Ocean Equity and Plastics Governance: International and U.S. Perspectives

OCEAN GOVERNANCE, LAW, AND POLICY

Ocean Equity and Plastics Governance: International and U.S. Perspectives

CREDITS

Prakriti Shah, LL M Author and Research

Assistant

GW Law, The George Washington University

Randall S Abate, J D Supervisor and Collaborating Professor Nippon Foundation Ocean Nexus, GW Law, The George Washington University

OVERVIEW

Report on the role of equity in plastics governance at the international and U.S. levels.

Topics include: (1) the role of equity in the plastics treaty negotiations, (2) the application of ocean justice principles to avoid disproportionate burdens in the Global South and vulnerable communities, and (3) the implementation of front-end and back-end accountability mechanisms to respond to plastics pollution such as reducing production and imposing extended producer responsibility (EPR) mechanisms.

SupervisedbyDr RandallS Abate,JD

OceanNexusSpecialReport|2024

oceannexus.org

PrakritiShah

Introduction

Theworldproducescloseto400milliontonsofplasticeveryyear.1 Theproductionof plasticscontributessignificantlytoclimatechangeasitgeneratesmassivegreenhousegas emissionsoverthecourseofitslifecycle 2 Plasticsthatareproducedandconsumedon land,aredumpedintoouroceans,leadingtotheadversehumanhealthimpacts,and destructionofbiodiversityandhabitat Thechallengeofaddressingplasticspollutionalso exacerbatestheequityandjusticeimpactsinmarineandcoastalcommunities Theplastics lifecycleaccentuatesthedisproportionateburdensofenvironmentalhazardsontheGlobal Southandoncommunitiesaroundtheworldthatarealreadymarginalized,notwithstanding theoverconsumptionoftheGlobalNorthandthelimitedcapacityofwasteandplastic managementintheGlobalSouth Arisingoutoftheenvironmentaljusticemovement,ocean justiceseekstoaddressandbalanceoceanconservationandsocialequityissues

Ontheinternationallevel,theexistinglegalandregulatoryframeworkdoeslittleto protectthemarineenvironmentfromplasticpollution.Recently,however,theadoptionofa historicresolutionforalegallybindingplasticstreatyofferspromiseinprovidingglobal regulationsfortheproductionanduseofplasticsandplasticswastemanagement TheUS positioninthetreatynegotiationspushesforvoluntary,country-drivengoalswhichcould stifletheimpactoftheproposedplasticstreaty,despitebeingthelargestcontributorof plasticwastes Thisproposedplasticstreatyhasthepotentialtoaddresstheimplicationsof plasticpollutiononoceanjustice,buttheextenttowhichitdoessowilldependon negotiationsbetweenstateparties.

PartIofthispaperprovidesabackgroundonthescaleoftheplasticsproblemand itsinequitableimpactsonalreadyvulnerablegroupsofpeoplesuchasindigenous communities,women,childrenandfencelinecommunities PartIIexplainstheconceptof oceanjusticeandexaminesthestatusoftheproposedplasticstreaty,includingthezero draftthatwillbeusedatthenextnegotiationmeeting.Statepartypositionsthatcould influencetheoutcomeofthesenegotiationsarealsoexaminedinPartIIofthispaper.In PartIIIofthispaper,weprovideanoverviewoftheexistinggovernancerelatedtoplastics pollutionandexaminetowhatextentthisframeworkaddressestheinequitiesinmarine

1 EmmaBryce,FirstStepsAgreedonPlasticsTreatyafterBreakthroughatParisTalks,THEGUARDIANJune6, 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/06/first-steps-agreed-on-plastics-treaty-after-breakthrou gh-at-paris-talks.

2 TaalinRaoShah&JohnDoherty,WhatDoesPlasticHavetodowithClimateChange?ENVIRONMENTAL LAW INSTITUTE:VIBRANT ENVIRONMENT BLOG Sept.20,2023, https://www.eli.org/vibrant-environment-blog/what-does-plastic-have-do-climate-change.

OceanNexusSpecialReport|OceanEquityandPlasticsGovernance:InternationalandU.S.Perspectives

environmentsfromaninternationalperspective.PartIVfocusesontheexistingframework oflawandpolicyintheU.S.anditsabilitytoaddresstheplasticsproblem.PartVofthis paperexploressomeoftheimportantprinciplesofoceanjusticethatcouldhelpredress historicalandcontinuinginjusticesinoceangovernancearebrieflyexplored

I. BackgroundonMarinePlasticsPollution

Plasticiseverywhere.Sincetheinventionofthefirstsyntheticpolymersinthe1900s, plasticshavebecomeubiquitousandarenowfoundinhundredsofthousandsof products 3 Plasticwastehasbeenfoundinthelowestandhighestplacesoftheworld 4 Almost14milliontonsofplasticentertheoceanseveryyear,makingup85%ofmarine debris.5 SincetheonsetoftheCOVID 19pandemic,therehasbeenastaggeringincrease inthedemandforanduseofdisposable,single-useplastic.6 Therehasalsobeena correspondingincreaseinplasticwasteworldwide7 alongwithadecreaseintheglobal recyclingofplastics 8

A. ScopeofthePlasticProblem

Thecycleofplasticsitselfhasbecomeaseriousthreattohumanrightsandecosystemson agloballevel.9 Theprocessofcontaminationbeginswiththeextractionoffossilfuelssuch asoilandgasrequiredtoproducechemicalsfromwhichplasticismade.Theproduction andtransportofplasticsthenreleasetoxicchemicalsintotheair.10 Coastalcommunitiesare alsocontaminatedbythetransportofplasticsandplasticspellets Theimproperdisposalof plasticsaswellasreleaseofhazardouschemicalsduringincinerationoropenburningalso hasadverseimpactsonhumanhealth 11 Thewastestageofplasticisparticularly challengingbecausemanufacturersofplasticshaveneglectedtoimplementwaste managementmethodsthattheyconsider“economicallyviableˮtosolvethechallengeof globalplasticspollution.12

3 JulianoCaliletal.,Neglected:EnvironmentalJusticeImpactsofMarineLitterandPlasticPollution15UNEP 2021

4 MarcosOrellanaSpecialRapporteuronToxicsandHumanRights),ReportontheImplicationsforHuman RightsoftheEnvironmentallySoundManagementandDisposalofHazardousSubstancesandWastes,¶1,U.N. Doc.A/76/207July22,2021

5 JessicaVandenberg&YoshitakaOta,TowardsAnEquitableApproachToMarinePlasticPollution9NIPPON FOUND.OCEANNEXUSCTR.2022.

6 Calil,supranote3,at7

7 Id.at8

8 Vandenberg,supranote5,at20

9 Orellana,supranote4,¶2.

10 Id.

11 Id.

12 Id at¶21.

Theentirelifecycleofplasticscausesnegativesocial,political,andeconomic effectsandisresponsibleforinequitableimpacts.13 Thedisproportionateimpactsofplastics distressalreadymarginalizedcommunities,therebymakingplasticswasteandpollutionan oceanjusticeissue 14 Wealthy,developedcountriesexporttheirplasticwasteto low-incomecountriesintheGlobalSouth 15 The“ballooneffectˮofshiftingplastic productionfromtheGlobalNorthtotheGlobalSouth,whereregulationsarelessstringent alsopresentsequityconcerns Thegeographicalshiftingoftheplasticwasteproblem furtherexacerbatesitseffectsonalreadyvulnerablepeople,affectingtheirrights.16

B. EffectsonMarginalizedGroups

Marginalizedgroupsthataredisproportionatelyburdenedbythelifecycleofplastics includeindigenouspeoples,women,childrenandfuturegenerations,fenceline communities(low-incomeandminoritycommunitieslivingnearindustrialcenters),and industrialworkers.17 Aspoorandvulnerablecommunitiesthatlackthepoliticalandlegal toolstosafeguardtheirwellbeing,theybeardisproportionateburdensofplasticpollution. Thechallengeofplasticpollutionhasledtotheviolationofseveralhumanrights,suchas therighttolife,food,housing,sanitation,andequality 18

Theimpactsofoilextractionoperationshavebeenexcessivelyburdensomeon indigenouscommunities,astheyrelyheavilyonthenaturalenvironmentfortheirsurvival 19 Oilexplorationhasbeenresponsiblefortakingawaylandforwellfieldsfromindigenousle peopleswhoareparticularlyvulnerableinthattheyoftenlackaccesstolegalresourcesto takeactionagainstit.20 Activitiessuchasdeforestationsignificantlyimpactedindigenous peoplesʼlands,whichholdssignificanttraditionalandculturalvalueforthem 21 Particularly affectedarecoastalcommunitiesasoceansareinundatedwithplasticspollutionandthe fishstocksthatthesecommunitiesrelyonarecontaminatedbyplasticslitter 22 Despite beingdisproportionatelyaffectedbyplasticspollutioncomparedtoothergroups, indigenouspeoplesʼknowledgeisexcludedfromthedominantdiscoursesandgovernance surroundingplasticspollution.23

13 Vandenberg,supranote5,at9

14 SeeCalil,supranote3;Vandenberg,supranote3

15 Orellana,supranote4,¶25

16 Id.

17 Seeid.;Calil,supranote3

18 SeeVandenberg,supranote5;Orellana,supranote4

19 Calil,supranote3,at26

20 Id.

21 Id.

22 Orellana,supranote4,¶50

23 Vandenberg,supranote5,at34

Womenrepresentthemajorityoftheplasticsworkforceandaretherefore disproportionatelyexposedtothetoxinsfoundinplasticsandtherisksassociatedwith suchexposure 24 Womenarealsoexposedtoplasticsinmenstrualproductssuchas sanitarypadsandtamponsthatcontaincarcinogenicandhormone-disruptingadditives 25 Plasticizersthatarecommonincosmeticproductscanincreasepregnancylossesin women 26 Micro-plasticshaveevenbeenfoundinhumanplacenta 27

ChemicalsusedinplasticssuchasbisphenolAhavebeenlinkedtocancer, endocrinedisruption,andadversedevelopmentinchildren 28 Bisphenolshavealsobeen linkedtoobesityandprecociouspuberty 29 Childrenandfuturegenerationswillhaveto confronttheincreasedtoxificationoftheplanetandthedebtthatthegrowingvolumesof plasticwillimposeonthem.30

Fencelinecommunitiesareminorityorotherwisemarginalizedcommunitiesthatare locatedincloseproximitytorefineriesandchemicalreleasingfacilities 31 Asaresultof wheretheyarelocated,theyareexposedtopollution 32 AsdefinedintheUnitedNationʼs EnvironmentalProgramme,fencelinecommunitiesareusuallycommunitiesofAfrican Americans,Latinos,andlow-incomegroupswhohaveloweraccesstofoodandhigher povertyrates.33 Theyarealsoathigherriskofheartdisease,cancer,andrespiratory illnesses 34

24 Orellana,supranote4,¶44

25 Id.at¶45

26 Calil,supranote3,at27

27 Id.

28 Id.at32.

29 Orellana,supranote4,¶41.

30 Id.at54

31 Calil,supranote3,at29.

32 Id.

33 Id.

34 Id.

II. RoleofEquityinPlasticsTreatyNegotiations

A. OceanJustice

Oceanjustice35 hasbeendescribedastheplacewhereoceanconservationandissuesof socialequitymeet 36 Thetermcomesfromtheconceptofenvironmentaljustice,which evolvedinthe1980sasaresultofthedisproportionatedistributionandimpactsof environmentalpollutiononmarginalizedgroupssuchasBlack,indigenous,andLatino communities,aswellaslow-incomeandotherwisesocioeconomicallydisadvantaged groupsintheUnitedStates.37 Thedisproportionateburdensofpollutiononthose communitieswasfoundtohavenumerousnegativeeffectsonthehealthandwell-beingof thesepopulations.38 Oceanjusticemergesconcernsforthemarineenvironmentwith environmentaljustice 39

Asdemandsformarineresourcesgrow,theworldʼsoceansbecamethreatenedby variousenvironmentalhazardssuchasplasticspollution,habitatmodification,and biodiversitydecline 40 Theseenvironmentalharmsnotonlyaffectthehealthoftheocean ecosystemsthemselvesbutalsothreatenthehealth,livelihoods,humanrightsand well-beingofcommunitiesthatliveincoastalareasorwhorelyontheoceanandits resources.41 Evidencesuggeststhattheseenvironmentalhazardshavedisproportionate impactsoncommunitiesdependingontheirrace,gender,ethnicity,andsocioeconomic status.42 Oceanjusticereflectstheintersectionofsocialinclusion,oceanstewardship,and justice43 andseekstoaddressemergingequityandjusticeissuesinoceangovernanceand management 44

35 Theterm“oceanjusticeˮand“marinejusticeˮareusedinterchangeablythroughoutthispaperasreferringto theenvironmentaljusticemovementthatreflectsthe“intersectionofsocialinclusion,oceanstewardship,and justice.ˮBradSewell&ValerieCleland,IntroducingOceanJustice:ANewPolicyVision,NATURALRESOURCES DEFENSECOUNCILEXPERTBLOGSept.20,2022, https://www.nrdc.org/bio/brad-sewell/introducing-ocean-justice-new-policy-vision.

36 BethGardiner,OceanJustice:WhereSocialEquityandtheClimateFightIntersect,YALESCHOOLOFTHE ENVIRONMENTYALEENVIRONMENT360July16,2020, https://e360.yale.edu/features/ocean-justice-where-social-equity-and-the-climate-fight-intersect.

37 NathanJ Bennettetal.,EnvironmentalJusticeintheOcean2Univ ofB.C.,WorkingPaperNo.2022 03, 2022

38 Id.

39 NathanJ.Bennett,MainstreamingEquityandJusticeintheOcean,9FRONTIERSINMARINESCI.1,12022.

40 Bennett,supranote37,at2.

41 Id.

42 Id.

43 BradSewell&ValerieCleland,IntroducingOceanJustice:ANewPolicyVision,NATURALRESOURCES DEFENSECOUNCILEXPERTBLOGSept.20,2022, https://www.nrdc.org/bio/brad-sewell/introducing-ocean-justice-new-policy-vision.

44 SeeBennett,supranote39,at1.

Sincethebeginningoftheenvironmentaljusticemovement,coastalcommunities havebeenafocusofenvironmentaljusticeorganizingandresearch 45 Coastalzonesare uniquetotheenvironmentalandmarinejusticemovementsastheseareaspresentamixof publicandprivaterightsandtheirmanagementhasbeenhistoricallyrootedinwhite supremacyanddisplacementofindigenouspeoples.46 Conservationpoliciesandprograms mustthereforeaccountforhistoricalinjusticesincoastalzones.47

B. ProposedUNEPPlasticsTreaty

TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentalAssemblyinMarch2022endorsedahistoricresolution todevelopaninternational,legallybindingagreementtoaddressthelifecycleofplastics 48 TheResolution5/14,“EndPlasticPollution:Towardsaninternationallegallybinding instrument,ˮrecognizesthecatastrophicimpactsofplasticpollutiononthetripleplanetary crisisofclimatechange,natureloss,andpollution.49 Itcallsforthecreationofan intergovernmentalnegotiatingcommitteeINCtodevelopthelegallybindinginstrument (proposedplasticstreaty),withagoaltocompleteitsworkbytheendoftheyear2024.50

TheResolutionʼspreamblenotesthatplasticspollutionneedstobetackledwith“a full-life-cycleapproach,takingintoaccountnationalcircumstancesandcapabilities.ˮThis languageindicatesthattheINCʼsfocuswillnotbemerelyonaparticularphaseofthelife cycleofplasticsbutratherwilladoptanintegratedapproachthatlooksatmanufacturing, production,anddisposalofplastics TheINCʼswide-rangingmandatehasbeenlaudedasit ishopedthattheINCwilladoptacollaborativeapproachtotheproposedplasticstreaty 51

TheResolutionisconsideredhistoricinmanyways First,itmarksthefirsttimethat thecontributionsofinformalandcooperativeworkerssuchaswastepickers,whotendto bethemostaffectedbythedisproportionateimpactsofplasticspollution,havebeen recognized.52 Article4(f)urgestheINCtoconsider“[t]hepossibilityofamechanismto providepolicy-relevantscientificandsocioeconomicinformationandassessmentrelatedto

45 MarcelaGutiérrez-Graudiņš&GreggP.Macey,CoastalJustice:LessonsfromtheFrontlines,14GEO.WASH. J ENERGYANDENVʼTL.81,822023

46 Id.at83

47 Id.at88

48 PressRelease,UNEP,HistoricDayintheCampaigntoBeatPlasticPollution:NationsCommittoDevelopa LegallyBindingAgreement,U.N.PressReleaseMar 2,2022, https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/historic-day-campaign-beat-plastic-pollution-nations-c ommit-develop.

49 Id.

50 UNEPRes.5/14,¶2Mar 2,2022

51 GerryNagtzaametal.,GlobalPlasticPollutionandItsRegulation265EdwardElgar2023

52 Id.at266

plasticpollution.ˮ53 Bytakingintoaccountsocioeconomicinformationandassessmentin themandateoftheINC,theResolutionhighlightsandeffectivelyrecognizestheexistence ofthedisproportionateimpactsofplasticspollutiondependentonsocioeconomicstatus.54

AnotherhistoricdevelopmentistheResolutionʼsrecognitionoftheroleof indigenouspeoples.55 UnderArticle4(d),theparticipatingstateshaveagreedthattheINC willtakeintoconsideration“[t]hebestavailablescience,traditionalknowledge,knowledge ofindigenouspeoplesandlocalknowledgesystemsˮ56 ThelanguageofArticle4(d) suggeststheinclusionofindigenouspeoplesʼknowledgeintheformationofpolicy considerations,whichisvaluedbyindigenouspeoplesgiventhatmanyformsof“inclusionˮ stillfocuslargelyonnon-indigenousgoals,knowledgeandgovernance 57

Article2oftheResolution“[a]cknowledgesthatsomelegalobligationsarisingoutof anewinternationallegallybindinginstrumentwillrequirecapacitybuildingandtechnical andfinancialassistanceinordertobeeffectivelyimplementedbydevelopingcountriesand countrieswitheconomiesintransitionˮ.Thesignificanceofcapacitybuildingandtechnical andfinancialassistanceisevidentinthestarkgapbetweenwasteproductionandwaste managementcapacitiesinmanydevelopingcountries58 andunderscoreshowtheGlobal Southwillneedsupportinorderfortheproposedplasticstreatytohaveanymeaningful outcome

C. CurrentStatusofPlasticsTreatyNegotiations

Asofthiswriting,theINChasheldtwosessions,withthefirstsessionINC 1havingtaken placeinNovember-December2022followedbythesecondsessionINC 2inMay-June 2023.59 INC 1exploredthescopeandobjectivesoftheproposedplasticstreaty,including potentialelementsthatitcouldaddresssuchascoreobligations,mechanismsfor monitoring,technicalassistance,andnationalactionplans 60 INC 2considered submissionsfromvariousmembersoftheINCaswellasobserverswithrespecttothe

53 UNEPRes.5/14,supranote50,¶4

54 SeegenerallyNagtzaam,supranote51.

55 Id.at266

56 UNEPRes.,supranote50,¶4.

57 MaxLiboiron&RileyCotter,ReviewofParticipationofIndigenousPeoplesinPlasticsPollutionGovernance, CAMBRIDGEPRISMSPLASTICS,Aug.3,2023,at2.

58 NilsSimon,ABindingGlobalAgreementtoAddresstheLifeCycleofPlastics,SCI.,July2,2021,at43

59 UNEP,IntergovernmentalNegotiatingCommitteeonPlasticPollution:ThirdSessionINC 32023, https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution/session-3

60 UNEP,IntergovernmentalNegotiatingCommitteeonPlasticPollution:FirstSessionINC 12023, https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution/session-1.

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structureoftheproposedplasticstreaty.61 ThethirdsessionoftheINCINC 3isscheduled tobeheldinNovember2023inNairobi,Kenyaandwillbeprecededbyregional consultationsonNovember12,2023.

OnSeptember4,2023,theINCreleasedtheZeroDrafttextoftheproposedplastics treaty,whichcontainspotentialprovisionsintendedtobediscussedattheINC 3.62 The ZeroDraftcontainsdifferentoptionsforkeyelementsoftheproposedplasticstreaty rangingfromthemostobligatorytotheleastobligatoryorvoluntaryprovisions 63 Someof theproposedprovisionsintheZeroDrafthavebeenpraisedsuchasthosethattarget eliminationofcertainplasticpolymersandchemicalsofconcernandthosecallingfor reductionsinplasticproduction 64 TheproposedArticle7oftheplasticstreatycontains provisionsonExtendedProducerResponsibilityEPRsystemsthatwouldhold corporationsaccountableforcleanupandrecyclingofplastics.65 Environmental organizationsareconcernedthattheabsenceofbansandtargetsintheZeroDraftwilldo littletoaddressthestatusquogiventhegravityoftheplasticsproblemontheglobal scale 66 Whethertheproposedplasticstreatywillbemeaningfulornotdependsonwhether statepartiesoptforvoluntaryorobligatorymeasures

D. StatePartyPositionsinPlasticsTreatyNegotiations

Inthenegotiationsfortheproposedplasticstreaty,anintergovernmentalcoalitionknownas theHighAmbitionCoalitionHACwasformed.67 TheHACisco-chairedbyNorwayand Rwandaandnowhas59membersincludingtheEuropeanUnionandtheUnited Kingdom 68 TheHACwasestablishedto“developanambitiousinternationallegallybinding instrumentbasedonacomprehensiveandcircularapproachthatensuresurgentaction andeffectiveinterventionsalongthefulllifecycleofplastics,ˮandtoendplasticpollutionby

61 UNEP,IntergovernmentalNegotiatingCommitteeonPlasticPollution:SecondSessionINC 22023, https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution/session-2.

62 UNEP,ZeroDraftTextoftheInternationalLegallyBindingInstrumentonPlasticPollution,Includinginthe MarineEnvironment,UNEPDoc.PP/INC.3/4Sept.4,2023

63 AronWhite,PlasticsTreatyEdgesCloserwithPublicationof‘ZeroDraftʼSept.13,2023, https://chinadialogueocean.net/en/pollution/plastics-treaty-edges-closer-with-publication-of-zero-draft.

64 Seesupranote62;HeatherClancy,‘ZeroDraftʼLendsShapetoGlobalPlasticsTreatySept.13,2023, https://www.greenbiz.com/article/zero-draft-lends-shape-global-plastics-treaty

65 SeeClancy,supranote64.

66 PressRelease,WorldWildlifeFund,WWFStatementontheZeroDraftofaUNGlobalTreatytoEndPlastic PollutionSept.6,2023, https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/wwf-statement-on-the-zero-draft-of-a-un-global-treaty-to-end-pl astic-pollution;White,supranote63.

67 HIGHAMBITIONCOALITIONTOENDPLASTICPOLLUTION,https://hactoendplasticpollution.org(lastvisited Oct.1,2023

68 Id.

2040.69 OneoftheHACʼsthreestrategicgoalsistoreduceplasticconsumptionand productiontosustainablelevels.70 Itadvocatesfortheproposedtreatytoincludeglobal standards,bans,andrestrictionsonplastic,apositionthatisconsistentwithenvironmental non-profitorganizationsthatsupportcurbsonvirginplasticproductionaswellasthe creationandimplementationofuniversaldesignstandardstoincreasetherecyclabilityof plastics 71

TheUS positionontheproposedplasticstreatyiscontrarytotheHACʼsposition Plasticsproducers,especiallythoseintheUS,havebeenlobbyingthegovernmentnotto createbindingobligationsundertheproposedplasticstreatythatwilllimitplastics manufacturing 72 Consistentwiththeplasticindustryʼswishes,theUS issuedits submissionsontheproposedplasticstreatyonFebruary13,2023.73 TheU.S.submissions indicatethatitsupportsvoluntarynationalactionplansinwhichcountrieswillsettheirown reductiontargetsforplastics.74 TheU.S.submissionsenvisageproposedtreatyprovisions thatfocusonthereuseandrecyclingofplasticandplacelittleemphasisoncurtailingthe productionormanufacturingphaseoftheplasticscycle 75 TheUS positiononthe proposedplasticstreatycontemplatesprovisions“topromotethesustainableproduction andconsumptionofplastic,ˮbutdoesnotexplicitlyrefertoreductioninplasticproduction, manufacturing,orconsumption.76

Notwithstandingitsstatusasthelargestplasticspolluter,theUS hasnotjoinedthe HACandhasfailedtosufficientlyaddressconsumptionandproductionofplastics.77 Infact, theU.S.hassoughttoformitsowncoalitiontodrivethesenegotiations,withavisionfor theproposedtreatythatissimilartothe2015ParisAgreement,78 focusingonvoluntary

69 Id.

70 Id.

71 Nagtzaam,supranote51,at267

72 Id.

73 UNEP,SubmissionbytheUnitedStatesofAmericaFeb.13,2023, https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/2050011822/41810/USsubmission.pdf

74 Id.

75 LisaRamsden,TheUSpositionontheGlobalPlasticsTreatyisnʼtnearlystrongenough–hereʼswherethey currentlystandvs.whereweneedthemtobe,GREENPEACEMar 16,2023, https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/the-us-position-on-the-global-plastics-treaty-isnt-nearly-strong-enough-here s-where-they-currently-stand-vs-where-we-need-them-to-be.

76 UNEP,supranote73.

77LeiaSeereeram,TacklingTheWorldʼsPlasticsProblem,CONSERVATIONLAWFOUNDATIONJuly24,2023, https://www.clf.org/blog/tackling-the-worlds-plastics-problem/#:~:text=CLF's%20Zero%20Waste%20Project% 20is,banning%20dangerous%20chemical%20recycling%20facilities.

78 JohnGeddie&ValerieVolcovici,Exclusive:U.S.seeksalliesassplitemergesoverglobalplasticspollution treaty,REUTERSSept.27,2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/exclusive-us-seeks-allies-split-emerges-over-global-plastics-pollution-treaty-2 022 09 27

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effortstoreduceplasticpollution.

79 TheU.S.positionontheproposedplasticstreatyis particularlydisappointinggivenitstrackrecordonenvironmentaltreaties.TheU.S.wasone ofthekeyarchitectsofthecountry-drivenapproachoftheParisAgreement,whichhas largelybeenviewedasafailureduetoitslackofenforcementmechanismsandbinding obligationsonstateparties 80

III. InternationalLegalFrameworkonOceanJustice

A. TheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea

Withintheoceangovernanceregime,oneoftheattemptstoestablishadynamiclegal frameworkfortheprotectionofthemarineenvironmentistheUnitedNationsConvention ontheLawoftheSeaUNCLOS.81 UNCLOSwasadoptedin1982forthe“protectionand preservationofthemarineenvironmentˮandthe“realizationofajustandequitable internationaleconomicorderˮ82

UNCLOSestablishedtheInternationalSeabedAuthority,throughwhichstateparties totheConventioncanorganizeandcontrolactivitiesandresourcesinthe“Area,ˮwhich consistsoftheseabedandoceanfloorandsubsoilthereof,beyondthelimitsofnational jurisdiction.UnderArticle145ofUNCLOS,theInternationalSeabedAuthorityisdirectedto adoptregulationsandprocedurestoensureeffectiveprotectionforthemarine environment

SeveralprovisionsinPartXIIofUNCLOStitled“ProtectionandPreservationofthe MarineEnvironmentˮimposedutiesonstates.Theseincludegeneralprovisionstoprevent pollutionofthemarineenvironment,withinitsbordersandotherwise;cooperationin scientificresearch,andtheexchangeofinformation.Italsoincludesthemonitoringofrisks andeffectsofpollution,aswellasconcomitantenforcementprovisions UnderSection3of PartXIIofUNCLOS,developedstatesareobligatedtoprovidetechnicalassistanceto developingstates,anddevelopingstatesaretobegivenpreferentialtreatmentby internationalorganizationsintheallocationoftechnicalassistanceandfunding.

79 JustineAmmendolia&TonyR.Walker,U.S.SeeksWeakerGlobalPlasticsTreaty,SCH.FORRES.ANDENVʼT STUD.,Oct.14,2022,at1.

80 Geddie&Volcovici,supranote78.

81 JoannaMossop,CanWeMaketheOceansGreener?TheSuccessesandFailuresofUNCLOSasan EnvironmentalTreaty,49VICTORIAU WELLINGTONL.REV 573,5732018

82 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea,Dec.10,1982,1833U.N.T.S.397

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UNCLOSrecognizessixdifferentsourcesofmarinepollutionthatincludepollution from1land-basedsources;2seabedactivities;3activitiesinthe“Areaˮ;4dumping; 5vessels;and6theatmosphere.However,UNCLOSdoesnotprovideanydetailson whatpollutantsconstituteeachofthesesources,nordoesitprovidetechnicalrulesforits prevention 83 Instead,itencouragesstatestoadopttheirownlawsandregulationsto addressmarinepollution84 andreiteratesgeneralprinciplesandobligations 85

Accumulationofplasticsinareasbeyondnationaljurisdictionisparticularly problematic.Aprimeexampleofthisphenomenonisevidentinthe“GreatPacificGarbage Patch,ˮwhichisacollectionofmarinedebrisintheNorthPacificOcean.86 Duetoits locationbeyondthejurisdictionofanyonecountry,itpresentsauniqueproblemfroma governanceandpracticalperspective,asnostatesarewillingtotakeresponsibilityforits cleanup 87 Inareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction,UNCLOSprovisionsareweakinprotecting thehighseasmarineenvironment.Theregulationofactivitiesonthehighseastherefore reliesonstateagreementthroughtheuseoftreatiesorotherinstruments,ifany.88

B. TheBBNJTreaty

TheUNGeneralAssemblyin2018convenedathree-dayconferencetodiscussthe elementsandtextofaninternationallegallybindinginstrumentunderUNCLOSforthe conservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiologicaldiversityofareasbeyondnational jurisdiction 89 OnJune19,2023,statepartiesadoptedthe“AgreementundertheUnited NationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaontheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiologicaldiversityofareasbeyondnationaljurisdictionˮBBNJbyconsensus.90 As ofthiswriting,theBBNJhasnotyetenteredintoforce91 TheBBNJseeks“toaddress,ina coherentandcooperativemanner,biologicaldiversitylossanddegradationofecosystems

83 JoannaVince&BrittaDeniseHardesty,PlasticPollutionChallengesinMarineandCoastalEnvironments: FromLocaltoGlobalGovernance,25RESTORATIONECOLOGY123,1232016.

84 Id.

85 Mossop,supranote81,at575

86 SeeVince&Hardesty,supranote83;GreatPacificGarbagePatch,NATʼLGEOGRAPHIC, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-pacific-garbage-patch(lastvisitedOct.1,2023.

87 Seeid.

88 Mossop,supranote81,at584

90 Seeid. 89 IntergovernmentalConferenceonanInternationalLegallyBindingInstrumentundertheUnitedNations ConventionontheLawoftheSeaontheConservationandSustainableUseofMarineBiologicalDiversityof AreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction,AgreementundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaon theConservationandSustainableUseofMarineBiologicalDiversityofAreasBeyondNationalJurisdiction, U.N.Doc.A/CONF.232/2023/4June19,2023[hereinafterBBNJAgreement].

91 ProtectingtheOcean,TimeforAction,EUR.COMMʼN, https://oceans-and-fisheries.ec.europa.eu/ocean/international-ocean-governance/protecting-ocean-time-actio n_en(lastvisitedOct.1,2023

oftheocean,due,inparticular,toclimatechangeimpactsonmarineecosystems,suchas warmingandoceandeoxygenation,aswellasoceanacidification,pollution,including plasticpollution,andunsustainableuse.ˮ92 Itspreamblerecognizessupportfordeveloping nationsthroughcapacitybuildingto ensureconservationandsustainableuseofthe marineenvironment

AlthoughtheBBNJisnotdesignedtoaddressmarineplasticpollutionspecifically, theissueisinterwoveninthetreatygiventhatplasticsarea“significantstressorˮofmarine andcoastalecosystems 93 Thescaleofmarineplasticpollutionisonlyincreasingwiththe growthintheproductionofplastics,asplasticshavingbeendiscoveredeveninremote marineenvironments 94 Macroplastics,orlargerpiecesofplastic,havecausedmarine mammalsandseabirdstobecomeentangledandinjured.95 Thebiggerconcern,however, ismicroplasticsthataresopervasivemarineenvironmentsandareingestedbymany marineorganismsduetotheirsmallsize.96 TheBBNJ isthereforealsorelevanttoplastic pollutionasthepresenceofplasticsintheoceansisadangertomarinebiodiversity 97

Article7inPartIoftheBBNJsetsoutthegeneralprinciplestoguidestatepartiesto fulfilltheobjectivesofthetreaty Theseincludethepolluter-paysprinciple,andtheuseof traditionalknowledgeofindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities Oneofthesalient featuresoftheBBNJisthatitestablishesaconferenceofpartiesthatfunctionsasan authorityforthehighseaswithitsownSecretariat 98 ItalsosetsupaScientificand TechnicalBodytosupportthisauthorityininexecutingitsresponsibilities,whichinclude adoptingrecommendationsrelatingtotheBBNJʼsimplementationandpromoting cooperationandcoordinationbetweenvariousbodiestoensurecoherenceinmarine conservationefforts 99

TheBBNJseekstoestablisharea-basedmanagementtools,whichincludemarine protectedareasinthehighseas.Thisisanefforttomeetthegoalofprotecting30%ofthe landandseaby2030,agoalthatsomestatepartiestotheConventiononBiological

92 BBNJAgreement,supranote89

93 RachelTiller&ElizabethNyman,OceanPlasticsandtheBBNJTreaty–IsPlasticFrighteningEnoughtoInsert ItselfintotheBBNJTreaty,orDoWeNeedtoWaitforaTreatyofitsOwn?,8J.ENVʼTSTUD.SCI.411,411 2018

94 Id.at412.

95 Id.

96 Id.

97 Id.

98 BBNJAgreement,supranote89,at35

99 Id.

Diversityagreedtofulfill.100 Forthesepurposes,thetransferofinformationandtechnology betweendevelopedanddevelopingnationsforcapacitybuildingisalsocontemplated.101

AnotherimportantfeatureoftheBBNJisthatitestablishesaframeworkfor environmentalimpactassessmentstobeconductedwithrespecttoanyactivityonthehigh seas.102 TheBBNJobligatesstatepartiestoconductenvironmentalimpactassessmentsfor plannedactivitiesthatareundertheirjurisdictionorcontrolbutareconductedonthehigh seas 103 Italsoprovidesprocesses,thresholds,andfactorsforcarryingoutsuch assessments Further,theBBNJincludescompulsoryreportingandreviewrequirementson theimpactsofauthorizedactivitiesbystateparties 104

PartVoftheBBNJenvisagescapacitybuildingandmarinetechnologytransferas wellassettingupacapacitybuildingandtransferofmarinetechnologycommitteeand monitoringandreviewmechanismsforthesame Theseprovisionscouldbeinstrumentalin ensuringequitableimplementationoftheBBNJratherthanperpetuatingglobalinequitiesin science.105

C. SustainableDevelopmentGoals

SustainableDevelopmentGoalsSDGsareanimportantpartofthelegalandpolicy frameworksurroundingmarinepollution.Theyareasetof17goalsadoptedin2015bythe UnitedNations,whicharetobeachievedby2030 Theywereadoptedasauniversalcallto actiontoendpovertyandprotecttheenvironment 106 EverySDGcarriesnumeroustargets, aswellasperformanceindicatorsformeasuringsuccessorfailure 107 Whileeachofthe SDGsareinterlinkedwithoneanother,SDG14istitled“LifeBelowWaterˮandaimsto “sustainablymanageandprotectmarineandcoastalecosystemsfrompollution,aswellas addresstheimpactsofoceanacidification.ˮ108

100 SeeStewartPatrick,TheHighSeasTreatyIsanExtraordinaryDiplomaticAchievement,CARNEGIE ENDOWMENTFORINTʼLPEACEMar 8,2023, https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/03/08/high-seas-treaty-is-extraordinary-diplomatic-achievement-pub-89 228

101 BBNJAgreement,supranote89,at14

102 BBNJAgreement,supranote89,at21.

103 BBNJAgreement,supranote89,at22.

104 BBNJAgreement,supranote89,at22.

105 HarrietHardenDaviesetal.,HowCanaNewUNOceanTreatyChangetheCourseofCapacityBuilding?,32 AQUATICCONSERVATIONMARINEANDFRESHWATERECOSYSTEMS,907,9092022

106 U.N.DevelopmentProgramme,SustainableDevelopmentGoals, https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals(lastvisitedOct.1,2023

107 ChrisArmstrong,OceanJustice:SDG14andBeyond,16J GLOB.ETHICS239,2402020

108 U.N.DevelopmentProgramme,supranote106

Theentirelifecycleofplasticsanditsimpactsposeobstaclestotheattainmentof SDGs.109 Everyoneofthe17SDGsisaffectedbyplasticsinsomeway.Forexample,SDG4 forachieving“QualityEducation,ˮwillbehinderedbytheexistenceofeducationdisparities seeninstudentsthatarepartoffencelinecommunitiesastheyaremoresusceptibleto healthimpacts 110 Incentivesfrombusinessesthatdrivefossilfuelextractionandplastic productioncouldpossiblyimpairthedevelopmentofcleanerenergiesrequiredtoachieve SDGs

TheinterdependencebetweenSDG14andtheotherSDGsmeansthatmeetingthe goalsofSDG14iscrucialtoachievingtheothergoalslikethereducinginequality, eradicatingpoverty,andendinghunger 111 Italsomeansthatmeetingothergoalswilldictate howprogresstowardsoceanjusticeismade.112AlthoughSDG14isanambitiousstep,the targetsenvisagedunderSDG14donotarticulateprinciplesforsharingbenefitsand burdensfromtheocean,nordotheyadequatelyaddressthegoalsofjusticeand sustainabilityatsea 113

IV. U.S.LegalFrameworkonOceanJustice

In2021,withinhoursofhisinauguration,PresidentBidenadministrationissuedthefirst government-wideresponsetoenvironmentalracism 114 TheExecutiveOrderonTacklingthe ClimateCrisisatHomeandAbroadExecutiveOrderNo 14008acknowledgestheneedto holdpollutersaccountableandtodeliverenvironmentaljusticetoallcommunitiesacross thecountry.115 TheExecutiveOrdersetupnewinstitutionstoadvanceitsgoalsandsetthe firstnationalgoalofconservingatleast30%ofU.S.landsandwatersby2030.116 Withthis ExecutiveOrder,theBidenadministrationpursuesapolicyto“secureenvironmentaljustice andspureconomicopportunityfordisadvantagedcommunitiesthathavebeenhistorically marginalizedandoverburdenedbypollutionandunderinvestmentinhousing, transportation,waterandwastewaterinfrastructure,andhealthcareˮ117

109 Calil,supranote3,at17

110 Id.at19.

111 Id.

112 Seeid.

113 Armstrong,supranote107,at242.

114 Gutiérrez-Graudiņš&Macey,supranote45,at81.

115 Exec.OrderNo.14008,86Fed.Reg.7619,7619Feb.1,2021

116 Seeid.;Gutiérrez-Graudiņš&Macey,supranote45at82.

117 SeeExec.Order10048,supranote115,at7629

WhileExecutiveOrderNo.14008isastepintherightdirection,nofederalstatute existstoaddressplasticpollutionanditsdisproportionateimpacts.118 Thefederal governmentcouldplayasignificantroleinregulatingplasticwasteandaddressingits consequences 119 AsenvironmentallawintheUS operatesinafreemarketcontext,120 the plasticscrisishasbeenframedasonecreatedbyconsumers 121 Federallawsaddressing plasticspollutionwillbepivotalinreframingtheproblemastheycouldrequireindustrial actorstomanagetheirplasticswasteandshiftcostsandburdenstothose responsiblefor thewaste.122

Intheabsenceofeffectivefederallaws,lawsuitsarebeingfiledagainstvarious actorsforaccountabilityandjusticewithrespecttoplasticspollution 123 In2020,the environmentalgroup,EarthIslandInstitute,filedasuitagainstmajorbottlemanufacturers likeCocaCola,Pepsi,andNestle. 124 ThesuitseeksreliefunderCalifornialawsagainst thesedefendantsunderavarietyofcommonlawtheoriesincludingpublicnuisance, productsliability,andnegligence 125 Italsoallegesthatthedefendantsʼpracticeshave deprivedtheplaintiffsofthe“abilitytoenjoyandutilizetheoceanenvironmentˮandthat theiraestheticinterestshavebeenharmed 126 ACaliforniacourthasallowedthesuitto proceed.127 Thesuitispendingasofthiswriting.Asuccessfuloutcomecouldpavetheway forfuturesuitsthatcallforgovernmentactiononwastemanagementlaws128 andshapethe developmentofoceanlitigationcases.129

TheCenterforBiologicalDiversity,anenvironmentalnon-profitorganization,fileda petitionbeforetheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyEPAtoseektocompeltheEPAto regulateplasticsasapollutantundertheCleanWaterAct.130 AlthoughtheEPAdeclinedto

118 RandallS.Abateetal.,LitigationtoProtecttheMarineEnvironment:ParallelsandSynergieswithClimate Litigation,47WM.&MARYENVʼTL.&POLʼYREV 595,6142023

119 JoanF Chu,UnderservedCommunitiesTrashedbyPlastic:SlowingtheProliferationofPetroleumBased ProductsThroughStewardshipLawsandEnhancedBack-EndRegulatorySolutions,22SUSTAINABLEDEV L. &POLʼY20,272021.

120 RobertW Adler&CarinaE.Wells,PlasticsandtheLimitsofU.S.EnvironmentalLaw,37HARV L.REV 1,19 2023

121 Chu,supranote119,at21.

122 Id.at27.

123 Abate,supranote118,at614

124 Chu,supranote119,at27

125 Abate,supranote118,at648 649

126 Id.

127 PressRelease,EarthIslandInstitute,Coca-Cola,PepsiCo,MajorConsumerGoodsCompaniesMustFace PlasticPollutionLawsuitBroughtbyEnvironmentalGroupinCaliforniaJune6,2022, https://www.earthisland.org/index.php/news/entry/coca-cola-pepsico-major-consumer-goods-companies-mus t-face-plastic-pollution-lawsuit-brought-by-environmental-group-in-california.

128 Chu,supranote119,at28

129 Abate,supranote118,at650

130 Id.at615

doso,131 theagencyagreedtoundertakeeffortsfortheprotectionofmarineenvironments frommarinelitter.132 InthecaseofSanAntonioBayEstuarineWaterkeeperv.Formosa PlasticsCorporation,plaintiffsallegedthatplasticpelletsinthewaternearFormosaPlastics CorporationʼsplasticsmanufacturingplantinTexaswasaviolationoftheprohibitionofthe dischargeofpollutantsfromapointsourceintonavigablewatersundertheCleanWater Act 133 TheUS DistrictCourtfortheSouthernDistrictofTexasdirectedFormosaPlasticsto submit$50milliontofundlocalconservationandscientificresearcheffortsand improveits manufacturingprocesses.134 TheCourtalsoconcludedthattheCorporationwasa“serial offenderˮandthatitsviolationswere“enormous.ˮ135

In2022,theNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationNOAAdrafteda national,comprehensivestrategyforequityandenvironmentaljusticeEEJ,citingthe importanceoffairnessandequityinitspolicy.Thecodificationoftheseprinciples,itstates, arereflectedintheMagnusonStevensAct,whichgovernsmarinefisheriesmanagementin US federalwaters,136 andtheexecutiveordersonenvironmentaljustice 137 Thekeygoals oftheEEJstrategyinclude1prioritizingtheidentification,equitabletreatment,and meaningfulinvolvementofunderservedcommunities;2providingequitabledeliveryof services;and3prioritizingequityandenvironmentaljusticeinNOAAʼsmandatedand missionworkwithdemonstrableprogress.138

NOAAhasidentifiedkeyareasandobjectivesfortheimplementationofitsEEJ strategythatinclude1policyandplans;2researchandmonitoring;3outreachand engagement;4distributionofbenefits;and5inclusivegovernance.139 Eachgeographic regionintheU.S.isthentaskedwithdevelopingitsownimplementationplanthatis

131 RachelDoughty&MarcusEriksen,TheCaseforaBanonMicroplasticsinPersonalCareProducts27TUL. ENVʼTL.J 277,2842019

132 PressRelease,CenterforBiologicalDiversity,EPALaunchesInitiativetoReducePlasticPollutioninOceans Nov 6,2013, https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2013/ocean-plastics-pollution-11 06 2013.html.

133 Abate,supranote118,at615

134 Id.

135 SamvelVarvastian,TheRoleofCourtsinPlasticPollutionGovernance72INTʼL&COMPAR.L.Q 635,663 2023.

136 NATIONALOCEANICANDATMOSPHERICADMINISTRATION,LAWS&POLICIESMAGNUSON STEVENS ACT,https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/laws-policies/magnuson-stevens-act.

137 NATIONALOCEANICANDATMOSPHERICADMINISTRATION,ANEWSTRATEGYFOREQUITYAND ENVIRONMENTALJUSTICEATNOAAFISHERIES, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/podcast/new-strategy-equity-and-environmental-justice-noaa-fisheries.

138 NATIONALOCEANICANDATMOSPHERICADMINISTRATION,NOAAFISHERIESRELEASESFINALEQUITY ANDENVIRONMENTALJUSTICESTRATEGY, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/noaa-fisheries-releases-final-equity-and-environmental-justice-st rategy

139 NATIONALOCEANICANDATMOSPHERICADMINISTRATION,EQUITYANDENVIRONMENTALJUSTICE STRATEGY,https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/2023 05/NOAA Fisheries-EEJ Strategy-Final.pdf

“consistentwithapplicablelaw,specificandresponsivetotheneedsofunderserved communities,andallowsfortheirinput.ˮ140 Theseimplementationplansaretoinclude specificmetricstomeasureadvancementofenvironmentaljusticeprinciplesandannual reporting 141 AlthoughthisEEJstrategydoesnotestablishenforcementmechanisms,it establishesafoundationforfuturelitigantstoassertclaimsbasedonprinciplesofthe environmentaljusticeframework 142

V. OceanJusticePrinciplestoAvoidDisproportionateBurdens

Principlesofjusticearevitalinpromotingimprovedoceangovernance 143 Fromamoral standpoint,equityinoceangovernanceisimportanttopromoteprinciplesofdemocracy andgoodgovernance.144 Aspectsoftheenvironmentaljusticeframework,suchas principlesofdistributivejustice,proceduraljustice,andcorrectivejustice,canbehelpfulto avoiddisproportionateburdensinmarineenvironments.

Distributivejusticeispremisedontheequaltreatmentofallcommunitiesand persons.145 Inthecontextofplasticspollution,thereisanunevendistributionof environmentalharmsamongdifferentcountriesdependingonwealthdistributionamong manyfactors 146 TheprincipleofcommonbutdifferentiatedresponsibilitiesCBDRcanhelp resolveconflictsofinterestsalongtheprevailingNorth-Southdivideininternational politicsˮ147 CBDRmeansthatstatesareobligatedtotakeappropriatemeasurestomitigate adverseenvironmentalimpacts,thenatureandextentofwhichwilldependonstatesʼ respectivecapabilities.148

Proceduralconsiderationsimpactenvironmentalinjusticeinthemarine environment.149 Oneoftheunderlyingfactorscontributingtoinequitabledistributionof benefitsandcostsinoceangovernancemaybethelackofgenuineparticipation, consultation,andengagementofdifferentstakeholdersinsociety.150 Proceduraljusticemay beachievedbytheinvolvementofcommunitieswhobeartheworstimpactsofplastics

140 Id.

141 Id.

142 Abate,supranote118,at631 632.

143 SusanBakeretal.,OceansJustice:Trade-offsbetweenSustainableDevelopmentGoalsintheSeychelles, 147MARINEPOLʼY1,22023

144 Id.

145 Chu,supranote119,at24

146 ALEKESTÖFEN OʼBRIEN,CTR.FOROCEANSL.&POLʼYPEACEFULMARITIMEENGAGEMENTINEAST ASIAANDTHEPACIFICREGION373JamesKraskaetal.eds.,2023

147 Id.at371.

148 Id.at382.

149 NathanJ Bennettetal.,Environmental(in)justiceintheAnthropoceneocean,147MARINEPOLʼY1,92023

150 Baker,supranote140,at2.

pollutioninplasticsgovernance.

151 Proceduraljusticemechanismscouldinvolverightto information,participationindecision-makingprocesses,andaccesstojustice.152

Correctivejusticeworkstoensurethatthosepartiesresponsibleforinflictingharm arecorrectlyidentifiedandheldaccountable 153 Correctivejusticeiskeytotheclimate justiceframework 154 EPRmechanisms,whichholdproducersresponsible,couldbe instrumentalinrectifyinginjusticesinflictedbytheplasticslifecycletherebyachieving correctivejustice.155

Theprinciplesdiscussedinthissectionarelimitedtooceangovernancewithout explicitlyaddressingthepowerimbalancefromthecontinuinglegacyofcolonialism The principlesarealsolimitedtoaddressingtheWesternworldviewsthatwouldomittheneed foratransformativeapproachtodismantlethecurrentsystemicstructureinocean governance,whichwouldincludereparations.Theselimitationscoulddelayremediation andgovernanceofproductionwithoutbearingthecostofexternalities.The“oceanjusticeˮ perspective shouldembracethoselimitationstodeliverequitablemeasuresformarine plasticpollution

Conclusion

Pooroceangovernancehasledtopersistentplasticspollutionandinjusticesinmarine environments,furtheraggravatingtheproblemofclimatechange Thiscanonlybesolved inameaningfulwaybyconsideringthedisproportionateburdensthatplasticspollution placesonvulnerablepersons Addressingtheseissueswillrequiretheincorporationof justiceprinciplesintothelegalandpolicyframeworkonaninternationalanddomesticlevel.

Theoutcomesoftheplasticstreatynegotiationswilldictatetheextenttowhichthis instrumentmaybeimplementedacrosstheworld Itishopedthatstateparties,and especiallytheU.S.,willrisetotheoccasioninsupportingbindingprovisionsinthistreatyto tackleoneofthebiggestthreatstooceanhealthandjustice.

151 SeeVandenberg,supranote5,at13

152 SeegenerallyBennett,supranote149

153 Chu,supranote119,at24.

154 Id.

155 KatrienSteenmans&RosalindMalcolm,UsingPlasticWastestoExemplifyJusticeDimensionsofExtended ProducerResponsibility4ADVANCESENVʼT&ENGʼGRSCH.1,52023