protocol’s Imperatives of Equity, Resilience, and Climate Protection. Equity covers a range of social, financial, or environmental problems that must be accounted for in every step of the decision-making process. Resilience covers topics like community strengths and weaknesses, the built form, and environmental features. Climate Protection seeks to address carbon emissions and move towards carbon neutrality since cities and urban areas are primarily responsible for global carbon dioxide and GHG emissions. These imperatives help form the pool of issues that stakeholders can then fragment into more actionable pieces, with the understanding that solutions will be ongoing and take time to achieve.

The next step in becoming an EcoDistrict is determining the Priorities that have been broken into six smaller categories in which to set goals and objectives: Place, Prosperity, Health & Wellbeing, Connectivity, Living Infrastructure, and Resource Restoration. These six Priorities are the steps needed to building a better community through more sustainable development patterns.

Figure 4.35. EcoDistricts Protocol

In this regard, the EcoDistrict approach is more bottom-up driven then other development models that have been implemented in the past. The broad goal of an EcoDistrict is to achieve after-effects that lead to improved environmental performance, application of emerging technologies, enhanced

Once the Priorities have been established, the next step in becoming an EcoDistrict is the Implementation phase. Like the previous levels in the Protocol, the Implementation phase consists of different actions to build towards the established stakeholder goals. The first Implementation phase is called Formation and involves pinpointing who the community advocates are, how they will collaborate, and which settings for decision-making will support effective action. These actions help inform and lay out the Roadmap phase that sets a path for the community to follow, with achievable targets and measurables to monitor progress. The ability to monitor progress is a key component to ensuring that progress towards goals is being made. Achieving the goals in each of

these areas are important, but continued progress is most highly emphasized by EcoDistrict advocates. These steps to certification are outlined in Figure 4.36.

public-private partnership creation of a housing plan that looked at turning university housing into a mixed-income housing establishment. In Waipahu, the State could continue to assess the viability its parcels

Figure 4.36. Steps to EcoDistrict certification (EcoDistricts.org, 2017).

Waipahu could benefit from peer learning and technical assistance provided by other EcoDistricts in the network addressing similar sustainability issues. This information and assistance could elevate the roadmapping and sustainability strategy formation as well as governance issues in Waipahu. By incorporating as many stakeholders as possible through public-private partnerships, an EcoDistrict in Waipahu can navigate the certification process by identifying performance measurables and emphasizing readiness and project governance.

One EcoDistrict that can help inform Waipahu’s path towards certification is the AVE EcoDistrict in Atlanta, Georgia. Although the AVE EcoDistrict contains a smaller population and has typically housed college students, the area is similarly made up of low-income earners with a household income of less than $15,000, and a historically marginalized population. Similar to many of the proposed Waipahu TOD projects and recommendations made in this report, the AVE EcoDistrict is attempting to implement and address issues like safety, green infrastructure, complete streets, bike shares, placemaking, urban agriculture, watershed restoration, environmental education, and affordable housing. The area in Georgia was designated as a mixed-use district to aid in increasing livability and opportunity for its residents. An early win for the AVE EcoDistrict in Atlanta was the multiparty

around the Pouhala and West Loch Stations for the development of mixed-income and affordable housing to enhance the livability and economic development opportunities for the immediate area.

Another project on the State’s radar that could enhance the viability of an EcoDistrict, similar to AVE EcoDistrict, in Waipahu is that of connectivity through the use of bike share and expansion of necessary bike infrastructure. In AVE EcoDistrict, the City of Atlanta Chief Bicycle Office in partnership with the city’s Relay Bike Share program have implemented more bike stations to encourage this form of alternative transportation, while also promoting exercise and outside community activity. The State and City and County must address bike infrastructure as they have laid out already in current plans for the Waipahu area. More bike share services like Biki, and more bike lanes or paths should be constructed throughout Waipahu. Every effort should be made to connect an increase of bike ridership to local businesses. Waipahu Bicycle & Sporting Store on Waipahu Depot Street could be a business that helps facilitate and support the implementation of bicycle ridership in the area. This form of alternative transportation is an important aspect of reducing the area’s reliance on vehicular transportation, and could help further reduce GHG emissions as relevant to EcoDistrict’s Imperatives of Resilience and Climate Protection.

AVE EcoDistrict is also pursuing living

infrastructure as a part of its stormwater management program, in conjunction with creating passive recreational elements that provide active spaces for residents to gather. Some of the parks being created within AVE EcoDistrict are part of a larger watershed restoration plan. Many community members have been asked for input on design and construction that will also aid in providing access to local jobs and workforce training to boost economic revitalization. The parks in AVE EcoDistrict will incorporate rain gardens, constructed wetlands, permeable pavement, retention ponds, and bioswales to help capture, clean, and retain stormwater from the area’s 37,500 cubic ft of streets. Heavy preference will be given to native plant species for these parks. Atlanta’s Department of Watershed Management estimates that this type of investment in green infrastructure and park space will help reduce sediment in local watersheds by 30% while also reducing fecal bacteria by 25%. The parks also look to honor significant historical figures who once lived in the area, like Martin Luther King Jr (Ecodistricts.org, 2017).

AVE EcoDistrict’s pursuit of living infrastructure and multipurpose park spaces should serve as a model for Waipahu. More green space and parks have been identified as wants by the community and action priorities by the state. By incorporating green infrastructure into the design of these parks, the State, City and County, and other private ventures can alleviate some of the stresses that the effects of climate change as well as infill development could potentially place on already-aged and overtaxed greyinfrastructure-based stormwater management plans.

B. Green Bonds

Climate-related investment opportunities have emerged in response to investor demand across asset classes. A rise in the number of investors who incorporate environmental, social, and governance criteria into their analyses has supported this trend (Rasche, 2009). Many are going a step beyond an environmental, social, and governance approach by specifically developing environmental strategies and incorporating climate change into their decisions (KBC, 2009; Penning-Rowsell et al., 2006). Considering climate as part of the investment process has potential short- and long-term financial implications and longer-term consequences for the

population. Investors can choose climate-related investments for a variety of different climate scenarios, such hurricanes or tsunamis. So far, such opportunities have been more concentrated in equity—both private and public—rather than fixed income (Rasche, 2009). Private equity allows investors to target ‘green’ investments such as green infrastructure more directly; this requires significant up-front costs, and allocations to private equity tend to be small. Although allocations to public equity are larger and are considered more transparent, most options offer opportunities to invest in big companies where green infrastructure is only one of many business areas (Rasche, 2009).

The urgency of the climate change issue and investors’ interest in environmental, social, and governance issues is supporting the growth of a ‘climate’ investment class to which large organizations and individual investors are increasing their investments. Green bonds are a fixed income product that supports initiatives that cut GHG emissions and help municipalities adapt to climate change. Table 4 describes several different types of these bonds. Although funds generated from green bonds are small relative to the amount needed to fill the climate change funding gap, they serve as a first step to start private sector financing from large institutional and retail investors for climate change solutions. As more investors integrate climate change risks and opportunities in their asset management process, there will be stronger incentives for market participants to design more financial opportunities for investors interested in putting their assets to work for financially sound investments that also have a positive impact on climate change.

The green bond market has attracted many different types of issuers whose activities promote a low carbon economy, contributing to a range of risk/ return investment opportunities. To finance climate change adaptation in Hawai‘i, the state could reinstate the revenue bond that originally backed electricity fees on residential solar systems, but now finance SLR adaptation or flood mitigation strategies, such as green infrastructure or impervious surfaces.

Types of Green Bonds

DEVELOPMENT

Abbreviations

CBA Community benefits agreement

CBED Community-based economic development

CDC Community development corporation

CDFI Community Development Financial Institution

CEDS Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy

CLT Community Land Trust

DAGS Department of Accounting and General Services

DBEDT Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism

DLIR Department of Labor and Industrial Relations

DLNR Department of Land and Natural Resources

DOE Department of Education

EDA Economic Development Administration

ESOP Employee Stock Ownership Plans

EZ Enterprise Zone

FTZ Foreign Trade Zones

GDP Gross domestic product

GET General Excise Tax

HART Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation

HHFDC Hawai‘i Housing Finance and Development Corporation

HiSTEP Hawai‘i State Trade Expansion Program

HPV Hawai‘i Plantation Village

HPHA Hawai‘i Public Housing Authority

HSDC Hawai‘i Strategic Development Corporation

PBCP Pacific Business Center Program

SBA Small Business Administration

SBDC Small business development centers

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research

SNAP Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

TOCBED Transit-oriented community-based economic development

TOD Transit-oriented development

RISE Rewarding Internships for Sustainable Employment

5.1 Introduction

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is known for its ability to stimulate economic growth. This chapter explores economic development and TOD in Waipahu. The overall mission is to provide a framework for fostering equitable economic development around TOD areas that empowers surrounding communities and mitigates TODrelated displacement. The strategy of transit-oriented community-based economic development (TOCBED) is utilized which focuses on a more holistic approach of economic development grounded in the idea that wealth in a community extends far beyond just financial capital. TOCBED acknowledges this wealth and grows off of it so that development resonates with the targeted community. Specific strategies for implementing TOCBED in Waipahu will be presented along with the process so that they can be adapted for stations in the future.

5.1.1 Goals.

Five goals were identified to help accomplish the above mission.

Identify the key goals specified in the TOD plans for Waipahu. In developing strategic plans for TOD on O‘ahu, the State of Hawai‘i and City and County of Honolulu have outlined a number of key objectives for sites along the rail corridor. The State TOD Strategic Plan (2017) directly names economic growth and revitalization as a goal for neighborhoods directly impacted by transit development. City Ordinance 17-54 mandates a neighborhood TOD plan for each of the 21 Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation (HART) rail stations, specifying economic growth as a necessary objective to consider in crafting these plans. Our study focuses on the Waipahu Neighborhood TOD Plan adopted in April 2014 and the State TOD Strategic Plan adopted in December 2017; these plans cite economic development as a key objective identified by stakeholders and community members.

Aid in the design and implementation of economic development. While economic development is continually cited in reports and government mandates, there is no specific mandate for what

an economically vibrant neighborhood looks like, beyond diverse job creation, higher building heights, and street-accessible storefronts. There is not yet a blueprint for achieving this goal at each TOD site.

Provide precedent for future stations and TOD work. The Waipahu neighborhood plan serves as a one of the State’s identified “city catalytic projects” (State TOD Strategic Plan, 2017) for development along the HART rail corridor, including increased economic activity. To facilitate the use of these plans as prototypes for future stations, these methods and recommendations focus largely on template creation which can be applied to TOD work outside of Waipahu. This report includes documentation of our process of understanding, mapping, and leveraging community assets.

Mitigate TOD-proximate property value effects. TOD has been shown to increase living expenses for residents living in proximity to transit sites. Land values increase around zones of transit development both for residential and commercial properties (Xu, Zhang, & Aditjandra, 2016). As property values increase, renters experience short-term rent increases while new homeowner demographics begin to shift over the long term. These effects are replicated in commercial property values and rental prices, possibly constricting access to small business opportunities, or passing along these increases to residents in the form of consumer price inflation. These factors may cause displacement if residents are not able to afford homes or seek economic opportunities within their community. Community economic development represents a pathway towards mitigation of rising rents and subsequent affordability issues.

Foster equitable growth in the region. These land price (and rent) increases ultimately have the potential to create pockets of unaffordability surrounding TOD areas. State goals include fostering equitable growth throughout the region; this study examines the role of community-based economic development in ensuring that increasing land prices are offset by job opportunities which match the skill base and interests of community members, and commercial activity which is useful for residents

of multiple generations. Collaboration between government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and community members is key to understanding the assets already available in the community; particular attention is paid to the role of engagement with local schools and students to recognize gaps between current and emerging economic sectors.

5.1.2 Gaps in existing research.

In the Waipahu TOD plans, economic development is mentioned as a key objective, yet none of the plans describe what this looks like, or how it should be implemented. Additionally, substantial community input has not been gathered on the topic. The current research on economic development as it related to TOD is also limited. This section of the report will address these gaps in the research by answering the following research question and subquestions:

1. How does TOD enhance/support/facilitate community-based economic development (CBED) strategies in Hawai‘i?

A. How can the State of Hawai‘i utilize regional assets to support economic development?

B. How can this be applied in Waipahu?

C. How can this be applied to other TOD stations and projects?

5.1.3 Intent of study.

This chapter is intended to provide information that can inform community-based economic development within TOD neighborhoods. While CBED and TOD typically represent two distinct subfields in planning, we outline core strategies based on best practices from other communities that have implemented a transit-oriented community-based economic development (TOCBED) approach to local economic development. The chapter takes into consideration: how TOCBED can be implemented; how it applies to Waipahu; and how it can translate as a model for other TOD.

There are three main sections. The first provides a background of Waipahu’s social and community characteristics, giving context for the economic industries shaping present day conditions. The second section provides a background of economic development starting with traditional

economic development. The concept of CBED is then introduced, with key principles outlined and discussed. Finally, the main overarching economic development approach for this chapter, TOCBED, is introduced and discussed, including its core strategies. The third section discusses how TOCBED strategies can best be applied in Waipahu. Recommendations are provided with supporting case studies and reasoning. These recommendations are then compared to input from the community to identify how they address their concerns and desires. The chapter concludes with a summary and some discussion on implications of the strategies presented, and how they can be used as a template for future TOD.

5.2 Methods

The goal of the research presented in this chapter is to determine how TOD can enhance and facilitate CBED strategies in Hawai‘i. Our underlying assumptions for this research are as follows:

• Individuals, families, and communities organizations seek greater choice and control over their economic futures

• Meaningful and lasting community change originates and is sustained from within the local community, but requires collaboration between sectors

• All people have gifts that can be shared and supported to better themselves and their communities

Each section of this report utilized different methods based on type of data required.

5.2.1 History.

Historic information was obtained through online and archival research. Hawaiian place names tied to Waipahu were researched online via ulukau.org, an online repository for Hawaiian language and knowledge. History pertaining specifically to Waipahu comes from a cultural survey completed by Kumu Pono Associates LLC and various books. Additional information was gathered from past planning documents, newspaper archives, and organizational websites.

5.2.2 Demographics.

To get a preliminary understanding of Waipahu, demographics were obtained from the Census. American Fact Finder was used to collect data from the American Community Survey (ACS, 2012-2016). Data was gathered for Waipahu Census Designated Place. The various tables were downloaded and further consolidated to represent the major findings on each topic. The number of people in the various categories of a table (such as male and female) were turned into percentages based on the total population of the particular table. The percentage was used to minimize discrepancies in the ACS data such as different total population counts on the tables studied. The topics covered were age, nativity, education, occupation, household income, and basic count estimates. Additionally, some of the findings were compared to the County of Honolulu to see if there was a large difference between the two.

5.2.3 Existing industries.

In order to identify the existing industries in Waipahu, Google Maps was utilized. The Waipahu boundary from Google Maps was used, and all businesses that were registered were recorded into Excel. Based on NAICS codes, the businesses were organized into major industries. The NAICS database was not used because it was outdated.

5.2.4 Community data.

Past community workshops conducted by the City and County of Honolulu for their Waipahu TOD plan and workshops done by other partners were examined. All relevant notes from those workshops were collected and summarized. This allowed for a pre-look at the community wants and needs surrounding TOD to better inform our research as well as address missing information for the April 2018 community workshop. Additional surveys were created on Google Forms and emailed to community members for more current qualitative feedback on current and emerging industry sectors.

5.2.5 Traditional economic development research.

Research on traditional economic development included a literature review of contemporary economic and transportation planning journal articles and government reports from TOD case studies. Particular

attention was paid to State and County level reports and legislation for comparison of stated objectives.

5.2.6 Community-based economic development research.

Research on community-based economic development included a literature review and interviews with local stakeholders and planners. Literature reviews were conducted to synthesize community development plans from multiple Hawai‘i counties and compare these goals to case studies of CBED efforts, including enterprise zones, community benefits agreements, business incubators, and community development block grants. Interviews were conducted with stakeholders from HART, GEAR UP, and several community organizations with ties to economic development within Waipahu.

5.2.7 Transit-oriented community-based economic development.

Research on TOCBED efforts included a synthesis of available literature—currently limited to the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa’s “Transit-Oriented Community-based Development Project” report— with other case studies and best practices in CBED, to identify core strategies that enhance such economic development within transit development areas.

5.2.8 Strategies and recommendations.

TOCBED strategies and analysis of crosssectoral (government, nonprofit, and community) roles and responsibilities were synthesized to create a process map of sector engagement specific to the Waipahu region. Recommendations were made with a focus on identifying roles the state can play in implementing these strategies and aiding communication with other relevant agencies.

5.2.9 Community workshop.

Preparation for the April 2018 community workshop included interviews with stakeholders and community members for feedback on best practices in workshop implementation and securing attendance, creating social media posts, and distributing flyers to schools to reach student populations. The PLAN 751 practicum class worked together to organize the event, working in groups. The event consisted of poster stations for each chapter/topic of this report. There

were two posters and a notepad for each station. Two team members were posted at the station. As participants came to the station, the team members would briefly explain the concept and then engage in a dialogue to gather their input. Roughly 50 people attended, one-third of which were Waipahu residents, and the other two-thirds consisted of academics and stakeholders in the community.

5.3 Background: Social and Community

5.3.1 Waipahu history.

Historical events have been shown to have long-term effects on economic development (Nunn, 2009). The history of a place will influence the institutions that are present, the culture and

knowledge of the people and many other variables in communities (Nunn, 2009). Therefore, when implementing TOD strategies for economic development in Waipahu, it is important to first understand the historical roots.

Pre-Contact to Great Mahele. Most archaeologists agree that the first Polynesian settlers arrived in the Hawaiian Archipelago between 1-600 CE. As population grew, Hawaiian settlements spread to the leeward sides of the islands. Prior to western contact in 1778, the Hawaiian Kings were the sovereign owners of all of the land which was in turn controlled by the ali‘i nui or high chiefs and tended or farmed by the maka‘ainana or commoners. Land divisions were determined by geography (RE3,

Figure

Historical Map of the Moku of ‘Ewa By S. M. Kanakanui, 1894 (AVA Konohiki, n.d.).

2004). The largest land unit within the island was the moku, which was broken into narrow strips called ahupua‘a. Each ahupua‘a was intended to be selfsufficient. Groups of extended families were tasked with maintaining the ecological health of their valley, and by extension, the overall well-being of their community (Kamehameha Schools Hawaiian Studies Institute, 1994).

The area now considered Waipahu encompasses three ahupua‘a (land divisions) within the moku (district) of ‘Ewa on the island of O‘ahu. Historically, the coastal wetlands were home to lo‘i (taro patches) and abundant fishponds – Loko Eo and Loko o Hanaloa. The area is also noted in mo‘olelo in connection the shark goddess Ka‘ahupāhau. The name Waipahu (Waipahū) originates from a noted spring which fed into the Waikele Stream. The spring is said to have been connected to Kapukanawaiokahuku spring in Kahuku and also is said to be one of the entrances to the famed royal burial cave of Pohukaina. According to historical records and mo‘olelo, the land division encompassing Waipahu spring was an ‘ili kūpono – a nearly independent ‘ili land division within an ahupua‘a, paying tribute to the ruling chief and not to the chief of the ahupua‘a. Transfer of the ahupua‘a from one chief to another did not include the ‘ili kūpono located within its boundaries (Ulukau, n.d.). Waipahu was first recorded as name of the area for the land between Waipi‘o and Ho‘ae‘ae when William Jarrett was granted 75.93 acres in 1849 following the Great Mahele of 1848 (Nedbalek, 1984).

Post-Great Mahele to 1900. In the late 1800’s, Chinese immigrants began moving to Waipahu to cultivate rice and pursue economic opportunity. The newcomers began buying land from taro growers, planting rice in the existing low-lying areas already being flooded for lo‘i, and using the fishponds for commercial aquaculture. The new wave of economic development for Waipahu grew quickly as Chinese landowners bought out releases for other Chinese plantation workers or brought Chinese immigrants to work solely in rice fields (Nedbalek, 1984).

In 1877, James Campbell purchased 40,000 acres and began digging artesian wells. By 1888, Campbell’s wells produced enough water to irrigate a large plantation. In 1897, a few years after the illegal

overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, O‘ahu Sugar Company was incorporated, thus ushering a new era of Waipahu as a sugar mill town.

Plantation Era (1900-1995). The opening of O‘ahu Sugar Company initiated an influx of immigrants to Hawai‘i and a confluence of cultures within Waipahu. With a growing population, civic life in Waipahu shifted to reflect the changes. Economic development clustered near the sugar mill in order to provide goods and services to the growing population of plantation workers and their families. Development during the early part of this era included: a fire station, post office, hospital, theater, Tawata Saimin, Hanaoka Store/Fountain, Kawano’s, Kiso Store, Nii Superette, Dung’s Restaurant, Sing York Kee General Store, a billiards parlor, a barber shop below the dentist, and Arakawa’s. Many early businesses were opened by Chinese rice growers and former plantation workers (Nedbalek, 1984).

Waipahu played a major role in the history of organized labor in Hawai‘i. Prior to labor unions, Japanese plantation workers organized numerous strikes to demand working conditions and higher wages. The 1909 strike saw Waipahu plantation workers forced back to work at gunpoint (Center for Labor Education & Research, n.d.). Another islandwide strike in 1920 involved both Japanese and Filipino workers. Families left plantation and moved in with friends and relatives, relying on community kitchens and shared food (Nedbalek, 1984).

Athletics were a central aspect of community life during the plantation era, a legacy that continues to this day. Many athletes renowned both locally and nationally come from Waipahu—particularly boxers and baseball players. Waipahu is home to Hawai‘i’s first sports field (now Hans L’Orange Field). Japanese, Filipino, and Portuguese communities all fielded teams that competed (and won) in rural sports leagues organized across the islands. Famous athletes include:

• Henry Oana – member of O‘ahu Sugar baseball team; left to play professionally

• Johnny Yasui – professional boxer

• James Moniz – represented Hawai‘i in cycling at 1936 Olympic trials for Berlin Olympics

• Walter Gouveia – represented Hawai‘i in long distance running at 1936 Olympic trials for Berlin Olympics

• Albert Silva – champion boxer and long-time coach

Post-Plantation (1995-Present). Following the closure of O‘ahu Sugar Company’s mill in 1995, a number of central businesses closed in Waipahu, including: Arakawa’s, Big Way Supermarket, Sack ‘n Save, and the Flamingo restaurant. State and city planners and community members responded by initiating a number of community-based planning efforts to bring in outside resources to improve community facilities and assets. These efforts resulted in a number of developments that continue to be important community features, including: Filipino Community Center. The FilCom Center was formally inaugurated in June 2002 as a project of the Filipino Chamber of Commerce of Hawai‘i. Built on 2 acres of land donated by Amfac Inc., the community raised $9 million from private donations along with public and private foundation grants. Major donors included: The Harry & Jeanette Weinberg Foundation, the City and County of Honolulu, the Department of Commerce, the State of Hawai‘i, VA Housing and Urban Development, and the Consuelo Zobel Alger Foundation.

Hawai‘i’s Plantation Village. Hawai‘i’s Plantation Village (HPV) opened in 1992, and is a living museum, managed and operated by Waipahu Cultural Gardens, which was founded by Goro Arakawa, son of Zempan Arakawa. HPV has more than 25 authentic and restored plantation homes that show what life was like between the 1850s and 1950. Cultural groups represented include Hawaiian, Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Korean, Okinawan, Portuguese, and Puerto Rican.

Waipahu Civic Center. The state owned Waipahu Civic Center houses regional services for leeward O‘ahu. Tenants include: Department of Health – Public Health Nursing Branch, State of Hawai‘i Unemployment Insurance Division, and the State of Hawai‘i Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Office.

Waipahu Festival Marketplace. The Waipahu Festival Marketplace and Business Incubator and Training Center opened in 2007. A project of the Waipahu Community Association, Waipahu Festival Marketplace includes stalls designated for microenterprises participating in a business incubator and

job training program.

Waipahu Sugar Mill - YMCA. Waipahu YMCA is housed in the old sugar mill building, which was purchased from Amfac Inc. in 1997. The renovations, which broke ground in 2004, include a pool and fitness center. Programming includes sports and martial arts, health and wellness, performing arts, and childcare. Waipio Peninsula Soccer Complex. Development of a soccer stadium complex at the Waipio Peninsula was completed and opened in 2000. The Honolulu City and County park provides competitive soccer facilities, including approximately 19 soccer fields for youth and adults and a 4,000seat stadium for tournaments and professional competition. The stadium is home to the University of Hawai‘i women’s soccer team and hosts amateur and professional competitions. 5.3.2 Waipahu today.

Waipahu is currently home to about 40,000 people (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016d). A large percentage are dependents (under 18 years old) and middle aged adults (see Figure 5.2). Economic development would benefit by focusing on support

Figure 5.2. Age breakdown of Waipahu residents (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016d).

strategies that aid these two age groups.

About two-thirds of Waipahu’s population is employed, with a median household income of $72,447 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016c). While the employment rate in Waipahu is similar to that of Honolulu County, the median income is about 10% less (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016c). This suggests presence of a lower-skill workforce, which can also be seen in Waipahu resident’s top occupations and educational attainment compared to that of Honolulu County (see Figures 5.3 and 5.4).

Reminiscent of the influx of immigrants in Waipahu during the plantation era, 40% of the population is foreign-born compared to about 20% for Honolulu County as a whole (U.S. Census Bureau,

2016e). As seen in the above data, this portion of the population tends to have lower educational attainment and fewer skills for high-paying jobs. They often work towards opening their own businesses. This is important when tailoring economic development for their needs.

The major existing industries within Waipahu are Food and Beverage Services, Automotive (Repair, Maintenance, Retail), General Retail, Religious Organizations, and Industrial Retail (Google Maps, n.d.). Figure 5.5 shows a full breakdown of the industries located in Waipahu.

The State of Hawai‘i has identified targeted industries for economic development (Table 5.1). While none of the major industries in Waipahu align

Figure 5.3. Top occupations of Waipahu residents (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016b).

Figure 5.4. Educational attainment of Waipahu residents (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016a).

with this list, about 6% of the individual businesses fall into one of the categories. Additionally, of the major industries in Waipahu (further breakdown seen in Figure 5.5), 13% of the residents currently work in one of the targeted industries. These targeted industries should be a focus for economic development in Waipahu when they align with community desires. Through community workshops and surveys conducted by the City and County of Honolulu for their Waipahu TOD Plan, many community values were highlighted. Those who responded were concerned with the support of small businesses and the need for increased educational opportunities. These values recapitulate the census data summarized above, showing the need to support the small businesses common to immigrant populations as well as to provide educational opportunities for the large portion of dependents in the community. Therefore, it is important for economic development strategies to align with these concerns and desires.

Figure 5.5. Major Industries in Waipahu (Google Maps, n.d.).

Hawai‘i’s Targeted Industries

Note. Reprinted from Hawai‘i CEDS Report (2017).

5.4 Background: Economic Development

5.4.1 Traditional approaches to economic development.

First wave economic development. Historically, Western economic development theory has moved through three periods or ‘waves.’ The first wave of economic development is based on export-base theory with a focus on attracting capital resources from other locations (Blakely & Bradshaw, 1999; Shaffer, Deller, & Marcoullier, 2006). This strategy, sometimes referred to as “smokestack chasing,” pushes for industrial development using policies such as tax incentives, low-rent land, job training, and even direct payments (Zheng, 2009).

This approach took off in the United States as a response to the Great Depression and again in efforts following World War II. In Hawai‘i, growth of industrial agriculture grew out of this first wave approach during the early 20th century. As large-scale agriculture operations spread across the state, the power and control over the local economy became tied to the export-based agriculture industry and those who owned the companies. The Big Five companies, as they became known, were the biggest benefactors of this form of economic development, ultimately controlling nearly all aspects of economic life from the plantation to banks to transportation and wholesale retail (Kent, 1993). As such, whole regions became dependent on a single industry to sustain the economy. Though not a primary strategy in most

economic development planning today, first wave economic development did take new life as part of the Obama administration’s post-Great Recession strategy to boost U.S. exports and increase green jobs in renewable energies (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). First wave economic growth strategies are expensive for local governments. Research has shown that such policies can cost as much as $7,000 per job when accounting for both lost tax revenue and revenue gained through the new businesses (Bartik, 2003). These strategies may be effective when local unemployment is quite high, but literature suggests that rather than incentives for businesses to relocate, infrastructure or job-training incentives are more sustainable for the local economy if businesses leave the region (Bartik, 2003; Bartik, Eisinger & Erickcek, 2003).

Second wave economic development. The second wave of economic development began emerging in the 1960s and 1970s as the focus shifted from attracting new industries to retaining and expanding existing businesses, entrepreneurships, and public private partnerships to remain competitive in the global economy. Policy tools increased investment for local companies through revolving loan funds, below-market loans, tax-increment financing, and enterprise zones (Blakely & Bradshaw, 1999; Shaffer et al., 2006). This second wave shifted federal funding to local development aligned at a regional scale — in 1977, regional councils across the U.S. peaked at 669 (Olberding, 2002). Government-funded incubators, small business development centers (SBDCs), and capital market programs, received capital from federal, state, and private partners to provide small business loans and other technical support (Bartik, 2003).

Third wave economic development. While the first two waves focused almost exclusively on supporting private business growth to compete on a global scale, the third wave of economic development takes a more holistic approach by focusing on community-level economic development and improved quality of life for low-skill labor and lowincome communities (Shaffer et al., 2006; Zheng, 2009). This third wave shifts away from traditional business development and aims to support all participants in the local economy to make maximum contributions (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). In doing so,

third wave strategies focus on collaboration and partnership-building across communities. They are more concerned with the ways workers and businesses cluster and the related social and political contexts within specific regions and communities (Blakely & Bradshaw, 1999; Shaffer et al., 2006). For instance, Jennings (1999) calls for community development to be place-based by coordinating “functional arenas” such as health, education, housing, public policy, and economic development. These strategies take a community-based economic development approach, which can be seen as three-fold: (1) providing alternatives to mainstream market activities (products, services, jobs); (2) helping marginalized communities link better to mainstream market activities; and (3) making mainstream regeneration initiatives more effective by better integrating them with local communities, bringing the benefits of improved access to resources, knowledge, and legitimacy (Haughton, 1998). Specific strategies include regional collaboration based on distinct regional assets (e.g., human capital, education, amenities), community development investments to improve quality of life, building entrepreneurial capacity, and building the capacity of low-income and low-skilled workers to increase their financial assets (Leigh & Blakely, 2017).

Fourth wave economic development. An emerging fourth wave of economic development even further integrates the local economy and community with environmental and local resiliency. The more holistic approach is sometimes called sustainable local economic development or community-based economic development and is grounded in principles such as quality of life, fairness and equity, participation and partnership, preservation of the environment, and exercise of the precautionary principle (Leigh & Blakely, 2017; Newby, 1999). Unlike the previous waves, in fourth wave economic development, wealth is not limited to financial capital. Rather, it includes many different types of capital, which are contextdependent and often complementary to one another — human, intellectual, social, cultural, environmental, and political (Pender, Marre, & Reeder, 2012).

With this broader idea of wealth, economic development is achieved when a community’s standard of living can be preserved or increased

through a process of human and physical development that is based in principles of equity and sustainability (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). This definition of economic development brings in three elements that are not explicitly advocated for in previous waves. First, fourth wave economic development establishes a standard of living for all in the community, which goes beyond creating jobs and considers the quality of housing, affordability of healthcare, accessibility to education, and ability to save for retirement, among other things (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Second, fourth wave economic development considers who is benefiting from the growth of wealth and assets in community by reducing inequality between demographic groups as well as spatially defined groups (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Lastly, fourth wave economic development promotes and encourages sustainable resource use and production. Proponents of a fourth wave approach believe that economic development must incorporate goals of sustainability with consideration for future generations and also create demand for new kinds of products, markets, jobs, and industries that do not harm the environment (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Table 5.2 below provides an overview of all four waves of economic development based on the literature above

Table 5.2

Four Waves of Economic Development

and illustrates how more inclusive understandings of economic development have continually grown. Today’s economy is a global economy. The integration of national and local economies into one global economy has been bolstered by widespread neoliberal trade policies as more and more nations are able to join the international marketplace. Since 1980, global trade has grown 2.5 times faster than the global gross domestic product (GDP) and world exports account for nearly 20 percent of the world GDP (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Because the playing field has expanded to all corners of the globe, all firms and local labor forces must compete to a certain extent on the global scale.

The waves of economic development provide an overview of theoretical and strategic approaches to economic development. Together the waves of economic development illustrate that economic development theories must evolve to reflect changing economic context while maintaining relevance for local economic development goals. Though each wave can be viewed as a response to previous waves, strategies from each of the waves can still be applied if the local context calls for such an approach. In fact, for third and fourth wave economic development,

older strategies can be used in new ways that build the capacity of local economies and are responsive to local goals (Blakely & Bradshaw, 1999).

5.4.2 The government’s role in economic development.

Each branch of government plays a distinct role in economic development. In general, government must provide basic services and an efficient regulatory environment if it wishes to create economic development. The different levels of government look to do so at different scales. In addition to their economic impact through purchasing, grantmaking, and employment, each branch of government has their own set of responsibilities:

Federal. The role of federal government in economic development is primarily in providing

policy, regulatory, and tax framework for the nation. This includes payroll and income tax policy, regulation of markets, and macroeconomic policy such as monetary policy and trade (County of Hawai‘i, 2013). National programs or policies that do aim to achieve a specific development goal–for example, promote green manufacturing or increasing exports–will have little effect unless there is a companion policy at the state and/or local level to take advantage of the available federal resources along with additional local resources (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Examples of existing federal economic development policies and programs include: Opportunity Zones. Opportunity Zones are a new community development program established by Congress in the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 to encourage long-term investments in low-income urban and rural communities nationwide. The Opportunity Zones program provides a tax incentive

Figure

for investors to re-invest their unrealized capital gains into Opportunity Funds that are dedicated to investing into Opportunity Zones designated by the chief executives of every U.S. state and territory. Figure 5.6 indicates the locations of eligible areas in Waipahu which could become Opportunity Zones in the future.

State. State governments have their own economic goals. Typically, the State focuses more on business activities and workforce support within the state. As such, the State provides professional licensing, business registration, real estate, small business development, workforce development, unemployment insurance, consumer protection, and excise and income tax policy (County of Hawai‘i, 2013).

Bradshaw and Blakely’s (1999) study of state economic development policies identified characteristics of the most successful State economic development programs, identifying three main roles (as described in Table 5.3): leadership, information, and brokering.

Table 5.3

Roles of State Agencies in Economic Development

Role Activity

Leadership

In Hawai‘i, the State Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (DBEDT) uses a range of strategies to support the growth and development of Hawai‘i’s State economy to compete within the global context (Business Development and Support Division, n.d.). Examples of these policies and programs include:

Enterprise Zone Program. The Enterprise Zones (EZ) partnership is a joint state-county business effort to stimulate—via tax and other incentives—certain types of business activity, job preservation, and job creation in areas where they are most appropriate or most needed. The program includes: a sevenyear exemption from general excise taxes on gross proceeds; an 80% first-year income tax abatement (decreasing 10% each year); and an income tax credit equal to 80% of unemployment taxes paid the first year (decreasing 10% per year).

Foreign Trade Zone #9. Foreign Trade Zones (FTZ) provide duty-free treatment for items that are processed in FTZ and then re-exported. Duty payment

Emphasis by governor on economic development Business “welcome” events

Business councils, industrial associations Worker compensation and tort reform Environmental ombudspersons

Lotteries

Building community capacity to do attraction and retention

Information Technical assistance and standards University outreach programs

Electronic bulletin boards

Site information

Partnerships to do planning and promotion

Brokering

Permit one-stop shops

Coordination of economic development with other programs (e.g., housing)

Interstate regional cooperation Marketing

Note. Adapted from Leigh & Blakely (2017).

is also deferred on items until they are brought out of the FTZ for sale in the U.S. market. This incentive helps to offset customs advantages available to overseas producers who compete with domestic industry.

Workforce Training Funds. The Hawai‘i Department of Labor and Industrial Relations (DLIR) through its Workforce Development Division provides funding for business employment and training opportunities. These include: one-stop centers dedicated to providing free services to job seekers and employers, including job search assistance, personal career planning service, training opportunities; HireNet Hawai‘i support; and a library resource center.

Hawai‘i State Trade Expansion Program (HiSTEP). This program is designed to support small businesses with export-development-boosting revenue through activity and penetration in global markets. The program is administered by DBEDT and partner organizations, and funded through a grant with the US Small Business Administration (SBA).

Hawai‘i Small Business Innovation Research Program (SBIR). This program provides matching funds for businesses qualifying for an associated federal program providing small businesses the opportunity to win research and development awards.

High Technology Development Corporation: Innovate Hawai‘i. This federal program, administered by the state, helps manufacturers in all industries find, save, and make money by bringing best practices at an affordable cost.

Hawai‘i Strategic Development Corporation (HSDC). This agency was established to promote technology-based economic development and economic diversification in the state through returndriven investment programs in partnership with private capital. Its funds model does not invest directly into companies but into venture capital partnerships. Private sector investors pool funds from many investors and put it towards promising businesses. This agency supports an entrepreneurial ecosystem that provides mentoring, collaboration, and funding opportunities to help establish and scale business ventures.

Local (County). The most direct role local government plays in economic development is through land use regulation and property tax policy. Depending on their mandate, agencies can fill the role

of entrepreneur, developer, coordinator, facilitator, or stimulator, as described in Table 5.4.

In the City and County of Honolulu, the Office of Economic Development (2018) looks to facilitate and stimulate economic activity in four areas:

• Attracting businesses to O‘ahu and supporting local businesses

• Supporting Transit-oriented development

• Promoting diversified agriculture/aquaculture

• Expanding screen industries -- film, television, news media

Hawai‘i Statewide Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy. In addition to the policies and program mentioned above, the State Office of Planning updates their Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy (CEDS) every five years. CEDS is required in order for the state to receive funding from the federal Economic Development Administration (EDA). The CEDS identifies industry clusters along with strategies to support and strengthen these clusters. The 20162020 CEDS identifies the following clusters for the State: (1) Hospitality and Tourism; (2) National Security; (3) Health Care; (4) Research, Innovation, and Technology; (5) Agriculture and Food Production; (6) Energy; (7) Manufacturing; and (8) Creative Industries. The report also includes vulnerabilities referencing Hawai‘i’s biggest industry, the tourism market. These vulnerabilities are:

• Climate change and sea level rise

• Growing polarization in the community and the loss of Hawai‘i’s historical context

• Changes in values and the loss of common shared values

• Bypassed by the global economy

• High cost of living

The overarching vision for CEDS states: “our unique island state innovates and diversifies to ensure shared economic vitality” (Economic Development Alliance of Hawai‘i, 2016). The CEDS continues by outlining the following set of values driving their vision for statewide economic development:

• We value economic opportunity for all

• We value resilience

• We value and embrace diversity

• We value lifelong learning

• We value cultural traditions

• We value stewardship of the environment

• We value respect and collaboration

• We value broad-based community engagement

• We value global relationships

Taken together, these goals align with the more broadbased values of fourth wave economic development.

As such, we propose that the State build on the emerging fourth wave of economic development to promote a community-based economic development approach within the TOD area.

5.4.3 Our approach: transit-oriented communitybased economic development.

Community-based economic development. CBED is a local community development strategy that uplifts community voice with the aim of reaching and benefiting all in the community, particularly

Table 5.4

Roles of Local Agencies in Economic Development

Role A ctivity

Entrepreneur or developer

Coordinator

Facilitator

Stimulator

those typically left in the margins, such as lowincome residents (Kirkpatrick, 1995). Nationally and internationally, CBED is guided by three principles:

• Vision- & Values-Based: the belief that people can and will collaboratively problemsolve to realize their vision for a desired future that is anchored in a set of shared core values.

• Capacity Building: invest in strengthening local capacity to build resilient families and communities that have the ability to become full partners with the public and private sectors in affecting sustainable community economic development.

• Building Assets While Building Community: generate opportunities for families and communities to build assets to increase their economic self-sufficiency, including individual

Operating a commercial business enterprise

Opening government owned land or buildings for economic purposes

Transferring commercial land or buildings to local community and/or business groups

Collecting and evaluating economic information (e.g., employment levels, workforce, unemployment, establishments)

Working with other government agencies (state, federal, and local), businesses, and interest groups to develop economic objectives, plans, and strategies

Establishing policies and strategies for an area’s development

Streamlining the development process

Improving planning procedures and zoning regulations

Working with elected officials to meet local concerns

Developing brochures

Providing industrial buildings

Leasing workspace for small manufacturing or community-based enterprises

Business or industry promotion (e.g., tourism, local agriculture, cultural crafts)

Note. Adapted from Leigh & Blakely (2017).

and collective entrepreneurial/ownership options and strategies.

As an approach grounded in fourth wave economic development, wealth should be viewed in a more holistic manner to account for the community’s values, existing capacities, and ideas of wealth. This approach has also been called the Community Wealth Building approach.

Several alternative indicators have been developed to measure quality of life and to help craft public policy that leads to genuine social progress. These indicators can be applied within TODs:

• Environmental: determining the benefits people derive from ecosystems that do not have market prices. This includes the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting

Figure

Comparison of traditional and community-based economic development approaches. Reprinted from Shelterforce Magazine (2016).

(SEEA), ecosystem services valuation, and measurements of communities’ “ecological footprint.”

• Social: tracking family and community ties, living conditions, health, education, life satisfaction, and other factors that contribute to well-being. Examples of efforts to track social indicators include The World Happiness Report, the Gallup World Poll (GWP), the World Values Survey (WVS), the European Social Survey (ESS), and Bhutan’s Gross National Happiness Index (GNH Index).

• Household: measuring income, consumption, and savings at the household level to determine how households are affected by changes in the economy.

• Nonmarket: measuring value-creating activities that are not transacted in financial markets, like household production (estimated at 26% of GDP); the family, school, and community “care economy” of mutual assistance (i.e., nā ‘ohana economy); and public outputs from nonprofits, health care, and government that are not accounted for by GDP. (Ka‘u CDP, 2013).

Hawai‘i’s local culture offers an additional culture and values base that supports the practice of CBED locally. Though changes to land tenure systems following the passing of the Great Mahele in 1845 transformed Hawaiian social and economic systems, the values that inform the ‘ohana-based values system continue to guide communities across Hawai‘i (Kelly, 1980). Even with waves of immigration and ongoing integration of new cultures and ethnicities into Hawai‘i’s society, island families and communities continue practices rooted in these values. In the book Polynesian Family System in Ka‘u, Hawai‘i, Mary Kaena Puku‘i explains the features of ‘ohana to include:

• A cohesive force tied by ancestry, birth, and sentiment to a particular locality or ‘āina

• A mutual benefit association that “manifests genuine community spirit”

• An economic community where relationships regulate personal, social, and economic intercourse

• An internal system that includes voluntary giving of food, utilitarian articles, and services

as well as communal labor for large-scale projects (Handy & Puku‘i, 1950).

The values above highlight various factors that are important to consider for local economic development. First, the ‘ohana system is not only built on ancestry or birth, but includes a connection to a particular locality or place. The word ‘āina translates into english as “that which feeds us.” This definition connotes a connection or reciprocal relationship to the land or place, which brings with it a sense of responsibility and stewardship. With the introduction of rail into existing communities, economic development that fits with principles grown out with these connections to one another and to the land will be better suited for TOD.

Transit-Oriented Community-Based Economic Development. Understanding the underlying values and strategies that make community-based economic development successful, transit-oriented development offers a unique opportunity to catalyze and enhance CBED within communities along the rail corridor. As such, our vision for TOCBED is to provide a framework that gives surrounding communities more choice and control over economic development in TOD areas. Ten Strategies for TOCBED. Building from this broader idea of wealth, CBED uplifts the following ten principles (as seen in Figure 5.8), which enhance local economic development while supporting the community’s values, vision and goals.

Because CBED is a systems-based approach, to be most effective, each of these strategies should be employed in coordination with one another. To better understand how this approach might be implemented, each strategy is explained along with case studies and examples below:

1. Enhance Regional Identity by preserving and improving the natural, cultural, architectural, artistic, historic, and recreational resources that contribute to the local community character and sense of place. Blakely and Bradshaw (1999) identify four quality-oflife attributes that enhance regional identity:

• Sense of Place - the built and natural environment of a community that expresses the particularity of that place

• Sense of Identity - the unique features of a community that establishes its sense of identity and allows it to differentiate and distinguish itself in the marketplace

• Sense of Evolution - the physical and social fabric of a community reflecting its functional, cultural, aesthetic, and historical evolution

• Sense of Ownership & Community - the shared sense among residents, businesses, and community sectors that they benefit from, have a stake in, are interconnected with, and acknowledge their obligation and responsibility for that place

This strategy overlaps with many of the objectives included in the Placemaking section of this report. Examples of strategies and tools for enhancing regional identity include:

• Land use policy maps that preserve shorelines, forests, wetlands, open space, and agricultural land while directing growth to existing villages, towns, or TOD areas

• Acquisition of critical natural and cultural assets for preservation

• Development of road and rail corridors that connect regional assets

• Historic preservation

• Retention of design character of historic towns

• Cultural centers and other “gateway” facilities

• Capital improvements to roads and public amenities such as parks

• Redevelopment of brownfields or neglected areas

Please see “Placemaking” for further examples and precedent images.

2. Build Local Industry Clusters to develop competitive advantages of place- and sectorspecific businesses that can mutually benefit from coordination, like agriculture, renewable energy, education, health and wellness, heritage arts and entertainment, and tourism. Those studying and working in economic development have adopted the concept of industry clusters to explain growing local economies. A cluster refers to the network of interrelated firms that buy and sell from the same suppliers, share markets, and are supported by common specialized infrastructure (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Building strong industry clusters is a regional development strategy that requires cooperation and coordination between firms. The State Enterprise Zone Program is an example of a cluster-building strategy. Businesses within an EZ may qualify for GET, income tax, and unemployment tax reductions. To enroll, at least half of the qualifying firm’s annual gross income must be from one or more of the following industry clusters (Business Development and Support Division, n.d.):

• Agricultural production or processing

• Manufacturing

• Wholesaling/Distribution

• Aviation or maritime repair or maintenance

• Telecommunications switching and delivery systems

Figure

• Information technology design and production

• Medical research and clinical trials

• For-profit training programs in international business management or environmental remediation

• Biotechnology research, development, production, or sales

• Repair or maintenance of assisted technology equipment

• Certain types of call centers

All of the Pouhala Station and Ho‘ae‘ae Station TOD area falls within a designated EZ.

3. Connect to Anchor Institutions like schools, hospitals, and large landowners to leverage their redevelopment, hiring, and purchasing power.

Anchor institutions are large, locally-based institutions that have significant real estate and other investments in the community. Examples include schools, hospitals, faith-based institutions, large businesses, and other institutions that employ many within the region.

CASE STUDY: Connect to Anchor Institutions

including social enterprises among nonprofits

• Serving as an advisor or network builder

• Leveraging real estate development to promote local retail, employer-assisted housing, and community land trusts

• Using pension and endowment funds to invest in local job creation strategies and to provide community venture capital for nonprofits, entrepreneurs, and employeeowned firms (Democracy Collaborative, 2013)

4. Advance Innovation by developing products and services unique to regional character and needs. In today’s global economy, firms face challenges in developing and adopting new products, processes, and business models that fit with the character and needs of the region. Individuals, firms, and regions have to continually find new ways to create value for an increasingly diverse and accessible customer base (Atkinson & Correa, 2007 via Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Economic development strategies to nurture innovation include:

Chicago Anchors for a Strong Economy (CASE) is a network of prominent Chicago anchor institutions committed to collectively impacting neighborhood economic development through local purchasing, hiring, and investment. Participating anchors identify their procurement needs, and CASE helps identify and connect local firms to these opportunities. To date, CASE has helped 236 businesses secure new contracts with anchor institutions, resulting in 180 new jobs and $50.6 million in revenue through multi-year anchor contracts (Democracy Collaborative, 2017).

Anchor institutions—with the proper incentives and motivation—have the economic potential to leverage their assets and revenues to promote local private sector development through such means as:

• Directing a greater percentage of their purchasing power toward local vendors based in the community

• Hiring a greater percentage of their workforce locally

• Providing workforce training for people needing assistance in the community

• Incubating the development of new businesses,

• Reinforcing traditional economic bases while fostering an environment that will produce new-economy jobs in order to stay competitive

• Expanding local innovation with business incubators, organized industry networks, workforce training, and specialized technical assistance

• Differentiating local products with creative product design, a finer end-user experience, or superior marketing (Brown & Lambe, 2008)

5. Build Entrepreneurial and Business Capacity to

CASE STUDY: Build Workforce Capacity

Waipahu High School’s Marauder Cafe is open to the public on Tuesdays and Thursdays for lunch. The program is student-run from food preparation to hospitality services, serving a restaurant-quality feast with mini-biscuits, appetizer, soup, entree and dessert — all for $15.

Proceeds go back into the culinary academy program and pay for the students’ lunches. The program exposes students to food industry opportunities, providing real-world experiences that apply to the culinary field.

innovate and create jobs through incubation, training, and other supports.

Business development is an essential part of local economic development. Businesses that are growing and innovating must have the capacity to keep pace; communication between the business community and those developing TOD strategies is essential for developing community resources for the generation of shared wealth. Regardless of whether we are promoting new enterprises or retaining existing businesses, Leigh and Blakely (2017) identify twelve basic tools, listed in Table 5.5, that are considered essential for business start-ups, business attraction, business expansion or retention, and nurturing innovation and entrepreneurship.

In Hawai‘i there are various statewide and local resources available to those seeking technical assistance and business support. Examples of these programs include:

• SCORE Hawai‘i – part of SCORE’s “Counselors to America’s Small Business,” a national nonprofit association dedicated to entrepreneur education and the formation, growth, and success of the nation’s small businesses. SCORE Hawai‘i provides free and confidential business advice and counseling tailored to meet the needs of individual business and personal objectives.

• Pacific Business Center Program (PBCP) –PBCP uses program staff and University of Hawai‘i faculty and staff, graduate students, and consultants to provide technical and management assistance to new

and existing businesses, community development organizations, and government agencies throughout the State of Hawai‘i. PBCP helps new ventures with market research, feasibility studies, and business plans; established businesses with business systems, financial planning, audits, management, and planning; and government and community agencies with policy analysis, economic development plans, and project development.

• US Small Business Administration (SBA) –

The SBA was created in 1953 as an independent agency of the federal government to aid, counsel, assist, and protect the interests of small business concerns, to preserve free competitive enterprise, and to maintain and strengthen the overall economy of our nation. The SBA provides free individual face-to-face and internet counseling for small businesses and low-cost training to nascent entrepreneurs and established small businesses. The SBA has a district office in Honolulu.

6. Build Workforce Capacity through local education and workforce development programs helping residents capitalize on opportunities in local clusters. Human resource development has long been associated with economic development. With a CBED process, local education and workforce development programs should be grounded in regional identity and connected to other strategies being employed (e.g., local industry clusters, anchor institutions, local business capacity building, and innovation). Economic development strategies aiming to improve

Business Start Ups Business Attraction Business Expansion/ Retention

One-stop Center X X X

Start-up and venture financing company

Small business development center

X X X

Nurturing Innovation and Entrepreneurship

X X X

Group marketing system X X X

Promotion and tourism programming

X X X

Research and development X

Technology and business park X X X Incubation center X X

Enterprise zone X X Entrepreneurship development activity

X X

Women’s enterprise X X

Microenterprise X X

Note. Adapted from Leigh & Blakely (2017).

community well-being and quality of life need to build from and expand on the existing skills and assets within the community to expand opportunities for people or businesses not currently fully participating in the economy. Such programs might include:

• First Source Agreement – a contractual obligation by firms who received substantial government assistance or subsidies. Under the contract the firm agrees to interview, as the first source, local people for available positions. These can be targeted at specific firms or included in terms of Community Benefits Agreements (CBAs).

• Supported Work Programs – using unemployment funds to develop jobs for hardto-place people. The local agency or nonprofit will receive the welfare payment as a subsidy for employing this person.

• Skills Bank –an unemployment agency or nonprofit group collects detailed information on the skills and backgrounds of local people. The database can provide information on existing skills and assets as well as match local people with available employment opportunities or gigs.

• Comprehensive training to meet social needs –a range of support services for people or groups with barriers to full participation in the workforce. These programs can provide work

readiness trainings for skills such as customer service, and assist participants in solving social barriers such as finding housing, securing childcare, and getting proper clothes or tools.

• Youth Enterprise – an attempt to kindle an entrepreneurial spirit, these programs pay attention to youth skills in and knowledge around business development. These programs can be part of school curriculum, after school clubs, or through community-based organizations. The basic idea is to start businesses within a youth’s skill range to give them experience in how businesses work (Leigh & Blakely, 2017).

7. Democratize Ownership of enterprises in local industry clusters with organizational models that reflect local values, strengthen local control, and retain local wealth.

Ownership is an integral part of communitybased economic development. As previous iterations of economic development have shown us, there is a difference between two communities: one with all of its tangible assets owned by distant outside investors, and one with a significant degree of local ownership (Leigh & Blakely, 2017). Strategies can encourage and support greater local ownership by:

• Generating employment within disadvantaged

CASE STUDY:

Build Workforce Capacity

The Hawai‘i nonprofit Kupu was developed in response to the growing needs of Hawai‘i’s communities to train the next generation in natural resource management, renewable energy, energy conservation, and other green job skill sets. Kupu is predicated on the Hawaiian concept of maka hana ka‘ike, “in working one learns.” Through its paid internship programs, Kupu teaches youth vital vocational and leadership skills. Kupu runs two programs for youth:

• The Rewarding Internships for Sustainable Employment (RISE), which is centered on sustainability and the development of Hawai‘i’s green-collar workforce in the clean energy, pollution, sustainable development, and greenhouse gas reduction fields; and

• E2U (formerly known as YEAH), which focuses on energy conservation and related vocational training.

segments of the community

• Capturing local spending to build local wealth

• Inspiring self-help and group-oriented assistance methods

• Operating programs that support holistic asset development for the public’s benefit such as health, education, and nutrition

• Providing an alternative or intermediate sector to create jobs in the local economy

• Promoting democratic management and local ownership and control of enterprises

A range of alternative organizational structures and systems have been established that increase community control and ownership to build holistic community wealth. These include:

• Community Development Corporations (CDCs) – local nonprofits with a comprehensive community development mission. CDCs were created during the 1960’s as part of the War on Poverty. They were created with the intent of delivering greater community control over local decisionmaking and resource allocation for community development and poverty alleviation. CDCs are community-based economic development organizations, selecting projects based on community priorities, but within the constraints of market feasibility.

CASE STUDY:

Democratize Ownership

• Benefit Corporations (B Corps) – creates a new legal entity that justifies limited or low profitability while adhering to certain social or environmental priorities for their business. B Corps hold an obligation to their stockholders to uphold specific values (financial and non-financial) and report the company’s social and environmental performance. B Corps are legally recognized in the State of Hawai‘i.

• Cooperatives (Co-ops) – a voluntary, democratically-controlled member-owned organization. Generally the benefits of a cooperative are distributed in some fashion to the members rather than investors. Co-ops have seven recognized principles as the basis for doing business:

(1) Voluntary and open membership

(2) Democratic member control

(3) Members’ economic participation

(4) Autonomy and independence

(5) Education, training, and information sharing

(6) Cooperation among cooperatives

(7) Concern for community

• Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) –allow a company to establish a trust that acts as a fiduciary agent for the firm’s purchase by employees using stock options. Employees

In the late 1980s, through a comprehensive organizing and planning initiative, residents in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston established community control over a critical mass of 1,300 parcels of abandoned land which characterized the neighborhood. The City of Boston adopted the community’s comprehensive development plan and granted the power of eminent domain over privately-owned vacant land in a 62-acre area known as the “Dudley Triangle.” Dudley Neighbors Inc. (DNI) Community Land Trust was created to take ownership of that land and realize a vision of development without displacement. DNI combined these vacant lots with city-owned parcels and leased them to private and nonprofit developers to build affordable housing consistent with the community’s master plan (Dudley Neighbors Inc., n.d.).

purchase shares through a combination of wage reductions, actual cash, and borrowing. Over the years, employees acquire vesting rights to their stock and voting rights within the company structure (Leigh & Blakely, 2017).

• Community Land Trusts (CLTs) – CLTs enable nonprofit community-based organizations to take land off the market and place it in a trust. In housing CLTs, a majority of equity gains accrue to the trust (only a minority accrues to the resident), allowing the trust to offer housing to a subsequent owner at an affordable price.

8. Diversify Investment and improve access to capital by attracting investment from firms and investors that embraces local values and by creating opportunities for local residents to secure a stake in local businesses.

Investment and funding is often the biggest barrier for community-based projects and enterprise development. Several alternative financing institutions and strategies aim to create more opportunities for small business and local enterprise start-ups:

• Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI) - Private financial institutions focused on personal lending and business development efforts in local communities. Their overall goal is to help those who are typically underserved by mainstream banks and lending processes become financially self-sufficient.

• Microlenders - provide small loans designed to spur microentrepreneurship. They often target women, minority entrepreneurs, and low-income entrepreneurs in economically disadvantaged communities and established empowerment zones who lack collateral or long credit history and are unable to meet minimal qualification of traditional lenders.

• Revolving Loan Funds - A gap financing measure (loans fulfilling a financial obligation while the borrower is in the process of securing sufficient funds) used mainly for small business development and expansion. It uses the payments on old loans to issue new ones.

• Peer-to-peer lending – (also known as personto-person lending, peer-to-peer investing, and social lending – abbreviated frequently as P2P lending) is the practice of lending money

to unrelated individuals, or “peers,” without going through a traditional financial intermediary such as a bank.

9. Promote Regional Assets like distinctive features and unique, place-based products in order to build long term relationships with markets within and outside the region.

While traditionally much of community marketing activity has focused on tourism, technology-enhanced access to global markets allows regions to promote local assets more widely. Strategies are closely tied to those aimed at enhancing regional identity. Having coordinated efforts and a strategy that speaks to the values and assets of the people and place will help with both attracting new businesses and retaining existing ones (Leigh & Blakely, 2017).

10. Foster Network Leadership that supports CBED initiatives by uniting the community behind its unique identity, connecting local industry clusters, building local collaborative capacity, and interfacing with markets and government officials.

As communities across Hawai‘i still continue to grapple with various strategies aimed at recovery from the phasing out of plantation era economics, it is becoming increasingly clear that coordinated and connected efforts are necessary to create meaningful and lasting change for local economies. Having a united vision based on shared values allows for more comprehensive strategies aimed at developing capacity and building assets and wealth within regional economies. If the goal is to build innovation, jobs, and wealth from within the local community then it will require dedicated entrepreneurs, strong support networks, and community backing. Having social and professional networks supporting these goals connects business owners with service providers and creates broader access to resources, materials, skills, knowledge, financing, and new markets.

5.5 Recommendations

Recommendations for community economic development in Waipahu center around three major themes: incentivizing partnership, facilitating financing, and providing infrastructure. Within these themes are a number of concrete policy or program

recommendations which the State of Hawai‘i could implement in the near term.

5.5.1 Incentivising partnership.

Sustainable economic development for a transit village will require the partnership of the entire village. Residents need jobs, and business owners need employees. Cultivating an educated, relevant workforce in Waipahu will require schools and businesses to understand each other’s current and anticipated needs. Developers need buy-in from the community, and the community needs responsible developers. Economic development as a whole needs to be considered as a piece in the larger puzzle of Hawai‘i’s transit-oriented goals. The following recommendations address these issues.

Encourage partnerships for workforce development between schools and local businesses. As Waipahu's economy grows through the process of TOD, job opportunities will likely increase for both current and future members of the workforce. Many of those emerging workforce members are those in Waipahu schools today. With the multigenerational family dynamic in this community, it would benefit both the youth of today and their families if those youth have job opportunities nearby as they graduate. It is essential for businesses and local schools to nurture job development partnerships and anticipate the opportunities of sectors emerging from those

schools. Waipahu High School has a particularly innovative curriculum, with six academies focusing on future career pathways. These academies may represent local emerging sectors for economic growth:

• Health and Sciences

• Natural Resources

• Arts and Communication

• Business

• Industrial and Engineering Technology

• Public and Human Services

Incentivizing the placement of businesses in these sectors and the inclusion of relevant work-study opportunities within the school curriculum may foster economic growth which allows the current youth community to remain in place as they age into adulthood and enter the workforce.

Help communities negotiate community benefits agreements (CBAs) in TOD areas. To encourage community buy-in and responsible private development, the State can help communities negotiate agreements with developers. In one scenario, the State could act directly as intermediary, witnessing CBAs between citizens and developers. In a second scenario, a community development corporation (CDC) could be created in Waipahu. A CDC would ideally be formed to be inclusive of community assets, as described in section 5.5.4. A council including key leaders in the community (in schools, business associations, community associations, etc.) would

CASE STUDY: Incentivising Partnership

Thai Town, East Hollywood, CA. Thai Town was an economic development strategy that allowed the Thai community in East Hollywood to stay in their neighborhood and provide decent jobs, economic security, and affordable housing . The Thai CDC was directly involved in the planning of this TOD around the Hollywood/Western Metro station. Particular focus went towards creation of a public market as a business incubator. The development was very successful at empowering the Thai community and gaining local and national recognition. Economic growth, both overall and in the small business sector, has outpaced that of LA County in general. (Thai CDC, 2014)

encourage development which responds to the needs of multiple populations in Waipahu.

Coordinate TOCBED initiatives with other programs (e.g., housing). Economic development relates highly to other key areas of focus in this report. Job opportunities may bring more residents to Waipahu, or reduce economic strain for current residents. Either scenario will impact needs for housing development. The direction the State takes on encouraging economic development along the rail or elsewhere on O‘ahu will impact transportation needs for residents both in and outside of Waipahu. Environmental concerns may change depending on the sectors or locations encouraged by economic development efforts.

To properly evaluate the multidirectional effects of these efforts, the Interagency TOD council plays a key role in maintaining links of communication. A subcouncil for economic development could be established to focus on this keystone issue. As the catalytic project for TOD in Hawai‘i, potential members could include a representative of the DBEDT along with current members from DOE and the agencies currently utilizing Waipahu’s state-owned lands (eg. HHFDC, DAGS, HPHA, and DLNR). These collaborations could be prototypes for interagency involvement on other TOD projects statewide.

5.5.2 Facilitating financing.

Supporting small business growth is an important mechanism for empowering local residents to improve their job opportunities. Small businesses, however, require different types of financing than do larger corporations. Prospective entrepreneurs may not have collateral or large savings, and smaller business loans may be perceived as high risk for many traditional banking groups. The state, besides offering outright grants for business projects, can support the development of businesses by facilitating an ecosystem that can grow economic activity more sustainably. CDFIs and revolving loan funds can help seed TOCBED projects; coordinating a network of technical assistance providers for these projects can reduce their loan risk levels so that entrepreneurs can qualify for loans.

Encourage CDFIs and revolving loan funds to

seed TOCBED projects. CDFIs are private financial institutions focused on personal lending and business development efforts in local communities. Their overall goal is to help those who are typically underserved by mainstream banks and lending processes become financially self-sufficient. Institutions in Hawai‘i currently certified as CDFIs by the U.S. Department of the Treasury include the Council for Native Hawaiian Advancement, Hawai‘i Community Lending Inc., Hawai‘i Community Reinvestment Corporation (HCRC), Hawai‘i Habitat for Humanity Association, HHOC Mortgage, and Lei Hoolaha (U.S. Dept of Treasury, 2018). For TOCBED, it is important to have a CDFI which understands TOD and is aligned with TOD visions. HCRC recently shifted their focus from traditional large housing projects to more community-based projects, introducing a new loan fund targeted at communities in TOD areas (Hawai‘i Community Reinvestment Corporation, 2018). The number of CDFIs certified in the state fluctuates each year, perhaps as a result of annual federal reporting requirements; the State could potentially reduce this administrative burden on local banking institutions through training and incentives for maintaining federal certification status.

A revolving loan fund is a specific gap financing measure used mainly for small business development and expansion. It uses the payments on old loans to issue new ones, to allow entrepreneurs to fulfill a financial obligation while the borrower is in the process of securing sufficient funds for their operations. This is one targeted method of utilizing CDFI funds to benefit local entrepreneurs in Waipahu. Placement of community banking facilities (such as a CDFI) in Waipahu would ensure easy access to the funding opportunities needed by entrepreneurs, and encourage face-to-face communication between prospective business operators, lenders, and also the technical assistance providers as explained in the following section.

Coordinate a network of technical assistance providers for TOCBED projects. While CDFIs may be willing to provide funds for those who may not qualify for traditional bank loans, these institutions still face risks in the event of a loan default. In order to lower these risks and incentivize the growth of community banking strategies, the State can assist by coordinating

a network of support for business owners. Such a network may include financial literacy training, assistance with business plan creation, and mentorship throughout the process of opening and maintaining a business. The Waipahu Community Association (WCA) currently hosts training programs of this type and is an already-extant asset in the area. These assets could be strengthened through coordination with nontraditional banking institutions to require a business training certification program as a prerequisite for approval of loans.

5.5.3 Providing infrastructure.

With the current physical and economic constraints faced in Hawai‘i due to supply and cost of land, the state-owned land parcels in Waipahu represent a unique opportunity for the State to build the physical infrastructure needed to support TOCBED. Waipahu currently benefits from a large number of community-based organizations and resources working towards workforce and business development. As examples, the WCA business incubator provides technical assistance for entrepreneurs, and the Waipahu Safe Haven Immigrant Resource Center provides adult education for job readiness training. These programs are important assets for the Waipahu community, yet their outreach is limited due to lack of convenient resident access. State-owned parcels could provide a cohesive center for encouraging the partnerships required to

sustain development in the long term. The following recommendations focus on ways the State can utilize their state-owned lands to create this cohesion.

Land packaging. Conscientious placement of economic nodes or hubs is of key importance in TOD. Brick and mortar businesses in TOD areas will rely largely on foot traffic, placing a premium on front-facing properties along the key streets identified in Figure 5.9 by the Honolulu City Council Ordinance 17-54 (2017). These key streets include Mokuola, Farrington, Waipahu Depot, Waipahu, and Hikimoe. The State owns several parcels along these key streets, presenting an opportunity for a network of main street business corridors. Farrington Hwy, Waipahu Depot Rd, and the makai side of Hikimoe St currently function as business corridors in Waipahu; concentration of retail along the additional key streets and mauka side of Hikimoe would encourage economic growth suitable for TOD.

Multiple agencies currently control parcels on Hikimoe and Mokuola as unconnected facilities— Waipahu Civic Center, Kamalu Elderly Housing, Head Start, etc—and while these facilities serve worthwhile purposes for Waipahu, the land has potential to be redeveloped for mixed use at higher densities, preserving current amenities and adding retail concentrated on ground floor levels. These proposed uses are consistent with the zoning changes enacted by Honolulu City Council (Ordinance 17-56, 2017).

CASE STUDY:

Providing Infrastructure

Fruitvale Village, Oakland, California. This TOD village along the BART corridor was developed through government collaboration with a local community development corporation. A Unity Council, originally formed in 1964 in Fruitvale to increase the political power of residents, in 1991 opposed the original BART TOD plans. This council later formed an alternative plan with more community input and became a development corporation which financed and designed the current village, which opened in 2003. The City of Oakland engaged in a land swap between FDC and BART to facilitate building development, which allowed for the inclusion of complementary retail, housing, and social services (Shibley et al., 2005).

Figure

Key Streets in Waipahu Transit Center Station Area. Reprinted from Ordinance 17-54 (2018).

Ideally, main street development along these corridors would occur along contiguous lots. Land packaging for the State would include negotiations with current leaseholders on state-owned lands and potentially also with private property owners along these key streets. These negotiations could include MOUs to preserve previously-mentioned placemaking strategies.

Develop facilities for community enterprises. As seen in the history and current economic structure of Waipahu, there is strong interest in small business ownership. The success of the Waipahu Festival Marketplace and predominance of other small-scale business operators in Waipahu indicates support from the community in patronizing such establishments. To facilitate economic growth around TOD, the State could provide a place for these activities to be incubated through technical assistance, worker skill development, or community kitchen space.

Community resources such as the Safe Haven Immigrant Resource Center have sometimes struggled to obtain long-term locations for their services, limiting their effectiveness in reaching target populations. Their services complement those of the Waipahu Community Association, and would benefit from a centralized location for residents to access. A holistic approach to economic development would include a community enterprise facility which hosts job training, business assistance, and financing opportunities in a one-stop shop. A front-facing facility on a key street would signal to the community

that Waipahu is “open for business.”

Work with the City & County of Honolulu to promote location development. Collaboration with the City and County of Honolulu is recommended for coordinated development around a visual theme or design concept in Waipahu that (1) creates a sense of identity, (2) improves community public amenities (3) preserves important land & cultural sites, and (4) improves local business & quality of life. While providing the land necessary to encourage economic activity in the community, these businesses and job opportunities would benefit from the network of currently-existing assets in Waipahu. We recommend that the State collaborate with the City and County to foster this network through consistent wayfinding which encourages residents and visitors to explore the area and understand how its history has shaped its economic vibrancy and potential for the future.

5.5.4 Implementation: utilizing Waipahu assets. Part of the TOCBED strategy involves utilizing current assets (both financial and social capital) within the community, and understanding how these assets complement each other to increase the overall efficacy of each individual or organization. An asset map, shown in Figure 5.10, was created in order to visualize the assets currently available for residents of Waipahu and state or local governments. Four levels of organizational capacity have been identified and described below.

CASE STUDY: Develop Facilities For Community Enterprises

Bethel Center, Chicago, IL. This faith-based group developed a mixed-use facility adjacent to the Pulaski El rail station in Chicago. The 23,000 square foot building hosts, among other things, an employment center, daycare, community banking facilities, and several retail storefronts. These uses complement each other by providing job training, financial literacy training, and financing opportunities for prospective business owners. The placement of a daycare center within this facility also indicates an understanding of the hurdles families face while pursuing better financial opportunities. (LeRoy et al., 2006)

Federal Institutions and Programs. These policies, programs, and organizations have been identified as grant opportunities or policies focusing on small business development, typically in underserved areas or those with low-income populations.

Local or Statewide Institutions and Programs. These policies, programs, and organizations also include grant funding opportunities and small business policies. Additional resources identified here are local or nearby educational institutions, nontraditional banking options, and nonprofit organizations focused on providing education or skills training for workforce or business development.

Citizen Associations and Programs. The groups identified here are located within Waipahu; they represent a small portion of the variety of groups with

interests in the community. These groups typically provide more social than financial capital for residents, and are excellent resources for outreach to populations which would be affected by economic development policies or programs.

Individuals. In the case studies researched for this report, one commonality stood out regardless of location, history, or focus of the economic development project: the success of each project relied on the rallying and dedication of key individuals in each community. It was those individuals, highly connected to their communities and understanding of residents’ needs, who spearheaded many of these projects, coordinated with government officials, and guided TOD projects in directions which brought value and benefit to their communities.

Figure

Asset map of resources available for Waipahu economic development.

5.5.5 Potential Positive Outcomes.

It is important for the TOCBED strategies in Waipahu to resonate with those who will be influenced by them. Without community support, plans are unsustainable and will ultimately fail. Especially with a community-based approach, it is crucial for strategies to be aligned with the values of the stakeholders so that they lead to positive outcomes.

Interviews with various community leaders and input from the Waipahu Talk Story event provided valuable feedback from those in or involved with the community on the recommendations introduced above and economic development in general. Some of the themes that emerged from these conversations were: overall TOD concerns in Waipahu; enhancing regional identity; supporting and increasing opportunities for the youth; and the desire for small business support and skills training. Our recommendations address each of these themes.

Addressing overall TOD concern in Waipahu. From conversations with some community leaders in Waipahu, it is clear that their businesses and organizations have been chronically undercapitalized. There is evidence that this trend is continuing into TOD. Attendees of the community expressed their worry that Waipahu is getting less attention and investment compared to other stations along the rail line. TOD tends to target younger populations with small household sizes. This is concerning to Waipahu residents because a large majority of the population is older, established, and has a large household size. The residents do not want to be displaced so that a new younger population can step in. As TOD planning and preparation in Waipahu continues, there is the potential to not only foster economic growth, but model a more equitable system that ends the chronic undercapitalization and supports the local community, allowing Waipahu to to thrive.

These concerns were aligned with the mission of this chapter: to foster equitable economic development around TOD areas that empowers surrounding communities and mitigates displacement. Each of the recommendations correspond with that mission and acknowledge the overall community concerns regarding the coming TOD in Waipahu. Providing infrastructure, facilitating financing, and incentivising partnership each address the community’s worries.

First, they encourage investment into Waipahu. Second, they allow for place-based economic growth that recognizes Waipahu’s unique character including the large household sizes. Last, they provide opportunities for current residents to be empowered and be able to remain rather than being displaced.

Enhancing regional identity. As is mentioned in the concept of CBED, cultural identity is critical to economic development; it provides the frame for all other components. Throughout history, Waipahu has always been a place where you can grow things. It had an abundance of water in the past, and still does today, although less immediately evident. Because of this, it has also been a place where many immigrant communities converge, especially during the plantation era. Enhancing this identity was identified as important in conversations with those in and involved with the community. The cultural identity of Waipahu revolves around the abundance of water and diversity created by the influx of immigrants in the plantation era. As such, Waipahu residents mentioned an aspiration for increasing cultural history tourism as an economic growth strategy. Additionally, students in the community have expressed a desire for Waipahu to be a place like MA‘O in Wai‘anae because of the strong sense of identity and pride which coalesces there around the youth. Clearly, a strong cultural identity is important in Waipahu.

Enhancing regional identity is an overarching goal in this chapter and resulting recommendations. It is important for economic development to resonate with the community and allow a space for pride and empowerment. Location development, as part of the recommendation on providing infrastructure, specifically enhances regional identity. Additionally, incentivising partnerships has the potential to address the students’ desire to be a place like MA’O by creating opportunities for local workforce development that is more connected to Waipahu and the special assets and skills that are particular to the community.

Opportunities for the youth. One of the biggest themes expressed in the community workshop feedback was the desire for increasing opportunities for Waipahu High School students. They want the students to have better access to college, and a reason to stay in Hawai‘i post-graduation (rather than going

to the mainland). In the past, Waipahu High School was not a valued asset in the community. Many of the families would work hard to send their children to schools in neighboring towns. This was a result of many factors, one being a lack of opportunities for the students in Waipahu. Recently, this has been changing. More opportunities and resources are being provided to Waipahu High School and it is becoming a source of pride in the community. There are growing programs that help the high school students graduate with associate’s degrees in an increasing number of disciplines. The high school students have expressed interest in engineering, natural resources and environmental management, Hawaiian Cultures, health fields, public and human services (justice, social work), and arts and communication. Finding ways for economic development to support their interests will be important. A community member suggested encouraging the private sector to work with schools as a way to increase these opportunities.

Although there are some organizations already beginning to work on increasing opportunities for the youth, there is a need for more. The recommendations include incentivising partnerships; an important piece of that includes encouraging partnerships for workforce development between schools and local businesses. With more opportunities for students to engage with businesses, especially ones in the fields they identified, there will be more desire to stay within Hawai‘i, and Waipahu specifically. Additionally, through the provision of infrastructure, the organizations already making a difference could be enhanced to have more impact.

Small business support and skills training. Another major theme from the community workshop feedback was the need for small business support and skills training. Small businesses are a highly valued asset in the community. Waipahu has been called a ‘business incubator’ by many in the community. There is a fear that small businesses are in danger with the coming TOD. Therefore, a common suggestion for economic development is the supporting of small businesses. Many immigrants move to Waipahu and want to start a business, but need help with training. There are organizations that provide this training such as the WCA. They have asked the community business owners and entrepreneurs what they need and found

that budgeting, managing finances, and business improvement ideas were the main areas where they wanted guidance. As a result, they provide business incubator services such as workshops on soft skills for starting and sustaining a business, training on requirements like taxes and insurance, and advice on marketing. Others mentioned that outside of training, there is a need for an increase in incentives in the form of tax credits, holidays, relaxing of some of the policies in place, and seed funding for small businesses. General skills training also came up as a community desire for economic development. The community workshop revealed that multiple family members need to work two jobs to be able to support their families. A reason stated is that they do not have the skills needed for higher paying jobs. The major occupations identified were food, farming, construction, and landscaping (consistent with the census data gathered)—all generally lower-paying jobs. Skills training for those occupations was identified as something that would be useful for the community.

Supporting small businesses and providing skills training are at the core of economic development. The recommendations provide a framework on how to accomplish those two community desires. Providing infrastructure allows for a place where business and skills training can occur as a sort of start-up site. Facilitating financing allows entrepreneurs to be able to start up their businesses and support them as well as widen the network of assets to which they have access.

5.6 Conclusion

There is a lot of potential for economic development in Waipahu and all other future TOD stations in Hawai‘i. This chapter provides a framework for how to foster equitable economic development that empowers surrounding communities and mitigates displacement that is common to TOD implementation. The key goals that were specified in the TOD plans for Waipahu were analyzed to show that, although economic development was stated, there was no explanation on what it is or how to accomplish it. This chapter addressed those two questions.

The focus of this chapter is on a more holistic approach of economic development that is community-based and and grounded in the ideal that wealth is not limited to financial capital—it

includes many other types of capital including human, intellectual, social, cultural, environmental, and political. This wealth is unique to each place, and the strategy of TOCBED acknowledges this wealth and grows off of it so that development resonates with the community. Not only is focusing on the holistic wealth of a community beneficial to the residents, it allows for strategies to foster economic development in more sustaining ways.

The strategies and recommendations presented in this chapter are not meant to be exclusive to development in Waipahu. The State identified Waipahu as a “city catalytic project” in their TOD plan (Hawai‘i Interagency Council for TransitOriented Development, 2017) for development along the HART rail corridor. The process, strategies, and recommendations for economic development presented can serve as a template for the future TOD projects in Hawai‘i. With the documentation of the process used to implement the recommendations, future stations can tailor it to the specific characteristics of that place. If utilized by all stations, this template will lead to very transformative economic growth that is more equitable and enhances the many unique characteristics of Hawai‘i.

5.7 References

AVA Konohiki (n.d.). “ʻEwa.” AVA Konohiki: Ancestral Visions of ʻAina. Retrieved from http://www. avakonohiki.org/699ewa.html

Bartik, Timothy J. (2003). Local Economic Development Policies. Upjohn Institute Working Paper, No. 03-91, W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, Kalamazoo, MI.

Bartik, Timothy J. (1991). Who Benefits from State and Local Economic Development Policies? W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. W.E. Upjohn Institute. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.

Bartik, T., Eisinger, P. K., & Erickcek, G. A. (2003). Economic development policy in Michigan (pp. 279-297). WE Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.

Blakely, E. J., & Bradshaw, T. K. (1999). What are

“Third-Wave” State Economic Development Efforts? From Incentives to Industrial Policy. Economic Development Quarterly,13(3), 229-244. doi:10.1177/089124249901300303

Blakely, E. J., & Leigh, N. G. (2017). Planning local economic development: Theory and practice. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Brown-Graham, A., & Lamb W. (2008). Measure & Methods: Four Tenets for Rural Economic Development. Carsey Institute Policy Brief No. 9.

Brooks, L. (1960). The Polynesian Family System in Kau, Hawaiʻi. (Book Review). Social Forces, 39(1), 94.

Business Development and Support Division. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://invest.hawaii.gov/business/ ez/

Center for Labor Education and Research (n.d.) History of Labor in Hawaiʻi. Retrieved from https://www.hawaii.edu/uhwo/clear/home/ HawaiiLaborHistory.html

County of Hawaiʻi (2013). Kaʻū Community Development Plan Appendix V4C: Local Economic Development Analysis. Hilo, HI.

Ordinance 17-54 LUO (2017). Relating to the TransitOriented Development Special District. C&C of Honolulu City Council, Bill 74 (2015).

Ordinance 17-56 (2017). Rezone Land Situated at Waipahu, Oahu, Hawaii. C&C of Honolulu City Council, Bill 76 (2015).

City and County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting. (2007). Waipahu neighborhood TOD plan: Community workshop #1 Summary of Comments from Small Group Discussions.

City and County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting. (2007). Waipahu neighborhood TOD plan: Community workshop #2 Summary of Comments from Small Group Discussions.

City and County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting. (2007). Waipahu neighborhood TOD plan: Community workshop #3 Summary of Comments from Small Group Discussions.

City and County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting. (2012). Waipahu Community Survey.

City and County of Honolulu Department of Economic Development (2018, January). Retrieved from http://www.honolulu.gov/ecodev.html

DATA USA. (n.d.). Waipahu, HI. Retrieved Feb 2018, from https://datausa.io/profile/geo/waipahu-hi/

Democracy Collaborative (2013, January). Anchor Institutions. Community-Wealth.org Retrieved from https://community-wealth.org/strategies/ panel/anchors/index.htm

Democracy Collaborative. (2017, April). Chicago Anchors for a Strong Economy (CASE). Community-Wealth.org. Retrieved from https:// community-wealth.org/content/chicago-anchorsstrong-economy-case

Dudley Neighbors Incorporated (n.d.). Land Trust 101. Retrieved from https://www.dudleyneighbors. org/land-trust-101.html

Economic Development Alliance of Hawai

i (2016). Hawai

i Statewide Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy. Prepared for: U.S. Economic Development Administration. Honolulu, HI.

Google Maps. (n.d.). [Businesses within Waipahu boundaries]. Retrieved Apr 23, 2018, from https://www.google.com/maps/ place/Waipahu,+HI+96797/@21.3842296,158.0286627,14z/

Handy, E. S. C., and M. K. Pukui (1950). Polynesian Family System in Ka

Studies,32(9), 872-877.

Hawaiʻi Community Reinvestment Corporation. (2018, April). Hawaiʻi Loan Fund. Retrieved from HCRC website https://www.hcrchawaii.com/ services

Hawaiʻi Interagency Council for Transit-Oriented Development. (2017). State of Hawaii strategic plan for transit-oriented development.

Hoakalei Cultural Foundation (2014). Maps. Retrieved from www.hoakaleifoundation.org/maps

Lyons, T. S., & Koven, S. G. (2006). Economic Development and Public Policy at the Local Government Level. The Municipal Year Book 2006, 14-15

Jennings, J. (1999). Persistent Poverty in the United States: Review of Theories and Explanations. in L. Kushnick, & J. Jennings (eds), A New Introduction to Poverty: The Role of Race, Power, and Politics . New York: New York University Press.

Kamehameha Schools Hawaiian Studies Institute (1994). Life in Early Hawaiʻi: The Ahupua‘a. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Publishing.

Kelly, M. (1980). Land tenure in Hawaii. Amerasia Journal, 7(2), 57-73.

Kent, N. J. (1993). Hawaiʻi: Islands under the influence. University of Hawaiʻi Press.

Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1995). What is Community Economic Development? National Economic Development and Law Center. Oakland, CA.

Nedbalek, L. (1984) A Brief History of Waipahu. Wonder View Press.

. Rutland, VT: n.p., 1977. Print.

u, Hawai

Haughton, G. (1998). Principles and Practice Of Community Economic Development. Regional

LeRoy, G., & Others. (2006). Making the connection: transit-oriented development and jobs. Good Jobs First.

Newby, L. (1999). Sustainable local economic development: A new agenda for action? Local

Environment,4(1), 67-72.

Nunn, N. (2009). The importance of history for economic development (Working Paper No. 14899). Retrieved from National Bureau of Economic Research: http://www.nber.org/papers/w14899

Olberding, J. C. (2002). Diving into the "Third Waves" of Regional Governance and Economic Development Strategies: A Study of Regional Partnerships for Economic Development in U.S. Metropolitan Areas. Economic Development Quarterly,16(3), 251-272.

Pender, J., Marre, A., & Reeder, R. (2012). Rural Wealth Creation Concepts, Strategies, and Measures. US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Services.

RE3 LLC Real Estate Services (2004). Land in Hawaiʻi: A brief history of the transition from a Feudal System to an Allodial System and Hawaiian words used in real estate in Hawai`i today.. Retrieved from http://files.hawaii.gov/dcca/reb/real_ed/ re_ed/ce_prelic/land_in_hawaii.pdf

Shaffer, R., Deller, S., & Marcoullier, D. (2006). Rethinking Community Economic Development. Economic Development Quarterly,20(1), 59-74.

Shibley, R., Axelrod, E., Farbstein, J., & Wener, R. (2005). Reinventing Downtown: 2005 Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence. Bruner Foundation.

Ulukau: The Hawaiian Electronic Library (n.d.) Hawaiian Place Names. Retrieved from http:// ulukau.org/

U.S. Census Bureau (2016a). Educational attainment, 2012-2016 American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census. gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview. xhtml?pid=ACS_16_5YR_S1501&prodType=table

U.S. Census Bureau (2016b). Occupation by sex for the civilian civilian employed population 16 years and older, 2012-2016 American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from https://

factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/ pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_5YR_ S2401&prodType=table

U.S. Census Bureau (2016c). Selected economic characteristics, 2012-2016 American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from https:// factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/ pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_5YR_ DP03&prodType=table

U.S. Census Bureau (2016d). Sex by age, 20122016 American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from https://factfinder. census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/ productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_5YR_ B01001&prodType=table

U.S. Census Bureau (2016e). Sex by age by nativity and citizenship status, 2012-2016 American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from https:// factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/ pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_5YR_ B05003&prodType=table

U.S. Department of the Treasury. (2018, March). List of Certified Community Development Financial Institution (CDFIs) with Contact Information as of March 31, 2018. Retrieved from https://www. cdfifund.gov/programs-training/certification/cdfi/ Pages/default.aspx

U.S. Department of Treasury (2018, April). “Opportunity Zone Resources.” Community Development Financial Institution Fund. Retrieved from https://www.cdfifund.gov/Pages/ Opportunity-Zones.aspx

Xu, T., Zhang, M., & Aditjandra, P. (2016). The impact of urban rail transit on commercial property value: New evidence from Wuhan, China. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 91(C), 223235.

Zheng, L. (2009). Trapped in the Race to the Bottom: Who is Using Business Incentives Now? (Unpublished master's thesis). Cornell University