The 2022 Inflation Reduction Act, “the most significant action Congress has taken on clean energy and climate change in the nation’s history,"5 identifies Long Duration Energy Storage (LDES) as a critical part of the successful and widespread implementation of renewable energy.
The successful transition to sustainable energy and decarbonization is directly dependent on energy storage capabilities. Most renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, are generated by intermittent and relatively unreliable weather patterns meaning the time energy is generated does not always align with energy demand. This makes storage a critical component to renewable energy.
ENERGY – FACTS
ENERGY – FICTIONS
ENERGY TYPES
POTENTIAL
ENERGY | stored energy based on a physical position
Mechanical | energy stored in objects such as a spring in compression that releases energy as tension is reduced.
Chemical | batteries are the most typical example of chemical energy. A chemical reaction within batteries produces electricity through chemical energy.
Nuclear | energy released through combining or splitting the nucleus of an atom
KINETIC
ENERGY | energy associated with movement
Wind/Tidal | blades are utilized to collect kinetic energy. Movement of the blades, either from wind or tidal flows, transmits energy by turning a rotor to power a generator.
Radiant | radiant energy travels as electromagnetic waves. Sunshine and forms of visible and non-visible light are forms of radiant energy.
Thermal | heat is thermal energy associated with the change in temperature. Temperature increases as the particles of a substance move faster. Geothermal energy is an example.
Electrical | movement of charged particles (electrons) – most commonly moving electrons in a wire.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
POTENTIAL
ENERGY CAN CHANGE FORMS, BUT IT IS NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED
KINETIC
ENERGY STORAGE
Pumped Water | Energy produced depends on the mass of water and height difference between upper reservoir and turbines. Potential energy is stored in the mass of water in the upper reservoir held at a height above a lower reservoir. When power is needed, water is released from the upper reservoir and flows through hydro-turbines to produce electricity on the way to the lower reservoir. This converts potential to kinetic to electrical energy.
Stacking Blocks | Energy produced depends on mass of blocks and height raised. Potential energy is stored in the mass of the blocks held at a height above ground. When energy is needed, blocks are lowered with a cable system that causes a generator to spin and create electricity. This converts potential to kinetic to electrical energy. When excess power is available, or less expensive (off-peak periods) blocks are raised converting electrical to kinetic to potential energy again
Compressed Air | Energy available depends on storage capabilities of the tank/cavern, and compression capabilities of the fluid (air). Potential energy is stored as compressed air in tanks or large underground caverns. When energy is needed, air is released and passes through a turbine hooked up to a generator to produce electricity. This converts potential energy in the compressed air to kinetic to electrical energy. When excess energy is available (off-peak hours), electricity is used to power a motor that compresses air in the tank or underground caverns.
Chemical Batteries | Chemical potential energy is stored in battery cells that can be converted to electrical energy. Chemical reactions within the cells create a flow of electrons (electricity). Rechargeable batteries allow electrons to flow in two directions to either recharge or discharge the battery. .
ENERGY STORED (PE)= mass * gravity *height
Energy storage (potential energy) decreases as height (h) of the mass (m) decreases.
LONG DURATION ENERGY STORAGE
POTENTIAL
KINETIC KINETIC
ROTATION
ROTATION
ELECTRIC
This exploration focuses on Pumped Water Storage (PWS) as the best option for LDES in an urban environment, like New York City, bounded by rivers and filled with towers.
The basic components of a PWS system are:
• upper reservoir
• lower reservoir
• powerhouse(turbine&generator)
WHERE ARE THE NEW SITES FOR URBAN LONG DURATION ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS ?
SITES
FICTIONS
LONG DURATION
ENERGY STORAGE
POTENTIAL
KINETIC KINETIC ROTATION ROTATION
ELECTRIC
ENERGY - FACTS
UPPER RESERVOIR
Subway Car |
The New York City subway system boasts a rich history of subway cars, tracing back to the late 19th century when steam-powered trains ran on elevated tracks. By the early 20th century, electric-powered cars became prevalent, with the iconic "Arnines" entering service in the 1930s, followed by stainless steel models in the 1950s. The modernization continued with the introduction of subway cars with advanced technologies and designs, reflecting the city's ever-evolving transportation needs.
The R-series subway cars, introduced in the 1980s, marked a significant advancement in subway car design. Featuring improved safety features, enhanced comfort, and better performance, the R-series cars became integral to New York City's subway system, serving millions of commuters daily with reliability and efficiency
Retired New York City subway cars find new life as artificial reefs along the Atlantic coast. Sunk intentionally, these cars provide habitats for marine life, fostering biodiversity and supporting local ecosystems. The initiative not only repurposes old subway cars but also contributes to environmental conservation efforts and marine habitat restoration.
A new and alternative use is to raise repurposed cars from the depths of the city to the towers above.
R32
R62
R160
R160
BLUE
UPPER RESERVOIR
Water Tank |
Water towers have a storied history, dating back to ancient civilizations like the Romans who used elevated structures to store water. In the 19th century, the advent of high-rise buildings in cities like New York led to the development of modern water towers, utilizing gravity to provide water pressure for plumbing systems. These cylindrical or spherical structures became iconic symbols of urban landscapes worldwide, symbolizing both architectural functionality and aesthetic charm.
In recent years, water towers have been repurposed for various innovative uses. Some have been transformed into trendy rooftop bars, offering panoramic views of city skylines. Others have been converted into unique living spaces, blending historic charm with modern amenities. Additionally, creative entrepreneurs have repurposed water towers as art installations, community gardens, or even mini hydroponic farms, showcasing their adaptability and potential for sustainable urban development.
As in-place upper reservoirs water towers are ideally suited to become an integral part of a building-wide LDES systems.
UPPER RESERVOIR
Elevator Shaft |
Elevators have a fascinating history, beginning with ancient civilizations using rudimentary systems of ropes and pulleys. However, it was in the mid-19th century that Elisha Otis revolutionized vertical transportation with his safety elevator, paving the way for skyscrapers and urban development.
In New York City, elevators are vital to its vertical landscape, enabling efficient movement within towering skyscrapers and crowded subway stations. They epitomize the city's vertical ambition, connecting people and businesses across its iconic skyline. Innovative uses of elevator shafts include transforming them into unique architectural features, such as transparent glass tubes showcasing breathtaking views. Some companies repurpose disused shafts into urban gardens or creative art installations, turning these functional spaces into vibrant hubs of innovation and creativity.
The next step in the evolution of the elevator is for the shaft to become a new type of urban reservoir for LDES.
UPPER RESERVOIR
Stormwater Piping | Building Infrastructure |
Piping and plumbing in skyscrapers are intricate systems designed to provide essential water supply and waste disposal throughout the building. Utilizing a network of pipes, pumps, and pressure regulators, these systems ensure consistent water pressure and efficient wastewater removal across multiple floors, meeting the demands of high-rise living and working spaces.
Stormwater piping and risers in skyscrapers manage rainwater runoff and prevent flooding within the building. Equipped with drainage systems, these pipes direct excess water to designated stormwater storage areas or municipal sewer systems. Risers, vertical pipes connecting different floors, ensure proper water distribution and drainage throughout the building, enhancing its resilience against adverse weather conditions.
Piping and other infrastructure can act both as the connection between upper and lower reservoirs and as the upper reservoir itself much the same way as the elevator shaft.
LOWER RESERVOIR
New York City's sub-grade infrastructure encompasses a vast network of tunnels, sewers, and utility lines vital for the city's functioning. Dating back to the 19th century, these underground systems have undergone extensive upgrades to accommodate the city's growing population and urban development, ensuring the efficient flow of utilities and transportation. Stormwater and sanitary piping in New York City's sub-grade infrastructure play a crucial role in managing water flow and waste disposal.
Combined sewer systems, prevalent in older parts of the city, face challenges during heavy rainfall, leading to overflow and pollution. Modernizing these systems remains a priority to mitigate environmental impact and improve resilience.
Connections to the Hudson River and East River are integral to New York City's sub-grade infrastructure, facilitating water transportation, drainage, and environmental management. These connections include sewer outfalls, stormwater discharge points, and flood control infrastructure, all vital components in maintaining the city's relationship with its surrounding waterways while managing urban development and environmental sustainability.
Detention tanks and the surrounding rivers can be used as the lower reservoir in the LDES system.
Detention Tanks | East River | Hudson River
WHAT CAN A BUILDING LDES CHARGE?
STEP BY STEP
FICTIONS
SET START POINT OF MODEL
ENERGY – FICTIONS
2.0
ALIGN MODEL TO BUILDING 1.0
3.0 SET SCALE
4.0 SET BUILDING DEPTH AND WIDTH
5.0
SET BUILDING HEIGHT
ENERGY – FICTIONS
6.0
SELECT ENERGY
STORAGE TYPE
7.0 SELECT QUANTITY OF STORAGE TYPE
ENERGY – FICTIONS
8.0
SET RESERVOIR ELEVATION
9.0
DOCUMENT ENERGY OUTPUT AND CHARGING CAPACITIES
ENERGY – FICTIONS
10.0
TEST RESERVOIR OPTIONS
TEST RESERVOIR OPTIONS
ENERGY – FICTIONS
12.0
TEST RESERVOIR OPTIONS 11.0
TEST RESERVOIR OPTIONS
ENERGY – FICTIONS
14.0
TEST RESERVOIR OPTIONS 13.0
TEST RESERVOIR OPTIONS
ENERGY – FICTIONS
16.0
TEST RESERVOIR OPTIONS 15.0
In Development
SCALE: Custom option for use with scale models
BUILDING HEIGHT: Drop down for options:
- slider input
- floor to floor heights and number of floors
BUILDING INFORMATION: building height, width and depth display
RESERVOIR/ELEVATOR SHAFT/WATER TOWER: Height display below building height and improved graphics
CHARGING OUTPUTS: improved graphics and location on the screen for easier viewing
ENERGY EFFICIENCY:
- energy output used to calculate how many typical apartments could be powered
- based on typical NYC apartment size and size of floor plate
- output is in the form of a color gradient projected onto the building model
STRUCTURE
- increased loads to be provided for impact on existing structure
Calculations
Fundamental definition of potential energy (how much energy can be stored using LDES) is E=mgh
Energy equals mass (m) times the gravitational constant (g) times height (h). For pumped hydro storage, the height is the difference between upper reservoir and power room where energy is converted to electricity.
Since we’re working with a volume of water, mass can be substituted for volume using m=pV
Where mass equals density (p) times volume (v). Multiply this by 0.8 for 80% efficiency in conversion from stored to usable electricity.
Hydroelectric dam projected onto skyscraper
Spin-off hydro storage using elevator shaft as upper reservoir
Reservoir (volume)
(volume)
Reservoir (volume)
Reservoir
E=pVgh*0.8
p=density of fluid (water/salt water)
V=volume of fluid (size of reservoir)
E=pLwgh2*0.8
L=length of elevator shaft
W=width of elevator shaft
h=variable height of water column above power room
Note: Variable height approximated as an average for energy estimation
HOW IT WORKS
Data & Assumptions
- Total energy generated calculated assumes 80% efficiency in energy conversion from stored to usable electricity
- Lower reservoir is assumed to be either the river or underground tank. This is not shown in application for visual simplicity. Height differential for calculation purposes assumes the lower reservoir is at a height of 0.
- Power room is assumed to be at the lowest point above lower reservoir, at a height of 0. This is also not shown in the application for visual simplicity.
- Time to charge and discharge reservoir assumed as once per day; exact sizing/rating of piping, turbines, generators, etc. and number of turbines would determine precise charge/discharge rates. This is meant as an educational tool and is not meant to size elements for location specific interventions.
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3. Page 1: Microsoft PowerPoint Designer generated MP4 based on text prompts
4. Page 2: Microsoft PowerPoint Designer generated JPEG based on text prompts
5. Page 3: Microsoft PowerPoint Designer generated MP4 based on text prompts
6. Page 4: Microsoft PowerPoint Designer generated MP4 based on text prompts
7. Page 5: Microsoft PowerPoint Designer generated MP4 based on text prompts
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