LNG Industry - November 2023

November 2023

www.agpglobal.com

ISSN 1747-1826

CONTENTS

NOVEMBER 2023

03 Guest comment 05 LNG news

35 Remove to expand

10 A paradigm shift in European LNG imports

40 Putting the focus on tray efficiency

Q. Zane Rhodes II, President, Zachary Browne, and Steven Cuffle, Newpoint Gas, LLC, USA, detail utilising amine plants and catalytic oxygen removal for LNG pretreatment.

Dr Matthew Chadwick, Lead Research Analysis, and Sam Peek, Senior Analyst, Cornwall Insight, consider the factors affecting the European LNG import market, and how they might be overcome.

Ralph H. Weiland, Optimized Gas Treating, Inc., and Izak Nieuwoudt, Fractionation Research, Inc., USA, describe the different factors that can affect tray efficiency and hydraulics.

40

10 14 Geopolitics and LNG markets Karthik Sathyamoorthy, CEO AG&P Group, Singapore, examines unveiling new dynamics and implications in the global energy landscape.

19 Insulation Q&A

LNG Industry asked several companies to discuss some key factors regarding LNG insulation.

31 Stay ahead of corrosion

Jack Blundell, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation, USA, reviews how advanced stone wool insulation helps keep industrial facilities, such as LNG plants, running by keeping corrosion under insulation at bay – now and in the long run.

45 Out with the old, in with the new

Emmanuel Guilhamon, Rockwell Automation, explores how to optimise efficiency for LNG carriers with a modern distributed control system.

48 Q&A with...

LNG Industry talks to Michael Hastings, Senior Application Engineer, Brüel & Kjær Vibro.

ON THIS MONTH’S COVER Among the top 10 LNG/NG companies in the LNG sector and a leader in South and Southeast Asia, AG&P is at the forefront of supporting economies towards a net-zero transition, enabling the transition to clean energy.

A developer and operator of downstream LNG/NG terminals and the downstream distribution network, AG&P is driving infrastructure development, linking natural gas supply to end-consumers through its fit-for-purpose LNG regasification terminals, innovative technology, LNG-to-power integrated solutions and city gas distribution.

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DISTINGUISHED SPEAKERS INCLUDE

Konstantinos Xifaras Chief Executive Officer DEPA Commercial

Maria Rita Galli Chief Executive Officer DESFA

Anatol Feygin Executive Vice President and Chief Commercial Officer Cheniere Energy, Inc.

Maria Angelicoussis Chief Executive Officer Angelicoussis Group

Evangelos Marinakis Founder and Chairman Capital Maritime & Trading Corp.

Paolo Enoizi Chief Executive Officer GasLog

Akshay Kumar Singh Managing Director & Chief Executive Officer Petronet LNG Limited

Philip Mshelbila Managing Director & Chief Executive Officer Nigeria LNG Limited

Spyros Leoussis Chief Commercial Officer Capital Product Partners LP

Martin Houston Vice Chairman Tellurian Inc.

Steve Hill Executive Vice President Shell Energy

Atsunori Takeuchi Executive Officer & Senior General Manager of LNG Business Department Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd

Hiroki Sato Senior Management Executive Officer & Division Chief Executive Office, Global Business Division Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc.

Ben Dell Founder & Managing Director Kimmeridge

George Nemeth Chief Commercial Officer Commonwealth LNG

Philippe Berterottière Chairman of the Board & Chief Executive Officer GTT

Christopher Goncalves Chair & Managing Director BRG Energy & Climate

Martin Hupka President - LNG & Net Zero Solutions Sempra Infrastructure

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COMMENT RUTH BYRNE KC

PARTNER AT KING & SPALDING

A

Negative sentiment toward the ECT is often couched within a narrative of concern regarding climate change goals. Detractors maintain that the treaty is incompatible with the transition to cleaner, cheaper energy sources, portraying it as a vehicle for protecting the fossil fuel industry at the expense of net zero goals.

In truth, the ECT covers all sectors of the energy industry, from coal to crude to gas to nuclear and, of course, renewables. According to the ECT website, 61.5% of the cases (94 cases) brought under the treaty have been renewables cases (against 54 fossil fuels cases).

A further irony is that this negative sentiment has come about at a time when substantive work to modernise the ECT, including enhanced provisions emphasising States’ rights to regulate in the interests of the environment and climate goals, had nearly concluded.

Judging from the current chorus of cynicism, however, these reforms may never gain traction.

One interesting caveat is that the ECT currently has a 20-year sunset clause, meaning signatories should still be bound for two decades after exiting. There is a push to reduce that to 10 years in the draft modernised version of the ECT. That will buy investors a grace period. Even so, energy players, including those in the gas/LNG sector, will need to evaluate longer term projects and contracts in relevant jurisdictions on the basis that this added layer of protection may well be gone or diminished before long.

stable and predictable legal framework is a key component in any decision by energy industry players when evaluating international investments, projects, and contracts. Many risks can be managed through sound drafting of commercial agreements, guarantees, insurance, and the like. However, other risks, such as the expropriation of entire projects or assets, the sudden imposition of new and potentially discriminatory tariffs or taxes, or the withdrawal of regulatory incentives, can be harder to guard against. For 25 years, the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) provided energy companies with an additional layer of protection for many of their investments. For reasons that owe more to politics than anything else, its future is now in serious doubt.

In addition to affording a series of substantive protections to energy companies from one of the roughly 50 States party to the ECT when investing in another State party, the ECT enables investors to enforce those protections in a neutral forum by means of international arbitration. More than 150 cases have been brought under the ECT, covering a range of issues including unfair offtake tariffs, failure to pay for gas deliveries, closure/cancellation of pipelines, and so on.

Recent times have seen the ECT come under increased scrutiny. A list of countries – including the UK, France, Germany, Spain, and the EU (which had executed the ECT separately) – have all either questioned their ongoing membership of the treaty or announced the intention to abandon it.

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LNGNEWS Indonesia

Eni signs agreement to ensure further volumes of LNG from Indonesia

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ni has signed a 0.8 billion m3 LNG sales and purchase agreement with Merakes LNG Sellers, starting from January 2024 for three years, in addition to the contract with Jangkrik LNG Sellers for 1.4 billion m3/y, in place since 2017.

With these new volumes, Eni can ensure greater flexibility and further diversification of its LNG supplies, while strengthening its presence in growing markets.

This contract – together with the long-term contract recently signed with the Marine XII JV in Congo for LNG volumes of approximately 4.5 billion m3, and the contract with QatarEnergy LNG North Field (NFE) for up to 1.5 billion m3 of LNG from the NFE project – contributes to the build-up of Eni's LNG portfolio by leveraging strong relationships with the countries of operation. Eni’s integrated approach is in line with the company’s energy transition strategy, which aims to progressively increase the share of gas in overall upstream production to 60% by 2030, while also increasing the contribution of equity LNG. Eni aims to more than double its contracted LNG volumes to over 18 million tpy by 2026, leveraging integration between upstream and gas marketing activities.

China

Yang-Ming contracts GTT for LNG-fuelled containership tank design

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TT has received an order from its partner, the shipyard HD Hyundai Heavy Industries, to design the cryogenic fuel tanks of five very large container vessels fuelled with LNG, on behalf of the shipowner, Yang-Ming.

This is the first time that a Chinese ship-owner has opted for LNG propulsion technology for its container ships. This decision highlights the development and prospects of this fuel in Greater China, in line with the decarbonisation of maritime transport.

Used as a marine fuel, LNG is today the best currently available alternative to improve air quality, a major public health issue. It reduces sulfur oxide emissions by 99%, fine particles by 91% and nitrous oxide emissions by 92%.

It also reduces carbon dioxide emissions by up to 25% compared to a conventionally-fuelled ship.

These five container vessels of 15 500 TEU each will be equipped with one single LNG fuel tank, with a capacity of 12 700 m3. The tanks will be fitted with the Mark III Flex membrane containment technology, developed by GTT, offering a low and guaranteed boil-off rate for improved vessel operations.

The delivery of these vessels is scheduled between 2Q26 and 1Q27.

Canada

Ksi Lisims LNG files application for environmental certificate

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si Lisims LNG has submitted its application to the B.C. government for an environmental assessment certificate (EAC). The application is the culmination of extensive consultation, studies, and analysis designed to identify and mitigate potential effects on a wide range of matters related to the project. The filing marks the conclusion of the proponent-led application development phase and the commencement of the EAO-led application review phase.

Highlights from the project’s planning and design include a world-leading greenhouse gas management programme, backstopped by a credible plan to be net zero by 2030; an electric-drive facility design that reduces emissions by 90% compared to a typical LNG production facility and is ready for hydroelectric grid connection at start up; and a selection of

floating LNG technology to reduce land disturbance and the impacts on local infrastructure and services.

The project development team will continue to engage with participating Indigenous nations, government agencies, and citizens across B.C.’s northwest to ensure questions and concerns are being addressed and feedback is considered in project planning. This filing commences a statutory 180-day period for review and comment by the technical advisory committee, participating Indigenous nations, regulatory agencies, and the public. Following receipt of those comments, Ksi Lisims will refile an amended, final application. The B.C. Environmental Assessment Office then follows a statutory 150-day period for consideration of the application and makes a recommendation regarding the issuance of an EAC.

November 2023

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LNGNEWS Republic of the Congo

Eni celebrates sail away of the Tango FLNG and Excalibur FSU vessels

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n the presence of Bruno Jean Richard Itoua, Minister of Hydrocarbons of the Republic of the Congo, Maixent Raoul Ominga, Managing Director of SNPC, and Guido Brusco, Eni’s Chief Operating Officer Natural Resources, Eni celebrated the sail away of the Tango floating LNG (FLNG) and Excalibur FSU vessels from Dubai to Congo’s offshore. The milestone aligns with the timeline of the Congo LNG project, whose first phase will start-up in December 2023.

Tango FLNG, which has a liquefaction capacity of approximately 1 billion m3/y of gas, will be moored 3 km offshore along with the Excalibur FSU vessel upon their arrival in Congo.

The Congo LNG project leverages Marine XII gas resources and existing production facilities in a new, phased approach that will allow to reach approximately 4.5 billion m3/y of gas liquefaction capacity at plateau, as well as zero routine gas flaring. A second FLNG vessel with a capacity of approximately 3.5 billion m3/y of gas is under construction and will begin production in 2025.

Indonesia

bp ships first cargo from expanded Tangguh LNG facility

b

p, on behalf of the Tangguh production sharing contract partners, has announced that the first cargo of LNG produced by the new third liquefaction train at the Tangguh LNG facility, in Papua Barat, Indonesia, has safely been loaded and sailed, to be delivered to Indonesia’s state-owned power generator PT PLN (Persero). This marks the start of full commercial operation of the expanded Tangguh LNG facility.

The start-up of Tangguh Train 3 will add 3.8 million tpy of LNG production capacity to the existing two-train facility, bringing total plant capacity to 11.4 million tpy.

The first cargo of LNG produced by the new train sailed from Tangguh on 18 October to be delivered to PLN’s regasification facility in Arun, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam province, Indonesia.

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November 2023

Brazil

Excelerate Energy and Petrobras sign 10-year charter for FSRU Sequoia

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xcelerate Energy, Inc. and Petróleo Brasileiro S.A. (Petrobras) have signed a 10-year contract to charter the FSRU Sequoia. Under the time charter party and operation and services agreement, which will commence on 1 January 2024, Excelerate will continue to deploy the Sequoia to provide regasification services in Brazil, primarily at the Bahia Regasification Terminal in Salvador, Bahia.

Since 2012, Excelerate has provided regasification services in Brazil at Petrobras’s LNG import terminals. In addition to the Sequoia, Excelerate’s FSRU Experience is currently providing regasification services in Brazil.

Maintaining a continued presence in the Brazilian market is a fundamental part of Excelerate’s strategic position as a reliable backstop to the country’s energy system for which intermittent renewable energy contributes approximately 85%.

This agreement highlights Excelerate Energy’s commitment to using its flexible FSRU fleet to enhance energy security and reliability for its customers around the world. The deal also expands the company’s core regasification business, which allows for increased visibility to predictable near-term and long-term earnings and cash flows.

THE LNG ROUNDUP

X PV GAS inaugurates Vietnam’s first LNG terminal X TotalEnergies commissions floating LNG terminal in Port of Le Havre X Crowley to launch first-ever LNG bunkering at Panama Canal Follow us on LinkedIn to read more about the articles

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LNGNEWS Oman

28 November – 01 December 2023

The 23rd World LNG Summit & Awards Athens, Greece www.worldlngsummit.com

16 – 19 January 2024

The 20th Americas Energy Summit & Exhibition Louisiana, USA www.americasenergysummit.com

26 – 27 February 2024

5th American LNG Forum Texas, USA https://americanlngforum.com

11 – 12 March 2024

10th International LNG Congress (LNGCON 2024) Milan, Italy https://lngcongress.com

12 – 13 March 2024

S

hell Gas BV, a subsidiary of Shell plc, and partners in the Oman LNG LLC venture have signed an amended shareholders’ agreement for Oman LNG LLC, extending the business beyond 2024.

Oman LNG, in turn, signed various agreements to secure its gas supply until 2034. Under these agreements, Shell Gas will remain the largest private shareholder in Oman LNG, with a 30% shareholding, and continues its role as technical adviser.

UAE

ADNOC awards critical equipment contract to Baker Hughes

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DNOC has awarded a contract, valued at more than US$400 million, to Baker Hughes, through its Nuovo Pignone International S.R.L. legal entity, for the supply of all-electric compression systems for the liquefaction of natural gas, to be powered by clean energy, for its low-carbon LNG asset in the Al Ruwais Industrial City, Al Dhafrah, Abu Dhabi. The LNG trains will comprise energy efficient Baker Hughes technology, including compressors, driven by 75 MW electric motors.

The Ruwais LNG plant will be the first LNG project in the Middle East and North Africa region to run on clean power, making it one of the lowest carbon intensity LNG facilities in the world.

The Ruwais LNG project consists of two 4.8 million tpy natural gas liquefaction trains with a total capacity of 9.6 million tpy of LNG. When completed, it will more than double ADNOC’s LNG production target capacity to meet increased global demand for natural gas.

The award of the contract underscores ADNOC’s commitment to accelerate its net-zero ambition and decarbonisation plans. It is an important milestone as the company builds on its legacy as a responsible global energy pioneer and doubles down on its decarbonisation efforts, backed by an initial allocation of US$15 billion to low-carbon solutions.

Japan

StocExpo

Rotterdam, the Netherlands www.stocexpo.com

22 – 23 April 2024

6th Global LNG Forum Madrid, Spain www.lng-global.com

8

Shell signs shareholder’s agreement to extend partnership for Oman LNG

November 2023

World's first LNG-fuelled panamax commences operation

T

he world's first LNG-fuelled panamax-class coal carrier, which was being built by NYK and Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc. (Kyuden), was delivered on 2 October 2023. The vessel was named Shoyo in a naming ceremony held at the Koyagi Shipyard of Oshima Shipyard Co., Ltd, and began operations after completing the first bunkering.

NYK operates the vessel and transports coal from overseas to Kyuden's coal-fired power plants.

The use of LNG fuel offers better environmental performance compared with traditional marine fuels, virtually eliminating sulfur oxide emissions and reducing approximately 80% of nitrogen oxide emissions and 30% of carbon dioxide emissions.

Shoyo received its LNG-fuel supply at the port of Tobata (Fukuoka Prefecture) on 12 October 2023. Bunkering was carried out via shore-to-ship, and was the first shore-to-ship bunkering for an oceangoing LNG-fuelled vessel in Japan. The ship is designed to be compatible with both shore-to-ship and ship-to-ship bunkering. From March 2024, a newly built LNG-fuelled bunkering vessel based in the Setouchi and Kyushu area could deliver LNG fuel through ship-to-ship bunkering.

Decarbonization Solutions for the Full Supply Chain

chartindustries.com howden.com

Dr Matthew Chadwick, Lead Research Analysis, and Sam Peek, Senior Analyst, Cornwall Insight, consider the factors affecting the European LNG import market, and how they might be overcome.

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T

he Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 sent shockwaves across the globe, not least within the energy sphere. Prior to the invasion of Ukraine, the EU and its member states had a significant and long-standing dependence on Russian natural gas, with Russian pipelines supplying >40% of Europe’s natural gas, over double the contribution from the second largest source (Norwegian pipelines). However, with the continuing conflict in Ukraine, pipeline natural gas supplies from Russia have dwindled to minimal volumes, with an 85% reduction in 2023 weekly imports compared to the 2015 – 2021 historic average (Figure 1).

To meet this supply deficit, Europe has pursued a joint dual strategy of reducing gas demand and sourcing alternative supplies of gas. The primary balancer from the supply side has been LNG, with a large scale shift to the widespread adoption of LNG to meet gas demand. This has resulted in a significant increase in the volumes of LNG imports to Europe (Figure 2).

European imports

In early 2022, Europe rapidly accelerated the level at which it imports LNG. However, the global supply network and resource of LNG was not positioned to facilitate this significant uptick in European demand. Similarly, there are only small volumes (~8 billion m3) of additional LNG supply due to come online this year. This raises two questions: How was Europe able to secure such unprecedently high levels of LNG during 2022 and 1H23?

And, will it be able to continue to do so?

Historically, the UK and EU have had to compete with other major importers of LNG on the global market – primarily the Far-East regions, and China in particular. This has traditionally led to a competitive pricing environment as they sought to secure those volumes, with China typically being prepared to pay a higher premium to secure shipments.

However, in 2022, Chinese demand for LNG was 20% lower than in 2021, primarily due to their continuation of strict COVID-19 lockdown restrictions weighing on economic and industrial activity. Nonetheless, overall, natural gas demand in China was only ~1% lower in 2022 than 2021, indicating that it was also substituting LNG imports with other sources of gas during 2022. The reduced Chinese demand for global LNG supplies

in 2022, therefore, allowed Europe to procure higher levels of LNG in a less competitive purchasing environment.

Increasing investments

The UK and EU have made consolidated efforts to ensure LNG becomes an integral part of ongoing security of supply measures, with the EU reportedly investing around €10 billion in diversifying gas imports through both LNG and pipeline supplies. At the member state level, Germany has implemented simplified licensing for LNG terminals alongside commissioning its first floating terminals at Wilhelmshaven, Lubmin, and Brunsbüttel, with a further two floating terminals expected at the back end of 2023.

As part of its Energy Security Strategy published in April 2022, the UK highlighted that it intends to act as a key EU entry point for global LNG, leveraging the well-developed existing LNG import infrastructure at deepwater ports throughout the UK. This infrastructure can accommodate higher volumes of LNG coming in from the west which can then either be redistributed domestically or regasified and sent out to mainland Europe via the Interconnector UK (IUK) and Bacton-Balgzand Line (BBL) gas interconnectors. All these developments indicate a clear shift in policy and regulatory support to accelerate the import and transport of higher LNG volumes into, and around, the UK and EU.

Existing partnerships

The UK and EU have built upon strong existing international partnerships with major exporters of LNG, which primarily consists of the US (Figure 2) and Qatar, with the overwhelming majority of volume reaching UK terminals in the last year coming from these two countries. Some market reports suggest that by the end of the decade, approximately 80% of new LNG supply will come from the US and Qatar. Therefore, it is important that both EU and UK gas hubs cement long-term deals with these exporters in order to reduce the quantities that need to be sourced from the global LNG spot market, where exposure to price volatility is much greater and the purchasing landscape could be more challenging and competitive. The UK has secured some notable longer-term deals for LNG, one of which was signed in December 2022, which should see the US provide almost double the level of LNG to the UK than in 2021 – expected to equate to approximately 9 – 10 billion m3.

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The purchasing landscape

Undoubtedly, the purchasing landscape for LNG has changed drastically over the last year. As previously mentioned, Europe and the Far East have competed strongly for LNG in recent years.

This competition came from bidding for LNG volumes to satisfy domestic gas demand both during the summer months for winter refilling of storage, and also on the spot market in response to cold weather events. Typically, China and other Asian markets have been able to pay a higher premium to secure these volumes.

This means that, in a highly-competitive bidding environment, Western Europe has either lost out or had to pay inflated rates to secure cargoes. Ahead of the first winter season without the significant influence of Russian pipeline natural gas, many global gas hubs, including parts of Asia and Europe, were accelerating efforts to buy LNG volumes.

However, whilst acknowledging this historic relationship would have pushed up the cost of LNG on the spot market, as well as for future volume procurement, there has been consistently-bearish price trends experienced post summer 2022.

Europe has certainly benefitted from the downturn in demand from China and other Far-East economies as an enabler of securing volume, and also importantly at rates competitive against European gas benchmark prices.

Looking further ahead, however, what remains to be seen is how this pricing environment will change once Chinese demand returns to levels consistent with historic averages. The last few months have already seen a rebound in the y/y growth in Chinese LNG imports, and it is likely that as competition returns, prices will

start to climb. Additionally, LNG prices are important in the context of National Balancing Point (NBP) gas prices. Typically, GB LNG is the ‘marginal plant’ for gas – meaning that it is usually the last (and most expensive) form of gas supply needed to satisfy overall demand. Therefore, when the cost of LNG rises, so too does the cost of domestic gas prices and, as a result, procuring LNG at competitive rates is important in terms of GB being able to insulate itself from unpredictable and elevated prices on the global LNG spot market.

Supporting the adoption of LNG

Barring a substantial reversal in Russo-European relations, the UK and EU are facing a second winter without a significant volume of Russian pipeline gas supply. It is therefore vital that the UK and EU continue to provide a robust policy and regulatory framework to support further adoption of LNG as part of these economies. Last winter brought with it a relative level of fortune in terms of milder weather and suppressed demand from competing markets, but this cannot be relied upon in the future.

It is widely acknowledged that the present LNG supply landscape requires a significant level of additional investment to support physical infrastructure roll-out, some of which has been undertaken in places such as Germany, as previously outlined. By 2025, it is expected that Europe could have in excess of 75 million t of regasification capacity, with roughly 50% of that total capacity coming from infrastructure already under construction. Whilst Europe has acknowledged the role LNG can play in supporting its gas demand going forward, the corresponding level of infrastructure has to be in place to receive the levels of volume needed to satisfy demand. Therefore, it is critical that investment remains a primary focus of enabling LNG to succeed as a medium-term solution to the ongoing gas supply crisis Europe is currently facing.

Environmental concerns

Figure 1. Europe natural gas imports (average weekly volumes, million m3). Source: ENTSOG, Cornwall Insight.

Whilst the investment in LNG import and transport infrastructure is crucial to European energy security, there are concerns that it could weaken momentum on the net-zero transition. However, in the short term, without additional LNG, many European nations would have been forced to turn to more carbon intensive fuels (e.g. coal) for power generation. Additionally, LNG is being increasingly targeted as a means of decarbonising other hard-to-abate sectors, such as the maritime and heavy transport sectors. Some market reports suggest there could be between 8 – 10 million tpy of demand from the marine sector in 2026 and beyond, as well as an ever-increasing level of bio-LNG used in heavy duty transport. What this demonstrates is that not only is the upstream side of the market actively targeting LNG to satisfy demand, but the emergence of LNG as a cleaner fuel alternative in adjacent carbon intensive sectors is emerging.

In the longer term, there is the potential for much of the infrastructure and pipelines to be repurposed for low-carbon hydrogen, something which is already being planned for the German floating LNG facility at Wilhelmshaven.

Conclusion

Figure 2. EU LNG imports. Source: Bruegel, Cornwall Insight.

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November 2023

The UK and EU have benefited from the use of LNG to weather the storm so far, but will continue to face challenges in ensuring both short and long-term energy security, with European LNG imports still susceptible to geopolitical disturbances. One thing is for certain though, as the world works towards a net-zero future, LNG is likely to play a significant role in the transition.

Karthik Sathyamoorthy, CEO AG&P Group, Singapore, examines unveiling new dynamics and implications in the global energy landscape.

cover story

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T

he global demand for cleaner and more sustainable energy sources has been rising as economies realise the need to migrate from traditional, yet dirtier, fuels to cleaner and economical energy alternatives. LNG has emerged as a crucial player in this transformation, offering a viable solution to meet the rising energy needs of developed and emerging markets while reducing carbon emissions. LNG is an ideal energy alternative due to its versatility, transportability, and cleaner combustion compared to traditional fossil fuels. LNG serves as a logical, sustainable, and affordable way to meet the global energy requirements while renewables continue to scale up to required levels.

The importance of LNG being a contender for the ‘energy of the future’ has gained a lot of geopolitical attention that impacts development of economies, energy dynamics, international relations, and the general speed of the energy transition.

LNG markets

The LNG market is predominantly led by major exporters (for example Qatar, Australia, the US, and Russia) and key importers (such as Japan, China, South Korea, and Europe). In recent years, emerging markets like Asia-Pacific, Africa, and Latin America have included LNG as a key component to their energy mix in order to sustain their existing and anticipated future energy requirements.

Each market exhibits unique intricacies, local conditions, regulatory constraints, and customer capability and preferences. The establishment of LNG infrastructure, including import terminals, regasification facilities, and distribution networks, is crucial for the successful integration of LNG into emerging markets. The development of flexible, scalable, and modular regasification technology has made it possible for markets to seriously consider LNG despite having small and fragmented pockets of energy requirements. Such infrastructure development propositions are affordable, scalable, nimble, and sustainable.

However, fruition of these solutions would only be possible with the

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support of world-class partners that promote innovative commercial structures, customisable and flexible offerings, and serve as a ‘one-stop-shop’ with end-to-end energy and infrastructure construction solutions that support the full LNG value chain ecosystem.

Geopolitical considerations

Geopolitics plays a crucial role in shaping a nation’s energy pool through its ability to procure, consume, and influence relations with trading partners. Geopolitical factors that affect the development of LNG infrastructures and ecosystems include energy security, alliances, trade relations, competition, imposed trade restrictions, and regulatory frameworks, etc.

Development of LNG involves complex interactions between countries, energy security strategies, progressive policies, economic partnerships, and international relations. In fact, a lot of innovation that we are seeing today is a direct result of limitations and learnings derived from geopolitical issues

Figure 1. LNG import terminal in the Philippines.

Figure 2. GAS Entec’s Regastainer, a plug-and-play regasification technology.

Figure 3. AG&P’s process block flow diagram displaying a

flow of liquid and gas molecules from the LNG carrier to the customer premises.

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November 2023

(e.g. Ukraine) in terms of pricing, commercial structures, and fit-for-purpose technical solutions.

There are no easy ways to address geopolitics that haunt LNG markets. The energy landscape is constantly evolving, and addressing geopolitics in LNG markets requires innovative and adaptive approaches. This requires a concerted effort from governments, international organisations, and public and private stakeholders to pursue transparent regulations, global/regional co-operation, differentiated LNG supply and demand balance, and fit-for-purpose contracts with concerned parties and diplomatic engagements. Pursuing energy transition alliances, renewable LNG, blockchain technology, green financing and ESG initiatives, and public-private partnerships can foster geopolitical stability and sustainability.

Beyond geopolitics

LNG continues to play an increasingly important role in the global energy mix. As countries around the world look to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels, LNG proves to be the cleaner and more efficient alternative fuel, as the world transitions to renewable energy. The global demand for LNG is expected to further increase significantly in the coming years, driven by growing demand from emerging economies in Asia and the Middle East. Additionally, the development of new technologies, such as floating storage, liquefaction, and regasification units, is expected to make LNG more accessible and affordable. With LNG accounting for 25% of the current global gas trade, the future of LNG looks bright, as it is expected to play a key role in meeting the world’s growing energy needs while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Enabling the energy transition

Headquartered in Singapore, backed by blue-chip stakeholders and strong advocates for cleaner energy solutions, AG&P is one of the fastest growing companies enabling the energy transition journey by making natural gas accessible in emerging Asian markets as developer and operator of the downstream LNG/natural gas ecosystem.

The company provides infrastructure to support the downstream ecosystem required for clean fuel – LNG terminals, logistics, and city gas distribution networks. The company is one of the two known pure play integrated downstream players, and helps terminals and downstream networks become a reality faster with proven, economical, and efficient solutions enabled by robust project development, financing, LNG supply sourcing, EPC, commissioning, and a comprehensive downstream LNG demand aggregation, and supply chain and logistics solution package. These innovative solutions enable active development of low-CAPEX LNG import terminals as gateways to new markets to access LNG and help unlock new and growing geographies in a faster and more affordable way.

The company’s solutions enable low-CAPEX LNG import terminals that are no longer tied to fixed regasification capacity. Its LNG terminals are designed to scale to demand through a combination of offshore FSUs and proprietary onshore regasification modules, ensuring CAPEX meets demand. This allows for flexible and tailored commercial structures, and for AG&P’s LNG/NG terminals and network to serve as gateways, customised for respective markets to access affordable LNG faster and reliably.

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LNG Industry asked several companies to discuss some key factors regarding LNG insulation.

Anatoli Kogan, Global Product Management, Alkegen

Anatoli Kogan is leading a Global Product Management team for Alkegen’s Industrial Thermal Management (ITM) business. He has presented at several cryogenic related conferences and published several white papers, with emphasis on efficiency of cryogenic insulation and its effect on hold time and payload of cryogenic vessels, along with safety and innovation in cryogenic insulation development. Anatoli holds an MS degree in Chemical Engineering from Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia. After moving to the US 32 years ago, he had held several R&D and engineering positions prior to joining Lydall (now Alkegen) 16 years ago from General Electric Co.

Mark Krajewski, Director of Technical Services, Aspen Aerogels Inc.

Mark Krajewski received his BS in Chemical Engineering from Northeastern University in 1988; he then earned an MBA from Babson College in 2003 with a concentration in Managing the Technology Intensive Enterprise. His professional career prior to Aspen focused on materials-related product development activities in the area of carrier borne polymeric coating formulation, application, and coated substrate product design. Krajewski joined Aspen Aerogels in 2003 to help integrate their super insulation technology into client’s products. He has held several positions with Aspen Aerogels, Inc., and as Director of Technical Services, he works with owners, engineers, and operators to design and operate more efficient, safe, and profitable process facilities.

Melvin Rasco, Business Development Manager, Johns Manville

Melvin Rasco is a Business Development Manager for Johns Manville. He has 34 years of experience with Dow, ITW and JM, and has spent 31 of those years working with Trymer® PIR. He specialises in the promotion and chemical composition of the Trymer product line. Melvin holds a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry from Alcorn State University and a Master of Science in Polymer Chemistry from Virginia Tech.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, Vice President Cryogenic Insulation and Co-Founder, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd

Per Ivar Nikolaisen is educated as a HVAC engineer and BC. Economics. He has dedicated his career to marine insulation, beginning in 1985 and specialising in insulation for gas carriers since 1995. Nikolaisen developed and commercialised the first spray foam insulation system for LPG tanks for newbuildings in 2004, LEG 2007, and LNG in 2008. He was responsible for the development of the insulation system with secondary barrier for LNT Marine’s LNT A-BOX containment system, and inventor behind several patents related to spray foam systems and LNT A-BOX technology.

Abraham Sebastian, Senior Specification Sales Manager and Global Key Account Manager, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Abraham Sebastian is an engineering professional with over 16 years of experience in the mechanical insulation industry. Currently serving as the Senior Specification Sales Manager and Global Key Account Manager at ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation in Houston, Texas, he oversees the Specification Sales and Technical department while managing key accounts in the Americas and Asia.

Jack Blundell, Technical Sales Manager, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Jack Blundell currently serves as the Technical Sales Manager for ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation in Houston, Texas. Bringing more than 13 years of experience in the insulation industry, his expertise focuses on delivering innovative solutions to facilities such as refineries, petrochemical, and power plants. Jack has held various roles that included responsibilities over engineering support, specifications, business development, and product management.

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Q1. What factors are considered when selecting insulation for the LNG process?

Anatoli Kogan, Alkegen

LNG is a natural gas that becomes liquid at a very cold temperature (approximately -162˚C [-260˚F]). Due to the very large temperature differential, there is a considerable heat inleak from ambient environment to the outer walls of LNG vessels or pipes. Transferring and storing LNG at such extreme temperature requires an efficient insulation to reduce the evaporation losses as well as to prevent moisture/ice build-up on the outside wall which can lead to corrosion. In addition to safety and cost, there are multiple factors that should be considered when selecting insulation for LNG vessels and piping required to meet the specified boil-off rate or pressure build up.

These include: z Thermal efficiency. z Insulation thickness and weight. z Dimensional stability. z Application method. z Overall size/footprint. z Maintenance frequency.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels Inc.

LNG facilities are some of the most technically challenging applications to insulate, and there are numerous hot and cold thermal design considerations. On the cold side, the designer is nearly always interested in minimising both heat gain into process piping and equipment and the resulting boil-off gas. There is also a desire to minimise condensation formation on the exterior of the insulation jacket. On the hot portion of LNG processes, heat loss is often important, and when process piping and equipment are in areas that humans can access, personnel protection against burns is also specified.

A second consideration is that many portions of LNG liquefaction facilities emit unacceptable levels of sound.

Because these sounds must be mitigated, the insulation system will have both thermal and acoustical design goals.

The third major consideration is protection from fire and cryogenic liquid spills and combinations of these hazards. The state-of-the-art LNG facility needs to have its thermal insulation packages possibly protect against pool fire, jet fire and cold splash exposures in combination with thermal and acoustical requirements. Certainly not the rule-of-thumb ‘one and done’ cold service tables of the past.

Melvin Rasco, Johns Manville

Several factors should be considered when selecting insulation for LNG, the major one being how well the insulation prevents surface condensation. Others include the desired service life of the system, the physical environment that the system must endure, and the operating conditions of the system. A well thought out maintenance plan is also important. Moreover, it is

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imperative that all applicable standards and specifications are followed.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd There are several factors to consider when selecting insulation for LNG installations. For the marine sector, the first consideration is compliance with IMO IGC or IGF code, class rules, and other regulatory authorities. The second consideration is the operational environment and the type of tank or process. The third consideration is the required thermal conductivity or total heat ingress in relation to the available space for insulation.

Jack Blundell, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Selecting the right insulation for LNG storage requires careful consideration of several operational factors.

This includes the insulation’s purpose, the operating temperature range, tank design, the ambient conditions, and corrosion considerations.

For cold applications (-161˚C [-258˚F] or below) such as LNG tankage, insulation should have low thermal conductivity to avoid heat gain and prevent the liquefied gas in the tank from converting back to its gaseous state.

Insulation systems should be selected that can efficiently protect tanks and other LNG infrastructure operating at cryogenic conditions from vapour drive. LNG plants are also known for generating lots of noise.

Insulation systems with effective acoustic properties should be considered to bring noise to an acceptable level.

Preventing corrosion under insulation (CUI) due to water ingress is a major factor. Insulation and the outer jacketing should be chosen based on their ability to mitigate CUI by keeping water out of the system.

Q2. How is insulation being made more cost-efficient?

Anatoli Kogan, Alkegen

When costs of the LNG insulation are being examined, it is important to consider not only the initial insulation cost but also the overall cost of manufacturing, as well as long term operation and maintenance costs. Reduction in LNG boil off and savings of valuable gas could easily outweigh higher initial costs. For example, some insulation solutions such as vacuum multi-layer insulation (MLI) may require higher CAPEX initially but will be much cheaper to run, resulting in an accelerated pay-off time and considerable long-term savings.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels Inc.

By using materials that can perform multiple functions, while being quicker, easier to install, and fault tolerant.

A less expensive material that is prone to failures is no bargain when remediate and replacement activities start.

Melvin Rasco, Johns Manville

Insulation manufacturers are constantly looking for ways to improve insulation efficiency. Improving the insulation

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value is always at the forefront. Key to this is producing an insulation that has a thinner profile while maintaining the insulation value. A more thermally efficient insulation material makes equipment work less to prevent heat gain, prolonging its life and saving on costly repairs down the road.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd

When examining insulation systems costs separately, they can be made more cost-efficient by improving the design and application methods to reduce installation time. New and more efficient materials can be used, but these ‘highly efficient’ materials are often more expensive than the traditional ones.

When evaluating the cost-efficiency of LNG insulation, the focus should not only be on the CAPEX (delivery cost).

Very often, an insulation system with low CAPEX results in high OPEX (operational costs). Implementing technically improved, though not necessarily cheaper, insulation systems can reduce maintenance costs and significantly extend the insulation’s lifetime. Additionally, more efficient insulation can save space, increase cargo volume, or reduce boil-off gas (BOG). These savings can be quantified and are, in many cases, more valuable than the initial delivery (CAPEX) costs of the insulation.

Jack Blundell, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

The insulation industry is continually innovating to drive greater cost efficiency in manufacturing processes.

Converting raw materials into a finished insulation product with the right properties for a given application is an energy-intensive process.

Insulation providers routinely experiment with different fuel types to lower both their manufacturing costs and carbon footprints. They are investigating cost and time-saving technologies, including automation and robotics, artificial intelligence (AI) to optimise manufacturing processes and scheduling, and digital twins to stay ahead of maintenance issues. Such technologies often deliver energy savings that help manufacturers realise a positive return on investment (ROI) in as little as six months.

The competitive landscape prompts insulation manufacturers to identify new cost-cutting measures while meeting ever-evolving market demands. Measures include implementing new packaging and handling practices, bridging gaps in lead times and product availability, and developing improved operating guidelines that customers can follow to boost efficiencies.

Q3. How does insulation help improve safety?

Anatoli Kogan, Alkegen

There are multiple safety hazards present with LNG vessels and pipes. In addition to standard safety hazards associated with LNG tanks being pressure vessels, there are additional hazards related to flammability of

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natural gas and injury from exposure to extreme cold temperatures. The choice of insulation materials and type is critical for safe transport and storage of LNG. In case of external fire, a poor choice of insulation could allow a direct impingement of fire to the tank surface resulting in a rapid boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE). In a different scenario, insulation that allows moisture condensation on the pipe or vessel walls can lead to corrosion which may result in a leak of natural gas, creating a fire hazard. Vacuum MLI insulated double wall vessels address both of these hazards: no moisture condensation and no direct fire impingement. While BLEVE remains a possibility, vacuum MLI insulated double walled vessels create an additional delay, providing more valuable time for emergency response.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels Inc. z By performing as designed over the lifetime of the asset. Cold insulation systems that see failures in their vapour sealing systems start to create ice quickly. If that ice is at elevation, it creates a significant falling object hazard. Performance degradation leads to excessive condensation which corrodes supports and decking, all while creating slipping hazards. z By keeping the noise of the process inside the piping and equipment where it belongs and not in the plant, where it can be harmful to operators and a nuisance to the environment. z By providing fire and cold splash protection to maintain asset integrity during a spill or fire event.

Maintaining asset integrity decreases the risk of plant personnel having to navigate catastrophic asset failure during evacuation.

Melvin Rasco, Johns Manville

Insulation improves workplace safety by offering personnel protection from both hot surfaces and cryogenic burns.

Insulation also prevents dripping pipes by providing condensation control. These dripping pipes could pose slip and fall hazards on surfaces.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd

The insulation for LNG in the marine segment has, for some tank types, an additional function besides thermal insulation. It may serve as a secondary barrier or splash barrier to handle LNG leaks and protect the hull’s structure from critical low temperatures on the steel structure. The leak detection system is also integrated into the insulation system for certain tank/insulation types.

In addition to low temperature, fire is the second major safety concern when handling LNG. LNT has focused on enhancing fire safety for its LNG fuel tank insulation system. LNG fuel tanks are now installed in various commercial vessels operated by personnel without the same skills as the crew onboard gas carriers. The company’s insulation system for LNG fuel tanks in cruise and passenger vessels comes with an embedded A60 fire

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insulation and an external 0.6 – 0.7 mm metallic barrier.

Furthermore, it is strongly recommended that LNT’s fuel tank insulation clients opt for a metallic barrier instead of polymeric coatings as the final external layer.

Jack Blundell, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Implementing the right insulation solutions often means the difference between devasting damage and cost-effective protection.

Water in insulation systems could lead to reduced performance, unanticipated energy losses, down time, and loss of containment due to CUI. Water repellency technologies have been developed to keep the insulation,

and the metal surfaces underneath it, drier and less susceptible to CUI. Fire poses another major safety risk in large industrial facilities. Insulation can work as a passive fire protection measure for LNG piping and tanks – keeping fires contained to give fire-fighting personnel more time to extinguish a fire and minimise damage to the plant and its people.

Additionally, millions of plant workers are also exposed to elevated noise levels every year. Insulation materials can help reduce the noise generated by plant equipment and LNG pipework by absorbing acoustic waves and reducing the intensity of the noise.

Q4. What new technologies and developments in LNG insulation might be in the future?

Anatoli Kogan, Alkegen

Improvements to cryogenic insulation long term performance and safety are always at the forefront of Alkegen’s mind. The company constantly innovates and develops new materials, as well as improving efficiencies, not only in its manufacturing but also in customers’ application processes.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels Inc.

They are here now, with the introduction of super-efficient aerogel fibre composite blanket insulation materials. I see these materials improving both in incremental performance and use-temperature range, from near absolute zero to refractory temperatures.

LNT Marine. LNT Spray foam insulation with integrated A60 fire insulation applied on a LNG fuel tank for cruise vessel.

Melvin Rasco, Johns Manville

As LNG specifications and standards change, so will the insulation materials. Manufacturers are continually developing new insulation technologies so that they will be ready for the next evolution of LNG insulation.

Because it is difficult to predict what these changes will be, manufacturers must have an ongoing development programme which can be quickly commercialised if needed.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd

ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation. ROCKWOOL

provides effective protection for tanks with its innovative matte/wrap products.

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November 2023

In the marine LNG industry, the emergence of new insulation and tank technologies is being witnessed. However, suppliers often face challenges when attempting to penetrate the market. End users tend to be hesitant to adopt new technologies unless it comes with a well-established track record. Consequently, insulation and tank systems with known and common issues are favoured over potentially superior new solutions. As a result, the majority of future technological advancements are expected to involve improvements to existing systems through design and introduction of new more efficient materials.

One notable development in LNG insulation that is gaining acceptance is the increased use of robotic applications, which can significantly reduce installation time and costs. Robotic technology is readily available and suitable for certain insulation systems.

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Jack Blundell, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

LNG facilities that use insulation to reduce noise and energy losses must often contend with the risks of CUI. LNG pipelines, including the lines leading to storage tanks, are exposed to harsh environments that make them especially vulnerable to corrosion. Because water is a necessary ingredient in corrosion, some insulation types incorporate water-repellent additives that reduce the amount of water entering an insulation system, particularly at high temperatures where CUI can thrive. Future developments include integrating corrosion inhibitors within the insulation that provide additional protection by counteracting corrosion mechanisms on the pipe.

Q5. Numerous types of LNG insulation exist. Detail the technology behind one of your most popular insulation products.

Anatoli Kogan, Alkegen

The company’s most popular cryogenic insulation is CRS Wrap® super-insulating media which is a MLI. It consists of multiple layers of aluminium foil separated by a low thermal conductivity microfibre glass spacer. It is wrapped around the inner vessel, and the inner vessel is then sealed within an outer vessel where a strong vacuum is applied. The strong vacuum minimises gas convection, the layers of aluminium foil minimise radiative heat transfer, and the microfibre glass separator minimises solid conduction between foil layers. This type of system is the most thermally-efficient insulation for cryogenic vessels.

Due to the extremely low thermal conductivity of CRS Wrap, vessels and pipes insulated with it provide the longest payload retention at the lowest thickness (footprint) compared to other types of insulation.

Alkegen’s standard MLI is completely inorganic and therefore does not add to outgassing, which is extremely important for vacuum stability and therefore for

Johns Manville. Johns Manville’s Trymer® 2500 PIR being installed at an LNG facility in Mexico.

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long-term efficiency. Since it is inorganic, it does not present a fire risk during welding and does not act as a fire or combustion source in case of leak. The company’s standard cryogenic insulation products also meet stringent oxygen compatibility requirements which are a critical factor in many applications.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels Inc.

Aspen Aerogels’ industrial insulation products are based on the Aerogel Technology Platform® which allows them to be the most efficient, fault tolerant, and durable industrial insulation products available. The term aerogel describes a nanoporous solid material, made by using a supercritical fluid to remove the liquid from a wet gel.

Aerogels made from amorphous silica have the lowest thermal conductivity of any solid material. By taking that material and using it in a fibre composite blanket, it results in an insulation material that is super-efficient, tough, easy, and fault tolerant to install, which also resists liquid water uptake and significantly reduces the potential for corrosion under insulation.

Melvin Rasco, Johns Manville

Johns Manville offers Trymer® polyisocyanurate foam insulation for use in LNG systems. Trymer is a lightweight, closed cell foam that has been used extensively in LNG systems around the world for decades. Its low cost and effective insulating properties make it an ideal choice for insulating LNG systems. Other attributes of Trymer include low vapour permeability, low water absorption, and its ease of fabrication and installation.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd

LNT Marine’s most popular insulation product is the Spray Foam Insulation system for LNG cargo and fuel tanks.

In 2007, the company was approached by a shipowner who inquired about the possibility of supplying LNT Marine’s LPG spray foam insulation system for their small scale LNG vessels. The most critical challenge was to handle the thermal stress on a fully bonded insulation system, given that the thermal contraction in LNG tanks and polyurethane foam is three times greater than that of LPG. The development process involved extensive testing and experimentation, including various application methods using different polyurethane foam systems, steel temperatures, PU primers, PU foam densities, and crack barriers. The optimal solution was then subjected to testing on a cylindrical (Mock-up) tank cooled with liquid nitrogen.

Following rigorous testing and subsequent modifications, the company successfully developed a robust system ready for the market.

Today, LNT’s LNG spray foam insulation system has been installed on more than 50 IMO type C LNG tanks, without any reported errors or claims. The company’s basic Spray Foam technology for LNG tanks is now adopted by numerous other companies, albeit with varying levels of quality, and has become the most prevalent insulation system for IMO type C LNG tanks.

Enabling Efficient Storage & Transportation of Energy LNT Marine is a pioneer and market leader for spray foam insulation systems for cargo and fuel tanks. We supply complete tailormade systems, including all engineering, materials, labor and project management, for LNG, LEG and LPG applications.

www.lntmarine.com

Abraham Sebastian, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

Made from naturally occurring volcanic stone, stone wool insulation is often used in applications where thermal, acoustic, and passive fire protection are critical. Depending on whether it is applied to pipes or equipment, each stone wool application will have its own requirements and design needs. ROCKWOOL’s mandrel wound pipe insulation is designed for pipe applications, while mat (wrap) insulation is designed for tanks, large-diameter pipes, or other equipment with complex geometries. These insulation products install easily to help insulation personnel move quickly to the next pipe section or piece of equipment.

Q6. With standards and regulations frequently revised and updated, how does this impact insulation design and quality?

Anatoli Kogan, Alkegen

Safe, reliable, and efficient transport and storage of LNG are extremely important for everyone. As technology and safety standards for cryogenic vessels have evolved and updated, the requirements for insulation have evolved as well. The choice of insulation material has a direct effect on the vessel’s payload retention; what may have been acceptable in the past may not be acceptable or safe any longer.

Perlite-insulated trailers are a thing of the past. Much more efficient and dimensionally stable MLI is solving multiple issues such as unprotected areas of the tank due to insulation settling from vibration, volume capacity limitations due to the heavier weight of perlite and smaller inner tank diameter due to greater thickness requirements of perlite, etc.

Safety related to materials used in insulation and their effect on health and environment cannot be understated.

As an example, in the past, polyurethane (PU) foams were used as insulation on single wall LNG trailers. This proved to be a very poor insulation choice as it resulted in several explosions, sadly resulting in fatality in at least one of the incidents.

Even with completely inorganic MLI, there can be safety/health hazard associated with microfibre glass as a special purpose fibre. If inhaled, this fibre can stay in the lungs, potentially posing carcinogenic hazards and therefore is classified and requires warning labels. Alkegen has developed standard MLI options that are based on non-biopersistent glass microfibres which are not classified under European Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008, and do not require any warning labels.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels Inc.

It is not just perception; the frequency of standard updates and performance mandates is accelerating – from new safety and protection requirements, such as the ISO-20088 cryogenic liquid exposure requirements, to standards groups, and government mandated insulation performance requirements. All these new criteria affect the insulation system designer in many ways, most notably often having to recalculate insulation requirements for each project vs having a standard thicknesses table that can be used for years at a time. Some require having new materials and systems to meet these new mandated challenges. It is not business as usual in the LNG insulation design world.

Melvin Rasco, Johns Manville

Changes to standards and regulations should have little to no effect on the system design of an LNG system. Careful selection of materials and adherence to the manufacturer’s installation instructions should still yield a high-quality insulation system that ought to last for many years.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd

In the marine LNG market, insulation requirements are primarily regulated by the IMO gas codes, IGC and IGF, which undergo changes from time to time. However, over the past two decades, there have been frequent alterations to national or regional regulations concerning the environmental impact of insulation materials.

LNT maintains a close collaboration with its material suppliers and polyurethane associations that have connections and co-operation with the authorities responsible for issuing regulations. Through these partnerships, the company stays at the forefront of new regulations and has the capacity to test and implement new materials before the new regulations come into effect.

One of the most recent regulatory changes significantly affecting the LNG insulation industry is the ban on HFC blowing agents used in polyurethane foam in the EU, the US, Canada, and several other countries.

Abraham Sebastian, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation Alkegen. Alkegen’s cryogenic insulation solutions are engineered to meet the complex needs of LNG transport and storage.

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Standards and regulations are developed, revised, and updated by committees with a stake in the insulation industry.

Committee members representing end users,

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manufacturers, distributors, installers, third-party certification companies, and testing labs share a common goal of advancing insulation for the betterment of society.

Standards are set and updated in the areas of safety, performance, sustainability, and quality. Manufacturers stay up-to-date on any changes to maintain compliance with the standards. This requires frequent testing and retooling to meet the needs of all the stakeholders within the insulation industry.

Q7. Detail a critical infrastructure project where your company overcame some challenges with regards to an insulation solution.

Anatoli Kogan, Alkegen

Alkegen works with its customers to fully understand their concerns and requirements. Based with that knowledge, the company collaborates with suppliers and contractors to develop solutions that will solve those cryogenic insulation challenges. Alkegen also provides dedicated on-site installation support and application engineering.

While there are standard ways of wrapping MLI over cryogenic inner vessels and piping during the insulation application process, in some cases the geometry of a vessel or sheer tank size make these standard methods impractical. When such a challenge appeared, Alkegen’s applications team closely collaborated with the customer to come up with innovative wrapping methods, as well as designed premade MLI blankets to cover complex geometries and speed up the process. This collaboration resulted in significant time and waste savings for the customer.

In another project Alkegen’s team collaborated with the customer to design a more efficient insulation solution for cryogenic piping on LNG terminal installation. Based on the advantages mentioned, this solution provided consistent performance, energy savings, maintenance reduction, and significant cost savings through the life of the installation. At the same time, Alkegen developed enhanced packaging to protect insulation in challenging tropical environments.

Mark Krajewski, Aspen Aerogels Inc.

The company chosen as the primary insulation for a major East Coast liquefaction plant. The facility was being constructed inside the boundary of an existing export facility that wanted to take advantage of the abundant shale gas coming onto the market. Initially, the plan was to make the most of the durability and toughness of flexible aerogel blanket insulation and insulate much of the piping and equipment offsite, then ship it fully dressed to the facility.

That unfortunately did not happen, so the insulation work had to be performed onsite in a region without an adequate pool of experienced cold work insulators to draw on. At one point, there were 2100 insulators working at the same time on the project, many of whom had no previous experience. This would have been a recipe for

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delay and rework if the project leads had selected traditional rigid cryogenic insulation materials. However, because they selected easy-to-install and fault tolerant blankets from Aspen Aerogels, the work proceeded ahead of schedule.

After that experience, the EPC in charge of the project has used nothing else for their LNG projects. The quote that best sums up the company’s value to the construction team came from the insulation project lead, when interviewed four months after commissioning: “If we had used anything else, we would still be there.”

Melvin Rasco, Johns Manville

Johns Manville was asked to investigate a failed insulation system at a major chemical processing facility. It was discovered that the mechanical layout of the facility did not account for the necessary insulation thickness. There were areas where the pipes were too close together, which did not leave enough space for the correct insulation thickness. Since the process was sensitive to heat loss, the system would continually shut down because of the improper insulation. It was recommended that the system be re-insulated with the correct thickness. There was also evidence of water intrusion, which was due to failed caulking. This project is an example of why it is important to ensure that pipes and valves are allowed enough space so that they can be properly insulated.

Per Ivar Nikolaisen, LNT Marine Pte., Ltd

For environmental reasons, the cruise industry was several years ago compelled to adopt LNG as fuel. One of the concerns with LNG fuel tanks ranging from 2000 – 4000 m3 on board a vessel with 3000 – 4000 passengers is fire and explosion safety.

LNT developed a spray foam insulation system integrated with A60 fire insulation for this specific purpose. Since then, this LNG insulation system, renowned for its exceptional thermal and fire-resistant properties, has been successfully installed on most of the large cruise vessels built in Europe. Passenger ferries and other vessels with stringent safety requirements have also embraced this technology.

Abraham Sebastian, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation

The Cameron LNG project in Louisiana included effective acoustics insulation and protection against CUI as critical design requirements. The LNG plant’s compressors generate high noise levels during operation, which can be a nuisance to the neighbouring community.

The plant was also prone to more corrosion due to its location in the humid US Gulf Coast region. ROCKWOOL’s MA-960 Mat (Wrap) with WR-Tech resolved these issues.

Delivered as a mat to the LNG site, the product wrapped easily around tanks, large-diameter pipework, and other equipment requiring flexibility of installation and design.

The product delivered long-term acoustics and thermal insulation, while the WR-Tech additive helped mitigate against CUI.

Jack Blundell, ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation, USA, reviews how advanced stone wool insulation helps keep industrial facilities, such as LNG plants, running by keeping corrosion under insulation at bay – now and in the long run.

W

ater is a major challenge in many process-intensive industries, and LNG is no exception. In most plant operations, the ingress of water through the insulation system and onto the metal surfaces of pipes and other equipment can cause aggressive corrosion under insulation (CUI). If left unchecked, CUI can lead to unanticipated heat loss, unplanned downtime, and leaks and spills that create hazards for plant personnel and may hurt the plant’s standing as a responsible environmental steward.

While many LNG processes require insulation for low-temperature applications, some critical areas in the plant operate at elevated temperatures where CUI poses a higher risk. The severity of CUI is related to the temperature of the pipe or equipment, with higher temperatures translating to more aggressive corrosion at higher rates. For cyclic plant operations running between cold and hot temperatures, the risk of CUI is considered ‘extreme’, with dangerous and expensive consequences.

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During cycling, water vapour gets into the system at cold temperatures and the system is susceptible to higher CUI risks as it cycles through the water dew point. During each temperature cycle, the chloride salts in the water concentrate on the surface of the metal (and possibly in the insulation) when the water evaporates during the higher temperatures. By some estimates, CUI accounts for 10% of a plant’s overall maintenance costs and up to 60% of pipeline maintenance costs.1,2 In addition, a growing number of LNG facilities are being built along the US Gulf Coast and in India and Pakistan – high-humidity regions prone to increased rainfall and seasonal weather events such as hurricanes and monsoons. The warm, moisture-laden climate of these regions makes corrosion resistance a critical need for the vast network of pipelines and other equipment in an LNG facility.

Figure 1. ProRox insulation with WR-Tech improves plant safety by reducing noise and mitigating the effects of corrosion under insulation.

Traditional materials like coatings are considered the best line of defence against CUI, but are not always a singular corrosion mitigation solution in these regions.

These coatings often need to be reapplied every few years, which adds maintenance costs and may require non-productive downtime in some parts of the LNG plant.

With the rapid and common onset of flash rusting in some high-humidity environments, this means that the coatings cannot always be effectively applied.

Mitigating CUI with water-repellency technology

ROCKWOOL Technical Insulation is a global leader in stone wool insulation solutions, with more than 85 years of history in providing innovative products that help meet required design criteria and help solve the most critical industry challenges – including enhanced water repellency and proven corrosion mitigation. Leveraging the natural power of stone, the company’s ProRox insulation materials provide proven, effective thermal and sound resistance in industrial applications. These materials are manufactured by melting natural rock, spinning it into long fibre strands, and then weaving the strands into high-density mats or sectional forms that easily conform to the outside of piping systems and other LNG equipment.

ROCKWOOL has built on the proven thermal and acoustics insulation performance of its ProRox stone wool solutions, to now mitigate against CUI with a water-repellent additive called WR-Tech (‘Water Repellency Technology’). This binder technology coats each individual fibre of the stone wool insulation with an inorganic, hydrophobic additive during the manufacturing process.

This imparts the stone wool with superior water repellency, even at elevated operating temperatures, while preserving the insulation’s thermal and acoustics performance.

WR-Tech substantially lowers CUI and extends the piping network’s operating life in several ways.

Water repellency for long-lasting corrosion protection

In third-party tests conducted to the EN 13472 standard (the European standard for determining short-term water absorption in pipe insulation), insulation treated with WR-Tech has a water absorption five times lower than the next-closest insulation material. The treated insulation also very importantly maintains this water repellency even after being subjected to pre-heat stress tests of 250˚C (482˚F) for 24 hours.

The insulation also contains less than 10 ppm water-soluble chloride content, making it compliant with industry standards such as ASTM C795 and EN 13468, ensuring its safe application over steel. Additionally, in testing per the ASTM C1763 standard (test method for water absorption by full immersion in liquid water), the insulation’s fibrous, vapour-open structure shortens drying times, even over long periods of time in applications with cycles of heating and cooling.

Wide performance versatility beyond corrosion mitigation Figure 2. ProRox PS 960 with WR-Tech installed easily and quickly, even on tight clearance areas of the test pipe.

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ProRox insulation with WR-Tech maintains a stable and durable thermal performance to minimise heat losses

in hot pipes, save on energy consumption, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions for the plant. On average, stone wool insulation saves 20 000 times more carbon dioxide over its operating life than what is emitted during its manufacturing process.3 In addition to its thermal insulation performance, ProRox with WR-Tech delivers effective acoustics insulation for inherently noisy LNG plant equipment (including air-cooled heat exchangers, piping systems, compressors, and pumps). This equipment typically generates noise levels of 100 dB or more, which exceeds the recommended exposure limit (REL) of 85 dB (as an eight-hour time-weighted average) set by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

ROCKWOOL tested its stone wool insulation materials to the ISO 15665 standard, a widely accepted standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), to guide the selection and design of acoustic insulation for pipes, valves, and flanges.

ISO 15665 has been adopted by major oil and gas operators, refineries, and LNG plants and defines different classes of sound control (Classes A, B, C, and D). The Class D specification requirement has become the predominant sound control class for LNG plants around the world.

The standard sets requirements for minimum insertion loss, which is a measure of the minimum noise reduction in decibel for each class when acoustic insulation is applied to a pipe system. Insertion loss testing is conducted in a sound room with a single steel pipe running the length of the room.

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ProRox stone wool insulation effectively meets the ISO 15665 standards for recommended insertion loss levels for all classes A, B, C, and D materials in this testing – at less than half the thickness of other insulation materials.

Easy installation with less downtime and maintenance

ProRox insulation with WR-Tech is available as lightweight pipe sections or mat (wrap) that installs with fewer application layers than conventional insulation options. The mat (wrap) insulation applies easily to vessels, columns, complete pipeline systems, and other applications requiring design flexibility – and without the need for sealants, offsite cutting, or specialised personal protective equipment.

The insulation provides effective thermal, acoustic, and corrosion protection at a noticeably lower installation thickness vs conventional insulation materials, making it easier to apply around tight pipe bends or in areas with limited clearance space. A thinner insulation layer translates to lower installation costs, more effective use of installation crews, less storage space required for inventory, and lower transportation costs. Stone wool insulation is also removable and reusable, allowing for easy inspection without having to purchase replacement materials.

Proven CUI protection in demanding plant conditions Since its introduction to the global market in 2017, ProRox insulation with WR-Tech has received

industry accolades. The technology won the prestigious AMPP 2019 Corrosion Innovation of the Year Award, one of 10 technologies out of more than 50 nominees to receive the honour. Winners were selected by a panel of corrosion-control experts, spanning a diverse range of subject matter expertise from across the industry.

The product is recognised by industry experts in the corrosion field as a proven technology for water repellency and CUI mitigation potential. The technology has also successfully kept critical plant systems safer from CUI risks in a growing number of facilities – many of which operated under more severe conditions than a typical LNG plant.

Case study

One such facility was a large chemical plant in northern Europe that had been in continuous operation for nearly 60 years. The plant includes a large cracker unit that converts naphtha into benzene, ethylene, and propylene, which are used as feedstocks in several industries. This facility, one of the largest in the country and in the company’s production portfolio, includes more than 50 production installations interconnected via 1200 km of insulated pipes.

Temperatures in the pipe network range from -180 – 1100˚C (-292 – 2012˚F). About 70% of the piping operates between 50 – 600˚C (122 – 1112˚F) and is covered with stone wool insulation to minimise heat losses and ensure greater process reliability, safety, energy control and cost reductions, and plant integrity.

For the plant’s full-time maintenance crew and a support staff of approximately 1000 contractors, maintenance of pipes and systems is an integral part of their daily work. In recent years, CUI has become the main focus point for the team, with much of the team’s time and costs going to CUI inspection and prevention.

Inspection work schedules are planed years in advance, particularly for critical processes like the cracker, which must function reliably, safely, and properly to avoid a major shutdown that would impact the performance and profitability of the plant as a whole.

As part of its ongoing commitment to improving process safety and keeping CUI under control, the plant’s maintenance team performs practical tests on new coatings in the plant. The team worked with ROCKWOOL to conduct such a test on ProRox insulation with WR-Tech.

To analyse the WR-Tech’s effectiveness at preventing CUI, the maintenance crew and ROCKWOOL set up a three-year test on an operating pipeline with process temperatures ranging from 120 – 140˚C (248 – 284˚F).

ROCKWOOL supplied its ProRox PS 960 pipe sections with WR-Tech for the test.

A 60-mm thick test section of the PS 960 insulation was installed on 5 m of operating pipeline. Beginning in February 2018, the test section was initially exposed to all weather conditions over a four-month period. The crew then installed aluminium-zinc jacketing over the insulation, according to plant specifications, for the remaining 32-month test period.

At the end of the test period, disassembly and visual inspection revealed that the ProRox PS 960 with WR-Tech showed some slight flaking and fluffiness at its surface due to exposure to natural elements such as wind and rain. However, a closer inspection of the rest of the insulation showed no evidence of further moisture penetration. In addition, no CUI was visible on the surface of the pipe.

Further moisture analysis by ROCKWOOL showed that the test section measured 0.1 kg/m2 water absorption, well under the EN 13472 standard’s limit of 1 kg/m2.

This value was also under the standard of 0.2 kg/m2, which ROCKWOOL imposes on its own products.

The plant operator stated that they will continue to evaluate and implement other inspection methods to improve its CUI prevention efforts, including developing in-field pipe insulation moisture detection systems. But the operator’s focus remains the prevention of moisture ingress in the first place. And given ROCKWOOL’s performance in this first field test, the operator has the confidence to evaluate ProRox insulation with WR-Tech on other piping systems in the plant.

Conclusion

As existing LNG facilities expand and new LNG projects are built to meet the growing global demand for gas, LNG operators will need proven, cost-effective CUI solutions to ensure the safety and long-term productivity of their facilities. Material advances, such as ProRox stone wool insulation with WR-Tech, offer the promise of effective noise suppression and superior water repellency to keep personnel safer and plant equipment running longer.

References

Figure 3. After three years at 120 – 140˚C (248 – 284˚F), the

ProRox PS 960 with WR-Tech maintained its structural integrity and showed minimal ingress of water.

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1.

‘NACE Impact Study: Appendix D’, NACE International, (2016), p.D-10.

2.

FITZGERALD, B. J., DROZ, C., and WINNIK, S., ‘Piping System CUI: Old problem, different approaches’, European Federation of Corrosion (EFC), Minutes of meeting, presentation by ExxonMobil Chemical Company, (2003).

3.

‘Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator’, United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/energy/greenhouse-gas-equivalenciescalculator

Q. Zane Rhodes II, President, Zachary Browne, and Steven Cuffle, Newpoint Gas, LLC, USA, detail utilising amine plants and catalytic oxygen removal for LNG pretreatment.

I

n 1999, Newpoint Gas, LLC installed its first natural gas treating plant, and has been designing, building, installing, and operating gas treating and purification plants since.

Two technologies that benefit the LNG industry are amine treating and catalytic oxygen removal. Amine plants remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from gas streams utilising a regenerable amine solvent.

The catalyst oxygen removal system converts oxygen to CO2 and water using catalytic combustion. These contaminants cause corrosion issues, off spec product, and can also lead to solids formation in cold processes such as LNG liquefaction.

Efficient utilisation of these pretreatments can expand the inlet gas

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streams that are appropriate for LNG facilities, which can reduce the feedstock costs and allow biogas to be used for carbon-neutral LNG. Typically, LNG feedstock requirements are less than 4 ppmv H2S, 50 ppmv CO2, and less than 10 ppmv oxygen (O2). Reliable, modular pretreatment systems can significantly increase profitability, viability, and sustainability of LNG systems by eliminating contaminants from feedstock, lowering feedstock costs, and allowing biogas to be used for carbon-neutral LNG.

Amine treating

Amine treating uses an aqueous solution of amine to remove H2S and CO2 from a gas stream. This technology is applicable for natural gas, biogas, and even carbon capture from flue gas streams. A variety of amine solutions are available that are chosen based on pressure, composition, contaminants, and outlet requirements.

In Figure 1, a typical amine system process flow diagram (PFD) is shown. Inlet gas enters the bottom section of the amine contactor, where it contacts with sufficient amine solution to meet the required outlet CO2 specifications (typically less than 50 ppmv).

The gas exiting the top of the amine contactor(s) is routed to the sweet gas cooler and any condensed water is removed in the overhead gas scrubber. Inlet filter separation/coalescing is provided upstream of the amine contactor.

The rich amine will enter the amine regeneration system, feeding into the amine flash tank. The amine flash tank is designed to provide 10 mins. of residence time and includes a hydrocarbon collection sump. Any flashed vapours from the amine will be pressure controlled and routed to the skid edge for disposal.

The liquid amine from the amine flash tank flows through a 100 gpm capacity charcoal filter and then through a 100% capacity sock filter before going to the lean/rich exchanger, where the rich amine is heated to

Figure 1. Simplified process flow diagram – amine treating.

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approximately 210˚F. A level control valve is located on the rich amine stream, downstream of the lean/rich exchanger, to control the level in the amine flash tank.

The rich amine and reflux stream combine to feed the top stage of the amine still. The amine still is also packed with structured packing. An air-cooled heat exchanger is provided for the reflux condenser and a horizontal vessel serves as the reflux accumulator. The acid gas vapours off the reflux accumulator will be pressure controlled and routed to the edge of the skid for final disposal. Two reflux pumps (one operating and one stand-by) are also provided. The amine still reboiler utilises a horizontal thermosiphon design, with a TEMA Type BEM exchanger. Heat for the amine still reboiler will typically be provided by 50 psig, saturated steam, or hot oil.

The lean amine from the bottom of the amine still flows into an equalised lean amine surge tank. This is a horizontal vessel designed to provide five minutes of surge capacity. The lean amine leaves this vessel and flows through the shell side of the lean/rich exchanger and is cooled to approximately 215˚F. The lean amine out of the lean/rich exchanger is then pumped to about 60 psig in one of the two amine booster pumps. From the amine booster pumps, the lean amine is cooled to 120˚F in the lean amine cooler. The lean amine cooler is a shell and tube exchanger that uses cooling water.

The lean amine from the lean amine cooler is then fed to the amine circulation pumps. These pumps (one operating, one stand-by) will pump the amine to a pressure approximately 50 psi above that of the entering gas stream, for delivery to the top of the amine contactor(s).

Oxygen removal

O2 can be present in inlet gas in addition to CO2 and H2S. The oxygen poses several problems to plant facilities,

and removal of O2 is an important part of natural gas purification. Oxygen is corrosive and can reduce plant life and affect downstream processes. Oxygen is also included in LNG product specifications so must be removed to very low levels.

While there are several methods of O2 removal, catalytic oxidation is the most robust and economical method to remove O2 from inlet gas before amine treatment. Oxygen scavengers can be used, but have very high operating costs. Methods that concentrate the oxygen in another stream, such as pressure swing adsorption (PSA) can lead to explosive mixtures. In a catalytic oxygen removal system, the only thing consumed is a small portion of the methane and the oxygen is never concentrated, which results in a safe economical system.

The oxygen contaminated gas is introduced into the gas/gas exchanger where it is preheated using the gas coming from the reactor. The gas is then introduced into the heater where additional heating occurs. This heater is only needed during startup or when there is not sufficient heat of combustion to support the catalytic process due to low oxygen levels in the gas stream. The gas then goes to the reactor where it contacts a noble metal combustion promoting catalyst to react the oxygen and methane to form water and carbon dioxide. The gas is cooled in the gas/gas exchanger and is sent to an air cooler for further cooling and liquid separation, if required.

Newpoint’s X-O2 TM catalyst is tolerant of sulfur, chlorine, and other halogens that can be found in the gas stream.

Two oxygen analysers are used in the plant. One is on the inlet to ensure that the oxygen concentration is within the system design parameters. The outlet oxygen analyser is used to verify performance of the oxygen removal system.

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Biogas

Biogas from landfills and biodigesters is becoming an important carbon-neutral source. One of the major costs for biogas systems is compression. Since biogas streams are often 35 – 40% CO2, the cost of compressing a contaminant can be quite large. One solution Newpoint employs is designing CO2 removal units that operate at low pressure. The company achieves this by using diethylene glycol amine (DGA), which is a primary amine used in industrial gas sweetening and CO2 capture. DGA is known for both low volatility and stability, and its high affinity for CO2. This allows DGA to remove CO2 selectively and reliably from a mixture of gases. This separation then occurs before main plant compression saving capital and operating costs by as much as 35 – 45%.

Newpoint has engineered all these processes into what it calls Standard Module EngineeringTM. This process involves fabricating the modules and interconnecting piping in the shop instead of the field. This results in lower production costs, higher quality fabrication under controlled conditions, as well as lower installation costs and reduced

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installation time. In the past, on site fabrication, assembly, and installation resulted in doubled or even tripled costs.

These factors make treating natural gas and biogas more profitable and practical in a wider variety of applications. One example of this is in Figure 2. This involved seven modules weighing a total of 455 000 lbs.

Two workers installed all of the interconnecting piping in 1.5 days. The customer would normally schedule this work to take 45 days due to on-site fabrication under traditional work plans. Wider applicability and reduced costs are leading to more small scale, localised, and fragmented LNG production. This should continue to increase as LNG technology and production become more cost competitive.

Engineering with a digital twin

Another new technology entering the market is the digital twin. There is a lot of confusion about what a digital twin comprises, mostly because there are different applications and it is a relatively new concept. When it comes to process engineering, the company has developed the following definition: the process of using data from one

source to populate documents and models throughout the engineering and operational life of a plant.

One of the major changes that digital twin technology brings to the industry is creating a database driven process rather than a document driven process.

In the past, it was not uncommon for several different versions of documents to exist in different areas of a plant’s operation. Engineers may have one set of documents, operators another, and maintenance technicians may have yet another copy as the result of changes and updates to the equipment. Knowing which documents to trust is problematic, and updating records requires first gathering and comparing all the varied documentation. Afterward, updates can be made to a single document, which then becomes the trusted source until more copies are made and the process begins again.

Digital twin technology allows a single database to control and populate all documentation, creating an evergreen and trusted source of information. Whether an engineer needs to update a design, an operator needs specifications, or a maintenance team must replace a pump, everyone will draw from and update the same database. Everyone always has the same, trusted information.

Digital twins are also helpful with predictive maintenance across the life of a plant.

Instrumentation throughout the plant can feed live data directly into the database, which then monitors things such as the expected lifespan of pumps and valves. As a particular piece of equipment nears the end of its lifecycle, the digital twin can notify maintenance personnel that a replacement will be needed soon. The appropriate part, tools, and other items can be acquired before failure occurs. If a piece of equipment begins to fail and flow rates or temperatures change, the live data in the digital twin can notify operators of unsafe conditions before catastrophic failure. This same data is available anywhere to anyone with access to the database, creating new possibilities for plant management, maintenance, design, and operation.

Conclusion Figure 2. Large modular amine plant (120 million ft3/d).

Figure 3. Simplified PFD – oxygen removal.

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As the LNG industry continues to change, it is more important to be able to use a variety of feedstocks from different sources to reduce costs and carbon intensity. The ability to remove CO2, H2S, and O2 reliably and economically is important. Reducing the cost of smaller systems by utilising low-pressure, modular, highly digital, and deployable systems is necessary for the industry to continue to expand.

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Ralph H. Weiland, Optimized Gas Treating, Inc., and Izak Nieuwoudt, Fractionation Research, Inc., USA, describe the different factors that can affect tray efficiency and hydraulics.

A

common misconception widely repeated by academia and textbooks is the notion that a tray is a platform carrying liquid smoothly from the inlet downcomer on one side, to the outlet downcomer on the other. In this idealised arrangement, the vapour or gas is evenly sparged into the liquid through perforations in the tray. The narrative continues with the gas rising through the liquid as a swarm of well-defined bubbles which eventually pass through an interface at the top of the biphase. Figure 1 is a sketch of this idealisation. The reality, however, is a different story. The biphase shows extremely turbulent, violent interaction between the vapour and liquid to the extent that it often makes it hard to discern gas from liquid, and even to identify the upper surface of the biphase to the extent that photographing the biphase provides only very blurred, poorly-defined images. Idealisation and reality bear little resemblance to one another. However, hydraulic calculations (pressure drop, liquid depth on the tray, effective density of the biphase) can be quite reliably and usefully done on the idealised basis.

The hydraulic behaviour of trays is not their only important characteristic. Although hydraulics determines the ultimate vapour and liquid-handling capacity of trays (i.e., plant throughput), the separation one achieves is determined by the tray’s mass transfer characteristics, commonly referred to as tray efficiency, and theoretical stages in what are (unjustifiably) called, state-of-the-art models. In the following, it is posited that except for designs with quite poor vapour-liquid contact in the first place (for example dual-flow and disc-and-doughnut trays), most trays have efficiencies ranging from 92 – 108% depending on the tray design and tray type. This applies to standard hydrocarbon test systems, e.g., C6-C7 and iC4-nC4 mixtures.

Traditionally, tray development has focused primarily on pressure drop and column capacity, and somewhat less on efficiency. With hydrocarbons, efficiencies tend to lie in a relatively narrow range.

In reactive systems (common in absorption, especially in gas treating) and in many chemical separations (especially those with highly nonideal phase equilibrium thermodynamics), however, the separation is controlled primarily by mass transfer rate limitations. Mass transfer rates depend on diffusion coefficients of the transferring species, on the interfacial areas for mass (and heat) transfer. In systems of chemicals, these species often interact with each other so that diffusion rates become collaborative even to the extent that a species can diffuse against its own concentration gradient.

This article offers a written and pictorial description of the kind of motion observed on most crossflow trays operating at normal vapour and liquid rates. It describes the effect of pressure on the appearance of the biphase, how the kind of deck perforation visually affects the flows and influences pressure drop, hydraulic capacity, and how hydraulics affects mass transfer.

Chaotic violence

At the design point in a well-designed column, most of the space between trays is filled with the vapour-liquid mixture, also called

41

the biphase. At low L/V ratios and very low pressure (vacuum), liquid tends to be dispersed and vapour continuous (Figure 2), turning the biphase into a concentrated spray of droplets (spray regime). Entrainment occurs when liquid droplets are carried by the vapour onto the tray deck above by being carried by the vapour through the holes in the deck. At high L/V ratios and at high pressure, the biphase tends to appear as a churning mass of geysers, violently interacting to the extent that frequently some of the geysers will pass through the tray above as entrainment – under such conditions, entrainment may not

Figure 1. Idealised tray hydraulics.

Figure 2. Tray hydraulic regimes.

Figure 3. Sieve trays and vapour bypassing.

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be the most descriptive term. At intermediate L/V ratios and moderate pressure, the biphase has the appearance of an ill-defined mass of vapour and liquid where neither phase is clearly dominant or even clearly identifiable. Often even the place of transition from biphase to vapour is not clearly defined.

Except under vacuum and at quite low vapour flows, the vapour is considered to be dispersed and the liquid continuous, but the vapour rarely adopts the idealised form of bubble warms. Further, it consists of violently interacting jets and large gas and liquid volumes being torn apart by energetically intense interactions. Comparing the biphase to the activity in a washing machine does not adequately describe the turbulence of the interaction if only because of the comparatively much higher vapour volume, which a washing machine can neither produce nor sustain. To drive the phases towards a state of compositional equilibrium, however, intense interaction between phases is exactly what is wanted.

In gas treating operations, typified by carbon dioxide (CO2) removal from the gas feeding an LNG facility, L/V ratios tend to be high and the tray will be operating close to downcomer choke flood. A downcomer is choke flooded when the total froth flow is unable to get into the downcomer mouth. It is backup flooded when all the liquid is unable to get out of the downcomer bottom, even with the downcomer full of liquid.

Sieves, valves, and other treatments

Vapour flow through sieve holes is vertically directed and no attempt is made through mechanical construction to force or even encourage interaction between adjacent jets except insofar as the sieve holes are close together. With interaction, mixing would be intensified, and better mixing implies better phase contact and better efficiency of mass transfer. Figure 3 is a graphical representation of the jets emanating from sieve holes coalescing into larger jets in which the vapour content largely bypasses the liquid and most of the biphase. Contacting is poor quality, entrainment occurs early, and tray efficiencies tend to be at the low end of the range.

Vapour distribution within the biphase and turbulence intensity can be improved when caps or valves are placed over larger holes (Figure 4). Vapour enters the biphase horizontally through the curtain between the valve cap and the tray deck, then interacts with the vapour from adjacent valves by intense mixing and turbulence generation. The use of valve caps opens a whole vista of new capabilities that can result from using fixed vs moving valves,1 trapezoidal-shaped valves which offer a slight push to the liquid, canted valves to induce greater push, mini valves (fixed or moving) to convert coarse, highly nonuniform froths into finer dispersions with lower entrainment and more interfacial area for better efficiency, and multipass trays which reduce hydraulic gradients and lead to better dispersions. Some types of treatment are intended to mitigate against the deposition of solids (fouling) on the trays. For example, fixed valves perform better in fouling service because moving valves have a tendency to stick open or closed. There are many additional types of crossflow trays, too numerous even to mention here and limited only by the imagination of tray developers.

Almost all crossflow trays rely on gravity to separate the biphase into the upflowing vapour and downflowing liquid before they pass to the trays above and below. In recent years, trays have been developed that generate a centrifugal flow which greatly improves the ability to separate the phases. Examples are the ULTRA-FRAC® tray (Koch-Glitsch), and Shell’s ConSepTM tray (Sulzer). Trays based on centrifugal flow offer greatly increased capacity, but at the expense of somewhat lower efficiency than more conventional crossflow trays.

Every factor in a tray design has the potential to affect hydraulic performance, pressure drop, and efficiency to greater or lesser extents. Such factors include tray type, valve weight(s), valve type (standard vs mini vs push), moving vs fixed. Even deck thickness affects pressure drop.

But, perhaps the most important factor in tray selection is cost. Tray selection and try design are specialties of tray suppliers who are generally very well-placed to make recommendations, and who usually back up their detailed designs with performance guarantees.

Pressure drop

Pressure drop is one of the most important factors determining tray performance. This is increasingly the case as the column operating pressure decreases – in a high-pressure tower, the pressure drop is unlikely to be a critical factor because pressure drop is such a small fraction of the tower pressure. In a vacuum tower, the maximum available pressure drop is the tower pressure itself.

Figure 4. Vapour flow through valves on a tray. Flows through curtain areas experience directly opposing flows from adjacent valves.

The total pressure drop across an operating tray is the sum of the dry tray pressure drop and hydrostatic head of biphase on the tray. Dry tray pressure drop is determined by the geometry, construction, and number density of the tray deck perforations (and the weight of moving valves), as well as on the density and velocity of the flowing vapour. Obviously, dry tray pressure drop is unaffected by liquid properties.

Wet tray pressure drop is the pressure drop experienced by the vapour as it goes from the biphase on the tray deck to the vapour space above the tray. This is a function of the biphase density, the depth of vapour-liquid mixture on the tray, and possibly surface tension insofar as this might affect the release of vapour from attachment to the metal surrounding the tray perforations.

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Wet and dry pressure drops are mutually independent but linearly additive because once the vapour has passed through the tray perforations, it carries no memory of how it got into the biphase.

Wet tray pressure drop requires that the biphase not try to expand beyond the confines of the physical volume between trays. There are numerous reasons this requirement may be violated. Most common amongst them are: z One or other phase flow rate exceeds the capacity of the equipment: vapour jet flooding, downcomer backup flooding, downcomer choke flooding. z Foaming. z Perforations plugged or valves stuck closed by fouling.

Tower capacity

A perfectly-designed tray will have adequate space between trays to permit entry of an average size human being for maintenance and inspection, and it will operate close to 85% jet, downcomer backup and downcomer choke flood.

This provides a tray with maximum capacity and enough operating cushion to handle modest process upsets reliably and gracefully.

Tray suppliers each have their own design procedures based on years of experience and extensive pilot and large scale hydraulic data, mostly using air-water simulators several feet in diameter, although some have hydrocarbon towers of sufficient diameter to confirm tray performance under real-world conditions. FRI, a consortium of 75 companies, have 1.22 m and 2.44 m dia. hydrocarbon towers in which they generate capacity and efficiency data on packing and trays. Final designs should always be done by the tray supplier who will also provide a performance guarantee for the particular application.

Mass transfer and tray efficiency

Crossflow trays are widely used in distillation and gas absorption. In distillation, tray efficiencies are typically 80+% at low pressure and low liquid rates, and 90 – 110% at high pressure and high liquid rates, the spread being a function of valve design and layout. Efficiencies in distillation are controlled mostly by resistance to mass transfer in the vapour phase. In gas absorption, efficiencies are more typically in the range 5 – 60%, with low values being more common than high.

The reason for low efficiencies is the low solubility of most noncondensable gases (e.g. CO2) which tends to make their absorption rates liquid-phase controlled, and the fact that gas absorption is often accompanied by chemical reaction which provides very high solvent capacity for gas in its reacted form but leaves the solubility of the molecular unreacted gas very low. This pairs high capacity with a small driving force2 for absorption. It takes a long time to saturate a high-capacity solvent if the gas absorbs only slowly.

Mass transfer rates depend on liquid and vapour-phase film coefficients for mass transfer (kG and kL) and on the effective vapour-liquid interfacial area (a). In distillation, the liquid-film coefficient is not of great importance except in the case of very high purity separations, e.g., in demethanisers where the distillate contains only a trace of any components with boiling point above methane or in the bottom product with only a

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trace of hydrogen and methane. In such cases, the low boilers can have significant liquid-side diffusion control and the trays in those sections will have low efficiency for those components.

Applications involving gas absorption are dominated by CO2 and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) removal from gas streams. Other impurities to be removed include mercaptans, carbonyl sulfide (COS), and other trace sulfur-bearing species. Solvents are aqueous solutions of one or more amines with which the acid gases react. In fact, H2S reacts instantaneously, and this often throws its dominant resistance to absorption into the gas phase. CO2, though, reacts much more slowly, and its absorption remains liquid-side controlled. When this situation ensues, there is the potential for preferentially absorbing one of the two components at the expense of the other (which is in effect rejected into the gas). This implies that chemical reaction rates can have a very significant influence over absorption, a fact that is accounted for by the so-called enhancement factor.3 Vapour vs liquid-side control of mass transfer is responsible for the ability of tertiary and hindered amines to preferentially remove and recycle residual H2S from the tail gas produced by sulfur plants, allowing very low sulfur emissions to be met.

Conclusion

Mass transfer requires the presence of both phases so it occurs only in the biphase, after the vapour has passed through the tray deck perforations and is contacting the liquid. The actual device on the tray can be expected to play a role in the mass transfer process only to the extent that it influences the turbulence and interfacial area in the biphase. Mini-valves produce a somewhat finer dispersion than conventional valves and large-hole sieves produce a somewhat coarser dispersion than small ones. However, the differences are most evident closest to the tray deck and gradually weaken as one moves away from the tray and higher up into the biphase. What this says in effect is that the type of tray device itself has somewhat muted effect on mass transfer, i.e., on tray efficiency because the effect of the perforation details is felt mostly close to the tray deck and falls away as the vapour rises through the biphase. This is borne out to some extent by much of the efficiency data collected for hydrocarbon systems (iC4 + n-C4 and C6 + C7 are common test systems) in large scale test equipment, efficiencies in such systems being generally in the range 80 – 110% in any case The effects are more pronounced in gas absorption However, the biphase loses its memory of how it was created shortly after it is formed so, as one might expect, valve shapes for example do not play a dominant role in determining mass transfer performance. Valve layout probably does, but such factors do not appear ever to have been studied.

Notes 1.

Moving valves allow a tray to operate at greater turndown because at low vapour flow, some of the valves shut and reduce the open area for throughflow of vapour.

2.

The gas has to dissolve into the liquid before it can react.

Reactive absorption is a two-step process – dissolution followed by reaction. The capacity of the solvent is how much gas it can react with at saturation but the driving force for absorption is the physical solubility of the gas (not its chemical solubility).

3.

Enhancement factor is the ratio of absorption rates with and without chemical reaction, found by solving the relevant reaction-diffusion equations for the kinetics involved.

Emmanuel Guilhamon, Rockwell Automation, explores how to optimise efficiency for LNG carriers with a modern distributed control system.

T

he restricted nature of gas supply owing to volatile geopolitical developments in and around Europe has heralded a new dawn for LNG, as the region continues to navigate its energy security landscape. After several years of weak supply growth, the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) predicts that the global LNG market will see a tidal wave of new projects online starting in mid-2025. They expect the wave will crest in 2026, with the addition of 64 million tpy of liquefaction capacity – the most in the history of the global LNG industry. The supply additions will boost global liquefaction capacity by roughly 13% in a year.

A real-life example

This growth has created intense pressure on existing infrastructure and assets, with operators keen to ensure that they can maximise their utilisation. That is the case for two LNG carriers, the LNG Portovenere and LNG Lerici, built in 1997, and well into their expected lifespan.

However, their owner, along with the management company, EXMAR Ship Management, decided to extend the life of the ships for a further 15 years, so they activated a modernisation plan.

In addition to overhauling the boilers, pumps, and turbines, the project also included the modernisation of

45

all control systems, from the central management system to the system used for the turbines and turbopumps. The design and implementation of the new automation system were assigned to the Safety Systems and Information Division of the Italian company, Leonardo. A global high-tech company and one of the leading players in the aerospace, defence, and security sectors, the company is a leader in designing and providing high-integrity security systems and process safety systems.

Based on its in-depth knowledge of Rockwell Automation solutions and long-term collaboration with its team, Leonardo opted to deploy a new infrastructure controlled by the PlantPAx distributed control system (DCS).

The PlantPAx system utilises a common automation platform for seamless integration between critical process areas and the balance of a facility; in this instance, a vessel. It connects process, power, information, and safety control into one vessel-wide infrastructure, increasing efficiencies and productivity across all layers of the operations. This solution eliminates disparate control systems, results in significant optimisation improvements, and helps reduce the total cost of ownership.

A DCS provides a wide range of architecture options for increased flexibility, energy efficiency, and throughput optimisation. The same platform can be used for single stations or large distributed architectures. It also offers scalable system capabilities — HMI, batch management, and data management that does not require extensive architectures — perfect for process skid equipment and rapid integration.

The challenges of replacing a legacy control system

The LNG carriers have a capacity of 65 000 m3 each and underwent an extensive refit project in which Leonardo was involved in the upgrade of automation control technology, sensors, and field instrumentation. At the time of their construction, both vessels were equipped with a Bailey Infi 90 system, popular at the time, which became a legacy system at the end of its lifespan; maintained by the Leonardo service department. The desire to replace the legacy system with a modern, high-performing DCS was at the heart of the project.

In addition to the challenge of replacing the DCS system, the automation system for the turbopumps and turbines needed replacing along with all the field instrumentation. However, the technology itself was not the most significant challenge, which came from the strict timelines imposed by the operator. Given the current demand for LNG assets, the production downtime for the ships had to be as brief as possible. This strict timeline required perfect coordination with the other contractors to proceed with installing the hardware and software in parallel with restoring the boilers, turbines, pumps, and other equipment – reducing the subsequent commissioning phase to a minimum.

Given these constraints, Leonardo decided to lean towards a solution that did not have hidden surprises and one that they knew very well; that could satisfy the requirements for modernity, scalability, and flexibility.

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They also wanted a system with high-performance levels associated with managing functional safety, while being simple to implement in terms of hardware and software, ultimately delivering fluid migration of the legacy system to the new system.

A tried and tested solution

In light of this, Leonardo chose Rockwell Automation and its modern PlantPAx DCS. The PlantPAx DCS made it possible to combine all control systems in a single platform. Now the central control system for the ships is managed by the automated integrated system (AIS), as are the turbines and turbopumps.

An identical mock-up of the software solution to be implemented on the LNG carriers was developed on land to ensure optimal commissioning time. In addition, this solution allowed Rockwell Automation and the other stakeholders to conduct in-depth functional tests to check that the new system’s functionality was identical to previous levels, therefore making it possible to study possible improvements in the solution and new functionalities with the help of Rockwell Automation specialists.

The land-based inspection phase was crucial to the project’s success, allowing the engineers to deliver the solution operation-ready. It also overcame the problem of working with two ships in two different shipyards. For the LNG Portovenere, commissioning occurred in January 2016 at the Navantia shipyard in Ferrol, Spain, while the commissioning of the software on the LNG Lerici took place in 2018 at the Keppel shipyard in Singapore.

Another advantage of selecting the PlantPAx DCS was that it included the emergency shutdown system for safe functioning. In addition, a remote service line was installed with a satellite internet connection to deliver continuous customer support during navigation, allowing Leonardo to offer continuous assistance during operations and support for troubleshooting, to maintenance personnel.

The advantages of a modern DCS system

After the refurbishment, both ships are equipped with a modern system with improved performance over the legacy system and enjoy all the benefits of a modern DCS. One additional sustainability benefit was reduced energy consumption thanks to the new generation-control system.

In addition to moving from a legacy system liable to malfunction, there was now one standard system instead of three separate systems, with improved performance and speed.

With all the previously disparate systems now combined into a single platform, it also means having a single supervision and control system, which in this case is based on FactoryTalk View SE, which was a faster solution with respect to refresh times for the graphic pages and more intuitive for operators.

From an assistance and maintenance standpoint, the ships are now equipped with a remote service system with a satellite internet connection; therefore, operators can count on continuous and remote assistance as needed.

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Q&A WITH...

Michael Hastings, Senior Application Engineer, Brüel & Kjær Vibro Mike has been with Brüel & Kjær Vibro for the past 32 years. Here, he has worked on developing various machine monitoring techniques and is currently working with strategic marketing development, analysis, and communications. He has written numerous articles, papers, and webinars on machine condition monitoring. He is also the convener of an ISO workgroup for creating standards for condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines.

01 Does selecting the type of monitoring solution depend on the application within an LNG process?

Yes. There are many different machines used in the different LNG processes, such as power generation, gas treatment, and liquefaction, and each will have its own particular level of criticality. This, therefore, requires different monitoring solutions. There are also different operating conditions under which the monitoring is done, which also includes cryogenic.

Moreover, the monitoring solutions also depend on the particular potential failure modes to be detected and diagnosed and the relevant monitoring techniques and automatic decision support tools needed to achieve this. This not only includes vibration monitoring, but also process parameters, performance monitoring parameters for condition monitoring, as well as monitoring for protection. The monitoring solutions that can fulfil these requirements can include a combination of plantwide rack-based systems, field monitors, and wireless systems, and all must comply with stringent requirements for cybersecurity, data management and interfacing, safety integrity levels, vibration monitoring standards, etc.

02 Do you expect there to be an

increase in future demand for LNG monitoring solutions?

Absolutely. There is a growing need to use natural gas as a transitional energy source to fossil fuels such as coal and diesel, which all have more greenhouse gas emissions. There are many smaller LNG plants being built to meet the increasing demands for LNG production, and many LNG terminals being built for regasification of LNG and transport for fulfilling energy and consumer needs.

As the LNG industry learned from past experience, more production agility will also be needed to avoid overproduction and underproduction. This puts extra demand on the machines for the variable loading and

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thus requires monitoring to be done under different operating conditions to increase monitoring reliability in order to reduce maintenance costs and downtime.

03 What role can new technologies play

in LNG monitoring solutions in the future?

Enterprise-wide data storage and management is replacing standalone proprietary systems. Plant-wide service-based analytics, for example, are more transparent than what is offered by proprietary systems and more readily accessible and easier to fine tune. More reliable and faster maintenance decisions and lifecycle predictions can then be made when a fleet of assets can be accessed together with process data for correlation.

Moreover, all this enormous amount of data can then be more effectively employed in artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms with more reliability and accuracy, thus resulting in better asset health and lifecycle decision-making.

04 How can Brüel & Kjær Vibro’s products

support companies looking to decarbonise and optimise their LNG operations?

Natural gas releases much less carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse emissions than all other fossil fuels, but CO2 can still be reduced even more during the entire chain of processing, liquefaction, transportation, regasification, and transport. All the machinery for these added processes to remove CO2 will also have to be monitored.

CO2 extraction, such as from an acid gas removal unit, can be reinjected into underground storage using reciprocating compressors. Reciprocating compressors are, in fact, used in many other CO2 reduction processes, such as hydrogen production and compression for power generation. These machines, however, require special monitoring solutions.

Therefore, effective monitoring solutions also play an important role in the decarbonisation of LNG.