THE FRANKLIN
The Science Magazine of Notting Hill & Ealing High School ◆ Spring 2025
What are Black Holes and what are their properties?
By Aswini K, Sixth form
What are black holes ?
Despite what the name suggests, black holes aren’t actually holes, they’re actually the opposite The inside of a black hole is theoretically an area of extremely concentrated matter, which is very dense and has no volumeThis is stated in Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. This density allows black holes to have such a strong gravitational pull that not even light can escape them, giving them its black appearance. This boundary, which “traps light” is known as the event horizon. This boundary is where the velocity needed to escape the black hole equals light speed Therefore, we believe that once something has entered a black hole, it cannot leave the black hole This is also why we do not know what happens in a black hole past the event horizon.
How do we find black holes ?
Although we do not have any non-theoretical information regarding what the inside of a black hole contains, we do have many ways of being able to find them by observing a black hole’s effects on nearby objects in space We look for signals that might have been produced by a black hole passing in front of a star. We look for the light of a star being magnified as the gravitational field of the black hole can act like a lens This effect produces a distinctively shaped peak in the light curve of the star These peaks in the light curves are caused by an effect called gravitational lensing Gravitational lensing leads to a bend in the path of light in space,
which is normally a straight line The light gets amplified and distorted due to the large gravitational forces from black holes.
A light curve which does not contain a distinctive peak therefore does not suggest the presence of a black hole. These peaks can sometimes be caused by nearby asteroids or natural variations in the star’s brightness
A light curve with a clear peak which demonstrates the gravitational lensing caused by a black hole.
How do black holes form
?
Scientists believe the smallest black holes, primordial black holes, were formed towards the beginning of the universe, shortly after the big bang. The most common type of black holes that we have discovered are stellar black holes They form when stars with a large mass collapse in on themselves However, these collapses can also lead to supernovas The largest black holes are known as supermassive Scientists believe that supermassive black holes formed at the same time as the galaxy they are in We also have evidence to show that every large galaxy contains a supermassive black hole at its centre.
How do Black Holes “die” ?
Black Holes will evaporate through a process which is known as Hawking Radiation This process consists of virtual particles forming into existence, bonding with each other and then disappearing again This has been seen in various parts of the universe However, this process has not yet been observed near black holes. This is due to the fact that the time taken for a black hole to evaporate is longer than the age of the universe
If two virtual particles form near a black hole and one crosses the event horizon, the other particle is now no longer able to bond with its antiparticle The
particles outside of the event horizon are known as Hawking’s radiation. As energy cannot be created or destroyed, the energy needed to form these particles and their antiparticles is usually repaid when the particles bond with each other as this process releases the energy that was taken to create them This can no longer occur outside the event horizon as the particles will not be able to join with one another once one of them has passed the event horizon Therefore, the energy needed to repay the energy used in the creation of these virtual particles is taken from the black hole. Over many years, the black hole will evaporate due to the constant energy needed to cover the energy used to form the virtual particles around its event horizon The largest black holes that we have found would take up to a googol of years to evaporate, however the smallest of black holes will take up to 10^44 years to evaporate, which is much larger than the current age of the universe
What can happen near black holes ?
Spaghettification
Black holes are able to pull in matter due to their large gravitational force through a process known as accretion. This can lead to a phenomenon called spaghettification. This is because the gravitational strength of the black hole gets higher as an object gets closer to the singularity. (A singularity is a point of infinite density with no volume) Therefore, the difference between the gravitational pull on an object’s surface nearer the black hole and an object’s surface away from a black hole is larger. Spaghettification is when an object is stretched in the direction of the black hole's singularity As an object moves closer to the black hole, it will get compressed horizontally and elongated vertically. However because spaghettification depends on the gradient of the gravitational force across a black hole, it is not a phenomenon that will occur near every black hole
Particle Jets
However, something that can occur near the edge of an accretion disk of any sized black hole is the presence of particle jets This can produce highly concentrated jets of ionised matter. These particle jets align with the rotational axis of a black hole
Particle jets which are formed near the largest supermassive holes that we have found can be hundreds of thousands of light years long.
Time Dilation
Time dilation is when time appears to pass slower closer to the black hole than further away As an object approaches the event horizon of a black hole, it appears to start moving infinitely slower until the object will appear completely frozen to outside observers. The strong gravitational force of black holes can not only lead to gravitational lensing, it can also stretch the space-time “fabric” and change our perception of linear time
Conclusion
Overall, many of black holes’ properties stem from their large gravitational forces The difference between their gravitational forces and the gravitational forces of objects of the same mass and size, is their extreme density
References:
Black Holes - NASA science (no date) NASA Available at: https://science nasa gov/universe/black-holes/ (Accessed: 13 November 2024)
What happens when something gets ‘too close’ to a black hole? - NASA science (no date) NASA Available at: https://science nasa gov/universe/what-happens-when-somethi ng-gets-too-close-to-a-black-hole/ (Accessed: 13 November 2024)
Anatomy - NASA Science (no date) NASA Available at: https://science nasa gov/universe/black-holes/anatomy/ (Accessed: 13 November 2024)
What is a black hole? (grades 5-8) (2024) NASA Available at: https://www nasa gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/ what-is-a-black-hole-grades-5-8/#:~:text=of%20the%20sun -,Ho w%20Do%20Black%20Holes%20Form%3F,of%20the%20star% 20into%20space (Accessed: 22 November 2024)
(2015) Black Holes Explained – From Birth to Death Available at:
https://wwwyoutube com/watch?v=e-P5IFTqB98&list=PLFs4vir WsTwKi93uWnfp4xdVuu4M-OdN&index=13 (Accessed: 01 December 2024)
Stuart, C (2024) Hawking radiation explained in simple terms, BBC Sky at Night Magazine: Astronomy, Astrophotography & Space News Available at:
https://www skyatnightmagazine com/space-science/hawking-ra diation (Accessed: 01 December 2024)
Training: Practice light curves: Black hole hunters: Zooniversepeople-powered research (no date) Zooniverse Available at: https://www zooniverse org/projects/cobalt-lensing/black-hole-h unters/classify/workflow/25860 (Accessed: 01 December 2024)
What happens if you fall into a black hole? (no date) What would happen if you fell into a black hole? Spaghettification explained Available at:
https://www rmg co uk/stories/topics/what-happens-if-you-fall-bl ack-hole#:~:text=What%20is%20spaghettification%3F,to%20it% 20as%20it%20falls) (Accessed: 02 December 2024)
Gohd, C (no date) What happens when something gets ‘too close’ to a black hole? - NASA science, NASA Available at: https://science nasa gov/universe/what-happens-when-somethi ng-gets-too-close-to-a-black-hole/ (Accessed: 02 December 2024)
(2023) YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFslUSyfZPc (Accessed: 03 December 2024).
The Impact of the Photoelectric Effect
By Isabella P, Sixth form
In the 19th century, the nature of light was widely understood through classical wave theory James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory successfully described light as a wave. It used concepts of electricity, magnetism and optics to successfully explain things like reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference (when waves are superposed or overlapped onto each other creating an increase or decrease in the amplitude of the resulting wave) These phenomena were well-explained using the idea that light behaves like a wave, and the theory was widely accepted by physicists of that time Young’s Double Slit experiment also supported the conclusion that light behaves like a wave. However, classical wave theory faced growing challenges by the late 19th century Anomalies such as blackbody radiation (the emission of energy by a ‘black body’ that perfectly absorbs and emits all wavelengths of light) and the photoelectric effect demonstrated light was not entirely understood and suggested light might also exhibit the properties of particles The contradiction between wave and particle models laid the foundation for wave-particle duality the idea that light can behave as both a wave and a particle depending on the circumstances
The Photoelectric effect was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887 during an experiment on radio waves He observed that under the right conditions, when light was shone onto a metal, electrons were ejected from the metal’s surface. This presented a significant challenge to the classical understanding of light that predicted that light would transfer energy gradually to the electrons over time, and, as light intensity increased, electrons with a greater energy would be ejected over time. It also predicted that regardless of the frequency or colour of the light, electrons would be ejected as long as light intensity was high enough
However, the photoelectric effect didn’t follow these predictions and provided strong evidence for light
as a particle. Instead of ejecting electrons gradually, the electrons were ejected instantaneously, even at low light intensities This suggested that light wasn’t transferring energy gradually, but that the energy transfer was immediate Hertz’s experiment and following experiments also established that there was a threshold frequency (a minimum frequency below which no electrons would be ejected, no matter how intense the light was) Also, light with a frequency above the threshold for that metal could eject electrons even at low intensities and the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increased with light
These observations directly contradicted the classic understanding of light as a wave and so, a new theory was needed
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a new explanation for the photoelectric effect, and for this explanation he received a Nobel Prize in 1921 Einstein built on Planck’s concept of ‘quanta’ which had explained the problem of black body radiation in 1900. Planck showed that energy is emitted and absorbed in discrete packages or ‘quanta’ such that ‘the energy of each quantum is an integer multiple of its frequency times a new fundamental constant’. Einstein then applied this idea to light by suggesting light is made up of particles called ‘photons’ which each carry a discrete amount of energy. The energy of each photon is directly proportional to its frequency, shown by this equation:
E = hf
Where E is the energy of a photon, h is Planck’s constant (6 626x10^-34Js) and f is the frequency of a light wave.
For an electron to be ejected from a metal surface, the photon’s energy must be greater than or equal to the work function (��) of the metal. The work function is the minimum energy required to eject an electron from the surface If the photon’s energy is less than ��, no electrons will be ejected, regardless of the intensity of the light. This explains the need for the threshold frequency below which the
photoelectric effect does not occur The threshold frequency is given by:
f (threshold) = ϕ/h
When the photon’s energy exceeds the work function, the excess energy is transferred to the ejected electron as kinetic energy. This relationship is shown by the equation: KE= hf ϕ
Where KE is the maximum kinetic energy of the electron and h*f is the photon’s energy and ϕ is the work function of the metal
This equation explains why higher-frequency light (with greater photon energy) results in electrons being ejected with higher kinetic energy, even if the intensity of the light is low Furthermore, explains the instantaneous ejection of electrons, as the energy transfer from a single photon to an electron is instantaneous
The photoelectric effect suggested that light had a particle nature rather than being simply a wave Yet, other experiments such as Young’s Double Slit experiment demonstrated light’s wave-like behavior through interference patterns. So, light was exhibiting characteristics of both waves and particles This contradiction was resolved through the concept of wave-particle duality. Wave-particle duality became a cornerstone of quantum mechanics Einstein’s photon model showed that light behaves as a particle in phenomena like the photoelectric effect, while its wave nature could still explain interference and diffraction. This duality wasn’t only seen with light. Later experiments, such as the Davisson-Germer experiment showed electrons which were classically understood as particles could also exhibit wave-like behavior under certain conditions. Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect laid the groundwork for quantum theory, which transformed physics in the 20th century when it was officially recognised in 1911 It has also played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics, inspiring physicists like Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger to explore the probabilistic and dual nature of subatomic particles The theoretical framework that emerged from these studies gave rise to numerous technological advancements,
including semiconductors, lasers, and quantum computers.
One of the practical applications of the photoelectric effect is in the development of photovoltaic cells, which form the basis of modern solar panels. Photovoltaic cells work by using the principles of the photoelectric effect When sunlight hits the surface of a semiconductor material, such as silicon, photons transfer their energy to electrons in that material This energy excites the electrons, freeing them from their atomic bonds and creating a flow of electrical current. This process, known as the photovoltaic effect, allows solar panels to convert sunlight directly into electricity without needing or moving parts or using combustion This technology has become increasingly important in the push for sustainable energy by offering a cleaner and renewable alternative to fossil fuels
Philosophical implications:
The photoelectric effect and the idea of wave-particle duality also raised questions about reality. In classical physics, the universe was thought to follow deterministic laws, meaning every event had a specific cause and predictable outcome
However, quantum mechanics, focused on probabilities and uncertainties where outcomes could only be described in terms of probabilities, challenged this view
Even Einstein, whose work on the photoelectric effect helped establish the foundation for quantum mechanics, was uncomfortable with its probabilistic nature. He famously said, “God does not play dice with the universe,” reflecting his belief that quantum mechanics was incomplete and that a more complex reality would one day be uncovered Beyond its role in energy and quantum theory, the photoelectric effect plays a crucial role in experiments that test the principles of quantum mechanics, such as Bell’s Theorem. Bell’s Theorem tested the reality of quantum entanglement Which is where two or more particles become linked in such a way that the state of one particle instantly influences the state of the other, even if they are separated by large distances
These experiments rely on the photoelectric effect to detect individual photons and measure their interactions
The results contradict Bell’s
inequalities, mathematical rules that classical physics would expect entangled particles to follow. This confirms that the behavior of entangled particles cannot be explained by classical physics but obeys quantum mechanics whilst demonstrating the concept of nonlocality which is the idea that particles can influence each other without any direct physical connection These discoveries also have practical applications. For example, quantum cryptography uses entanglement to create complex codes ensuring data security during communications. Similarly, quantum computing uses these principles to perform calculations beyond the capabilities of traditional computers!
Overall, the photoelectric effect is one of the most important discoveries in science It revealed the particle nature of light, challenged classical physics, and led to the development of quantum mechanics. This discovery not only changed our understanding of light and energy but also inspired further breakthroughs in physics, such as quantum entanglement and wave-particle duality. It has also been applied to practical applications like solar panels, semiconductors, and how quantum computing is shaping modern technology.
References:
Light as a particle Las Cumbres Observatory (n d ) https://lco global/spacebook/light/light-particle/#:~:t ext=Until%20about%201900%2C%20scientists%20o nly,when%20light%20shines%20on%20them.
J Pollard, Boffinology The Real Stories Behind Our Greatest Scientific Discoveries, London, John Murray, 2010, pp. 43-45
J E Mulligan, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894) A Collection of Articles and Addresses New York, Taylor and Francis, 2019, p. 38.
Electromagnetic wave equation Electromagnetic Waves. (n.d.).
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Waves/e mwv html
Failure of classical wave theory: Mini physics - free physics notes. Mini Physics. (2024, February 8). https://www miniphysics com/failure-of-classical-wav e-theory html
Ashish. (2024, June 2). What is the photoelectric effect? ScienceABC
https://www scienceabc com/pure-sciences/what-ex plain-photoelectric-effect-einstein-definition-exmapl e-applications-threshold-frequency.html
Quantum 101 Episode 8: Photoelectric Effect
Explained - Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
https://wwwyoutube com/watch?v=jWbwDTPju-M Three failures of classical physics Three Failures of Classical Physics. (n.d.). https://physics weberedu/carroll/honors/failures htm https://learn k20centerou edu/lesson/3114/Classical %20Wave%20Theory%20Teacher%20Guide%20-% 20Wave%20Properties%20of%20Light.pdf?rev=301 69&language=English#:~:text=Classical%20Wave%2 0Theory%20predicts%20that%20a%20different%20 color%20light%20(higher,of%20how%20quickly%20 it%20oscillates
https://universaldenkerde/physik/photoeffekt/gesch ichte [Not available anymore]
Deterministic and indeterministic morality and duality Quantum and philosophical approach, Darwin Deivy Zambrano Castellano. Faculty of Legal and Political Sciences, Yacambú University, Venezuela, La Plata, Argentina, Darwin Deivy Zambrano Castellano Avenida 46 between 10 and 11 House No. 781 ZIPCODE: 1900 laigherdzc-12@hotmail com
How AI is Changing Healthcare?
By Esha M, Year 7
AI has an increasing potential to have a huge impact in healthcare. It is helping patients and doctors by spotting diseases earlier, enabling personalised treatments and in designing new medicines
Firstly, AI can spot diseases earlier because they can recognize patterns in the data before the symptoms arrive For example In 2018, researchers at Stanford University created an AI system that could spot skin cancer better than doctors The AI robot was trained on thousands of images of skin problems and learned to tell the difference between cancerous and non-cancerous skin. It correctly found skin cancer 86% of the time, while doctors only found it 88% of the time
Secondly, AI could analyse a patient’s medical history, genes, and lifestyle to suggest the best treatments. In 2016, AI was used to help people with cystic fibrosis, a genetic lung disease By studying the patients' genes, AI found the most effective medicines for each person. One patient who wasn’t getting better with normal treatments started improving after switching to a medicine recommended by AI This shows how AI can help doctors find the right treatment for each person.
Finally, AI speeds up the process of creating new medicines by predicting which chemicals could work as drugs In 2020, AI helped find a potential drug for COVID-19 in just a few weeks The AI system looked at millions of chemicals and predicted which ones might work against the virus
In conclusion, AI is clearly transforming healthcare by making diagnoses faster, treatments more personalised and drug development more efficient However, as Dr Nirupa Murugaesu, Principal Clinician in Cancer Genomics, notes, "AI applications in cancer genomics could unlock a new level of decision-support tools to enable more personalised care for patients with cancer." Despite its potential, AI cannot replace doctors, as it lacks the ability to connect with and empathise with patients on a human level.
References:
Stanford Medicine. (2024, April). AI skin diagnosis tools could change dermatology Stanford Medicine https://med stanford edu/news/all-news/2024/04/aiskin-diagnosis.html
Royal Papworth Hospital (n d ) Artificial intelligence healthcare award for cystic fibrosis Royal Papworth Hospital.
https://royalpapworth.nhs.uk/our-hospital/latest-new
s/artificial-intelligence-health-care-award-cystic-fibro sis
Pfizer (2020, December) How a novel incubation sandbox helped speed up data analysis in Pfizer’s COVID-19 vaccine trial Pfizer https://www pfizercom/news/articles/how a novel incubation sandbox helped speed up data analy sis in pfizer s covid 19 vaccine trial
Are Spiderwebs going to revolutionize protective wear?
By Sofia A, Sixth form
As ballistic weaponry becomes more advanced the need for protective gear, such as bullet-proof vests, to improve in strength becomes greater Many scientists of varying fields are currently working on different materials which are able to provide more safety than Kevlar, the typical material used in today's armour This essay will detail; why Kevlar is used today more than any other material on the modern market, why spider webs can be used going forward, the practicality of using synthetic spider webs and how it compares to other projects currently being developed
Kevlar is widely used for body armour and bulletproof vests due to its many properties. It is widely favoured as a material for body armour due to a combination of its tensile strength of 3,000 MPa and relatively low density, 1.44 g/cc (www matweb com, n d ) By comparison to tool steel, with a density of 781 g/cc and a tensile strength of 1792 MPa, Kevlar is greatly favoured as a stronger, more lightweight material as well as being far more flexible (Tech Steel & Materials, n d )Tensile strength is important in body armour as a material with higher ultimate tensile strength requires more force to break; this means that the kinetic energy of an impact is absorbed better by a material with higher tensile strength therefore acting as a better armour for the person wearing it Kevlar is a polymer which is able to form many hydrogen bonds, this gives it more intermolecular force than most molecules
The more intermolecular forces, the more amount of energy needed to overcome these forces and break
the molecules apart. Not only this but Kevlar also shows nematic behaviour (Woodford, 2018)
This arrangement of particles is optimal for carrying loads as the lack of equidistant layers results in less weak points in the structure which allows for a larger force upon impact to be withstood by the material before the structure deforms The rigid lines allow for good distribution of force upon impact as the energy is able to move along the structure more easily than through; this means high levels of energy are needed to break Kevlar’s molecular structure thus improving its shock observant properties On a molecular level, Kevlar is already a good shock absorber as a lot of KE is distributed in breaking its molecular structure. Furthermore, the polymer is woven into a plain weave pattern that optimises its shock absorbent qualities (www.easycomposites.co.uk, n.d.). The plain weave pattern allows for energy dissipation from localised impacts extremely well in comparison to other, more complex weave patterns like twill, as the fibres are more tightly interwoven which allows for even energy distribution resulting in less chance of weak points breaking first Plain weave is also a uniform structure which makes layering kevlar easier and more effective for bulletproof vests as there is less chance of weak spots in the stack of layers like there may be in a stack with fewer interlacing points. The weave also provides flexibility needed for protective gear like bulletproof vests Overall, Kevlar is a very good material for protective gear owing to its shock absorbent properties, low density (and therefore is lightweight), and its flexibility
Spider silk has been in the discussion of protective gear recently due to claims and refutes of it being stronger than Kevlar. If this is the case, it is likely that protective gear in the future is going to look very different to how it does today Spider silk is ‘five times stronger than steel on a weight by weight basis’ and can be as strong as 1 75GPa (www sciencedirect com, n d ) This makes spider silk an incredible material that could revolutionise the world of protective gear because not only is it strong and flexible, it is also produced in an eco friendly way, unlike Kevlar, and is less dense making it lighter which would be ideal in combat when extra weight can be a hindrance The reason why spider silks are such a good material is due to their structure. Once the spider silk has been spun it forms many intra/intermolecular bonds/forces This utilises the charges within the silk to create a structure with varying electron densities throughout it In areas of high electron density, crystalline structures of beta sheets are found (Hayashi, Shipley and Lewis, 1999). This is what is thought to provide the mechanical strength of spider silk. Beta sheets are protein secondary structures composed of hydrogen bonds acting as a backbone which form beta-strands which then form twisted or pleated sheets The flexibility and elasticity of spider silk is thought to have been provided by the areas of low electron density; what this is composed of varies more widely than the areas of high electron density from silk type to silk type However the ‘arrangement closely resembles that of protein hydrogels’ (Römer and Scheibel, 2008) , hydrogels are able to absorb at least 10% of their weight/volume (Lee et al , 2023)(WICHTERLE and LÍM, 1960) and so it makes sense that this arrangement would aid flexibility This is important because it shows how even with our limited knowledge of spider silk structures, a material has been made in the efforts to reproduce these features and it is already six times stronger than Kevlar,our current standard for protective gear, which is promising for future developments. In an experiment conducted by a group of scientists in China, whose findings were published in Matter, silkworms were genetically modified using CRISPR technology to emulate something similar to spider
silk The result was a material six times as tough as Kevlar, with a tensile strength of 1,299 MPa and a toughness of 319MJ/m³ (Mi et al., 2023). This is extremely promising however when tested with different types of silkworms the mechanical properties changed. This means that at the current time, spider silk production is not viable for protective gear as not only has there not been a successful imitation that can be reproduced reliably, there has also not been a method which is able to mass produce the silk fast enough to meet demand Only once this has been achieved is there a viable product.
Currently there are other approaches being created and researched, for example, metal foam. Composite metal foam (CMF) is also being researched for use as protective gear though does not seem to be comparable to Kevlar, let alone the simulated spider silk ‘The bare SS-CMF [stainless steel composite metal foam] samples had an ultimate tensile strength between 75–85MPa and a failure strain between 7.5–8%. The normalised tensile strength of the SS-CMF was approximately 24MPa/(g/cm3), 410% higher than other comparable metal foams, with a specific energy absorption of 0 95J/g under tension’ (Marx and Rabiei, 2020) However when manufactured differently to give SS-CMF-CSP (CSP, standing for compact strip production) the result is 165MPa in tensile strength which is still not as strong as Kevlar This does however provide promising developments as there is still more research being done to further improve this material Should a form of CMF reach or exceed the strength of Kevlar before spider silk is able to be mass produced it is unlikely to replace Kevlar. This is due to its lack of flexibility and high cost
Ultra-high-molecular-weight-polyethene (UHMWPE) is another new material that is being explored as an alternative to Kevlar in body armour However, it has a tensile strength of 40MPa which is far lower than other materials being considered (www.matweb.com, n.d.). This means Kevlar is the better material for protection against ballistics due to higher energy absorption but UHMWPE seems to be better at protecting its wearers from IEDs and bullets (Edit, 2022) Due to UHMWPE being
smoother and softer than Kevlar the material has more durability (Edit, 2022), which along with being more flexible, may lead to it being used alongside Kevlar It is unlikely that UHMWPE will completely replace Kevlar as it is not as good at energy absorption which is an important factor in combat gear
In contrast, once spider silk has been successfully manufactured it will be able to outperform Kevlar on almost all fronts; it is predicted to have higher energy absorption, lower density and is more eco-friendly which is a factor that in the modern age
is becoming more prevalent in manufacturing Spider silk is, however, far away from being used widely in protective gear and will need lots of consideration and testing before it can be trialled in active combat zones, let alone replacing Kevlar entirely. Should spider silks meet the predicted material properties it will revolutionise protective gear alongside other industries, such as combat vehicles, and it is unlikely that another material will be developed that can surpass the predicted properties in the time it will take to develop spider silk as a simulation has been developed already.
Pluto and Charon’s Double Planetary System
By Ivy M (Stan), Sixth form
Pluto is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, which is a ring-shaped region in the outer solar system, beyond the orbit of Neptune, consisting of frozen celestial objects and icy bodies. Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh, but in the past few decades there has been discourse over whether Pluto should be classified as a planet or a dwarf planet. In 1978 James Christy and Robert Harrington discovered that there was a moon orbiting Pluto, calling it Charon Charon is approximately half the size of Pluto making it the largest moon relative to its parent planet that we know of to this day In the coming years four more moons were discovered orbiting Pluto: Nix in 2005 by a team of astronomers using the Hubble telescope; Hydra in 2005 by the same team; Kerberos in 2011 by a team using the Hubble telescope, and Styx in 2012 with the Hubble telescope
Pluto is about 1/5 the width of Earth and about 2/3 the size of our moon, but has a lower density making its mass about 1/6 of our moon. Pluto’s elliptical and tilted orbit of the sun is unusual. Its axis
of rotation is tilted 57 degrees with respect to the plane of its orbit around the Sun, so it spins almost on its side Pluto also exhibits a retrograde rotation; spinning from east to west like Venus and Uranus. Due to its elliptical orbit, Pluto is sometimes closer to the sun than Neptune, but on average it is 5 9 billion kilometres from the sun which is 39 times further than the Earth is from the sun. Pluto takes 248 earth years to complete an orbit and one day on Pluto lasts about 153 hours Sunlight takes 5 5 hours to reach Pluto. At noon on Pluto, the Sun is 1/900 the brightness it is here on Earth, or about 300 times as bright as our full moon There is a moment each day near sunset here on Earth when the light is the same brightness as midday on Pluto. It has a thin atmosphere composed mostly of nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide. Its atmosphere expands when it comes closer to the Sun and collapses as it moves farther away – similar to a comet On average, Pluto’s temperature is -232°C, making its surface too cold to sustain life. NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft flew past Pluto in 2015, taking photos of Pluto and its moons
Pluto was originally considered the 9th planet in our solar system, however due to the discovery of similar objects deeper within the Kuiper belt, the criteria to classify something as a planet were changed Initially, the criteria were only that the body had a sufficient mass for its gravity to pull it into a round shape and that it orbited the sun, making Pluto a planet by this definition Prior to Pluto being reclassified, dwarf planets were not a category and the term dwarf planet was first used in 2006 when Pluto was declared a dwarf planet Dwarf planets are defined as a body that orbits the sun, is not a moon, has enough mass to be roughly spherical and has not cleared its orbit of other celestial bodies The discovery of other objects in the Kuiper belt and region of Pluto’s orbit meant the definition of a planet was altered to align more seamlessly with the makeup of our solar system All of the planets in our solar system have cleared their orbital path of bodies besides the ones influenced by their gravitational field whereas Pluto shares its orbit with multiple objects. Pluto has a very similar orbit to Orcus, another dwarf planet, and other plutino’s, which are objects named for being around the same distance from the sun as Pluto, creating a clear difference between Pluto and other planets making it illogical to classify them the same
Charon is arguably the most important of Pluto’s moons to be discovered because of its relative size to Pluto. A specific point of interest with this pair is how their proportions and mass play a part in the gravity of their system and orbits When two objects are in the orbit of each other, both of them are exerting a gravitational force on the other, however in most cases one will outweigh the other by a significant amount for instance our Earth and moon The common centre of mass between the Earth and moon is approximately 4,670 kilometres from the centre of the Earth however it still sits below the Earth’s surface which is why the moon orbits the Earth not the Earth orbiting the moon. Charon and Pluto on the other hand have a common centre of mass that is outside of both Pluto and Charon as Charon has a mass of about an eighth of Pluto. Pluto and Charon orbit around this barycentre?
about every 6 4 Earth days or 153 hours Their orbit happens to be the same as the rotational period of Pluto, meaning Charon never rises or sets, instead just hanging over one spot on Pluto’s surface This means that the same side of Charon is always facing Pluto and the same side of Pluto is always facing Charon which is known as mutual tidal locking None of Pluto’s other moons share this trait, all of them showing more than one face to Pluto as they spin
Pluto alone is important in the field of astrophysics as it has led to many breakthroughs in relation to the outer solar system and understanding of celestial objects. Pluto challenged the definition of a planet and helped to refine the requirements entailed, thereby solidifying our view of the solar system. Furthermore, the discovery of the third zone in our system, the Kuiper belt, was due to studies of Pluto and similar planets in that zone which revealed there was a whole ring further out containing an unimaginable number of icy bodies. Charon and Pluto are especially significant in astronomy as they were the first known instance of a binary system between planets in place of stars. Previously binary star systems had been recognised, gravitationally bound to orbit a centre of mass between them, but Pluto and Charon being a binary dwarf planet system proved that it was possible for planetary systems with similar orbital forces to exist. Even the other moons of Pluto aided in the study of circumbinary orbits because of how they deviate from typical elliptical orbits in our solar system Circumbinary orbits are usually defined as a planet orbiting around a centre with two stars rather than one, but Pluto’s system indicated that an irregular orbit could also be caused by a binary planet system. As well as this, it made it easier to investigate circumbinary orbits as it provided an example that is within our solar system rather than having to look further out to find binary star systems to study. Finally Charon’s tidal lock with Pluto allowed the reflection of light from its surface to be used in photographing the dark side of Pluto
Physics, Flight, and the Limits of Human Ambition: Would the flight of Icarus have been physically possible?
By Alex D, Sixth form
The Ancient Greek myth of Icarus and Daedalus is a timeless tale of human ambition and the dangers of overreach According to mythology, Daedalus, a brilliant inventor, trapped with his son Icarus by King Minos, was searching for means to escape his captivity. His solution was theoretically great: crafted wings made of feathers and wax so that he and his son could escape from the island of Crete in the air. The myth relates that he warned Icarus not to fly too close to the sun, lest the wax melt, nor too close to the sea, to avoid dampening the feathers. Naively, ignoring his father’s advice, Icarus soared too high, the wax melted, and he fell into the sea In every retelling of the myth, Icarus is to blame for his untimely death, but would the crossing even have been physically possible?
To achieve flight, Daedalus would have needed to address two primary forces in aerodynamics: lift and drag The wings Daedalus crafted would need to generate sufficient lift to counteract the force of gravity acting on Icarus and Daedalus’s bodies. There is a fair consensus amongst osteologists that the average height of the Graeco-Roman population was approximately 1.67m, which in the modern day BMI scale, would put Daedalus and Icarus at a minimum weight of 55 8kg, and a maximum of 83 7kg Considering they had been in captivity for a considerably long time, it is likely they would be on the lower end of the spectrum Using the minimum value, their weight would be roughly:
55 8 × 9 81 = 5474N
For Icarus to maintain flight, the lift produced by his wings would need to at least equal this weight Birds achieve this through both the shape of their wings and the muscle power needed to flap them, creating the necessary velocity to sustain lift Lift can be calculated using the equation:
Where ρ is the air density, �� is the relative velocity of air over the wing, A is the wing area, and Cl is the lift coefficient (which depends on the wing shape and angle of attack)
However, for a human to maintain flight for the same amount of time as a bird, enormous wing surfaces and airspeed would be required, and estimating a feasible wing area for human flight is challenging. Based on human mass and the necessary lift coefficient for gliding, wingspans exceeding 20 metres would likely be needed. Additionally, an extensive knowledge of modern physics would be required for Daedalus to make the optimal shape of wings The Roman poet Ovid describes how Daedalus attaches bird feathers to the wings, "arranging the feathers in order, taking the smallest first; each is less long than the next, and all rise by an insensible gradation Daedalus attaches these feathers, in the middle, with linen, at their tips with wax; he then gives them a slight curve, the better to imitate the wing of birds ” Birds can fly with ease because the structure of their wings is designed for efficient airflow. The wing bones are positioned at the front and are covered with a smooth layer of feathers that taper towards the back The rear of the wing consists of a single layer of flight feathers, forming an airfoil shape. When air flows directly toward this airfoil- either from flying into the wind or moving swiftly forward- the unique shape causes air to move faster over the top of the wing than underneath it. This faster airflow above lowers the pressure, while the slower air below creates higher pressure, generating lift that allows the bird to ascend.
However, the discovery of this optimum bird shape is most often credited to Sir George Cayley, as the first man to describe the principles of bird flight and wing shape in terms of aerodynamics Considering he lived in the late 18th century to the mid 19th century, and
Daedalus is first mentioned in roughly 1400 BC on Linear B tablets, he would not have understood this principle to create his wings accordingly. But even assuming the wings of Icarus and Daedalus were optimally shaped, human physiology lacks the muscle capacity to generate sufficient airspeed by flapping alone In a hypothetical scenario where Daedalus and Icarus could glide on air currents, the wings would need to be very large- far larger than anything described in myth- to provide enough surface area for effective lift, given the density and weight of a human body Such a wing design would make flight nearly impossible without modern materials and a strong enough air current to support them
In the myth, however, the primary reason for Icarus’s fall and the failure of the crossing is the melting of the wax as he flies closer to the sun When Daedalus constructed the wings, his choice of materials was limited Daedalus crafted the wings by fastening feathers with wax- a choice that speaks to the limitations of ancient materials. Wax is a malleable substance, but it has a low melting point. Most natural waxes begin to soften at around 40°C and melt between 60°C and 80°C While temperatures do not increase significantly with altitude, direct exposure to sunlight would warm the wax, particularly at high altitudes where there’s less atmosphere to block solar radiation, the wax would absorb radiative heat from the Sun’s rays The rate of energy absorption, due to sunlight can be estimated by:
��=����
Where �� is the solar power per unit area, approximately 1361 W/m² at Earth’s surface, and �� is the surface area exposed to sunlight
Assuming that the wings absorb much of this energy due to the lack of atmospheric interference at higher altitudes, the wax would rapidly heat up The absorbed energy would raise the wax’s temperature until it exceeded its melting point, causing it to lose its cohesive properties As a result, the feathers attached with wax would detach, dismantling the wings This thermodynamic failure demonstrates the importance of material selection in engineering- wax is clearly
unsuitable for high-temperature environments In reality, even moderate temperatures in direct sunlight could have led to failure if the wax was the sole adhesive. Daedalus’s design, without a more heat-resistant adhesive, was fundamentally flawed
When the wax holding Icarus’s wings melted, he would have entered free-fall During free-fall, he would have accelerated downward under gravity. The distance, fallen after time can be calculated by:
d=0 5*g*t^2
Where g=9 81m/s^2is (acceleration due to gravity) and t is time Rearranging the equation to be
t= √��/0 5 * ��
t= 112776/(0 5*9 81^2)
t= 234s
Thus, it would have taken Icarus about 234 seconds to fall after his wings melted However, even before that happened, as Icarus climbed through the troposphere, the temperature would have dropped by roughly 1°C for every 1,000 feet he ascended Considering the highest recorded altitude for a bird- the Rüppell’s griffon vulture, at 37,000 feet- this altitude marks where the thin air would have made it nearly impossible for Icarus to use his wings effectively At this height, temperatures would still be decreasing, ranging from -40°C to -60°C, depending on local conditions This suggests that even if Icarus had reached such an altitude without his wings melting, he would likely have frozen to death.
Through the myth of Icarus, we see a narrative that, while fictional, aligns in many ways with fundamental principles of physics. Daedalus’s attempt at human flight touches on concepts of lift and drag, the limitations of ancient materials, and the hazards of solar radiation
Based upon the knowledge at the time and the sheer force needing to be generated by the wings, the flight of Icarus and Daedalus would have been impossible, meaning that the onus for his death was not completely placed upon Icarus. The story captures humanity’s desire to transcend natural limitations- a theme that continues to resonate with modern scientific endeavours. The physics of Icarus’s flight highlights the
limitations that humans faced before understanding aerodynamics and material science, making it a powerful reminder of both the potential and the peril of human ambition
References:
1 G Woan, The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas, Cambridge University Press (2003 Edition)
2 C Davis, F Tilley, P Hague, Icarus’s Flight, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, Leicester, (February 26, 2011)
3. Why did Icarus fall? - Hangar Y (2023) Hangar-y com Available at: https://hangar-y com/en/2023/07/pourquoi-icare -a-t-il-chute/ (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
4 Utah State University (2007) Lessons from Icarus, Usu edu Available at: https://www.usu.edu/today/story/lessons-from--i carus (Accessed: 20 November 2024)
5. Understanding Myths and Legends 17 Daedalus and Icarus (no date) Available at: https://primarytexts co uk/free resources/Myths1 7-21.pdf.
6 Benson, T (no date) The lift equation, NASA Available at: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/ BottleRocket/airplane/lifteq html#:~:text=The%2 0lift%20equation%20states%20that,times%20th e%20wing%20area%20A.&text=For%20given%2 0air%20conditions%2C%20shape,Cl%20to%20d etermine%20the%20lift (Accessed: 09 November 2024).
7 Ovid, Metamorphoses VIII verses 236-259
8. Laes, C. (no date) Writing the history of fatness and thinness in Graeco- Roman Antiquity 583
ARTE E SCIENZA, 28/2 (2016) 583-658 Journal of History of Medicine Articoli/Articles WRITING THE HISTORY OF FATNESS AND THINNESS IN GRAECO-ROMAN ANTIQUITY Available at: https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/port al/82043309/Laes Fatness and Thinness pdf (Accessed: 20 November 2024)
9 Ideal Body Weight based on BMI (no date) www topendsports com Available at: https://www.topendsports.com/testing/BMI-table .htm.
10 Welcome to Journey North (no date) journeynorth.org. Available at: https://journeynorth org
11. Wikipedia Contributors (2019) George Cayley, Wikipedia Wikimedia Foundation Available at: https://en wikipedia org/wiki/George Cayley
12. Wikipedia Contributors (2019) Daedalus, Wikipedia Wikimedia Foundation Available at: https://en wikipedia org/wiki/Daedalus
13 webfx (2023) Melting Point Factors for Common Waxes | Blended Waxes, Blended Waxes Available at: https://blendedwaxes com/blog/wax-melting-poi nt-factors/?srsltid=AfmBOorekv29Mik4Lhtn5VY Nw5tGgZ1gBjvbCEXJsnimFeT uoMVcKac (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
14 Natural waxes | Natura-tec (2020) Natura-tec Available at: https://www natura-tec com/natural-waxes (Accessed: 20 November 2024)
My ADHD Brain
By Martha B, Year 6
The Big Bang Basics
By Annabel H, Year 6
The mysterious ‘Black Sea Devil’ and emotional intelligence
By Jaya I, Year 9
The Recent shocking event
On January 26th a team of researchers in the Canary Islands witnessed and recorded a black seadevil anglerfish slowly making its way to the surface.
Marine wildlife photographer David Jara Bogunya captured the viral video of the anglerfish and said ‘When I was a kid, I had a book with some deep-sea creatures, and I loved the illustrations They were crazy to me The animals didn’t look real ” This was the second sighting after one in 2014 in deep waters
Why did the black seadevil come to the surface?
Kory Evans a fish biologist at Rice University originally thought it was AI as a result of the sheer rarity of this event Once clear evidence was present that the footage was real it left the question
‘why?’ Evans says that he was impressed that the Anglerfish was still intact, let alone swimming as its body was evolved to live in high pressure waters He elaborated by explaining that ‘Their whole deal is not moving’ ‘They are ambush predators… They kind of sit there, bobbing around, so seeing this one doing something active is kind of shocking ’ Unfortunately, at the moment there is no way for scientists to know for sure how or why the black seadevil made it to the surface, but there are a few likely scenarios.
It is thought that the anglerfish could have eaten a fish with a swim bladder or gas gland and as the gas kept expanding it propelled the fish upwards through the water column Another theory is that due to the sighting occurring off the coast of the Canary Islands, an area known for volcanic activity, the predator could have become trapped within a column of rising water Finally, scientists believe it could have been swallowed by a larger predator and either spat out or broke free closer to the surface
What have we learnt from it?
We already know that Anglerfish live in the midnight zone, a part of the sea where sunlight cannot reach, roughly 650-6,500 ft below Their name ‘Black seadevil’ hails from a genus which translates as ‘black sea monster’ which people believe to be a fitting name due to their large jaw, sharp fangs and scary appearance It is only six inches long however and we understand it lures its prey in with a bioluminescent bacterial light dangling from its head
Even though it died shortly after the encounter, witnessing an Anglerfish alive is monumentous as all research done on them previously has been done on dead specimens. These specimens have explained the odd fashion in which anglerfish reproduce: the much smaller males ,often many at a time, fuse their bodies to a larger female who then draws her genetic make up to the surface when she is ready to reproduce
It is important to remember that the deep sea is an unforgiving environment with crushing pressure and little food Therefore, seeing the black seadevil alive and swimming near the surface is a gift to all scientists.
The interesting online response
The footage of the anglerfish that Jara posted on tiktok went viral with over 124.3 million views and his video explaining the event gained 33 8 million views. He added extra detail to the encounter explaining that it was indeed a female as males are even smaller at about 2-3 inches and don’t have a bioluminescent light He also explained that her body has been donated to the Tenerife Museum of Nature and Archaeology
The online response towards the anglerfish has been very mixed and fascinating. Some simply feel it was a fish swimming upwards and that was it Some also feel this is a bad omen for environmental change. While many others began to romanticise the angler fish's journey as a great mission to see the sunlight Many re-creations have been made as animations or drawings that portray her as a hopeful character who just wanted to ‘see light she didn’t have to create’ Many even think it could be a new Pixar movie.
This huge response online shows how intricate the human brain is and emphasises how every thinking process is different. Emotions are so unpredictable and can't be quantified or explained Each individual took the footage of a rare fish in a new environment and gave it different meanings.
In conclusion, The Black Seadevil’s trip to the surface has become a huge phenomenon that scientists and people everywhere will consider another great mystery of the ocean
The Electric Salt Spoon
By Shree M, Year 9
What is the Electric Salt Spoon?
The Electric Salt Spoon, developed by a Japanese company called [1] Kirin, has established a Spoon which concentrates the intake of salt by utilising a weak electric current This spoon was specifically designed for Japanese people with intentions of altering their salt intake towards the WHO suggested dose of salt
What is the science behind the Spoon?
The spoon uses [2] electromagnetic waves (powered by a reusable lithium battery), which are focused at the tip of the spoon. This weak electric current makes contact and enhances the sodium ions on your tongue, thus intensifying the perceived salt taste.
Why was the Spoon introduced?
Kirin reports that the sole aim of their spoon was to reduce the salt intake of citizens from Japan as their salt average for consumers [3] over 20 was 10 9 grams, more than double the WHO recommendation of 5 0 grams This image below includes a detailed representation of the current status of salt doses, and the expected average of salt doses for men and women
This spoon currently costs £127, however is now being marketed in North America. Similar to Japan,
[4] North America has exceeded the Dietary Guidelines for America salt intake by 1100mg The
Kirin Electric Spoon is separated into two sections [5] The Spoon and a detachable handle houses the electrical components, and the handle includes four buttons which alter the current and therefore the sodium intensity
Are there any flaws?
There are slight design flaws within the spoon. Depending on the individual's dexterity, gripping the spoon around the handle was the most viable option when attempting to balance the food on the spoon The spoon may not be universally accessible There has been difficulty in attempting to grip the spoon, whilst touching the sensors on the back and balancing the food so the current can flow Visitors at the Consumer Electronics Exposition (CES) [6] had reportedly the weirdest experience when taught how to hold the spoon. Users had to grip the handle, and were repeatedly ‘mocked’ by the light which signals whether the spoon will send the electric current. There was speculation that the Electric Salt Spoon was just placebo Was the saltiness just a trick of the brain? One main drawback of the Electric Salt Spoon is the fact that it is only accessible with soups, broths and other liquidised foods
What are the health and environmental implications?
Excess sodium intake is linked with risk of heart disease, coronary artery disease [7], hypertension, [8] cardiovascular diseases, gastric cancer, obesity, osteoporosis, kidney disease as well as 1 89 million annual deaths If the spoon is used in everyday
settings, it could minimise the global consumption of salt. Whilst the Electric Salt Spoon will not solve these underlying problems of salt, it could have a positive impact on mental health Studies [9] portray an influx in depression and anxiety among those with a higher salt intake, meaning the Spoon could reduce the mental health implications for both older and younger generations Salt mining also [10] disrupts ecosystems, contaminates local water supplies and causes habitat destruction
Should this be continued?
Overall, I think it is a necessary product to establish in the future, it will allow society to decrease the overconsumption of salt, support the environment and minimise chances of numerous health implications
References:
[1]https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/articles/cv22nn qe5k1o#:~:text=The%20 spoon%20 uses%20some%20 interesting,makes%20 salty%20 foods%20test%20 salty.
[2]https://www telegraph co uk/world-news/2024/05 /20/japanese-electric-spoon-salty-taste-without-salt/ [3]https://www.kirinholdings.com/en/newsroom/rele ase/2024/0520 01.html
[4]https://www fda gov/food/nutrition-education-reso urces-materials/sodium-your-diet#:~:text=Americans %20eat%20 on%20 average%20 about,recommended%20 limits%20are%20in%20 lower
[5]https://www.cnet.com/home/kitchen-and-househo ld/we-tested-an-electric-salt-spoon-that-might-helpyou-stick-to-your-low-sodium-diet/
[6] The Electric Salt Spoon is the weirdest thing at CES 2025 - Mashable
[7]https://news sky com/story/electric-spoon-that-en hances-salty-taste-of-food-and-promotes-healthier-e ating-launched-in-japan-13146505
[8]https://www scmp com/lifestyle/health-wellness/ar ticle/3293842/can-electric-spoon-japan-help-reduce -your-salt-intake-its-inventors-explain
[9]https://pmc ncbi nlm nih gov/articles/PMC106289 84/#:~:text=Rees%20et%20al -,2021) ,2006%3B%20 Morris%20et%20al.
[10]https://www seasaltsuperstore com/blogs/what-is -salt/the-environmental-impact-of-salt-mining#:~:text =Salt%20mining%20processes%2C%20particularly %20those,supplies%2C%20and%20cause%20habit at%20destruction
Editors’ notes
We really liked putting together Edition 13 for you all to read! Thank you for taking the time to expand your scientific knowledge and we hope you enjoy Maths and Science week.
Contents
What are Black Holes and what are their properties? 1-3
The Impact of the Photoelectric Effect 4-6
How is AI changing healthcare 7
Are Spiderwebs going to revolutionise protective wear? 8-10
Pluto and Charon’s Double Planetary System 10-11
Physics, Flight, and the Limits of Human Ambition: Would the flight of Icarus have been physically possible? 12-14
My ADHD Brain 15
The Big Bang Basics 16
The mysterious ‘Black Seadevil’ and emotional intelligence 17-18
The Electric Salt Spoon 19-20