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OverviewofthevalueandvulnerabilityofmarinebiodiversityintheABNJ

BiologicallysignificantecosystemsintheABNJ

Innovationsinremotesamplingandobservationduringthelasttwodecades,1 have evidencedthemarinewonderlandofcomplexecosystemsinareasbeyondnational jurisdictionANBJincludingthehighseasanddeepseabed Forexample,topographical studiesoftheseafloor2 havedisproventhedepictionofthedeep-seabedasan inhospitabledesert3 andestablishedtheoceanfloorasthelargestreservoirofbiodiversity ontheplanet.4 Someofthemainbenthicbiodiversityfeaturesincludehydrothermalvents, seamounts,deep-seatrenches,deep-seacoralreefs,coldseepsandsubmarinecanyons 5 Notably,thediscoveryofchemosynthetic-basedecosystemsathydrothermalvents6 is consideredoneofthemostadvantageousfindingsinbiologicalscienceduringthelatter quarterofthetwentiethcentury 7 Overturningtraditionalnotionsofdeep-seaecology, whichassumedalldeep-seafaunaweredependentonphotosynthesisintheupperocean

1 JMArrieta,SArnaud-HaondandCMDuarte,‘Whatliesunderneath:Conservingtheoceans’genetic resources’201010743PNAS18318,18321 Seealso;NHusseyetal ‘Aquaticanimaltelemetry:Apanoramic windowintotheunderwaterworld’20153486240Science1221

<https://sciencesciencemagorg/content/sci/348/6240/1255642fullpdf>accessed17/07/2020

2 ERamirez-Llodraetal ‘ManandtheLastGreatWilderness:HumanImpactontheDeepSea’201168PLoS ONE2<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0022588accessed20/07/2020 See followingforunderstandingofongoingseafloormappingstudies;AWölfletal ‘SeafloorMapping–The challengeofatrulyglobaloceanbathymetry’20196FrontiersinMarSci

<https://wwwfrontiersinorg/articles/103389/fmars201900283/full#h1>accessed07/07/2020

3 UNEnvironmentProgramSubsidiaryBodyonScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice)‘Marineand Coastalbiodiversity:Review,furtherelaborationandrefinementoftheprogrammeofwork’22February2003 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/INF/3/Rev1para1

4 KGjerde,EcosystemsandBiodiversityinDeepWatersandHighSeasUNEPRegionalSeasReportand StudiesNo 178,UNEP/IUCN20066

5 UNEnvironmentProgramSubsidiaryBodyonScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice)‘Marineand Coastalbiodiversity:Review,furtherelaborationandrefinementoftheprogrammeofwork’22February2003 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/INF/3/Rev1Annexpara1

6 CLuiggi,‘LifeontheOceanFloor1977Thediscoveryofdeep-seahydrothermalventsalongtheGalápagos RiftrevealedabiologicalGardenofEden’TheScientist,31Aug2012 <https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/life-on-the-ocean-floor-1977 40523accessed15/04/2020.

7 UNEnvironmentProgramSubsidiaryBodyonScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice)‘Marineand Coastalbiodiversity:Review,furtherelaborationandrefinementoftheprogrammeofwork’22February2003 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/INF/3/Rev.1Annexpara3.Seealso;WJBroad,‘Strangeoasesinseadepthsoffermap toriches’TheNewYorkTimesUnitedStatesofAmerica,16Nov1993 <https://wwwnytimescom/1993/11/16/science/strangeoases-in-sea-depths-offer-map-to-richeshtml?searchResultPosition=2accessed15/04/2020

layers,8 thediscoveryestablishedthatachemicaloxidationprocessdrivenbypolymetallic sulphidesfoundinhydrothermalfluidcouldsustainanabundantpopulationofbenthosin thelightlessdeepocean.9 Significantly,thefaunafoundathydrothermalventsandat deep-seatrenchesconsistoforganismsofparticularscientificandcommercialvalue10 due touniqueadaptionstoextremetoxicity,temperature,hydrostaticpressureandfrequent physicaldisturbance 11 Similarly,thehardsubstrateandlowsedimentdepositionof seamountsalsocreatedistinctivedeep-seahabitatswhichsupporthighanimalbiomass 12 Thebenthicfaunaofseamountsaredominatedbyhardsubstratesuspensionfeeding communitiessuchasspongesandcorals,13 whilstthetopandupperflanksofseamounts areimportantforthefeeding,breedingandspawningofmanyhighlymigratoryand endangeredpelagicpredatorsaswellasepipelagicanddeep-seafish 14 Regularvisitors includecetaceans,tunas,seaturtles,seabirds,scallopedhammerheadsharks,orange roughyandoreos 15 Likewise,steep-sidedsubmarinecanyonswhichcutacrosscontinental slopesarealsobiologicalhotspots Canyonshostfilterfeedersaswellasnurseriesfor

8 CHAllen,‘ProtectingtheOceanicGardensofEden:InternationalLawIssuesinDeep-SeaVentResources ConservationandManagement’2001133GeoIntlEnvtlLRev563,570

9 AProeless,‘MarineGeneticResourcesunderUNCLOSandtheCBD’200851GermanYBInt’lL417,418.

10 CHAllen,‘ProtectingtheOceanicGardensofEden:InternationalLawIssuesinDeep-SeaVentResources ConservationandManagement’2001133GeoIntlEnvtlLRev563,565 Seealso;DLearyetal ‘Marine geneticresources:Areviewofscientificandcommercialinterest’200933MarinePol183,187

11 JMArrieta,SArnaud-HaondandCMDuarte,‘Whatliesunderneath:Conservingtheoceans’genetic resources’201010743PNAS18318,18321 Seealso;UNEnvironmentProgramSubsidiaryBodyon Scientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice)‘MarineandCoastalbiodiversity:Review,furtherelaboration andrefinementoftheprogrammeofwork’22February2003UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/INF/3/Rev1Annexpara 13.

12 ENorseetal ‘Place-basedecosystemmanagementintheopenocean’inENorseandLCrowder(ed) MarineConservationBiology:Thescienceofmaintainingthesea’sbiodiversityIslandPress2005308

13 ARogers,‘Thebiologyofseamounts:25yearson’inMLesser(ed)AdvancesinMarineBiologyElsevier 2010160

14 UNEnvironmentProgramSubsidiaryBodyonScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice)‘Marineand Coastalbiodiversity:Review,furtherelaborationandrefinementoftheprogrammeofwork’22February2003 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/INF/3/Rev1Annexpara9

15 KGjerde,EcosystemsandBiodiversityinDeepWatersandHighSeasUNEPRegionalSeasReportand StudiesNo.178,UNEP/IUCN200614.

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manycommerciallysignificantspeciessuchaslobster,crab,shrimp,hake,tilefishand flounder.16

Additionallyvaststretchesofthehighseaswatercolumnhavebeenfoundtocontainkey migratorycorridors17 andbiologicalhubs 18 Althoughopenoceanhotspotsaretypically createdbytheinteractionofthewatercolumnwithfixedseabedfeaturessuchas seamountsandshelfbreaks,19 similarconcentrationsofoceanicpredatorsandpreycan alsooccurateddiesandfrontswherewatersofdifferenttemperaturesorsalinities converge.20 Interestingly,whilstconvergencezonesbetweenwatermassesmaybe permanent,theycanalsobeunpredictableorseasonal.21 InastudybyFerrariandTaylor,it wasfoundthatwarmwaterslidesovercold,denserwater,creatingahospitable environmentformicroorganisms 22 Suchconditionsatopenoceanfrontsaccelerate photosynthesisandthuscreateareasofhighplanktonproductivity 23 Asaresult,the food-richpatchesattractsmallerfishaswellaslargeroceanicanimals,ie,dolphinfish, seabirdsandoceanicwhitetipsharks 24

16 UNEnvironmentProgramSubsidiaryBodyonScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice)‘Marineand Coastalbiodiversity:Review,furtherelaborationandrefinementoftheprogrammeofwork’22February2003

UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/INF/3/Rev1Annexpara31 Seealso;KGjerde,EcosystemsandBiodiversityinDeep WatersandHighSeasUNEPRegionalSeasReportandStudiesNo.178,UNEP/IUCN200614.

17 AHarrisonetal ‘Thepoliticalbiogeographyofmigratorymarinepredators’20182NatureEco&Evol1571, 1575 76

18 KGjerde,EcosystemsandBiodiversityinDeepWatersandHighSeasUNEPRegionalSeasReportand StudiesNo 178,UNEP/IUCN20066

19 Ibid12 Seealso;TMoratoetal ‘Seamountsarehotspotsofpelagicbiodiversityintheopenocean’2010) 10721PNAS9707,9708.

20 CWoodsonandSLitvin,‘Oceanfrontsdrivemarinefisheryproductionandbiogeochemicalcycling’2015 1126PNAS1710

21 ENorseetal ‘Place-basedecosystemmanagementintheopenocean’inENorseandLCrowder(ed) MarineConservationBiology:Thescienceofmaintainingthesea’sbiodiversityIslandPress2005308

22 JTaylorandRFerrari,‘Oceanfrontstriggerhighlatitudephytoplanktonblooms’201138GeophysicalRes LettersL23601 Seealso;JChu,‘Bloomingoceanfronts:Studyfindsfrontsarehotspotsforphytoplankton blooms’(newsmitedu04November2011<http://newsmitedu/2011/blooming-oceans-phytoplankton-1104 accessed08/07/2020

23 ENorseetal ‘Place-basedecosystemmanagementintheopenocean’inENorseandLCrowder(ed) MarineConservationBiology:Thescienceofmaintainingthesea’sbiodiversityIslandPress2005308

24 Ibid.

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OceandegradationandbiodiversitylossintheABNJ

EvidentlytheABNJhasthebiologicalcapacitytoaccommodateorganismsofconsiderable commercial,scientific,andecologicalvalue Yet,thesametechnologicaladvancements whichfosteredgreaterunderstandingofbiodiversitybeyondnationaljurisdictionhavealso facilitatedopportunitiestoexploitandthusendangersuchresources.Developmentsin autonomoussubmersiblesandremotelyoperatedvehicles25 haveexpandedthescopeof industrialactivitiesinthedeep-sea,26 includingtheexploitationofbiological,mineraland petrochemicalresources 27 Theabilitytoextractandutilisenaturalcompoundsatagenetic level28 hasresultedinanewmarketfornovelmarinebiomaterials 29 Althoughtheeffectsof bioprospectingmaybeperceivedasminimalcomparedtomoredestructiveactivities,30 the escalatingeconomicinvestmentinsuchmaterialsmayleadtoaproliferationofactors seizingopportunitiestopursuelucrativeresourcesonthedeep-seabed.31 Suchan increaseofactivityinpreviouslyundisturbedenvironmentsthreatenstheintegrityoffragile ecosystems,asbioprospecting–likeanyotherscientificresearch–mayintroducelight andnoise,affectwatertemperatureandproducepollution 32 Likewise,demandformineral resourceslocatedonthedeep-seabedalongsidetechnologicalbreakthroughshaveledto

25 AMerrieetal.‘Anoceanofsurprises–Trendsinhumanuse,unexpecteddynamicsandgovernance challengesinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201427GlobalEnvChange19,23.Seealso;RBachmayeret al ‘Oceanographicresearchusingremotelyoperatedunderwaterroboticvehicles:Explorationofhydrothermal ventsitesontheMid-AtlanticRidgeat37°North32°West’1998323MarTechSocJ37

26 KGjerde,EcosystemsandBiodiversityinDeepWatersandHighSeasUNEPRegionalSeasReportand StudiesNo 178,UNEP/IUCN20068

27 ERamirez-Llodraetal ‘ManandtheLastGreatWilderness:HumanImpactontheDeepSea’201168 PLoSONE9<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0022588accessed 20/07/2020

28 SBeslier,‘Theprotectionandsustainableexploitationofgeneticresourcesofthehighseasfromthe EuropeanUnionperspective’200924IntJMarCoastLaw333,334

29 DLearyetal ‘Marinegeneticresources:Areviewofscientificandcommercialinterest’200933MarinePol 183,187

30 GWrightetal ‘Thelongandwindingroad:negotiatingatreatyfortheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’IDDRIandAgencedesairesmarinesprotégéesstudy no8/18,IDDRIAugust201820

31 AMerrieetal ‘Anoceanofsurprises–Trendsinhumanuse,unexpecteddynamicsandgovernance challengesinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201427GlobalEnvChange19

32 GWrightetal ‘Thelongandwindingroad:negotiatingatreatyfortheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’IDDRIandAgencedesairesmarinesprotégéesstudy no8/18,IDDRIAugust201820.

anexpansionofinterestindeep-seamining 33 Yet,mininginthedeep-seahasthe potentialtodamageentireseabedtosurfaceecosystemsinareasofnotablebiodiversity, suchasseamountsandhydrothermalvents.34 Destructivepracticesincludethe resuspensionandcompactionofsediments,removalofseafloorpolymetallicnodulesor

cuttingawayofcobalt-richcrusts,dischargeofdebrisandspillage,noiseandvibration 35 Giventhelengthydevelopmentperiodandlowreproductiveratecharacteristicof deep-seaorganisms,36 theslowrecoveryexpectedformostecosystemsreinforcesthe scaleoftheharmcausedbysuchactivities.

Furthermore,technologicaldevelopmentshavealsointensifiedexistingcommercial activitiesinnewoceanicdepths 37 Forexample,asshallowwaterstockshavebecome depleted,fisherieshavesteadilyprogressedintooffshoreareasanddeeperwaters 38 Asa result,deep-seafishingiscurrentlyconsideredthemostsubstantialdirectthreattomarine lifeintheABNJ 39 TheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganisationUNFAOnoted thattheeffectsofoverfishingwereparticularlyacuteintheABNJ,40 wherestockswere overfishedatapproximatelytwicetherateofthosewithinnationaljurisdictions.41 Notably,

33 KMilleretal.‘Anoverviewofseabedminingincludingthecurrentstateofdevelopment,environmental impactsandknowledgegaps’20184FrontiersinMarSci1

<file:///C/Users/hp/Downloads/fmars-04 00418pdf>accessed08/07/2020

34 OHeffernan,‘Seabedminingiscoming–bringingmineralrichesandfearsofepicextinctions:Plansare advancingtoharvestpreciousoresfromtheoceanfloor,butscientistssaythatcompanieshavenottested themenoughtoavoiddevastatingdamage’(naturecom,24July2019

<https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586 019 02242-y>accessed05/07/2020.

35 BO’Learyetal ‘Optionsformanaginghumanthreatstohighseasbiodiversity’2020187Ocean&Coastal Manag105110,105113

36 EANorseetal ‘Sustainabilityofdeep-seafisheries’2012362MarPol307,309

37 ERamirez-Llodraetal ‘ManandtheLastGreatWilderness:HumanImpactontheDeepSea’201168 PLoSONE9<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0022588accessed 20/07/2020.

38 WSwartzetal ‘Thespatialexpansionandecologicalfootprintoffisheries1950topresent)’2010512 PLoSONE<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0015143accessed03/10/2020

39 BLascellesetal ‘Migratorymarinespecies:theirstatus,threatsandmanagementneeds’201424Aquatic ConservMarFreshwEcosyst111,114

40 FoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNations,TheStateofWorldFisheriesandAgriculture2018–MeetingthesustainabledevelopmentgoalsRomeFAO201845.

41 DDunnetal ‘Empoweringhighseasgovernancewithsatellitevesseltrackingdata’201819Fish&Fisheries 729,731

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8

Ramirez-Llodraetal findthattheeffectsofoverfishingaremorepronouncedinthe contextofdeep-seaecosystemsassuchspecies–oftenofdelayedsexualmaturity42 –are poorlyadaptedtowithstandheavyfishingpressure.43 Equallydetrimentaltobiodiversityin theABNJaredestructivefishingpracticessuchasbottomtrawlingandpelagiclonglining, whichhavebeenintensifiedbyaseriesoftechnologicalimprovements,ie,stronger cablesandwinches,andfishingnetsandlinescomposedofvirtuallyindestructible syntheticmaterial 44 Theseverityoftrawlingthedeepseabedhasbeenlikenedtothe effectsofforestclearcutting,45 asheavytrawlingsimilarlystripstheseafloorof habitat-buildingorganismswithlastingimplicationsforthelongevityofbenthic communities.46 Seamountcorallossesofuptoninety-eightpercentasaresultoftrawling havealreadybeendocumented 47 However,suchlossesarenotlimitedtocoralsdirectly impactedbytrawlers,asstudiessuggestthedisturbanceofsedimentbyintensetrawling cancreatesedimentgravityflowswhichmaysuffocatecold-watercoralsfarfromtrawled areas 48 Likewise,pelagiclonglininghasbeenimplicatedinconsiderableincidentalcapture ofnon-targetedspecies.Lineswhichcanstretchupto100kmandbearnear2,000baited hookscaughtatleast160,000seabirdsonthehighseasannuallybetweentheyearsof 2001and2008.49 Therepercussionsofsuchbycatchisillustratedbyfindingsthatfifteen

42 EANorseetal ‘Sustainabilityofdeep-seafisheries’2012362MarPol307,309

43 ERamirez-Llodraetal.‘ManandtheLastGreatWilderness:HumanImpactontheDeepSea’201168 PLoSONE9<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0022588accessed 20/07/2020

44 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’20141FrontiersinMarSci1<file:///C/Users/hp/Downloads/fmars-01 00006pdf> accessed19/07/2020

45 LWatlingandENorse,‘Disturbanceoftheseabedbymobilefishinggear:Acomparisontoforest clearcutting’1998126ConservBio1180,1181

46 CPhametal ‘Depp-waterlonglinefishinghasreducedimpactonvulnerablemarineecosystem’20144 ScientificReports<https://wwwncbinlmnihgov/pmc/articles/PMC4003479/pdf/srep04837pdf>accessed 09/07/2020

47 KGjerde,EcosystemsandBiodiversityinDeepWatersandHighSeasUNEPRegionalSeasReportand StudiesNo 178,UNEP/IUCN200624

48 ERamirez-Llodraetal ‘ManandtheLastGreatWilderness:HumanImpactontheDeepSea’201168 PLoSONE10<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0022588accessed 20/07/2020 Seealso;MClarketal ‘Theimpactsofdeep-seafisheriesonbenthiccommunities:areview’ 201573ICESJMarineSci51,52 53

49 OAndersonetal ‘Globalseabirdbycatchinlonglinefisheries’201114EndangSpeciesRes91,97

oftwenty-onespeciesofalbatrossarenowgloballythreatened 50 Moreover,dueto innovationsinsyntheticpolymerslongliningoperationsareabletoextendbelow2000min depth.51 Consequently,thedamagecausedbysuchventuresisnolongerlimitedto biodiversityintheupperwatercolumn

Newtechnologyhasalsodevelopedawarenessofthecorrelationbetweenanthropogenic activitiesandthedegradationoftheopenocean Forexample,Drevnicketal havefound significantland-sourcedmercurycontaminationinpelagicmarinelife,52 whilstarecent studybySharplesetal.estimatedseventy-fivepercentofnitrogenandeightypercentof phosphorusagriculturalpesticideresiduecouldbetransportedtotheopenoceanby rivers 53 Otherland-basedpollutantsobservedintheABNJincludeplasticwaste,with approximately44to127millionmetrictonnesofplasticenteringtheoceaneachyearfrom land-basedsources 54 Similarly,640,000metrictonnesoflostordiscardedfishinggearis estimatedtoentertheoceanannually 55 Suchdebriscanentangleandchokewildlife,and smotherorfractureseabedhabitatsinaprocesstermed‘ghostfishing.’56 Alongsideplastic litter,fishingvesselsarealsoresponsibleforproblemscreatedbydischargedprocessing waste.Offaldiscardedbyfactorytrawlerscanreachconsiderabledepthsandpossibly alterbenthiccommunitycompositionaswellasendangerseabirdsandmarinemammalsin

50 KMcVeigh,‘Industrialfishingushersthealbatrossclosetoextinctionsayresearchers’TheGuardianLondon, 31January2019

<https://wwwtheguardiancom/environment/2019/jan/31/industrial-fishing-ushers-albatross-closer-to-extinctio n-say-researchers>accessed15/07/2020

51 ERamirez-Llodraetal ‘ManandtheLastGreatWilderness:HumanImpactontheDeepSea’201168PLoS ONE10<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0022588accessed20/07/2020

52 PDrevnick,CLamborgandMHorgan,‘Increaseinmercuryinpacificyellowfintuna’2015344Enviro Tox&Chem931

53 JSharplesetal.‘Whatproportionofriverinenutrientsreachestheopenocean?’201631Global BiogeochemCycles39,55.

54 BO’Learyetal ‘Optionsformanaginghumanthreatstohighseasbiodiversity’2020187Ocean&Coastal Manag105110,105114

55 KRichardsonetal ‘Understandingcausesofgearlossprovidesasoundbasisforfisheriesmanagement’ 201896MarPol278

56 EGillman,‘Statusofinternationalmonitoringandmanagementofabandoned,lostanddiscardedfishinggear andghostfishing’201560MarPol225.

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theupperocean 57 Furthermore,thebiologicalthreatofalieninvasivespeciestransported onthehullsofshipsisaparticularconcern58 giventhatretreatingseaicepresentsthe opportunityforgreatermaritimetrafficinecologicallypristinepolarregions.59 Therefore,as theabilitytodiscoverandexploitbiodiversityintheABNJadvances,sotoodoes recognitionofthebiodiversitylosscausedbyanthropogenicpressureonpreviously untouchedoceanicecosystems Thus,itisapparentthatbiodiversityintheABNJisboth increasinglyvaluableandvulnerable 60

Thelegalframeworkforspatialconservationintheinternational marineenvironment

Theadverseeffectsofsimultaneousanthropogenicpressuresonthemarineenvironment havebeenworsenedbytheinadequatearticulationanduncoordinatedimplementationof ecologicalconservationmeasuresintheABNJ 61 Indeed,academicrecognitionofthe ongoingdeteriorationofthemarineenvironmentpostUNCLOS62 hasreinforcedtheviewof criticssuchasGjerdeandRulska-Dominothatthelegalframeworkisoutpacedbythe contemporarythreatsfacingmarinebiodiversitybeyondnationaljurisdictions 63 To elaboratefurther,thesubsequentsectionswilldiscussseveralsubstantiveweaknesses inherentinthecurrentlegalframeworkandexploretheirecologicalcostthroughan

57 ERamirez-Llodraetal ‘ManandtheLastGreatWilderness:HumanImpactontheDeepSea’201168 PLoSONE7<https://journalsplosorg/plosone/article?id=101371/journalpone0022588accessed 20/07/2020

58 KGjerde,EcosystemsandBiodiversityinDeepWatersandHighSeasUNEPRegionalSeasReportand StudiesNo 178,UNEP/IUCN200626 27

59 BO’Learyetal.‘Optionsformanaginghumanthreatstohighseasbiodiversity’2020187Ocean&Coastal Manag105110,105113.

60 QHanich,CSchofieldandCSmyth,‘GoingBiginthePacific:Large-scaleMarineProtectedAreasinthe PacificOcean’20205APOC186,187

61 DTladi,‘Oceangovernance:afragmentedregulatoryframework’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNew FrontierTERIPress201199

62 RJozan,JRochetteandSSundar‘Oceans:TheNewFrontier’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNew FrontierTERIPress201121.

63 KGjerdeandARulska-Domino,‘MarineProtectedAreasbeyondNationalJurisdiction:somepractical perspectivesformovingahead’201227IntJMar&CoastalL351,352

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evaluationofthesuccessandfailuresofexistingspatialconservationtoolsadministeredin theABNJ.

UNCLOS

UNCLOSwasdesignedtoprescribeanoverarchinglegalframeworkofrightsand obligationsfortheuseoftheoceansanditsresourcesinvariousmaritimezones.64 Much likedomesticconstitutions,theConventionprovidesastructuralframeworkandhigh-level norms,theconcretedetailsofwhichareelaboratedwithinvariousexistingandnewly createdbodiesandfora 65 Thus,environmentalprotectionintheABNJischaracterisedby broadenvironmentalprotectionobligationsimplementedthroughapatchworkofvarious hardandsoftlawprovisionsanddisparateinstitutionsunderthegeneralumbrellaof UNCLOS.66 However,Mossophighlightshowsuchanarrangementhasmultiplestructural limitations,whichinpracticeunderminethesuccessfullegalprotectionandpreservationof marinebiodiversityintheABNJ 67 ChallengesincludeinadequatePartXIIenvironmental protectionprovisions,obstructiveprinciplesofcustomaryinternationallawentrenchedin PartVIIofUNCLOSandcomplexjurisdictionalarrangements

PartXIIUNCLOSenvironmentalprotectionprovisions

Ontheonehand,UNCLOSappearstomaintainarigorousprogrammeofenvironmental conservationmeasures68 withseveralprovisionspurportingtorealise‘theprotectionand preservationofthemarineenvironment.’69 Forexample,alongsideenvironmentalprotection

64 CSalpin,‘Marinegeneticresourcesofareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:Soulsearchingandtheartof balance’inEMorgeraandKKulovesi(ed),ResearchHandbookonInternationalLawandNaturalResources EdwardElgarPublishingLtd2016416

65 DTladi,‘Oceangovernance:afragmentedregulatoryframework’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNew FrontierTERIPress2011106

66 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal.(ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015775.

67 JMossop,'CanWeMaketheOceansGreener:TheSuccessesandFailuresofUNCLOSasanEnvironmental Treaty'201849VictoriaUWellingtonLRev573,580

68 LNordtvedtReeve,ARulska-DominoandKGjerde,‘Thefutureofhighseasmarineprotectedareas’2012 261OceanYB265,273

69 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSPreamble.

dutiesinspecificmaritimeareas,70 Article192ofUNCLOSestablishesageneralobligation thatallstatespartytotheConventionaretoprotectandpreservethemarineenvironment irrespectiveofthejurisdictionalzone.71 Importantly,Article193–anearlyprecursorof sustainabledevelopment–emphasisesthatsuchanobligationisnotanisolatedpolicy goalbutmustbepursuedintandemwiththedevelopmentofmarineresources 72 Whilst Article1945ofUNCLOSstipulatesthatmeasurespursuanttoPartXIIofUNCLOSshall includethosenecessarytoprotectandpreserverareorfragileecosystemsaswellasthe habitatofdepleted,threatenedorendangeredspeciesandotherformsoflife.73

However,thecomprehensivecoverageofconservationdutiesprescribedbyPartXIIof UNCLOSisquestionablegivenmuchofPartXIIisexplicitlyconcernedwiththeprevention, reductionandcontrolofmarinepollution 74 Whilstsuchprovisionsrepresentanimportant developmentinenvironmentalprotection,asthefirstexampleofaglobalresponsetothe pollutionproblem,theyprovidelittlescopetolimittheecologicallydeleteriousimpactsof othermaritimeactivities.75 TheevidentfailureofUNCLOStoaccommodateecological developmentssupportsGjerde’sfindingsthatthe1982Conventionisaproductofitstime andassuchcannoteffectivelyregulatemodernbiodiversityconcerns.76 Moreover,the ‘relativelyweakphrasing’ofalternativeecologicalstressors(ie,IUUfishing)77 is symptomaticofthe‘generalityandvagueness’thatpermeatethelanguageofPartXIIand

70 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart 61;PartVIIs2;art145;art240(d)

71 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart192

72 JHarrison,SavingtheOceansthroughLaw:TheInternationalLegalFrameworkfortheProtectionofthe MarineEnvironmentOUP201725

73 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart1945

74 JHarrison,SavingtheOceansthroughLaw:TheInternationalLegalFrameworkfortheProtectionofthe MarineEnvironmentOUP201726.Seealso;UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10 December1982,inforce16November19941833UNTS397UNCLOSart204 212

75 JMossop,'CanWeMaketheOceansGreener:TheSuccessesandFailuresofUNCLOSasanEnvironmental Treaty'201849VictoriaUWellingtonLRev573,578

76 KGjerde,‘Challengestoprotectingthemarineenvironmentbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201227IntJ Mar&CoastalL839,844

77 Ibid579

ultimatelyrenderthenormsofenvironmentalprotectionopentomisapplication 78 Indeed, theoverly-broadarticulationofUNCLOSenvironmentalprotectionobligationsisfurther compromisedbythelackofadetailedregulatorymandatetoguidethedefinitionand enforcementofenvironmentalprotectionmeasures

Recentjurisprudencehasendeavouredtoovercometheregulatoryobstaclesoftheearly twenty-firstcenturybyexpandingthescopeofPartXIIprovisionssothatmeasuresarenot strictlyconfinedtomarinepollutionbutincludetheconservationofecosystems.79 Nevertheless,Caddell’sspeculationthatsuchlitigationislikelydrivenbypolitical dissatisfactionwiththecurrentframework80 atteststothewidespreadrecognitionofthe 1982Convention’sinadequacy 81

Similarly,thesubsequent1995UNFishStocksAgreementUNFSA82 attemptsto operationalisemoderngovernancenormsabsentfromUNCLOS,83 suchasprecautionary ecosystemic-basedmanagement.84 However,theparametersoftheUNFSAarelimitedby thetermsofitsnegotiation.TheUNFSAwasdesignedexpresslytoaddressthe uncertaintycreatedbyArticle63ofUNCLOS.Asaresult,theUNFSAisfisheries-specific andthusnotempoweredtoapplyprecautionaryandecosystem-basedmanagement principlestomarinebiodiversitymorebroadly,norcanitprescribespecificmeasuresfor

78 DTladi,‘Oceangovernance:afragmentedregulatoryframework’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNew FrontierTERIPress2011104

79 ChagosMarineProtectedAreaArbitrationMauritiusvUnitedKingdom),Awardof18March2015;para538 Seealso;SouthChinaSeaArbitrationRepublicofthePhilippinesv Peoples’RepublicofChina)Awardof12 July2016;para959

80 RCaddell,‘InternationalEnvironmentalGovernanceandtheFinalFrontier:Theprotectionofvulnerable marineecosystemsindeep-seaareabeyondnationaljurisdiction’201627YBIntEnvL28,41

81 DFreestone,‘Modernprinciplesofhighseasgovernance:thelegalunderpinnings’200939EnvPolicy&L 44.

82 AgreementfortheImplementationoftheProvisionsoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea of10December1982RelatingtotheConservationandManagementofStraddlingFishStocksandHighly MigratoryFishStocks(adopted04August1995,inforce11December20012167UNTS88UNFSA

83 NOral,‘1982UNCLOS30Confrontingnewcomplexitiesintheprotectionofbiodiversityandmarineliving resourcesinthehighseas’2012106AmericanSocIntL403,405

84 AgreementfortheImplementationoftheProvisionsoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea of10December1982RelatingtotheConservationandManagementofStraddlingFishStocksandHighly MigratoryFishStocks(adopted04August1995,inforce11December20012167UNTS88UNFSAArt5(c) and(e)andArt6

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theprotectionofmarinebiodiversitybeyondstraddlingfishstocksandhighlymigratory fish.

Theforegoinganalysisdemonstratesthatdespitetheaspirationofrigorousand comprehensiveenvironmentalprotectionprovisions,conservationobligationsprescribed byUNCLOSareatbestlacklustreandatworstthesourceofapathetic,insubstantialor belatedresponsestoenvironmentalthreats

PartVIIUNCLOSandthefreedomoftheHighSeasregime

EquallychallengingfortheprogressionofenvironmentalprotectionobjectivesintheABNJ isthe‘freedomofthehighseas’regimeentrenchedinArticle87ofUNCLOS 85 Firstly, severalacademicsagreethatthe‘freedomofthehighseas’regimeisresponsibleforthe re-enactmentofHardin’stragedyofthecommonsintheABNJ.86 Initiallydevelopedto addresstherighttooccupynewlydiscoveredterritoriesinAsiaandtheAmericas,87 the Grotianprincipleessentiallycreatesacommonpropertyregimeforhighseasresources 88 Theapplicationofacommonpropertyregimeinthehighseasconsistsofopenaccessand theequalrightsofusers 89 Thus,whilstnostatemaypreventanotherfromparticipatingin theexploitationofcommonpropertyresources90 followingtheirattainment,theresources andanysubsequentbenefitsaretheexclusivepropertyoftheexploiter.91 Thenatureofthe ‘tragedy’beingsuchthattheindividualshort-termfinancialprofitgainedby

85 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart 87(a)-(f)

86 DTladi,‘Oceangovernance:afragmentedregulatoryframework’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNew FrontierTERIPress2011104 Seealso;ESanto,‘Implementationchallengesofarea-basedmanagementtools ABMTs)forbiodiversitybeyondnationaljurisdictionBBNJ’201897MarPol34,35 Seealso;GHardin,‘The TragedyoftheCommons’19681623859Science1243.

87 TScovazzi,‘MarineProtectedAreasontheHighSeas:Somelegalandpolicyconsiderations’200419IntJ Mar&CoastalL1,6

88 RRayfuseandRWarner,‘Securingasustainablefuturefortheoceansbeyondnationaljurisdiction:thelegal basisforanintegratedcross-sectoralregimeforhighseasgovernanceforthe21stcentury’2008233IntJ Mar&CoastalL399,404

89 Ibid

90 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart 89

91 RRayfuseandRWarner,‘Securingasustainablefuturefortheoceansbeyondnationaljurisdiction:thelegal basisforanintegratedcross-sectoralregimeforhighseasgovernanceforthe21stcentury’2008233IntJ Mar&CoastalL399,404

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overexploitationtranscendsthecollectivelong-termbenefitsofenvironmentalprotection measures.92

Secondly,the‘freedomofthehighseas’seemstoinadvertentlyobstructtheunilateral developmentofenvironmentalprotectionmeasuresinthecourseofinhibiting‘creeping jurisdiction’93 Considerthewayinwhichthedesignationofconservationtools,ie,spatial closures,havebeenhinderedbythenotionthatanyencroachmentonhighseas jurisdictionisfundamentallyincompatiblewiththecentraltenetsofUNCLOS94 –primarily the‘freedoms’establishedinArticle8795 andtheprinciplethat‘nostatemayvalidlypurport tosubjectanypartofthehighseastoitssovereignty’inArticle89.96 Therefore,Rayfuse andWarnerappearjustifiedinobservingthatthereificationofthe‘freedom’rhetoricin internationallawhasmadestateslessinclinedtovoluntarilyadoptlimitationsonsuch ‘freedoms’beyondthosealreadyprescribedbyUNCLOS 97

Thirdly,theineffectivenessofexclusiveflagstatejurisdictiononthehighseashas exacerbatedseveralissuesarisingfromthe‘freedomofthehighseas’regime.PartVIIof UNCLOSestablishesthatvesselsonthehighseasmaysailundertheflagofonestateand inreturnthe‘flagstate’hasexclusivejurisdictionoverthevessel 98 Ontheonehand,

92 DAl-Abdulrazzaketal ‘Opportunitiesforimprovingglobalmarineconservationthroughmultilateraltreaties’ 201786MarPol247

93 DDunn,GCrespoandRCaddell,‘Area-basedFisheriesManagement’inRCaddell,EMolenaar(ed) StrengtheningInternationalFisheriesLawinanEraofChangingOceansHart2019189,194 Seealso;K MorrisandKHossain,‘LegalinstrumentsformarinesanctuaryintheHighArctic’201652Laws20,25 <https://wwwmdpicom/2075 471X/5/2/20/htm>accessed06/07/2020

94 RRayfuseandRWarner,‘Securingasustainablefuturefortheoceansbeyondnationaljurisdiction:thelegal basisforanintegratedcross-sectoralregimeforhighseasgovernanceforthe21stcentury’2008233IntJ Mar&CoastalL399,405

95 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart 87(a-f)

96 Ibidart.89.

97 RRayfuseandRWarner,‘Securingasustainablefuturefortheoceansbeyondnationaljurisdiction:thelegal basisforanintegratedcross-sectoralregimeforhighseasgovernanceforthe21stcentury’2008233IntJ Mar&CoastalL399,405

Seealso;UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November 19941833UNTS397UNCLOSPartVIIs.2andPartXII.

98 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart90 92

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Warnerarguespairingvesselswiththenationalityoftheirflagstateisdesignedto strengthentheenforcementofenvironmentallawonthehighseasbyimportingan establishedsystemofrightsandobligationsundernationalandinternationallaw.99 However,byassumingallstateswilltakeresponsibilityfortheenforcementofstandards ontheirvesselsandpunishviolationsofthelaw,PartVIIofUNCLOSmakesnoprovision fortheincreasein‘flagsofconvenience’–ariseinthosestateswhooffertheirflagbut lackthecapacityorwilltoenforceminimumstandards 100 Consequently,mandatory environmentalobligationsareinconsistentlyenforcedacrosstheABNJ.

Significantly,thewidediscretionaffordedtoflagstateswhengrantingnationalityto ships101 hasencouragedthedevelopmentofso-called‘flagsofconvenience’andthus worsenedtheenforcementoftreatynorms Forexample,UNCLOS’permissiveattitude towardsgrantingnationalitytovesselshasinpracticeledtotheabsenceofa‘genuine link’102 betweentheflagstateandtheventuresofitsflagvessels 103 Asaresult,delinquent andenvironmentallyhazardousflagvesselsonthehighseashavebeenabletocontinue operation,104 whichinturnhasemboldenedstatestoadopt‘free-rider’behaviourwhilst seekingthefinancialprofitsgainedbytheshort-termoverexploitationofmarine biodiversity 105 Effortstoaddressthisissuehavebeenunderminedbythelimitedinstances inwhichastatecanexercisejurisdictionoveravesselflaggedtoanotherstateonthehigh

99 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015754

100 JMossop,'CanWeMaketheOceansGreener:TheSuccessesandFailuresofUNCLOSasanEnvironmental Treaty'201849VictoriaUWellingtonLRev573,581.Formoredetailonflagsofconveniencesee;H Anderson,‘Thenationalityofshipsandflagsofconvenience:Economics,politicsandalternatives’199621Tul MarLJ139,156

101 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart91

102 Ibid.

103 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015754

104 Ibid

105 NGoeteynandFMaes,‘Compliancemechanismsinmultilateralenvironmentalagreements:aneffectiveway toimprovecompliance?’2011104ChineseJIntL791,807 808

seas 106 Theexclusivenatureofflagstatejurisdictionhasgenerallymeantthatstates cannotconfrontenvironmentallydestructivebehaviourbeyondtheirownflagged vessels.107 AsolutionwasofferedbytheInternationalMaritimeOrganisationIMOinthe formofamandatoryflagstateauditscheme 108 Yet,giventheschemedoesnotapplyto significantlydestructivehighseasactivitiessuchasfishinganddumping109 its effectivenessisdubious Likewise,shipboardingregimesembodiedintheUNFSAwere alsobilledasaremedyfortheeffectiveenforcementofenvironmentalregulations,by broadeningthecircumstancesinwhichnon-flagstatescanboardavesselonthehigh seas.110 Admittedly,whilethishashadsomepositiveeffectinRegionalFisheries ManagementRegimesRFMOs)thesuccessisdependentuponparticipationwitheither theUNFSAoranRFMO Therefore,avesselflaggedtoatrulyrecalcitrantstateisableto avoidallenvironmentalobligationsandrelatedsanctionsintheABNJ 111

Thebifurcatedlegalframework

Lastly,UNCLOS’bifurcatedlegalframework,whichcreatesanartificialdistinctionthehigh seaswatercolumnandtheseabed,112 hascomplicatedthedesignationandimplementation ofholisticspatialconservationmeasuressuchasmarineprotectedareasMPAs).For example,Article76ofUNCLOSprovidescoastalStateswithamechanismtoextendtheir continentalshelfuptothreehundredandfiftynauticalmilesfromthebaselineoftheir

106 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSart110

107 Ibidart946

108 IMO,‘IMOMemberStateAuditScheme’(imo.org,2016 <http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/MSAS/Pages/AuditScheme.aspx>accessed01/08/2020.

109 KGjerde,‘Challengestoprotectingthemarineenvironmentbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201227IntJ Mar&CoastalL839,846

110 AgreementfortheImplementationoftheProvisionsoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea of10December1982RelatingtotheConservationandManagementofStraddlingFishStocksandHighly MigratoryFishStocks(adopted04August1995,inforce11December20012167UNTS88UNFSA art183)(f)(g)(i) Seealso;JMossop,'CanWeMaketheOceansGreener:TheSuccessesandFailuresof UNCLOSasanEnvironmentalTreaty'201849VictoriaUWellingtonLRev573,581

111 JMossop,'CanWeMaketheOceansGreener:TheSuccessesandFailuresofUNCLOSasanEnvironmental Treaty'201849VictoriaUWellingtonLRev573,581

112 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSPartVIIandPartXI

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territorialsea 113 Asaresult,ScotthighlightsthereareareaswithintheABNJthatare subjecttoahybridofinternationalanddomesticrights,114 whichcanbeproblematicfor conservationmeasuresifStatesarenotwillingtoengagecooperativelywithcompetent regionalseasauthorities(eg,ifStateswishtodrilltheircontinentalshelfforoildespite theareabeinganurserygroundforendangeredpelagicpredatorsetc) Whilstthereare someexamplesoftheduallegalregimesbeingeffectivelyco-managedinpractice,such asinthecaseofPortugalandhighseasMPAsmanagedbytheConventionforthe ProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlanticOSPARConvention),115 therearealsoexamplesofobstructionsininstanceswhereContractingPartiesarenot willingtoengageindiscussionsoverMPAdesignationuntiltheircontinentalshelf submissionshavebeendecided 116 Thus,althoughArticle197ofUNCLOSenvisagesthe possibilityofcooperationattheglobalorregionallevel117 UNCLOSlacksthespecific measuresrequiredtofacilitateandconsistentlyenforcesuchintegrationuniversally 118

Sectoralregulators

Thehostoffragmentedandsector-specificbodiesandinstrumentshasalsoproven challengingforthecomprehensivelegalprotectionandpreservationofmarinebiodiversity intheABNJ.119 Whilsttheoreticallythesheerquantityofforamayprovidegreater opportunitytoprogressivelydevelopconservationmeasures,120inrealitythishighly

113 Ibidart766

114 KNScott,‘Conservationonthehighseas:Developingtheconceptofthehighseasmarineprotectedareas’ 201227Mar&CoastalL849,856

115 Ibid Seealso;OSPARRecommendation2010/14,OSPARRecommendation2010/15,OSPAR Recommendation2010/16,OSPARRecommendation2010/17

116 BO’Learyetal.‘ThefirstnetworkofmarineprotectedareasMPAs)inthehighseas:theprocess,the challengesandwherenext’201236MarPol598,602.

117 UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(adopted10December1982,inforce16November1994 1833UNTS397UNCLOSArt197

118 KGjerde,‘Challengestoprotectingthemarineenvironmentbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201227IntJ Mar&CoastalL839,845 Seealso;AElferink,‘CoastalstatesandMPAsinABNJEnsuringconsistencywiththe LOSC’201833Mar&CoastL437,445

119 KTöpferetal ‘Chartingpragmaticcoursesforglobaloceangovernance’201449MarPol85,86

120 DTladi,‘Oceangovernance:afragmentedregulatoryframework’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNew FrontierTERIPress2011101

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sectorised,decentralisedanddisjunctiveframework121 meansvariousinstitutionsand instrumentslargelyoperateindependentlyofoneanotherina‘siloeffect.’122 Indeedthe lackofaneffectiveoverarchingcooperationmechanismtoreconcilecompetingpriorities, ensurecoordinationandpolicycoherence,andprovideanindisputablelegalbasisforthe exerciseofareabasedmanagementtoolsABMTs)andMPAsinthehighseashasledto severalgapsandregulatoryoverlapsintheimplementationofconservationobjectives 123 Asaresult,Töpferarguesthat‘institutionalmisfitistheruleandnottheexceptioninocean governance.’124 ToreinforceTöpfer’scriticisms,thefollowingwillevaluatethesuccesses andfailuresofexistingABMTsandMPAsimplementedbyaselectionofkeysectoral institutions.

InternationalMaritimeOrganisationIMO

TheIMOisaspecialisedUNagencyresponsibleforthemanagementofinternational shipping,includingitsadverseecologicalconsequences 125 Significantly,theIMOisoneof fewintergovernmentalorganisationswithaclearmandatetoregulatehumanactivitieson thehighseas 126 Pre-datingUNCLOS,theIMO,127sinceitsestablishmentin1948,has fosteredadetailedregimeofinternationalinstrumentsregulatingglobalmaritimeshipping andvessel-sourcepollutionissues.128 Thetwomaininstrumentsforarea-based environmentalprotectionmeasuresincludeInternationalConventionforthePreventionof

121 EMolenaar,‘Managingbiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’200722IntJMar&CoastalL89, 95.

122 DFreestone,‘Governanceofareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:Anunfinishedagendaofthe1982 Convention?’inKZou(ed)GlobalCommonsandtheLawoftheSeaBrillNijhoff,2018225

123 GWrightetal ‘Thelongandwindingroad:negotiatingatreatyfortheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’IDDRIandAgencedesairesmarinesprotégéesstudy no8/18,IDDRIAugust201831and33

124 KTöpferetal ‘Chartingpragmaticcoursesforglobaloceangovernance’201449MarPol85,86

125 LNordtvedtReeve,ARulska-DominoandKGjerde,‘Thefutureofhighseasmarineprotectedareas’2012 261OceanYB265,275

126 DFreestoneandVHarris,‘ParticularlySensitiveSeaAreasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:Timetochartanew course?MNordquist,JNortonMooreandRLong(ed)InternationalMarineEconomyBrillNijhoff2017322

127 ConventionoftheInternationalMaritimeOrganisation(adoptedin06March1948,inforce17March1958 621UNTS289.

128 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015760

PollutionfromShipsMARPOL’s)‘SpecialAreas’129 andthedesignationof‘Particularly SensitiveSeaAreas’PSSAs).130

MARPOL’s‘SpecialAreas’and‘EmissionControlAreas’

MARPOLbroadlyappliestoallshipsoperatinginmarineenvironments131 andincludes provisionsinfiveofitsannexes(oil/noxiousliquidsubstances/sewage/garbage)for enhancedprotectionofseaareasdesignatedas‘SpecialAreas’or‘EmissionControl Areas.’132 ‘Enhancedprotection’essentiallyconsistsofmorestringentlimitationstowhatis appliedgenerallythroughMARPOL.Forexample,intheAntarcticSpecialAreaAnnexI containsablanketprohibitionof‘anydischargeintotheseaofoiloroilymixturesfromany ship’133 Thedesignationof‘SpecialAreas’involvesascience-basedanalysisthattakesinto accountboththenaturalcharacteristicsoftheareaandthetypeofshippingactivities occurringwithinit 134 Thusitisarelativelytailoredprocess However,MARPOL’s conservationmeasuresappeartolabourunderthesamespatiallimitationsasotherthe ABMTs,givenonlytwoofthefourteenseaareasthatarecurrentlydesignatedas‘Special Areas’or‘EmissionControlAreas’arelocatedintheABNJ.135

ParticularlySensitiveSeaAreasPSSAs)

TheIMOdefinesaPSSAas‘anareathatneedsspecialprotection[ ]becauseofits significanceforrecognisedecological,socio-ecological,socio-economicorscientific attributeswheresuchattributesmaybevulnerabletodamagebyinternationalshipping

129 InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips(adoptedin17February1973,inforce02 October19831340UNTS184MARPOL

130 IMOAssembly,‘RevisedGuidelinesfortheidentificationanddesignationofparticularlysensitiveseaareas’ ResolutionA.9822401December2005.

131 Ibid

132 InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips(adoptedin17February1973,inforce02 October19831340UNTS184MARPOLAnnexesI,II,IVandV

133 IbidAnnexI15(b)(4).Seealso;DFreestoneandVHarris,‘ParticularlySensitiveSeaAreasbeyondnational jurisdiction:Timetochartanewcourse?MNordquist,JNortonMooreandRLong(ed)InternationalMarine EconomyBrillNijhoff2017334

134 DFreestoneandVHarris,‘ParticularlySensitiveSeaAreasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:Timetochartanew course?MNordquist,JNortonMooreandRLong(ed)InternationalMarineEconomyBrillNijhoff2017334

135 IMO,‘SpecialAreasunderMARPOL’(imoorg)

<http://wwwimoorg/en/OurWork/Environment/SpecialAreasUnderMARPOL/Pages/Defaultaspx>accessed 14/08/2020

activities’136

PSSAsaredesignatedbynon-legallybindingresolutionsfromtheIMOMarine EnvironmentProtectionCommitteeMEPCandthereforehavenoimmediateeffectuntil associatedprotectivemeasuresaresubsequentlyappliedunderpre-existinginter-State frameworks,ie,SOLAS137 andtheIMOShips’Routeingprovisions 138

Ontheonehand,PSSAsappearwell-suitedtotheABNJgiventheeasewithwhichthe IMOcanfacilitateinter-Stateconservationofparticularareasowingtoitswidely recognisedregulatoryauthority.However,otherelementsofPSSAsalsogivecredenceto whythemeasureshaveyettobeappliedbeyondnationaljurisdictions.Forexample,the foremostpre-requisiteforaPSSAisademonstrablelinkbetweenshippingactivitiesand theriskofharm 139 Inthehighseasthiscanbeparticularlychallengingasshipcollisions withmammalsaredifficulttoconfirm(withgroundingslesscommon)andvesselsourced pollutionisfrequentlyunder-reported 140 Furthermore,giventheapplicationofIMO environmentalprotectionmeasuresarelimitedtoissuesconcerningmaritimesafetyand pollution,PSSAsarenotabletooffertheholisticenvironmentalprotectionnecessaryto addressthevariousecologicalstressorsaffectingmarinebiodiversityintheABNJsuchas fisheries,deep-seabedminingandland-basedpollution.

InternationalSeabedAuthorityISA

TheISAactsonbehalfofhumanitytoregulatetheexploitationofmineralsintheArea 141 TheintergovernmentalbodyisalsochargedbyUNCLOSwiththedevelopmentof measurestoprotectandconservethenaturalandbiologicalresourcesoftheAreafrom theadverseimpactsofmining-relatedactivity 142

136 IMO,‘Particularlysensitiveseaareas’(imoorg)

<http://wwwimoorg/en/OurWork/Environment/PSSAs/Pages/Defaultaspx>accessed14/08/2020

137 InternationalConventionfortheSafetyofLifeatSea(adoptedin01November1974,inforce25May1980 1184UNTS278SOLAS

138 DFreestoneandVHarris,‘ParticularlySensitiveSeaAreasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:Timetochartanew course?MNordquist,JNortonMooreandRLong(ed)InternationalMarineEconomyBrillNijhoff2017333.

139 LNordtvedtReeve,ARulska-DominoandKGjerde,‘Thefutureofhighseasmarineprotectedareas’2012 261OceanYB265,275

140 Ibid

141 LNordtvedtReeve,ARulska-DominoandKGjerde,‘Thefutureofhighseasmarineprotectedareas’2012 261OceanYB265,276

142 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015760

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Asdiscussedpreviously,deep-seabedminingisexpectedtocauselong-lastingand widespreaddamagetouniquecommunitiesofbenthicbiodiversity,particularlythose situatedathydrothermalvents Inresponse,theISAhasestablishedastrongframeworkof environmentalsafeguardsforexploratorycontractorsintheArea 143 Forexample,theISA hasadoptedrulesforenvironmentalimpactassessments,monitoringandresearch 144 Moreover,theISApossessesthelegalcompetencetoemploy‘AreasofParticular EnvironmentalInterest’APEIs–anareabasedmanagementtooldesignedtoreduceor discontinuecertainactivitiesonaspecifiedportionoftheseabed,i.e.,closureofmining activities.

However,untilrecentlytheISAhadavoidedtheapplicationofAPEIs,mirroringthe hesitationoftheIMOandPSSAdesignationintheABNJ Onlyduring2011didtheISAissue anEnvironmentalManagementPlanEMPfortheClarion-ClipperZone,whichincludedthe designationofanetworkofnineAPEIs.145 Moreover,despitetherecentapplicationofAPEIs intheABNJ,itisworthnotingthattheISA’sauthority(muchliketheIMOdoesnot encompassalltheactivitiesthatposeathreattomarinebiodiversity.TheISAislimitedto activitiesrelatedtotheexplorationandexploitationofseabedresources 146 Asaresult,an areacouldbedesignatedasanAPEIandclosedtomining,butstillbesubjecttoother harmfulandexploitativeactivitiessuchasbottomfishing 147 Theseeminglyarbitrary distinctionbetweenequallydestructiveactivitiesischaracteristicoftheweaknessinherent inthesectoralapproachtoenvironmentalconservation.

143 Ibid

144 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015760

145 GWrightetal ‘Thelongandwindingroad:negotiatingatreatyfortheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’IDDRIandAgencedesairesmarinesprotégéesstudy no8/18,IDDRIAugust201833

146 LNordtvedtReeve,ARulska-DominoandKGjerde,‘Thefutureofhighseasmarineprotectedareas’2012 261OceanYB265,277

147 Ibid.

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RegionalSeaAgreementsRSAs)

Sincetheearly1970s,inrecognitionthatnotwoseasareidentical,148 anarrayofbinding andnon-bindingregionalseasagreementsRSAs)haveengagedStatesinthe collaborativeprotectionoftheiruniqueoffshoremarineenvironments.149 Manyofthe bindingRSAshavebeenintroducedthroughtheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme UNEP’sRegionalSeasProgramme,whileothersaretheresultofindependentagreements betweenregionalpartners 150 Sofar,eighteenmaritimeregionsarecoveredbyRSAs151 (althoughonlyfourincludetheABNJ152 withthecombinedmembershipofUNEPand non-UNEPRSAstotallingapproximatelynighty-fiveandahalfpercentoftheworld’s states 153

SomecommentatorshavearguedthattwodifferentphilosophiesunderpinRSAs dependingiftheytakeplacewithinorbeyondtheambitoftheUNEP,theformeradopting aglobaloutlookandthelatterfocusedonmorelocalconcerns 154 Nonetheless,itwould seemfromthelegalandmanagementtoolsappliedbyRSAs,thatRSAsgenerallyreflect thedevelopmentofmodernenvironmentalprotectionprinciples,ie,theirmandateshave graduallyexpandedbeyondvessel-basedmarinepollutiontoencompasstransboundary biodiversityconservationconcerns.155 Indeed,theincreasingutilizationofmarineprotected

149 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015759

150 Ibid

151 UNEP,‘Whydoesworkingregionalseasmatter?’(unenvironmentorg) <https://wwwunenvironmentorg/exploretopics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/working-regional-seas/why-does-working-regional-seas-matter>accessed 08/08/2020

152 KNScott,‘Conservationonthehighseas:Developingtheconceptofthehighseasmarineprotectedareas’ 201227Mar&CoastalL849,854.

153 AVallega,‘Editorial:Theregionalseasinthe21stcentury;andoverview’200245Ocean&CoastalMang 925,926

154 JRochetteandLChabason,‘Aregionalapproachtomarineenvironmentalprotection:The“regionalseas” experience’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNewFrontierTERIPress2011112

155 Ibid113

148 UNGeneralAssembly,OfficialRecordsoftheSecondUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea Geneva,17March-26April1960 CommitteeoftheWhole,VerbatimRecordsoftheGeneralDebate)‘8th MeetingoftheSecondUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSeaGeneva,Switzerland17March–26 April1960,Wednesday30thofMarch10.45am’30March1960UNDocA/CONF.19/9p143. OceanNexusSpecialReport ScopingreportonHighSeaMarineProtectedAreasMPAs)andtheBBNJTreaty

areasMPAs)byRSAs156 hasbeenprogressiveforboththefunctionalandgeographic scopeofregionalenvironmentalprotectionmeasureswiththetraditionalfocusoncoastal andnear-shorewatersbeingextendedintotheABNJ.157

Inprinciple,aregionalresponsetailoredtoeachnaturalenvironmentshouldsurpassglobal protectionrequirementsunderUNCLOSandfurtherthepreservationoftherelevant ecosystem Theregionalcommunityisbetterplacedtoidentifythemostsignificant sourcesofpollutionandthemostvulnerablemarinebiodiversity,158whilethejointstakein thegeographicareaoughttocompelpoliticalconsensusandthuspromotestraightforward environmentalpolicymaking.159 However,toooftenRSAsexhibitthesameintrinsic dysfunctionastheglobalframework:poorinstitutionalcoordination,insufficientfundingfor cooperativeeffortsandweakenforcementmechanisms 160 Tosupportthepreceding analysis,thefollowingsubsectionswillhighlightchallengesandlessonslearnedfromthe advancedhighseasMPAsofthreeRSAsandoneinter-governmental/NGOpartnership

BarcelonaConvention

Interestingly,theMediterraneanSeawasthebackdroptotheearlydevelopmentofUNEP’s regionalapproachtomarineenvironmentalprotection 161 In1975,theMediterraneanAction PlanMAP162 wasdrawnup,followedbytheConventionfortheProtectionofthe MediterraneanSeaagainstPollutionin1976(lateramendedtotheConventionforthe ProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentandtheCoastalRegionoftheMediterraneanin

156 JRochetteetal ‘Theregionalapproachtotheconservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiodiversityin areasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201449MarPol109,110

157 JRochetteetal ‘DeliveringtheAichitarget11Challengesandopportunitiesformarineareasbeyond nationaljurisdiction’201424AquaticConserv:MarFreshwEcosyst31,37.

158 Ibid114

159 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015277

160 JRochetteandLChabason,‘Aregionalapproachtomarineenvironmentalprotection:The“regionalseas” experience’inPJacquetetal (ed)Oceans:TheNewFrontierTERIPress2011120 Seealso;RWarner, ‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteractionwiththelaw ofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015760

161 UNGA‘ReportoftheGoverningCouncilontheworkofitssecondsession’UNEP29thSessionSuppNo25 UNDocA/96251974para45.

162 MediterraneanActionPlanoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme1975UNEP/WG2

1995 163

ThesignatoryStatesoftheConventioncommittedto‘prevent,abate,combatand tothefullestpossibleextenteliminatepollutionoftheMediterraneanSeaandtoprotect andenhancethemarineenvironment.’164 In1995,partiestotheBarcelonaConvention adoptedtheProtocolconcerningSpeciallyProtectedAreaandBiologicalDiversityinthe MediterraneanSPA/BD,165 whichinnovativelyinvitesstatestodesignateSpecially ProtectedAreasofMediterraneanImportanceSPAMIin‘zonespartlyorwhollyonthe highseas’166 OnceamarineareaislistedasanSPAMIallPartiesmust‘complywiththe measuresapplicabletotheSPAMIsandnotauthoriseorundertakeanyactivitiesthatmight becontrarytotheobjectivesforwhichSPAMIswereestablished.’167

In1999,France,ItalyandMonacoofficiallyestablishedthePelagosSanctuaryfor MediterraneanMammalstoprotecteightresidentcetaceanspeciesinthearea 168 The 84,000squarekilometrePelagosSanctuaryincorporatestheterritorialwatersofitsthree signatorystatesbutalsoABNJ 169 In2001,theSanctuarytookadvantageoftheSPA/BD ProtocolandwasformallylistedasanSPAMI.Consequently,thePelagosSanctuarywas thefirstMPApartlycoveringthehighseastobeestablishedwithintheframeworkofa regionalsea.170 Owingtotheextensiveandprescriptiveenvironmentalregulatory frameworkunderlyingthePelagosSanctuaryithasbenefittedfromaremarkabledegreeof compliance Forexample,inadisplayofinter-organisationalcohesiontheGeneralFisheries CommissionoftheMediterraneanGFCM171 hasclosedtheSanctuaryareatofishingwith

163 ConventionfortheprotectionofthemarineenvironmentandthecoastalregionoftheMediterranean1977 OJL240/3BarcelonaConvention).

164 Ibidart 41

165 ProtocolConcerningSpeciallyProtectedAreasandBiologicalDiversityintheMediterranean1999OJL 322/3

166 Ibidart91

167 ProtocolConcerningSpeciallyProtectedAreasandBiologicalDiversityintheMediterranean1999OJL 322/3art83

168 InternationalAgreementonthecreationofamarinemammalsanctuaryintheMediterranean France-Italy-Monaco)(adopted25November1999,inforce21February2002.

169 JRochetteetal ‘Theregionalapproachtotheconservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiodiversityin areasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201449MarPol109,110

170 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015278

171 AgreementestablishingtheGeneralFisheriesCommissionfortheMediterranean1998OJ1998L190/34

toweddredgesandbottomtrawlingnets 172 Similarly,inrecognitionoftheirobligationsthe ItalianNavyhasrefrainedfromconductingnavalexercisesinthearea,whilstanumberof shippingcompanieshaveagreedtousetherealtimeplottingofcetaceanssystem

REPCETtoavoidcollisionswithmarinemammals 173

However,despiteitsinitialreceptionasa“trailblazing”initiative,inrecentyearsconcern hasarisenregardingtheecologicaleffectivenessofthePelagosSanctuary 174 In2009, SciaranotedthatinthedecadesinceitscreationPelagoshasfailedtofulfilitsmaingoalof improvingtheconservationstatusofthearea’smarinemammalpopulations.175 Muchofthis failurecanbeattributedtothelackofanestablishedmanagementbody.176 Rochetteetal. highlighttheprospectforimprovementgiventherecentestablishmentofapermanent secretariat Nevertheless,thefactthattheproposaltodesignatepartsoftheSanctuaryas aParticularlySensitiveSeaAreaPSSAhasyettobeaccomplishedintheinterveningsix years177 indicateslittlesubstantialtransformation

OSPARConvention,theNorth-EastAtlantic Asof2018theOSPARCommission178 hasestablishedanetworkof496MPAs encompassinganareaof864,337squarekilometresintheNorth-EastAtlanticOcean, whichamountsto64percentofitsmaritimearea 179 MPAsareunderstoodbyOSPARas

172 EstablishmentoffisheriesrestrictedareasinordertoprotectthedeepseasensitivehabitatsGFCM RECCM GFCM/30/2006/3

173 GWrightetal ‘Thelongandwindingroad:negotiatingatreatyfortheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’IDDRIandAgencedesairesmarinesprotégéesstudy no8/18,IDDRIAugust201829

174 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015278

175 AscitedinIbid279.

176 JRochetteetal ‘Theregionalapproachtotheconservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiodiversityin areasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201449MarPol109,112

177 Ibid

178 ConventionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlantic(adopted22September 1992,inforce25March19982345UNTS67OSPARConvention)

179 JHennickeandTWerner,‘ExecutiveSummary’inJHennickeandTWerner(ed)OSPARCommission,2018 StatusReportontheOSPARNetworkofMarineProtectedAreasOSPARCommission20191

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‘areasforwhichprotective,conservation,restorativeorprecautionarymeasureshavebeen institutedforthepurposeofprotectingandconservingspecies,habitats,ecosystemsor ecologicalprocessesofthemarineenvironment.’180 Notably,althoughOSPAR’sconvention doesnotexplicitlyrefertotheecosystemapproach,theOSPARCommissionhasagreedto applyitandtofurtherdevelopthemeasuresthatarenecessaryforitsimplementation 181 Ofthe496MPAswithintheOSPARMPAnetwork,sevenarelocatedintheABNJ Thefirst sixhighseasMPAsweredesignatedin2010withaseventh–theCharlie-GibbsFracture ZoneCGFZ–designatedduring2012.182 Significantly,theareasofhighseascoveredby theOSPAR’sMPAsincludeaseriesofseamounts183 andsectionsoftheMid-AtlanticRidge distinguishedfortheireast-westmigratorycorridorsandspecies-richconvergence zones 184

TheOSPARMPAnetworkisfrequentlyportrayedasanexampleofbestpracticegivenit demonstrated‘considerableleadershipandvision’astheworld’sfirstnetworkofMPAson thehighseas.185 However,despitetheperceivedsuccessofOSPAR’sMPAnetwork,a numberofissuesareworthnoting.Firstly,itisquestionablewhetherOSPAR’ssuccesscan beemulatedbyotherRSAsinregionslackingthenecessarycollaborativerelationshipwith internationalsectoralbodies 186 AsanRSA,OSPAR’sregulatoryremitformanaging anthropogenicactivitiesdoesnotextendtoshipping,fishingorseabedmining,187 whichis

180 OSPARCommission,‘Marineprotectedareas’(osparorg)

<https://wwwosparorg/work-areas/bdc/marine-protected-areas>accessed15/08/2020

181 EMolenaarandAElferink,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:thepioneering effortsundertheOSPARconvention’200951UtrechtLRev5,14 Seealso;OSPARRecommendation 2003/3onanetworkofMarineProtectedAreasOSPAR03/17/1 E,2003 Seealso;OSPARRecommendation 2010/2onamendingRecommendation2003/3onanetworkofMarineProtectedAreas

182 RWarner,‘Area-basedmanagementtools’20194Asia-PacificJOceanL&Pol142,145

183 Ibid

184 SummaryRecordoftheMeetingoftheOSPARCommission,Brest,23 27June2008OSPAR08/24/1 E, 2008para7.20.

185 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015285

186 EMolenaarandAElferink,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:thepioneering effortsundertheOSPARconvention’200951UtrechtLRev5,20

187 LNordtvedtReeve,ARulska-DominoandKGjerde,‘Thefutureofhighseasmarineprotectedareas’2012 261OceanYB265,284.

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significantgivenfishingactivitiesinthehighseasaregenerallyconsideredthemost pressingthreattoopenoceananddeep-seabiodiversity.188 Asaresult,OSPAR(likeother RSAs)isdependentuponthecooperationofotherinternationalbodiessuchasRegional FisheriesManagementBodiesRFMOs),theInternationalSeabedAuthorityISAandthe InternationalMaritimeOrganisationIMOtofillcompetencegaps Importantly,OSPAR’s relationshipwiththeNorth-EastAtlanticFisheriesCommissionNEAFCisuniquegiven thattheirgeographicaloverlapisanexceptionratherthanarule 189 Priorto2008,NEAFC’s individualeffortstoprotectmarineecosystemswithinitsConventionAreahadhappened tocomplementOSPAR’sMPAnetwork,i.e.,between2005and2007NEAFCclosedfive seamountareasandasectionoftheReykjanesRidgetobottomtrawlingandstatic fishing 190 Indeed,onlyin2008wasNEAFC’sworkingrelationshipwithOSPARformally establishedinamemorandumofunderstandingMOU 191 Thus,OSPAR’sswiftprogressis owingtothealreadywell-establishedrelationshipbetweenContractingPartieswitha sharedinterestinenvironmentalconservation,192 somethingwhichcannotbeguaranteed replicationinothermaritimeregions.Additionally,theprotractedperiodoftimeittook OSPARtofinaliseabilateralagreementwithNEAFC(aswellaswiththeISA193 andIMO194) atteststothelengthyandlabour-intensivenatureofinter-sectoralcooperation.195 Given thevulnerabilityofparticularmarineecosystems,suchdelaysintheholisticprotectionof marinebiodiversity,couldbeecologicallydevastating Lastly,asitstandsthenetworkof

189 ESanto,‘Implementationchallengesofarea-basedmanagementtoolsABMTs)forbiodiversitybeyond nationaljurisdictionBBNJ’201897MarPol34,42

190 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal (ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015765

191 OSPARCommission,‘Memorandaofunderstanding&cooperativearrangements’(ospar.org) <https://www.ospar.org/about/international-cooperation/memoranda-of-understanding>accessed15/08/2020.

192 BO’Learyetal ‘ThefirstnetworkofmarineprotectedareasMPAs)inthehighseas:theprocess,the challengesandwherenext’201236MarPol598,603

193 MOUsigned2010see;OSPARCommission,‘Memorandaofunderstanding&cooperativearrangements’ (osparorg)<https://wwwosparorg/about/international-cooperation/memoranda-of-understanding>accessed 15/08/2020

194 MOUsigned2018seeIbid

195 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015283.

188 DTladi,‘Oceangovernance:afragmentedregulatoryframework’inPJacquetetal.(ed)Oceans:TheNew FrontierTERIPress2011100. OceanNexusSpecialReport

highseasMPAsfallsshortofOSPAR’sowntargetof‘ecologicalcoherence’196 OSPARhas defined‘ecologicalcoherence’intheMadridCriteriaasincludingthenecessityforthe networktorepresentalltypesofhabitatandspecies,andexhibitconnectivity.197 Currently, thenetworkisnotspatiallywell-distributedacrossthewiderAtlanticregion,lackingthe necessaryconnectivityandrepresentativityofecoregionsandhabitats 198 Forexample, whilstapproximatelytenpercentoftheGreaterNorthSeaiscoveredbyMPAs,lessthan twopercentofArcticwatersbenefitfromthesameenvironmentalprotection 199

ConventionontheConservationofAntarcticMarineLivingResourcesCCAMLR MarinebiodiversityconservationintheSouthernOceanisgovernedbytheConventionon theConservationofAntarcticMarineLivingResourcesCCAMLR200 aspartofthe AntarcticTreatySystemATS 201 CCAMLRhaspowersanalogoustobothRSAsand RFMOs,anditssurroundingwatersareconsideredABNJundertheATS 202 Notably, CCAMLRsetseveralprecedentsformultilateralenvironmentalagreementswhenitentered intoforce,asitsmandatenotonlyencompassestheecosystemmanagementand

precautionaryprinciplesbutprovidesaninstitutionalplatformtobalancethelong-term conservationofmarinebiodiversityagainstrationaluse.203 Thus,CCAMLRisdiscernible fromotherregionalarrangementsthatprimarilyfocusonthepoliticalandsocialelements

196 JHennickeandTWerner,‘ExecutiveSummary’inJHennickeandTWerner(ed)OSPARCommission,2018 StatusReportontheOSPARNetworkofMarineProtectedAreasOSPARCommission201920

198 Ibid 197 BO’Learyetal ‘ThefirstnetworkofmarineprotectedareasMPAs)inthehighseas:theprocess,the challengesandwherenext’201236MarPol598,603 Seealso;JHennickeandTWerner,‘Executive Summary’inJHennickeandTWerner(ed)OSPARCommission,2018StatusReportontheOSPARNetworkof MarineProtectedAreasOSPARCommission201920

199 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015283.

200 ConventionontheConservationofAntarcticMarineLivingResources(adopted20May1980,inforce07 April19821329UNTS47CCAMLR

202 Ibid 201 heAntarcticTreaty(adopted01December1959,inforce23June1961402UNTS71 Seealso;Convention ontheconservationofAntarcticmarinelivingresources(adopted20May1980,inforce02April19821329 UNTS47 Seealso;ProtocolonEnvironmentalProtectiontotheAntarcticTreaty(adopted04October1991,in force14January19982941UNTS3MadridProtocol)

203 JRochetteetal ‘Theregionalapproachtotheconservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiodiversityin areasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201449MarPol109,111.

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offisherieswithonlysecondaryprovisionsmadeforbroaderconservationand environmentalprotection.204

Fromthemid-1980s,CCAMLRhasadoptedmechanismstoprotectareasofparticular ecologicalinterestaspartoftheCCAMLREnvironmentalMonitoringProgrammeCEMP 205 CCAMLR’sdedicatedworkonMPAstookshapein2009whenitendorsedaroadmap establishedbyitsScientificCommitteetosetupacoherentandrepresentativenetworkof MPAsby2012.206 Thesameyear,CCAMLRdesignateditsfirstentirelyno-takeMPAaround theSouthOrkneyIslandsshelf,207 anareaof94,000squarekilometres,208 andreceived recognitionforitsworkbytheWWF‘GifttotheEarthAward.’209

Nevertheless,likeotherregionalorganisations,CCAMLR’ssuccessismatchedbyvarious challenges Forexample,despiteCCAMLR’sexpressinvocationoftheecosystem approach,theinfluenceofpoliticalandeconomicagendasisevidentinitsconservation measures.TheSouthOrkneyIslandsMPAwasdesignatedtoaffordprotectiontopelagic bioregions,seasonalseaiceareas,areasofhighprimaryproductivityandfrontalareas.210 However,SmithandJabourhighlightthatareportsubmittedtoCCAMLRbytheEuropean UnionEUrevealedseveralpelagicbioregionsandgeomorphiczonesremained

204 Ibid.

205 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015280

206 Ibid281.Seealso;ActingChairoftheScientificCommittee,‘Aproposalfora‘roadmap’fortheCCAMLR ScientificCommitteetorespondtotherecommendationsoftheCCAMLRperformancereviewpanel’ SC CAMLR XXVIII/07,CCAMLR2009

207 ConservationMeasure91 042011GeneralframeworkfortheestablishmentofCCAMLRMarineProtected Areas.

208 CCAMLR,‘MarineProtectedAreasMPAs)’(ccamlrorg)

<https://wwwccamlrorg/en/science/marine-protected-areas-mpas>accessed13/08/2020

209 JRochetteetal ‘Theregionalapproachtotheconservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiodiversityin areasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201449MarPol109,112 Seealso;WWF,‘WWFawardsrecognisemoves toprotecthighseas’(WWF,24Sept2010

<https://wwfpandaorg/ /gifts to the earth/full listing/?195129/WWF-awards-recognise-moves-toprotect-high-seas>accessed12/09/2020.

210 DSmithandJJabour,‘MPAsinABNJlessonsfromtwohighseasregimes’2018751ICESJMarSci417, 419.

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unrepresented 211 Likewise,Brooksnotesanadjacentbiologicallyricharea(usedby penguinsandseabirdsforagingforkrill)wasomittedforthebenefitofthekrillfishing industry.212 Similarly,conservationwasalsobarteredduringnegotiationsfortheRossSea MPA;SantodescribeshowafifteenyearreductionontheoperationallifespanoftheMPA andtheopeningofpreviouslyclosedPatagonianfishingbeyondtheMPA’sparameters weretradedtoobtainpoliticalconsensus 213 Therefore,despiteglobalaccolade,the functionalimportanceofCCAMLR’sMPAsisquestionablewithsomecommentators justifiablysuggestingtheirdesignationis‘simplyacaseofpickingthelowhangingfruit.’214 Furthermore,theextendednegotiations215 requiredfortheadoptionofthe1.55million squarekilometreRossSeaMPAin2016216 demonstratesthatconsiderationofhighseas MPAsrequiressubstantialresourcesoverasubstantialperiodoftime 217 Likewise,Warner arguesthedifficultiesencounteredduringtheattempttoachieveanMPAofsuchscale,as wellasrecentpushbackforanadditionalMPAinEastAntarctica,218 possiblyforeshadow theobstaclesawaitingrepresentativenetworkselsewhereintheABNJ 219

212 CBrooks,‘CompetingvaluesontheAntarctichighseas:CCAMLRandthechallengeofmarine-protected areas’201332PolarLJ277,282

213 ESanto,‘Implementationchallengesofarea-basedmanagementtoolsABMTs)forbiodiversitybeyond nationaljurisdictionBBNJ’201897MarPol34,37

214 Ibid

215 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015281

216 ConservationMeasure91 052016RossSearegionmarineprotectedarea

217 JRochetteetal ‘Theregionalapproachtotheconservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiodiversityin areasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201449MarPol109,112

218 AReese,‘PlansrejectedforEastAntarcticmarinepark’(naturecom,27Oct2017 <https://wwwnaturecom/news/plans-rejected-for-east-antarctic-marine-park-122913accessed18/09/2020

219 RWarner,‘Area-basedmanagementtools’20194Asia-PacificJOceanL&Pol142,149

211 Ibid Seealso;PNTrathanandSMGrant,‘MPAReportfortheSouthOrkneyIslandssouthernshelf’MPA PlanningDomain1Subarea482DelegationoftheEUThirty-thirdMeetingoftheScientificCommitteeAgenda ItemNo5.2SC CAMLR XXXIII/BG/19,18September2014. OceanNexusSpecialReport

SargassoSeaAlliance

In2011,theSargassoSeaAllianceSSAwaslaunchedasapartnershipamongthe GovernmentofBermuda,NGOs,scientistsandprivatedonors.220 TheAllianceaimsto securelegalprotectionfortheSargassoSea–atwomillionsquarenauticalmileecosystem predominantlysituatedintheNorthAtlanticABNJ221 –usingexistingregionalregimesto establishamultisectorMPA 222 Inotherwords,theSSAhasacceptedthatthegovernance oftheABNJisfragmentedandsoughttotestwhatcanbeachievedwiththeexisting structure.Although,unliketheMPAsestablishedbyOSPARandCCAMLR,theSargasso SeaisnotcoveredbyanRSAnoristhereanRFMOapplicabletothewholeareafor non-tunaspecies;thus,toanextent,theSSAissimultaneously‘testingnewwaters.’223

Significantly,theSargassoSeaAlliancehasachievedseveralsuccesses In2012,theEBSA processinitiatedbytheConventiononBiologicalDiversityCBDidentifiedtheSargasso Seaasa‘ecologicallyorbiologicallysignificantarea’224 TheAlliancehasutilisedtheEBSA descriptiontoseekappropriateprotectionmeasureswithinotherexistinginternationaland regionalorganisations.225 SuccesswasachievedwiththeNorthwestAtlanticFisheries OrganisationNAFO,whichestablishedamoratoriumonbottomtrawlingofseamountsin theareaandenforcedgearrestrictiononmidwatertrawling 226 Likewise,theSargassoSea CommissionbecameanobserverattheISAandwasaccordedaspecialchapterintheUN FirstIntegratedWorldOceanAssessment 227 Furthermore,in2014signatoriestothe

220 GWright,JRochetteandEDruel,‘Marineprotectedareasinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’inRRayfuse (ed)ResearchHandbookonInternationalMarineEnvironmentalLawEdwardElgarPublishingLtd2015283.

221 DFreestoneetal ‘Canexistinginstitutionsprotectbiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction? Experiencesfromtwoon-goingprocesses’201449MarPol167,168

222 DFreestone,‘Thelimitsofsectoralandregionaleffortstodesignatehighseasmarineprotectedareas’ 2018112AmSocIntL129,132

223 DFreestoneandKMorrison,‘Currentlegaldevelopments:TheSargassoSea’201227IntJMar&CoastL 674,651.

224 DFreestone,‘Thelimitsofsectoralandregionaleffortstodesignatehighseasmarineprotectedareas’ 2018112AmSocIntL129,132

225 DFreestoneandKGjerde,‘LessonsfromtheSargassoSea:Challengestotheconservationand sustainableuseofmarinebiodiversitybeyondnationaljurisdiction’(iucnorg07Sep20161 <https://wwwiucnorg/news/marine-and-polar/201609/lessons-sargasso-sea>accessed18/07/2020

226 DFreestone,‘Thelimitsofsectoralandregionaleffortstodesignatehighseasmarineprotectedareas’ 2018112AmSocIntL129,132

227 Ibid

HamiltonDeclarationsuccessfullyproposedthelistingoftheEuropeaneel(whichspawns intheSargassoSea)undertheConventiononMigratorySpeciesCMS,228 anditishoped thiswillleadtoevenfurtherprotectionfortheregion.229

However,despitethesuccess,theexperienceoftheSSAhashighlightedthatprotecting marinebiodiversitycohesivelybeyondnationaljurisdictionswithoutthedirectsupportofa regionalorganisationisdifficult 230 Eachsectoralregimewithcompetenceoveractivitiesin theSargassoSeahaditsindividualprotectionmechanisms,itsowncriteriaandscientific evidentiarydemands,andnoneweredevelopedinrelationtotheother.231 Consequently, insteadofaholisticsuiteofenvironmentalprotectiontools,apatchworkofsectorspecific toolsareapplieddisjointedly,leavinghalfofthebiodiversityvulnerable

RegionalFisheriesManagementOrganisationsRFMOs)

AreviewofmeasuresadoptedbyexistingRFMOsrevealsthatmanyRFMOsremaintoo narrowlyfocusedontheirparticularsectoralintereststoperformaneffectiveroleinthe stewardshipofmarinebiodiversity 232 Indeed,despitetheregulatoryimpetustoimplement broaderbiodiversityconservationprovisionspursuanttoUNGAresolutions,233 the designationoffisheriesclosuresandotherfisheries-relatedmanagementtoolsare

228 DFreestone,‘Thelimitsofsectoralandregionaleffortstodesignatehighseasmarineprotectedareas’ 2018112AmSocIntL129,133

229 Ibid

230 DFreestoneandKGjerde,‘LessonsfromtheSargassoSea:Challengestotheconservationand sustainableuseofmarinebiodiversitybeyondnationaljurisdiction’(iucnorg07Sep20162

<https://wwwiucnorg/news/marine-and-polar/201609/lessons-sargasso-sea>accessed18/07/2020

231 Ibid3

232 DFreestone,‘Fisheries,CommissionsandOrganisations’MaxPlanckEncyclopediasofInternationalLaw OUP2010para33

<https://opilouplawcom/view/101093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1161accessed 15/07/2020

233 UNGeneralAssemblyResolution61/10508December2006UNDocA/RES/61/105paras80 93 Seealso; UNGeneralAssemblyResolution64/7204December2009UNDocA/RES/64/72para119(d) Seealso;UN GeneralAssemblyResolution65/3807December2010UNDocA/RES/65/38para99 Seealso;UNGeneral AssemblyResolution66/L.2223November2011UNDocA/RES/66/L.22para129 130.

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generallymotivatedbyindustrialfishstocklevelsratherthanecologicalconcerns 234 For example,whilsttheInternationalCommissionfortheConservationofAtlanticTuna ICCAT’smandateseekstoensure‘tunaandtuna-likefishesandotherspeciesoffishes exploitedduringtunafishing’arenotoverexploited,235 Tladinotesthattheorganisationhas nointenttoadvanceenvironmentalobjectivesnotdirectlylinkedtoitsspecies-specific mandate 236 Similarly,referencestoan‘ecosystemmanagementapproach’bytheSouth PacificRegionalFisheriesManagementOrganisationSPRFMOarerestrictedtoa‘fisheries management’context.237 Evidently,thepracticeofenvironmentalconservationis contingentonthebenefitsaffordedtofisheryinterests.

Thedisparitybetweentherepresentationaffordedtoeconomicfishinginterestsandwider environmentalconservationconcernswithinRFMOscanbeattributedtoboththenumber ofmemberStateswithadirectfinancialinterestincommercialfisheries238 andthe technicaldifficultiesencounteredbynon-fishingstatesduringattemptstoadvancea non-fishinginterest.239 Likewise,theuseofconsensus-baseddecision-makingalso frustratesagreementonmeasuresthatwouldcurtailexploitativefishingpractices.240 A votebyasinglemembertoblockaconservationmeasure,duetosomeperceived conflictingnationalinterest,canpreventsignificantenvironmentalprotectionmeasures

234 GWrightetal ‘Thelongandwindingroad:negotiatingatreatyfortheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’IDDRIandAgencedesairesmarinesprotégéesstudy no8/18,IDDRIAugust201833

235 InternationalConventionfortheConservationofAtlanticTunas(adopted14May1966,inforce21March 1969673UNTS63art41

236 DTladi,‘Theproposedimplementingagreement:optionsforcoherenceandconsistencyinthe establishmentofprotectedareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201530IntJMar&CoastalL654,663

237 ConventionontheConservationandManagementofHighSeasFisheriesResourcesintheSouthPacific Ocean(adopted14November2009,inforce24August20122899UNTS214Art32)(b)

238 KGjerdeetal ‘Oceansinperil:Reformingthemanagementofglobaloceanlivingresourcesinareasbeyond nationaljurisdiction’201374MarPollBull540,543

239 GWrightetal ‘Thelongandwindingroad:negotiatingatreatyfortheconservationandsustainableuseof marinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction’IDDRIandAgencedesairesmarinesprotégéesstudy no8/18,IDDRIAugust201838 Seealso;GOanta,‘InternationalOrganizationsanddeep-seafisheries:Current statusandfutureprospects’201887MarPol51,56

240 RWarner,‘Conservingmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction:co-evolutionandinteraction withthelawofthesea’inDRothwelletal.(ed)TheOxfordHandbookoftheLawoftheSeaOUP2015758.

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frombeingadoptedforanentirefishery 241 Moreover,evenwhereanRFMOhasamajority baseddecision-makingprocess,MorinandLeroynotethatPartiesgenerallyacquiesceto theoppositionofothersinordertoavoidbreachingtheconsensualfunctioningofthe organisation 242 Consequently,theprioritisationofsectoralinterestsbyRFMOsappearsto resultinthedilutionortotalrejectionofconservationandmanagementmeasures

Furthermore,variationsinthegeographicalandfunctionalcoverageofRFMOshaveyetto beresolvedbyaformalcoordinationmechanism.RFMOcoverageremainsspatially incompleteintheArcticandPacificOceans.Thus,therearesectionsoftheABNJthatlack abodytofacilitateconservationmeasures;243whilsttheKobeprocessisdesignedto encouragegreaterinteractionbetweentunaRFMOs,itofferslittleintermsofecological protection

TheBBNJAgreement

Inrecentyears,internationalattentionhasrespondedtosuchchallengeswithinthe governanceframeworkforspatialconservationintheABNJ Mosttangibly,in2015,the UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyUNGAadoptedaresolutiontodevelopaninternational legallybindinginstrumentunderUNCLOStoadvancetheregulationofbiodiversitybeyond nationaljurisdictionsBBNJAgreement).Aseriesofmeetingsconvenedunderanearlier UNGAresolutionbetween2006and2015,bytheAdHocOpen-endedInformalWorking Group,identifiedfourkeythemesfortheBBNJAgreementtoaddress,ofwhichABMTs includingMPAswereincluded ABMTsincludingMPAswithintheumbrellaoftheUNCLOS throughtheBBNJagreementcouldofferamoreholisticformofspatialconservation;such alegalbasiswouldovercomemanyofflawsconsistentwithsectoralregulationof protectedspace.APreparatoryCommitteebetween2016and2017precededthe commencementofformalnegotiationsin2018.

ThefinaliterationoftheBBNJAgreementtextwasrecentlyconfirmedbydelegatesatthe fifthIntergovernmentalConferenceIGC5onmarinebiodiversityinMarch2023,amoment thatConferencePresidentRenaLeecharacterisedasthepointatwhich‘theshiphas

241 KGjerdeetal ‘Oceansinperil:Reformingthemanagementofglobaloceanlivingresourcesinareasbeyond nationaljurisdiction’201374MarPollBull540,544

242 ALeroyandMMorin,‘Innovationinthedecision-makingprocessoftheRFMOs’201897MarPol156,157

243 KGjerde,‘Challengestoprotectingthemarineenvironmentbeyondnationaljurisdiction’201227IntJ Mar&CoastalL839,845

reachedtheshore’However,betweentheshorelineanddockthevoyageisfarfrom complete.MuchrelatedtotheimplementationandmaintenanceofMPAsintheABNJhas beenlefttothefirstconferenceofthepartiesCOPtodiscuss.BeforetheCOPtakes place,theBBNJAgreementwillneedtoenterintoforcebyratification Thetimescaleto achieveratificationisuncertain Acursoryoverviewofmajormultilateralenvironmental agreementsindicatesthatthereisstrongvariationinratificationrates Forexample,the ParisAgreementrequired55ratificationsandtookeffectwithin6months,yetUNCLOS heldasimilarratificationthresholdandittook12yearstoenterintoforce,and30 ratificationsrequiredbytheUNFishStocksAgreementtook6years.Nevertheless,the currenttotalofover80statesignatoriesandinternationalspotlightonbiodiversity protectiontargetsfollowingtheadoptionoftheKunming-MontrealGlobalBiodiversity Framework,areanoptimisticindicationforrelativelyswiftratificationandforfuture conservationininternationalmarinespaces

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