Issue 7 - July 2021 - La Casa de las Lenguas

ISSUE NO.7 • JULY 2021

LA CASA LENGUAS

CONTENTS SOCIETY & CULTURE 2

BRAZIL: THE STARK RISE OF POLICE BRUTALITY

5

THE MONTH IN FESTIVALS: JULY

6

DISH OF THE MONTH: DUMPLINGS

8

INDIA: THE LIVES OF THE RICH & THE POOR

11

NEWS AROUND THE WORLD

WEALTH INEQUALITY IN INDIA

THE LIVES OF THE RICH & THE POOR

PLACES YOU NEVER KNEW 12 EXISTED: THE YUANYANG RICE TERRACES 14

Although India is one of the fastest-growing economies in the entire world, and one of the four BRICS countries (of which are expected to be the top four most powerful economies in the world come the middle of the 21st century), India is also one of the worst countries for wealth inequality.

BRAZIL

LA LAÏCITÉ: HOW SECULAR IS FRANCE?

THE STARK RISE OF POLICE BRUTALITY Violence and crime seem to have become part of Brazil’s national and international identity with warnings about potential robbery, vehicle crime and murder found on just about every foreign travel government website. However, the true extent of police brutality in Brazil is often forgotten by the rest of the world.

LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS 18

THE HISTORY OF THE MANDARIN CHINESE

20

A GUIDE TO CHINESE INTERNET SLANG

22

LEARN BASIC MANDARIN

23

OFFICIALLY FRENCH: FRANCOPHONE COUNTRIES AROUND THE GLOBE

25 A JOURNEY TO ITALY: FROM DIALECTS TO LANGUAGES 29

33

LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM AND THE GLOBAL SPREAD OF ENGLISH WHAT THE…FOOTBALL?!

MULTILINGUALISM IN THE BEAUTIFUL GAME

LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM

THE LANGUAGES OF ITALY

LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM AND THE GLOBAL SPREAD OF ENGLISH

A JOURNEY TO ITALY: FROM DIALECTS TO LANGUAGES

Linguistic imperialism is generally defined as the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages; it is also referred to by some as a form of linguicism. Theories of linguistic imperialism attempt to address the structures and ideologies which facilitate linguistic hierarchies, explain why some languages are used more than others, and identify the role of language professionals and language teaching in this process.

Everyone who has been to Italy knows that this a varied country with 20 regions, each one with different traditions, cuisine and customs. But did you know that every region and even every town in Italy has a dialect?

LA CASA DE LAS LENGUAS

PAGE 2

BY OLIVER THOMAS

Society & Culture

BRAZIL: THE STARK RISE OF POLICE BRUTALITY Violence and crime seem to have become part of Brazil’s national and international identity with warnings about potential robbery, vehicle crime and murder found on just about every foreign travel government website. However, the true extent of police brutality in Brazil is often forgotten by the rest of the world.

The rise of crime in Brazil is unsurprising considering that it has one of the highest income inequalities in the region. This, combined with drug trafficking routes into its neighbouring countries Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, are some of the defining factors in the increase of organised crime and violence in Brazil today.

Brazil’s neighbouring countries are the three largest cocaine producers in the world.

While it is often crime against tourists or crimes carried by Brazilians themselves that are what many people are aware of, crime carried out by state organisations are just as common. For those who have visited Brazil, the tensions between the police and the residents are clear. If you were to google, ‘things to not do in Brazil’, bringing up the police to the locals would certainly be high on the list.

There were 57,358 intentional homicides in 2018.

Over the last few decades, the tension between the police and Brazilian citizens has continued to grow, with the police killing at least 11,692 people over the last two decades. In particular, Rio de Janeiro has seen the largest increase in police killings since the turn of the century. In 2006, police killings accounted for just under 15% of all

the 7,500 killings that had taken place in Rio. In 1992, the São Paulo police killed more people than all of those who died under the military dictatorship between April 1964 and March 1985.

The problem has intensified under Bolsonaro, with some interpreting his response as a form of ‘support’.

Bolsonaro has long had a complicated relationship with favela residents, which is undoubtedly reflected through the actions of the police. His 2018 presidential campaign was partly defined by his promise to create a larger police presence in the favelas and increasing the level of violence towards drug gangs.

In 2008, the City of Rio set up a special force of police officers who would enter the favelas to drive out the influence of the gangs. This operation was known as ‘pacification of the favelas’ and has since led to the untimely death of many innocent favela residents.

In May 2021, the United Nations raised concern after a police operation carried out in Jacarezinho, a favela on the north side of Rio de Janeiro, resulted in the death of at least 29 people. The police claim that the operation was to target a drug gang who were thought to be recruiting young people, however, reports that the police failed to preserve evidence of the crime scene raised concerns at the United Nations' human rights office.

The operation carried out in May 2021 was the deadliest police operation in the history of Rio de Janeiro.

In response to the lethal operation, Bolsonaro ‘congratulated’ the police for the killings. He also refused to regard those who died as victims and instead used it as an opportunity to condemn the media and those on the left. The Vice President, General Hamilton Mourão, instantly declared that the victims of the attack were all ‘gang members’ without having any evidence to back up his claims.

Bolsonaro has been accused of committing genocide through the high levels of police violence in the country and his subsequent response.

In April 2019, Bolsonaro proposed to Congress the Guarantee of Law and Order (GLO) missions. This would give increased protection to officers who killed while carrying out operations.

Its proposed protection included reduced sentences and, in some cases, full judicial protection.

The bill was proposed at a heightened time of killings carried out by Brazilian police.

PAGE 3

In the bill, Bolsonaro proposed to lessen sentences for officers who shoot because of, what he describes as, “excusable fear, surprise or violent emotion”. Although the conditions seem almost purposefully vague, examples are said to include terrorism and “conduct capable of causing death or personal injury,” such as carrying a firearm or any weapon that has the potential to cause harm.

In the past, Bolsonaro has said that criminals should “die like cockroaches.”

It is not just Bolsonaro who is in ‘support’ of increased police presence in the favelas as Wilson Witzel, Rio’s governor, has ordered snipers to fire on suspects from helicopters. He has also recently told foreign journalists that suspects, when confronted by police, should “surrender or die.”

Society & Culture "The police feel authorised to kill. The discourse stimulates violence."

MARCELO FREIXO, A CONGRESSMAN FROM RIO AND VETERAN RESEARCHER ON VIOLENCE AND CRIME

It is the dark-skinned Brazilians who are disproportionately affected by the police killings, which is also an accurate reflection of the socioeconomic and racial ratios of the favelas.

BY OLIVER THOMAS

Although more than half of Rio’s population is white, white Brazilians only made up 12% of those killed in 2017.

The death of many innocent black Brazilians at the hands of the police has led to many protests, with the most recent being in the wake of the operation in May 2021. The protests saw thousands of black Brazilians demonstrate against racism and police violence on what was also the anniversary of Brazil’s abolition of slavery.

Experts estimate that black people are three times more likely to be killed by police in Brazil.

The protestors took to the streets with candles and signs that said "Don't kill me, kill racism", and “Black people want to live”.

PAGE 5

JULY

Society & Culture

THE MONTH IN

festivals

1

4

7

9

Canada National Day

American Independence Day

World Chocolate Day

Calgary Stampede

Suriname Freedom Day

NAIDOC Week

11

12

14

15

World Population Day

Orangemen's Day

Bastille Day

St. Swithin's Day

17

19

24

Beryeong Festival

Eid al Adha

Asalha Puja (Dhamma) Day

Nunavut Day

Day of the Flemish Community

The Hajj

PAGE 6

DISH OF THE MONTH

Society & Culture

DISH OF THE MONTH: DUMPLINGS WHAT ARE THEY? Dumplings encompass many dishes that are made up of pieces of dough wrapped around a filling, or of dough without any filling. Although they first appeared in China, lots of ethnic varieties have become popular all over the world.

THE ORIGINS OF DUMPLINGS

THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF DUMPLINGS

Dumplings are believed to have been invented over 1,800 years ago by medical sage Zhang Zhongjing. At this time, Chinese herbal medicine was stored alongside mutton to combat colds and to heal pernio in the winter months.

Today, there are many types of dumplings all over the world, from the Hungarian nockerl, to gnocchi and the popular Indian version modak.

Between 220-280 AD (the Three Kingdoms Period), dumplings were a common food. Around 200 years later, during the Northern and Southern Dynasties, they were eaten across China with soup. It was not until the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) that people began to eat them without soup.

During the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) many varieties of dumplings arose. They then made their way to Mongolia before being introduced worldwide.

Banh Bot Loc Image credit: La Vie Partargée

Coxinhas Image credit: Hoje Tem Frango

Banh Bot Loc, the Vietnamese variety, is made with tapioca flour with a pork belly and shrimp filling which gives it its unique almost-transparent look. They are commonly served with fried shallots and are considered as one of the best types of dumplings.

Outside of Asia, Brazil has their own version known as 'Coxinhas'. They are made of thick dough and stuffed with shredded chicken and moulded into a shape resembling that of a chicken leg.

Its name, 'coxinha', literally translates as 'little thigh' in Portuguese.

Fun Fact

Dumplings have religious significance. During the Hindu festival Ganesh Chaturthi, Lord Ganesh, the god of wisdom, knowledge and new beginnings, is offered 21 modaks.

Modak

Mandu (Korean Dumplings)

Image credit: Dassana's Veg Recipes

Image credit: Rasa Malaysia

PAGE 8

Society & Culture

BY CARYS YATES

INDIA: THE LIVES OF THE RICH & THE POOR Although India is one of the fastest-growing economies in the entire world, and one of the five BRICS countries, it is also infamous for being one of the worst countries in the world for wealth inequality.

India is the world’s fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity. Post-1990 until 2014, the Indian economy grew at a faster rate than many of the developed countries.

Despite this, the last three decades have seen the level of inequality amongst the Indian population rise steeply, with the rich taking a large amount of the wealth gained through capitalism and inheritance.

According to Oxfam, the top 10% of the Indian population holds 77% of the total national wealth.

In 2017, 73% of all the wealth generated in that year went to the richest 1%, while the remaining 67 million Indians that made up the poorest demographic only saw a 1% increase in their wealth.

When comparing India’s wealth gap to that of other countries the difference is stark. For example, the average figure compiled over the years is that 58% of India’s wealth is owned by the top 1%, while in the US the top 1% own 34% of all wealth. That means in India the wealth held by just 16 people is equal to that of the wealth of 600 million people in the US.

According to Forbes, there are 177 billionaires in India as of 2021.

The number of billionaires in India increased from just 9 in 2000 to just over 100 in 2017. Today, India has the third-highest number of billionaires in the world, followed by Germany and Russia, and it is estimated to produce 70 new millionaires every day between 2018 and 2022.

In the UK there are ‘just’ 56 billionaires.

Mukesh Ambani, an Indian business tycoon who is currently Asia’s richest man, has a net worth of $88.7 billion.

He is also believed to be the eighth richest globally, according to the Hurun Global Rich List. His house, which cost an estimated $1-2 billion, has 27 stories, 6 of which are dedicated to car parking.

Although there are a few misconceptions that the house, which is estimated to be the second most expensive house in the world, is located in a slum, it is instead found in one of the most expensive residential areas of India, known as Mumbai’s Altamount.

Billionaires' fortunes increased by almost 10 times over a decade.

As India’s rich population continues to get increasingly wealthier, the fiscal year of 2018-2019 saw the wealth of all of India’s billionaires combined equate to more than the whole Union budget for that year, which came to a total of 24,422 billion Indian rupees.

While it may initially be thought that a country that holds such wealth would not fall victim to high levels of poverty, the disparity of the wealth in India is a defining aspect of its status as a developing country.

It would take 941 years for a minimum wage worker in rural India to earn what a top paid executive at a leading Indian garment company earns in a year.

More than 800 million people in India are considered as poor, equating to a total of around ⅔ of the Indian population living in poverty. 68.8% of Indian’s are forced to live on less than $2 a day and over 30% have even less than $1.25.

PAGE 9

While healthcare may be seen as a necessity to some, for many in India it is seen as a luxury, as well as being a factor in deepening their poverty.

Many Indians are unable to obtain sufficient healthcare and 63 million find themselves in poverty every year due to its cost, which equates to 1 person every 2 seconds.

The number of Indians living in poverty is 11 and a half times more than the population of the UK.

Society & Culture As the rich continue to get richer at a faster pace than the poor, the less fortunate are left struggling to earn a minimum wage and access quality education and healthcare services, which continue to suffer from chronic under-investment.

These widening gaps and rising inequalities affect women and children the most, with around 1.4 million children dying each year in India before their fifth birthday - a figure that contributes to India having one of the highest child mortality rates in the world.

BY CARYS YATES

NEWS AROUND THE WORLD

PAGE 11

Society & Culture

CHINA

ETHIOPIA

THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY CELEBRATES 100 YEARS SINCE ITS CREATION

THOUSANDS FACE FAMINE AFTER FIGHTING IN ETHIOPIA

A

F

ighting amongst the Ethiopian

This has also led to worries

government and the Tigray

that the federal government

s the Chinese Communist Party

The speech came as criticism

People’s Liberation Front (TPLF)

wants to cut off humanitarian

celebrated 100 years since its

grows surrounding China’s

has inflamed once again over

assistance to the region.

creation on 2nd July, President

attempts to have more control

the last month as rebels carried

Ethiopia has denied these

Xi Jingpin used it as an

over Hong Kong and

out a major counter-offensive to

claims, saying that the

opportunity to warn that those

accusations of human rights

take back control of Mek’ele, the

accusation that they are using

who challenge China will "get

abuses in the country.

capital of the Tigray region.

hunger as a weapon is

Its centenary was marked with

The fighting resulted in the

In his hour-long speech,

military jet fly-pasts, cannon

destruction of important

President Xi explained the role

salutes and nationalistic songs.

bridges that are used to

he believed his party has played

In the lead up to the

transport aid into the Tigray

in the making of modern-day

celebrations, there was a

region, leading to over 400,000

China. He also claimed that they

crackdown on the media to

Ethiopians entering famine. An

have been integral in its

ensure that a party-approved

additional 1.8 million people are

prosperity.

story of China’s history was

thought to be close to famine.

their heads bashed".

‘beyond the pale’.

presented.

SPAIN

BRAZIL

CATALONIA'S HUMAN TOWERS RETURN AFTER A YEAR BREAK

BRAZIL'S INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY PROTEST AGAINST BILL

A

the head of government’s

H

undreds of Brazilians belonging to indigenous communities protested outside of their Congress building

indigenous affairs agency to leave their post for failing to defend the needs of the indigenous

fter a 15 month break due to

The festival, which this year took

the pandemic, Catalonia

place on the same day as St. John’s

in Brasilia on 16th June to

brought back its festival of

Day, required all participants to

denounce a bill that would restrict

human towers. The festival,

present a negative COVID test to

the acknowledgement of

crowd by firing pepper spray and

held in the medieval city of

take part in the rehearsals and the

reservation lands.

shooting arrows at the windows of

Valls, was slightly different from

main event.

community.

Riot police tried to control the

the building.

"This bill is harmful not just to us,

previous years with the amount of towers limited to 50 people,

The human towers have a long

but to humanity," Sonia Guajajara,

The passing of the bill would

around 450 less than some of

history in Catalan culture dating

head of APIB, Brazil's largest

mean that protected indigenous

the ‘castells’ (human towers)

back to the early 18th century. They

indigenous organisation.

lands would become free to

seen in previous festivals.

are also sometimes linked to the separatist movement.

commercial agriculture and

The protesters attempted to seize a

mining. The current far-right

downtown building to force

president, Jair Bolsonaro, supports the move.

PAGE 12

PLACES YOU NEVER KNEW EXISTED

Society & Culture

PLACES YOU NEVER KNEW EXISTED: THE YUANYANG RICE TERRACES The Yuanyang rice terraces in the south of the Ailao Mountains are the starting point of one of the most beautiful rice terraces in Asia, spanning 31,000 acres at 6,500 feet above sea level and across 5 counties south of the ‘Red River’.

The origins of the Yuanyang rice terraces date back 2,500 years when the Hani people’s ancestors first came to the Ailao Mountains where they carved out the terraces to grow rice for a living. However, the technology of developing fertile land on jagged mountain slopes didn’t reach other parts of China and Southeast Asia until the 1500s.

This, along with the creativity of the Hani people, turned the Yuanyang rice terraces into a unique place of agricultural beauty. In recognition of their creative talent, the Ming Dynasty emperor granted the Hani people the title of ‘Skilful Sculptor’.

Today, the terraced fields are recognised as a World Cultural and Natural Heritage site by UNESCO. Hani terraced fields are known for being extensive and wide-reaching.

They span numerous towns and villages that reside along the south bank of the Red River, including Yuanyang, Lüchun and Jinping, as well as many others. The Yuanyang rice terraces, however, are thought to be the core area of Hani terraces.

The mountainous terrain in Yuanyang County means that the terraces

have a slope ranging from 15 to 75 degrees and rise by 3,000 steps which forms a landscape unique both to China and to the rest of the world.

Many Hani people can also be found in Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos, where they are more commonly referred to as ‘Ho’.

Seedlings are planted by the local Hani people in May for harvest to take place in September and irrigation in December.

In general, the Yuanyang Rice Terraces form three main scenic areas. These include Bada scenic area, Laohuzui (the Tiger Mouth) scenic area, and Duoyishu scenic area, which is thought to be the best area to go to to witness the sunrise.

The best time to visit the terraces is during the harvest between late September and October.

It is also popular to visit the rice terraces during the winter months after the terraces have been irrigated. As the terraces fill with water, the field reflects the sunshine which makes every pond reflect different colours in the sunlight.

When discovering the rice fields, the unique culture of the Hani people is just as important to learn about. As one of China’s 56 officially recognised ethnic groups, they make up 1.6 million of the population and are normally found living along the Hong River in the Yunnan province. They are characterised by their unique architecture, most notably their mushroom-shaped local houses.

PAGE 14

Society & Culture

BY ANNA WILLIAMS

LA LAÏCITÉ: HOW SECULAR IS FRANCE? Secularism was established in France in December 1905 under the French law on the Separation of the Churches and State (Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) when France was ruled by Le Bloc des Gauches (Left Coalition), led

by Emile Combes. France’s secularism is defined by its lack of an official state religion and its separation of the state and church which allows for 'freedom of thought'.

"France is an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic, guaranteeing that all citizens regardless of their origin, race or religion are treated as equals before the law and respecting all religious beliefs."

THE FRENCH CONSTITUTION OF 1958

Despite being legally imposed in 1905, the root of France’s secularism dates back to 1789, the year of the outbreak of the French Revolution when Catholicism was the official religion of France. Although the Gallican Church (the French Catholic Church) recognised the Pope as head of the Roman Catholic Church, the state had negotiated an exemption for the authority of the French monarchy to be recognised.

Almost all the 28 million French people alive at the time were Catholic, while those of the Protestant and Jewish faiths were rejected full membership of the state.

For many French people, Catholicism was seen as almost automatic through birth, but by 1794 churches and religious orders were shut down and religious worship was suppressed. From this point, France no longer considered itself as the “Eldest Daughter of the Church”.

While many may consider secularism in France today as somewhat strict, there are many exceptions where its claimed that certain religions are seemingly ‘supported’ by the state.

Despite the laws regarding secularism in the rest of France, Alsace-Lorraine continues to be governed by the 1801 Concordat, which acknowledges four different religions; three branches of Christianity (Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed) and Judaism. In 1905, when the legislation on the Separation of the Churches and State was enforced in France and took over the Concordat, Alsace-Lorraine was still part of the German Empire, meaning that the law has never been France the only enforced in theare region.

country in the world where some Catholic bishops are nominated by the head of state.

Alsace-Moselle, which is also an exception due to also being part of the German Empire in 1905, has been unable to officially recognise Islam as one of the four religions in the region despite the recognition of other religions.

The Concordat enforced in these two regions makes religious education mandatory in all public schools at all levels. These lessons are carried out by those who are part of the recognised religious communities in the regions and are under the control of their churches. Consequently, despite France having a Muslim population of almost 3.5 million, Islam forms no part of religious education in Alsace-Moselle and Alsace-Lorraine, even though Judaism and some branches of Christianity do.

Those who are religious ministers in Alsace-Moselle are paid a salary from the Interior Ministry which is thought to have cost 54 million euros per year.

PAGE 15

The 1905 law includes many more exceptions. For example, although it bans the French government from financially investing in new religious buildings, they are allowed to pay maintenance costs for any religious buildings that were constructed before the law was enforced. The majority of these buildings, however, are Catholic churches. Laws that were introduced at a later date meant that the state also aides private religious schools, most of which are Catholic and a minority of them Jewish.

The supposed ‘favouritism’ of certain religions has led to claims of discrimination against Muslims, particularly over the last few years.

French Muslims who ask for similar accommodations to be made for them are often refused. There are no statefunded Muslim schools, nor is there a school calendar that takes into account important Islamic holidays.

All of these are refused claiming that secularism is at the core of France’s policies and religion should remain separate from public life.

Society & Culture

There have been growing complaints that France’s secularism has turned into another way to discriminate against their Muslim community. As the State recognises citizens as individuals rather than belonging to any particular community, it can become increasingly difficult to raise any allegations of discrimination.

As French identity comes before any religious identity, the French State doesn’t collect any data based on racial or religious communities.

The lack of data on racial and religious communities makes it increasingly difficult to see such forms of discrimination taking place within areas such as the government and the workplace. However, such discrimination is clear with those a part of the Muslim community facing high levels of unemployment that are much higher than that of other communities in French society.

BY ANNA WILLIAMS

Names that are Muslimsounding are often rejected from jobs and racial profiling leads to false imprisonment of Muslims.

There have been many controversial measures against Muslims taken under the name of ‘laicité’ over the last few decades. A 2004 law banned wearing headscarves in public schools and face veils were banned in public areas in 2010, with those daring to wear them facing refused entry to many places. The introduction of such laws only makes it increasingly difficult to report any claims of discrimination as when any problems are flagged up they are accused of communautarisme, a term used to describe someone who is acting more as a Muslim than as a French citizen.

"THE CRUCIAL DIFFERENCES WHICH DISTINGUISH HUMAN SOCIETIES AND HUMAN BEINGS ARE NOT BIOLOGICAL. THEY ARE CULTURAL." Ruth Benedict

PAGE 18

Mandarin Chinese, also known as Northern Chinese, is the most commonly spoken dialect of the Chinese languages. It is spoken all over China and is the native language of two-thirds of the population.

Chinese is also the official language in five countries/territories and is the sole official language in China and Taiwan, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

Mandarin is considered as one of the most complicated languages to learn as it is a tonal language, meaning that words can change their definition depending on the pronunciation. It also has around 50,000 characters, although there are no verb conjugations, tenses or gender-specific nouns.

There are hundreds of modern varieties of Chinese that stem from variants of Old and Middle Chinese. These are generally categorised into 6 main groups which include Mandarin, Gan, Wu, Xiang, Hakka, Yue, and Min.

Old Mandarin originated after the fall of the Northern Song and the reign of the Jin and Yuan dynasties in Northern China. During this time, most people began speaking a language that was founded on the dialects of the North China plain, which was later referred to as Old Mandarin.

Language & Linguistics

Standard Mandarin Chinese, the dialect of Mandarin that was predominantly spoken amongst the educated classes in Beijing, became the official language of China in the early 20th century. In the years following the declaration of China as a republic, those who were a part of the New Culture Movement successfully pushed for Literary Chinese to be replaced by written vernacular Chinese as the common written standard. The standard language is the medium of instruction in education, in formal occasions, and in the media in Mainland China, as well as in Taiwan and the Chinese Singaporean community.

Until the mid-1900s, the majority of Chinese people who lived in the South of China only spoke their local dialect of Chinese. To make it easier, officials of the Qing and Ming dynasties used a language based on Mandarin varieties called Guānhuà to carry out all of their work. In order to have an official career, it was essential to be able to speak this language.

Literary Chinese was the main form of Chinese used in formal writing, poetry, and fiction until the early 20th century. The spoken variety of Chinese differed greatly from that of Literary Chinese, which was learned as a special language. However, Literary Chinese was less useful for materials such as plays where the primary purpose was to be produced orally. Literally Chinese generally reflected the various Mandarin varieties and, as pronunciation differences are not evident in written form, Literally Chinese could unify Mandarin speakers regardless of the different regions they lived in.

THE HISTORY OF MANDARIN CHINESE

In some rebel-held regions of Myanmar, Mandarin is the lingua franca. A Southwestern Mandarin dialect that is closely related to the Yunnanese dialect is spoken amongst local Chinese and other ethnic groups in Northern Myanmar.

Standard Mandarin is the official language of Taiwan, although the standard of Mandarin spoken in Taiwan differs from that spoken in mainland China. The colloquial spoken form of Taiwanese Mandarin has been greatly influenced by Taiwanese and other local languages. Alternating between Mandarin and Taiwanese is common amongst its speakers.

As well as English, Tamil and Malay, Mandarin is one of the official languages of Singapore. Before the Singaporean government launched the Speak Mandarin Campaign in 1979, Mandarin was not commonly spoken amongst the Chinese Singaporean community. A more informal and colloquial form known as Singdarin is commonly spoken in everyday life and has been influenced by other local languages.

In Malaysia, Mandarin is not as commonly spoken amongst its Malaysian Chinese community as Cantonese is the main language used in commerce and local media. However, Mandarin is the primary language used in local Chinese language schools, where it is based on the Singaporean dialect.

PAGE 20

Language & Linguistics

520

QSWL

520 is the numeronym of ' - wǒ ài nǐ' which means 'I love you'

QSWL ( ) is used when you are extremely annoyed or angry at something.

ZF 政府 – zhèng fǔ) is used to

ZF (

refer to the Chinese government

88 88 (bābā) is a way of saying 'bye' in text form.

GCD 共产党

GCD ( – gòng chǎn dǎng) is used to refer to the Communist Party.

MANDARIN CHINESE

我爱你

YYDS 永远的神

气死我了

DBQ 对不起

YYDS ( - yǒngyuǎn de shén) means 'eternal God' and is used to refer to an idol or to describe something admirable.

DBQ ( ) is used to apologise for something.

233

XSWL

'223' represents laughter and is the numeronym of or hāhāhā in Pinyin.

哈哈哈

笑死我了

XSWL ( - xiào sǐ wǒ le) literally translates as "laughing to death" and is used in the same situations as 'lol' is English.

PAGE 21

LEARN BASIC MANDARIN

Language & Linguistics

Colours

General Vocab Goodbye – zài jiàn Please – qǐng Thank you – xiè xiè You’re welcome – bú kè qì I’m sorry – duì bu qǐ Excuse me – dǎ rǎo yí xià Yes – shì No – bù shì I’m good thanks – wǒ hěn hǎo xiè xiè And you? - nǐ ne Good morning (early morning) – zǎo shàng hǎo Good morning (late morning) - shàng wǔ hǎo

Black - hēi sè White - bái sè Blue - lán sè Yellow - huáng sè Green - lǜ sè Brown - kāfēi sè Orange - jú sè Red - hóng sè Grey - huī sè Purple - zǐ sè

Months of the Year January - yī yuè February - èr yuè March - sān yuè April - sì yuè May - wǔ yuè June - liù yuè

July - qī yuè August - bā yuè September - jiǔ yuè October - shí yuè November - shíyī yuè December - shíèr yuè

Numbers

0 - Líng 1 - Yī 2 - Èr 3 - Sān 4 - Sì 5 - Wǔ 6 - Liù 7 - Qī 8 - Bā 9 - Jiǔ 10 - Shí

11 - Shí yī 12 - Shí èr 13 - Shí sān 14 - Shí sì 15 - Shí wǔ 16 - Shí liù 17 - Shí qī 18 - Shí bā 19 - Shí jiǔ 20 - Èr shí

Introduce Yourself I am – wǒ shì My name is – wǒ jiào I’m from X – wǒ lái zì X My friend’s name is – wǒ péngyǒu jiào I’m from – wǒ lái zì

Days of the Week Monday - xīng qī yī Tuesday - xīng qī èr Wednesday - xīng qī sān Thursday - xīng qī sì Friday - xīng qī wǔ Saturday - xīng qī liù Sunday - xīng qī rì

Greetings Hello – nǐ hǎo I am – wǒ shì How are you? – nǐ hǎo ma Nice to meet you - hěn gāo xìng rèn shi nǐ What is your name? – nǐ jiào shén me míng zì

？

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Language & Linguistics

BY OFFICIALLY FRENCH

OFFICIALLY FRENCH: FRANCOPHONE COUNTRIES AROUND THE GLOBE Over the centuries, France has had a significant and powerful impact on the world. Its native language is taught in all private schools and universities around the world, with there being some countries where French has been the mother tongue for centuries.

Are there are francophones outside Europe?

Bien sûr, there are a lot of francophones outside of the enchanting continent of Europe.

France is the 5th most spoken language in the world with circa 300 million francophones globally.

While it’s known around the world for pastries and fashion, it also has a serious fan following outside of Europe.

As France has become generous alliances with nations like India, it has become easier for students to study abroad in France. Of course, students from abroad would need to learn French too, so the Alliance Française provides the right education for anyone to learn how to effectively communicate in French and land a job in France.

How many countries have French as their official language?

French is spoken widely as an official language in a total of 29 countries, including France’s neighbours - Switzerland, Belgium, and Luxembourg. Other than these, French is often the popular choice amongst Africans in countries like Senegal, Gabon, and the Republic of Congo.

In some other countries that do not have la langue française as their official language, there are still a couple of former French colonies that practice French such as Pondicherry in India, Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, and Quebec in Canada. Isn’t that exciting? You can experience different types of conversations with native francophones without actually having to live in France!

Why do these countries speak French as their native language?

During the late 19th century and the early 20th century, the vast majority of land across the world belonged to Britain, Spain, Portugal, and France. At one time during that era, France ruled around 8% of all the countries on Earth.

As a result of the French ruling a lot of countries, France had a meaningful influence in Africa and South-East Asia until the 1960s, even after most of the nations were freed from the rule after World War II. Consequently, French spread like wildfire and is now an official language in many countries and regions in South-East Asia and Africa even after they gained independence.

To sum up, France’s generous alliances and formerly ruled countries have made the French language a strong communication tool for over 300 million people around the world, out of whom 132 million are still learning the language.

For us at Officially French, we believe that you’re learning something new about French each day, even when you’re teaching the language, and those little pieces of information detox our young minds!

Instagram @officiallyfrench

Twitter @offic

ialyfre

nch

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Language & Linguistics

BY LANGUAGETUTOR4U

A JOURNEY TO ITALY: FROM DIALECTS TO LANGUAGES Everyone who has been to Italy knows that this a varied country with 20 regions, each one with different traditions, cuisine and customs. But did you know that every region and even every town in Italy has a dialect?

Although Italian is the official language of Italy, it's not widely known that the country boasts some 34 spoken languages and related dialects. The majority of these languages are Romance-based, meaning that they evolved from Vulgar Latin. Most notably, these include Sicilian, Neapolitan, and Sardinian.

A dialect is usually only spoken and not written and it is used in informal contexts or from people who did not learn standard Italian.

It has reached us thanks to the verbal communication of our ancestors.

The dialects are from North, Central and South Italy. The Northern dialects are Piedmontese, EmilianRomagnol, Ligurian, Lombard, Venetian, Trentinian, Ligurian and Emilian-Romagnol and the Venetian dialects, while Ladin and Friulan are part of the Rhaeto-Romance languages.

Central Italy has the Tuscan dialect Marchigiano (central part of Marche) · Umbrian dialects (Umbria) · Sabino (L'​Aquila and Province of Rieti) · Tuscia dialect (Tuscia, northern part of Latium), Romanesco or Roman dialect, and Abruzzese.

Southern Dialects include Sicilian, Calabrian, Neapolitan, and Apulian dialects. Sardinian, however, is

considered a language, not a dialect. Even the Divina Commedia, a famous Italian narrative poem written by Dante Alighieri, was translated into Sardinian!

Origins of Italian

you in when you first meet them!

German is also a co-official language in South Tyrol, enjoying the same dignity and standing as Italian, as well as in Lys Valley (Lystal) where it remains an unofficial yet recognised language.

Italian has its origins in the Latin language as with all Neo-Latin idioms. However, the Italian spoken today is based on the Florentine dialect (a variety of the Tuscan language spoken in Florence) which, in the 19th century, was considered a pure language.

In Trentino Ladin, Cimbrian and Mòcheno are unofficial yet recognised languages in the Statuto speciale per il Trentino-Alto Adige.

The regional dialect in the Veneto region, known as Venetian, is also an unofficial but recognised language.

Alessandro Manzoni, the famous Italian writer of the 19th century, based his masterpiece Promessi sposi (The Betrothed) on Florentine as he thought that “the vocabulary of Italy couldn’t be other than that of the living florentine language”.

French is another European language that has co-official status in regions of Italy. This is the case in the whole region of the Aosta Valley, while the Franco-Provençal group of dialects belonging to the Gallo-Romance are also unofficial yet protected and promoted according to federal and regional laws.

According to the UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are 31 endangered languages in Italy, which include Cimbrian, Sardinian, and Friulian.

Italian Local languages

In Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Friulian and Slovene are "promoted", but not recognised by the region. Lombard is unofficial but recognised as the regional language in Lombardy.

In the Northern part of Italy in Trentino Alto Adige, German is widely spoken due to its history as part of the Austro-Hungarian empire in the 19th century. It is often the first language people will address

In Piedmont, Piedmontese is also unofficial but recognised as the regional language, yet the region "promotes", without recognising, the Occitan, Franco-Provençal, French and Walser languages.

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Apulia has got two languages; Griko, Arbëresh (the Albanian language spoken by the Arbëreshë people of Italy or Italo-Albanians).

This language, which is part of the Albanian language, is closely related to the Albanian Tosk spoken in Albania.

In Sardinia, the region considers the cultural identity of the Sardinian people as a primary asset in relation to the Regional minorities and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.

Language & Linguistics All the languages indigenous to the island (Sardinian, Catalan, Tabarchino, Sassarese, and Gallurese) are recognised and promoted as "enjoying the same dignity and standing of Italian".

Sicilian spoken in the autonomous region, is unofficial but recognised as the regional language of the area.

BY LANGUAGETUTOR4U

Instagram @languagetutor4u

Website langua getuto r4u.co

m

"YOU CAN NEVER UNDERSTAND ONE LANGUAGE UNTIL YOU UNDERSTAND AT LEAST TWO." Geoffrey Willans

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Language & Linguistics

BY BETHANY HUGHES

LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM AND THE GLOBAL SPREAD OF ENGLISH Linguistic imperialism is generally defined as the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages; it is also referred to by some as a form of linguicism. Theories of linguistic imperialism attempt to address the structures and ideologies which facilitate linguistic hierarchies, explain why some languages are used more than others, and identify the role of language professionals and language teaching in this process.

Often a dominant language is glorified, perhaps presented as the language of God (as with Sanskrit in the Indian subcontinent, Arabic in the Islamic world, and Dutch in South Africa); the language of reason, logic and human rights (commonly associated with French); the language of a superior ethnonational group (as with German in Nazi ideology); the language of progress and modernity (as with English today).

Throughout history, linguistic imperialism has been a common feature of colonialism, with local languages erased and silenced by the new imperial language. It happened as far back as in ancient Greece and under the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman empires. It is a well-known fact that Latin, the language of the Roman empire, has led to the development of many European languages, including French, Spanish and Italian, and has also influenced English.

The term ‘Welsh’ was originally used by the Anglo-Saxons to refer to indigenous Britons. In Old English, it means ‘foreigner’ or ‘stranger’. The 1536 Act of Union with Wales included submission to the “rights, laws, customs and speech of England”. Additionally, in the Spanish colonies of Latin America, speaking Spanish or Latin was considered

a sign of being Christian as well as a sign of being Spanish.

Amerindians were often baptised with Spanish names to avoid being seen as a ‘pagan threat’ to the Spanish Inquisition.

Even if native languages weren’t erased, there are many cases of creole languages forming with various influences from both native and imperial languages. For example in the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, and small island territories such as Mauritius and Réunion. It cannot be denied that linguistic imperialism is a fundamental element of our history, however, it is also important to recognise its downsides and how it continues to take place today despite the alleged end to the age of empires.

Examples of linguistic imperialism in the modern-day include discrimination against Kurdish in Turkey, Tibetan and Uyghur in China, and Urdu speaking Muslims in India.

Such discrimination commonly forms part of wider processes of discrimination against a certain group of people because of their cultural or religious identity.

The debate surrounding linguistic imperialism commonly features a discussion about the global expansion of English, which

originated from British imperial tendencies.

Having had the largest empire, English has become the most widespread language in the world, and whilst it may no longer be imposed by force, it is important to acknowledge that the current demand for learning English stems from colonial times.

The global spread of English has taken place particularly in school environments, by teaching children in English, effectively as a proposed first language, from a very young age. However, it is thought that children begin acquiring language from their home environment soon after birth, so they have 3-4 years of linguistic experience before starting school.

Teaching children from primary school in a language other than their mother tongue, with the attitude that it will become their first language, fails to acknowledge the natural advantage they would have in their home language. One cannot deny the legitimacy of any language, and increased use of English in education, as both a second language but also a primary language, harms all of us by narrowing our cultural and linguistic universe.

One key point to note with linguistic imperialism, and specifically with

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the global spread of English, is the inequality it creates. English skills developed through international education qualifications such as the International Baccalaureate which pave the way to higher education at prestigious universities in Englishspeaking countries, and later, to enhanced employment opportunities both at home and abroad. However, when investigating the true extent of such benefits of learning English, it is important to note that these opportunities are largely reserved for the middle class; for others, there is only the national education curriculum which does not offer the same opportunities for social mobility.

In Indonesia for example, despite being deemed unconstitutional in 2013, around 220 private schools are offering at least some part of their curriculum through Cambridge International, 38 of which are Muslim private schools that are prevented from pursuing Muslim values by the overly anglicised system, in terms of culture, religion and language. Therefore, linguistic imperialism not only reduces linguistic diversity; it also creates a linguistic hierarchy reflected in actual power, thus marginalising speakers of native languages.

Scholar Robert Phillipson is a key proponent of linguistic imperialism theories as he re-popularised the debate in the 1990s. He particularly discusses the global spread of English in his 1992 book ‘Linguistic Imperialism’.

In his book he deals with key questions such as whether the winning of independence from colonisers has led to linguistic liberation, whether colonial languages are truly useful in the international community, or whether they are merely utilised to promote Western interests and permit further exploitation and dominance.

Language & Linguistics He describes linguistic imperialism as structural, ideological, a cause of inequality, and implemented at the expense of other languages. He proposes that the global teaching of English has featured these aspects.

The presentation of English as the language of modernity and progress, and something necessary for success in education and employment, has led to it being considered by many as a ‘lingua nullius’, a non-localised language, supposedly not tied to any social, political, economic, or religious system, or to a specific racial or cultural group.

However, English is taught not just as a second language, but as one involved in the political, educational, social and economic aspects of a country; a language can never fully be divorced from its associated culture, and a single language cannot meet the needs of any diverse society. Not to mention the economic benefit of teaching and examining programmes run by British agencies across the world.

This anglocentricity and belief that English is universally relevant poses a threat to indigenous languages, culture and ways of life, and disregards the benefits of cultural and linguistic diversity. Instead, Phillipson argues for the promotion of multilingual education, which reflects the natural linguistic diversity of the world.

Phillipson refers to several international organisations who support his view that a monolingual education in English in countries of other native languages is damaging.

For example, a 2009 Save the Children report - ‘Language and Education: The Missing Link’ stated that “2.4 billion people speak languages which receive minimal use in education systems”, despite clear evidence that “learning at school in a language which is not used in children’s home lives is

BY BETHANY HUGHES

being linked both to poor performance and total exclusion from education”.

Since 1953, UNESCO has encouraged primary education in the mother tongue. A 1999 UNESCO resolution highlighted the need for multilingual education, which promotes interconnectedness and diversity, as well as acknowledging the need to use children’s mother tongue as the main language of instruction.

A multilingual education focused on the mother tongue will help children develop better-thinking skills, and increase the chances of children, especially those from rural areas with less exposure to a dominant language, succeeding and staying in school longer. It also enhances the engagement of parents with teachers and their children’s learning.

Here are some more specific examples of issues that have arisen from the spread of English globally: Singapore All students in state schools in Singapore are taught English as their first language from primary school. They will also be taught a second language—either Mandarin, Malay or Tamil—which are the three most common mother tongues in Singapore.

This has resulted in more than half of the population using English as a home language. Whilst it may be important for students in ex-British colonies to learn English for its value in employment and maintaining a close relationship with Britain, this should not be carried out in a subtractive way that neglects mother tongues.

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Language & Linguistics

Not only does this impact people in Singapore, but further afield. For example, the Singapore Intercultural School, an international school in Indonesia, teaches its curriculum through the Cambridge Centre for International Examinations, offering IGCSE, Alevel, and IB qualifications with an anglocentric approach.

Pakistan Pakistan is a very linguistically diverse country, with 5 languages having more than 10 million speakers each—Punjabi (39%), Pashto (18%), Sindhi (14%), Saraiki (12%), Urdu (7%). However, Urdu and English are the only official languages of the nation.

The education system is dominated by attitudes that present English as necessary for improving the system, which perhaps seems logical given that the employment market discriminates in favour of those fluent in English as it is seen as the ‘language of international communication’. However, Pakistan is one of many examples of countries where learning English is only available to the elite who attend private schools beyond the reach of the majority.

In contrast, the state schools that teach in indigenous languages significantly underperform since the competing schools that teach in English are seen as better by the educational system even if their true academic standards are no

better, or even worse. Indeed, when English is presented as the one thing that can open all doors in terms of employment, the standards of English may even decline because people are no longer learning it for love of learning, but out of a perceived necessity.

And even if learning English is ‘necessary’ for global communication, this does not mean that it cannot be sufficiently taught as a second language, whilst preserving the cultural and linguistic integrity of the country in question.

Canada vs Quebec When the British government gave up their right of control in Canada in 1982, a new constitutional agreement was signed by all provinces and territories, except for Quebec, who opposed the constitution’s failure to protect Quebec’s distinct linguistic and cultural heritage. Because of the traditional economic and political superiority of English Canada, the government has and continues to neglect the French cultural and linguistic aspects of Canada, despite being a bilingual nation.

French speakers (the majority living in Quebec) find it much more difficult than English speakers to access and be involved in the political and social networks outside of their province.

BY BETHANY HUGHES

Because of the Canadian government giving priority to English speakers, Quebec has become a breeding ground for French-language imperialism which is used to combat English linguistic imperialism. For example, whilst Canadian law states that all national institutions in Canada must provide services in both English and French, all new immigrant children to Quebec are required to attend French-language schools; Quebec’s 1988 Bill 178 decreed that all outdoor signs and billboards must be in French.

Many would argue that we should not dwell on the past; instead, we should accept the current reality that English does open doors in the worlds of education, employment and communication. However, it is not about dwelling on or attempting to change the past, but changing the future by acknowledging the mistakes of the past.

There is a huge difference between learning English as a tool that is indeed useful in today’s world and learning it in a way that neglects other languages and cultures. It is also essential that we recognise how English came to be such a global language, as well as how other languages have become dominant in other societies, acknowledging the damage that linguistic imperialism has done and continues to do to the cultural and linguistic diversity of the world.

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BY SOPHIE WILLIAMS

Language & Linguistics

WHAT THE… FOOTBALL?!

MULTILINGUALISM IN THE BEAUTIFUL GAME With the return of summer football in the form of the European Championships and the Copa América, my brain is filled to the brim with football-related questions. How on earth did I manage to get such a bad combination of countries in the family sweepstake (I am down to one team!)?

Who is going to win the golden boot? Why have there been so many own goals this Euros?

One question that has successfully united the language-learning side of my brain with the side that enjoys football is the age-old question: how do footballers from all over the world communicate, not only with each other, but with the referee? Setting out to research this question, I expected a straightforward answer, however, it is a relatively complex issue that can vary not only between clubs but also from club level to international level.

With international transfers and squads made up of a wide variety of nationalities, it is not a shock that multilingualism has become a part of football today. With more polyglot managers and players than ever (did you know that Romelu Lukaku can speak six languages?!), football clubs seem to have embraced the multilingual aspect of the beautiful game.

More experienced players within a club are now often asked to act as mentors to younger players who share their mother tongue. The use of interpreters as well as making language classes available to new additions to the squad are more formal ways of smoothing out any linguistic bumps in dressing rooms.

The appointment of a multilingual captain or manager has proved successful in tackling misunderstandings in some clubs. It goes without saying that language barriers are a bigger issue for certain clubs more than others. That said, nowadays if a club wanted to introduce more international players, there are fantastic resources available, as well as approaches that will help to create a successful multilingual work environment within the dressing room.

particularly during international fixtures. Referees can be observed using hand signals specific to different aspects of the game (e.g. corner, penalty, free kick, etc.).

Players familiarise themselves with these signals over time and seem to have little trouble understanding what the referee is saying. After all, a red card is a red card in every language.

That is all well and good but what happens on the pitch itself? In an international game between Russia and Spain, with a referee from the Netherlands where there is little to no mutual intelligibility - how does that work?

The official languages of FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) are English, French, Spanish, and German.

Referees are expected to have a good level of English; therefore, it will come as no surprise to many of us that English acts as a lingua franca on the football pitch.

Aside from the use of English, body language, along with other nonverbal communication, is key,

Image Credit: BBC Sport Football

So, do language barriers affect the beautiful game? Not to the extent that you might think. The game is universal and transcends language barriers, with some describing football as a language in and of itself.

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Although some international players struggle to adapt to their new linguistic landscape off the pitch and outside of the realm of football, it appears that fluency in corner kicks and a proficiency in penalties is all that is required to navigate the now wonderfully multilingual football world.

Language & Linguistics

BY SOPHIE WILLIAMS

Football Idioms in Different Languages Kiviä taskuun (Put stones in your pockets) - This is used in Finnish in reference to a player who falls over too easily.

Notbremse (Emergency brake) – This is used in German to mean an instance where a goalscoring opportunity is foiled through a foul.

Píntalo de amarillo (Paint him yellow) – Spanish speaking fans use this phrase to urge the referee to dish out a yellow card to a player.

Lissepasning (Shoelace pass) – This Norwegian term describes a pass so accurate that it more or less reaches the shoelaces of the player for whom it was intended.

Nettoyer les toiles d’araignées (To clean the spiderwebs) – This French idiom describes when an incredible shot whirls past the goalie into the top corner of the goal.

Levar um frango (To get a chicken) – When goalies make a mistake such as letting the ball slip through their legs, some Portuguese speaking fans are quick to hurl this phrase at them.