Elsevier Encyclopedia on Nuclear Energy - Medical, Agricultural, and Industrial Applications

The Elsevier Encyclopedia on Nuclear Energy Dr. Ehud Greenspan, Chief Editor

SECTION 11: The Medical, Agricultural, and Industrial Applications of Nuclear Technology Dr. Alan Waltar, Editor

Chapter 1—Harnessing Nuclear Radiation Alan Waltar, Retired Professor and Head, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Alan.Waltar@gmail.com

Abstract The primary purpose of this chapter is to illustrate the many ways nuclear radiation can be harnessed to provide enormous benefits in the fields of medicine, agriculture, modern industry, environmental protection, and public safety that we enjoy every day. Descriptions are given for more than a dozen unique properties of radiation technology that allow for these major benefits to be achieved.

Chapter 2 – Medicine: Sterilization

Vikram Kalia, Director, MICROTROL Sterilisation Services Pvt. Ltd. 308 – 309 ATL Corporate Park, Saki Vihar Road, Mumbai 400 072. India vikram@microtrol-india.com; +91.9821022918

Deepa Joseph, Assistant Manager – Regulatory Affairs & Technical Services MICROTROL Sterilisation Services Pvt. Ltd. 308 – 309 ATL Corporate Park, Saki Vihar Road, Mumbai 400 072. India deepa@microtrol-india.com; +91.9930367541

Abstract Radiation Sterilization is a popular and safe method for terminal sterilization of medical products. The convenience of terminal sterilization at ambient temperatures, coupled with its tag for being an environmentally safe technology (the only by-product being ozone gas), provides an efficient sterilization option for medical product manufacturers. A holistic view on various aspects of the two main radiation sterilization processes is discussed in this chapter. In-depth details may be obtained from the references mentioned at the end of the chapter.

The global sterilization market in 2016 was US $4.7B and growing at the rate of 8.8% per annum. The radiation sterilization industry occupies approximately 45% of the current variety of modalities, such as steam and X-ray. There are more than 200 large scale gamma irradiators in operation, worldwide, with a source strength of 1million curie and above (www.iia.com).

Chapter 3A Medicine: Radionuclides Used in Nuclear Medicine Meera Venkatesh (Former Director, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria). <prof.mvenkatesh@gmail.com>

Keon Wook Kang (Professor, Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, South Korea). <kangkw@snu.ac.kr>

Abstract Nuclear Medicine (NM) is a specialty wherein either radionuclides or radiolabeled molecules known as radiopharmaceuticals are employed for management of diseases through diagnosis as well as treatment.

The evolution of NM spans over a century, growing with Nobel prize winning brilliant inventions that revolutionized the world of artificial radioactivity [SNMMI Webpage, 2020; Anderson, et al., 2019] The radionuclides used are carefully chosen to have features that aid in diagnosis (photons that are suitable for imaging) or therapy (particulate emissions with high linear energy transfer for effective therapy) and have a reasonable half-life (neither too long nor too short) as well as amenable production possibilities. Among the several radionuclides suitable for use in nuclear medicine, the most attractive ones used in clinical nuclear medicine are Technetium-99m, Fluorine-18, Gallium-68, and Iodine-123 for diagnosis, and Iodine131, Lutetium-177, Strontium-89, Yttrium-90, Rhenium-188 and Samarium-153 for therapy. Alpha emitters such as Actinium-225, Bismuth-213, and Radium-223 have shown excellent results in clinical trials and are currently pursued for advanced therapy applications. These and several other suitable

radionuclides with attractive features (such as Copper-64, Zirconium-89 etc.) are used in limited clinics and are expected to be widely used in the future.

Accurate dosimetry is important in providing treatment with radiopharmaceuticals. Since the behavior of a radiopharmaceutical when administered in the body (in-vivo) is not identical in all people, especially in cancers, the current strategy in NM treatment is to personalize the treatment by assessing the biological distribution of the radiopharmaceutical tagged with a diagnostic radionuclide for planning therapy, and following it with therapy using the same bio-molecule labelled with suitable therapeutic RNs. This strategy, termed as ‘Thera(g)nostics’, has gained a lot of attention in the recent years, although this concept has long been used in the treatment of thyroid disorders with I-131. Such theranostic practice calls for matching pairs of radionuclides for diagnosis and therapy that have similar chemical behavior [Filippi, et al., 2020].

The use of radionuclides in nuclear medicine could be considered to consist of two major aspects; namely, a. the radionuclides – choice, production and practical aspects in using them (dealt in the current Chapter), and b. radiopharmaceuticals and their use in diagnosis and therapy (Chapter 3B-Venkatesh and Kang, 2020).

Chapter 3B Medicine: Pharmaceuticals and Their Use in Nuclear Medicine Keon Wook Kang (Professor, Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, South Korea). kangkw@snu.ac.kr

Meera Venkatesh (Former Director, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences, International Atomic Energy Agency). <prof.mvenkatesh@gmail.com>

Abstract A brief introduction to nuclear medicine and an overview of the radionuclides used in nuclear medicine were provided in Chapter 3A [Venkatesh and Kang, 2020]. This chapter, a sequel to Chapter 3A, provides an overview of the radiopharmaceuticals and their uses in nuclear medicine. The biological nature of radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine to target the desired organ/lesion has evolved over the decades [Anderson, et al., 2019]. The evolution in molecular biology, an understanding of cancer propagation mechanisms, and the availability of highly specific targeting molecules such as antibodies and peptides, have enabled precise targeting. Most of the current radiopharmaceuticals are based on their biological action, earning the name ‘Molecular Imaging’ for nuclear medicine imaging. Nearly all vital organs and their functions, as well as most cancers, can be imaged using nuclear medicine imaging techniques--providing a valuable tool to the physicians in managing the patients through diagnosis as well as follow up after treatment.

Cardiology, oncology, and neurology are the three branches that employ nuclear medicine imaging extensively.

Therapy using radiopharmaceuticals has been practiced since artificial radionuclides became available.

Iodine-131 has been extremely successful in the treatment of thyroid cancers/disorders and is still practiced [Becker and Sawin,1996]. With the availability of targeting molecules and a wide range of therapeutic

radionuclides, targeted therapy using radiopharmaceuticals has grown rapidly in the past two-to-three decades [Goldsmith, 2019]. Therapeutic nuclear medicine is mainly used in the treatment of cancers. But a few other conditions have also immensely benefitted from NM therapy. The main areas of therapy are (a) Palliation of pain due to skeletal metastases using radiolabeled phosphonates or calcium analogs, (b) Targeting cancer lesions using highly specific molecules such as peptides. Examples include 1) the use of octreotide, an analog of somatostatin, to target somatostatin receptor binding peptides that are expressed on several neuroendocrine tumors); 2) antibodies (e.g., monoclonal antibodies now available as a radiolabeled therapy option used for treating head and neck cancers); and 3) specific molecules that could bind to certain cancers (e.g., meta iodo benzyl guanidine-mIBG for targeting certain neuroendocrine tumors, such as neuroblastoma; I-131-mIBG, which provides an excellent therapy mode for such cancers), (c) Treatment of hyperactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer) using I-131 as iodide, and (d) Radiation synoviorthesis for treatment of inflammatory joints.

Assessing the exact biological distribution of the radiopharmaceutical prior to therapy through a diagnostic imaging is increasingly followed for accurate dosimetry and effective therapy. The diagnostic imaging provides the information about the bio-distribution of the radiopharmaceutical in the target tissues as well as various vital organs (such as kidneys, bone marrow etc.) at different time spans after administration of the radiopharmaceutical. This data helps the radiation physicist calculate the radiation dose when the same radiopharmaceutical is labeled with a therapeutic radionuclide, which would be delivered to the target organ/lesion as well as to the vital organs. Based on these calculations, the physician can then plan the treatment, aiming at delivering the required therapeutic radiation dose to the target organ/lesion while keeping the radiation dose to the non-target vital organs below the threshold of permissible dose. Thus, the same biomolecule labelled with suitable RNs is used for diagnosis (for planning the treatment) as well as therapy and the term ‘Thera(g)nostics’ coined in this context has gained a lot of attention in the recent years [Venkatesh and Kang, 2020; Farolfi, et al., 2019; Filippi, et al., 2020].

With the personalized approach towards patient management, nuclear medicine has a unique and unequivocal role in patient management.

Chapter 4 Medicine: New Drug Developments Meera Venkatesh (Former Director, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria). prof.mvenkatesh@gmail.com

Aruna Korde (Radiopharmaceutical Scientist, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria). agkorde@gmail.com

Abstract Radiolabeled molecules have a niche and valuable role in drug research and drug development.

Development of a new drug is a lengthy multi-step process, which in brief could be conceived as selection

of the promising lead molecules, testing each of them for their efficacy, and ascertaining the desired utility through clinical trials. This involves a huge amount of effort, time, and funds. Radiolabeled molecules, including the radiopharmaceuticals and radiometric assays, have been very useful in each step of drug research and development. On the one hand, radiolabeled drug molecules have been used to trace the drug behavior, while on the other, established radiopharmaceuticals have been used to monitor the patients for the effects of drugs to provide unequivocal results on the efficacy of the drug. This chapter outlines the use of radiolabeled molecules in drug research and development.

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Chapter 5 Medicine: Therapeutic and Other Applications Using Sealed Radiation Sources Meera Venkatesh (Former Director, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria). prof.mvenkatesh@gmail.com

Shyam Shrivastava (Director, Radiation Oncology, Apollo Hospitals, Navi Mumbai, India). <shyamshrivastava@gmail.com>

Abstract The use of radiation for treatment of cancers was among the earliest applications of radiation and has grown as a specialty branch of radiation oncology in treatment of cancers. Radiation therapy is often a part of the therapy strategy in treatment of many cancers. Nearly 50% of the cancer patients are treated with radiation, either alone or with other strategies.

While nuclear medicine uses open sources of radiation in the form of radiopharmaceuticals (Keon and Venkatesh, 2020), sealed radioactive sources are used in cancer treatment in two ways. External focusing of the radiation on cancerous lesions is known as External Beam Radiotherapy (EBRT) or Teletherapy and treatment by placing the sealed radioactive source in close contact with the lesion is Brachytherapy (Tele = far and Brachy = short in Greek). In teletherapy, a strong source of radiation (either ~400-500 TBq of Cobalt-60 placed in an adequately shielded machine or a linear accelerator) is used and an accurate dosage of radiation is delivered through computer controlled sophisticated mechanisms.

EBRT has evolved over the decades and the advances in software and hardware fields have made it possible to deliver the desired radiation dose to the tumor volume very precisely with minimal damages to the surrounding healthy tissues. Currently there are several modes of EBRT to treat cancers in a precise effective way. In brief these are, 3D-Conformal Radiation Therapy (3D-CRT), Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT), Image Guided Radiation Therapy (IGRT), Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy (SBRT), Stereotactic Radio-Surgery and Radiotherapy (SRS), Stereotactic Radiation Therapy (SRT), Volumetric Arc Therapy (VMAT).

In brachytherapy, a variety of radionuclides (such as Gold-198, Iridium-192, Iodine-125, Cesium-131, Cesium-137, Palladium-103, Cobalt-60) in different forms such as needles, seeds, patches etc. are used in

sealed form and the strength of these sources vary widely from MBq to GBq levels. The mode of application of the brachytherapy sources also varies widely, from placing a high dose rate source close to lesion for just a few minutes or placing a low dose rate source inside the body for a long time or permanently.

Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) is yet another mode in which radiation therapy is achieved through alpha particles emitted inside the body at the site of cancerous lesion. In BNCT, a molecule containing boron atoms is administered in the site of lesion and then exposed to neutrons, which results in the reaction between boron and the neutron, with lithium and alpha particles being emitted. Although BNCT was conceptualized several decades ago, its practice has been limited due to the challenge in getting the boronated compound in the lesion and accessing a neutron source. Recent developments have addressed these challenges and BNCT is currently seen as a promising therapy mode.

The benefits from radiation applications in the healthcare sector go beyond nuclear medicine and therapy.

They include the treatment of materials with radiation. Radiation sterilization of medical products such as needles, sutures and prosthetics is widely used (Kalia, 2020), and treatment of blood with radiation before transfusion into patients is practiced in most countries as a mandatory requirement to prevent complications post transfusion. Further, radiation modified high performing materials are increasingly finding unique applications in healthcare.

Chapter 6 Agriculture: Improving Crop Production S. Sivasankar, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Vienna, Austria.

Lee Kheng Heng, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Vienna, Austria

Si-Yong Kang*, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea *Present address: Department of Horticulture, College of Industrial Science, Kongju National University, Chungnam, Republic of Korea. sykang@kongju.ac.kr

Abstract

The production of food, feed and cash crops are central to food security and farmer income. Current and emerging technologies that address the development of improved crop varieties and their production have contributed to significant improvements in crop production over time. Nuclear science and technology, and associated innovations, have enabled the creation of novel genetic diversity in plants through mutation breeding. This, combined with nuclear techniques in soil and water management, has led to the realization of higher and stable crop yields. These technologies could become even more important for developing improved crop varieties that are adapted to climate change phenomena such as increasingly frequent droughts, high temperatures, floods etc.

Chapter 7 Agriculture: Improving Livestock Production Gerrit J Viljoen, Animal Production and Health Subprogramme, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency. Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, Vienna, Austria. Email: G.J.Viljoen@iaea.org

Rui Pereira, Insect Pest Control Subprogramme, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency. Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, Vienna, Austria. Email: R.Cardoso-Pereira@iaea.org

Marc JB Vreysen, Insect Pest Control Subprogramme, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency. Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, Vienna, Austria. Email: M.Vreysen@iaea.org

Giovanni Cattoli, Animal Production and Health Subprogramme, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency. Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, Vienna, Austria. Email: G.Cattoli@iaea.org

Mario Garcia Podesta, Animal Production and Health Subprogramme, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency. Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, Vienna, Austria. Email: M.Garcia-Podesta@iaea.org

Abstract Nuclear applications provide added value to conventional approaches in addressing a range of agricultural problems and issues, including crop and animal production, animal disease diagnosis and control, insect pest control, food safety and sustainable use of natural resources. Examples specific to livestock include isotopes as tracers to evaluate feed intake and body composition, 125I and 3H labelled hormones for radioimmunoassay (RIA) to monitor reproductive hormones, X-rays and 60Co for developing genetic maps, X-rays and 60Co gamma irradiation for vaccine development, stable isotopes to determine the migratory path of birds, and X-rays and gamma rays to sterilize insects for pest control such as tsetse flies and the New World screwworm fly.

Chapter 8 Agriculture: Electron Beam Irradiation Technology Applications in the Food Industry Suresh D. Pillai, National Center for Electron Beam Research, Department of Food Science & Technology, Texas A&M University. <s-pillai@tamu.edu>

Eric T. Pillai, Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research, University of California, Berkeley (Currently at SpaceX, Hawthorne, CA) eric.pillai@berkeley.edu

Abstract Today’s food industry has to deal with multiple challenges ranging all the way from maintaining and improving overall sensory and nutritional quality (food quality), protecting against the accidental spread of infectious organisms (food safety), preventing accidental transboundary importation of insects and pests along with fresh produce (phytosanitary quality), and preventing un-necessary food wastes at both

production, processing and at retail (food waste). Additionally, the food industry’s supply chains must be resilient enough to withstand natural or deliberate perturbations in them so that food continues to be available to the billions (food security). No other food processing technology has been studied as extensively as food irradiation technology. Yet, for reasons beyond just the science, many in the food industry are still unclear about how much this technology has improved and become commercially available since 1905 when this technology was first patented. Major changes have occurred in the commercially available food irradiation technologies, including the acceptance of this technology around the world and the thinking as to how this technology needs to be made available so that widespread adoption of the technology can take place.

Gamma irradiation using cobalt-60 is the legacy technology around the world over, and this technology still has the largest market share. However, we are witnessing the slow sunset of this technology. Electron beam (eBeam) technology based on using regular electricity and high energy (10 MeV) electrons (HEEB) is already available as a cost-effective solution to gamma irradiation. The costs of acquiring this technology coupled with the limited number of dependable technology providers and the time it takes for the construction and qualification of the equipment are still nowhere close to optimal. However, the robustness and dependability of electron beam technology today is vastly superior than what was available even a decade ago. The need to bring eBeam and X-ray techniques into the food processing facility as either inline or end of line processing has catalyzed the commercial availability of low energy eBeam (LEEB) technology. It is imperative that deep economic and technology analysis be part of the due diligence that entrepreneurs undertake before deciding on the type and technology for their investments.

Previous anecdotal observations that consumers are against food irradiation have been proven wrong by scientific studies, surveys, and actual retail sales. China and India have amended their food irradiation regulations to favor widespread commercial adoption of this technology. The rapidly changing needs of the food industry to have just in time processing , reduced inventories, and strong control over their products will force technology providers to make the equipment footprint smaller, more affordable, and make it possible to bring the technology in-house. Overall, the future of this powerful platform technology for the food industry looks extremely promising.

Chapter 9 Modern Industry: Diagnostics and Process Control J. Thereska, International Society for Tracer and Radiation Applications (ISTRA), Vienna, Austria. thereska@gmail.com

P.Brisset, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria. P.Brisset@iaea.org

Abstract Nuclear methods such as radiotracing and nucleonic gauging are largely used to diagnose processes, solve problems, improve product quality, save energy and reduce pollution. The new developments in nuclear

technologies as applied for diagnostic and process control are moving along two main trends: process visualization using radioactive tracers and integrated neutron-gamma gauges for online multi-elemental and multiphase analysis. The benefits from nuclear technologies applications in industry are estimated to be in the multibillion US$/yr. range. _____________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 10 Modern Industry—Gamma Methods for Materials Testing and Inspection Tor Bjørnstad, Retired Chief Scientist at Institute for Energy Technology, Kjeller, Norway and Professor Emeritus at University of Oslo, Blindern, Oslo, Norway. <tor.bjornstad45@gmail.com>

Abstract This text provides information on gamma radiation assisted methods for material testing and inspection.

The technical principles of the various methods are sketched, and a few selected applications in civil engineering, industry and science are outlined. Many other examples to illustrate the usefulness of gamma radiation applications could be mentioned, but space is limited for such additional coverage.

The attentive and informed reader will notice that one major topic has been left out of this text. This topic is gamma-assisted non-destructive testing (NDT), or industrial radiography, performed with X-ray or gamma-ray sources to detect flaws and failures for instance in weldings, in concrete structures and similar.

The reason is that several major texts and books already exist in the area. References to some relevant texts for this topic are given in refs. [NRC, 2008], [Halmshaw, 2012] and [Jaques and Rehman, 2020].

Hopefully, the reader will be left with the impression that gamma assisted methods are exceptionally useful for material testing, inspection and process examination and control. The non-destructive nature of lowdoserate gamma radiation from longer-lived gamma sources makes such sources versatile and applicable for implementation in non-intrusive, continuous and on-line/on-site examinations. Small sizes simplify logistics and implementation. In many cases, gamma radiation technology cannot be substituted by any other technical methods. Still, radioactive sources should be handled by personnel qualified in radiation protection to ensure safe handling and implementation.

Chapter 11 Modern Industry—Neutron Basic Interactions, Sources and Detectors for Materials Testing and Inspection

Tor Bjørnstad, Retired Chief Scientist at Institute for Energy Technology, Kjeller, Norway and Professor Emeritus at University of Oslo, Blindern, Oslo, Norway. <tor.bjornstad45@gmail.com>

Abstract The information provided in this chapter on neutron radiation induced methods for material testing and analysis comprises − the basic neutron interaction with matter including absorption, scattering, and transfer reactions, − the nature and degree of the various interactions depending on neutron energies, − a description of various sources and production mechanisms for neutrons, including isotopic neutron sources, nuclear reactors, and charged particle accelerators, − and a few technical and practical ways and principles for detection of neutrons including gas-based detectors, solid scintillators, and semiconductor detectors.

The objective of this text is twofold: 1. Provide basic but educational information on the four bullet points above.

2. Prepare the technical ground to ease the understanding of the principles behind the various application areas described in [Bjørnstad, 2020b].

Chapter 12 Modern Industry-Applications of Neutrons for Materials Testing and Inspection Tor Bjørnstad, Retired Chief Scientist at Institute for Energy Technology, Kjeller, Norway and Professor Emeritus at University of Oslo, Blindern, Oslo, Norway. <tor.bjornstad45@gmail.com>

Abstract For details on neutron interactions with matter, - see [Bjørnstad, 2020b]. The present chapter describes a few selected applications of neutron radiation-based methods for material testing and analysis in civil engineering, industry, and science. The applications comprise the use of neutron backscattering or back-

diffusion technique to measure water content in soil, neutron-based well logging for rock porosity determination, and level gauging in storage and process vessels.

Further, neutron radiography and tomography are described in some detail, and applications are given for cargo inspection of closed containers as well as their use in biology, archeology, for non-destructive studies of cultural heritage objects, and for non-intrusive study of fluid flow in porous media.

Additionally, basic technical information on neutron-induced elemental analysis, not provided in [Bjørnstad, 2020b], is included in this chapter. The text concentrates mainly on a description of the principles of the PGNAA method, since this method is central in many of the described applications.

Such applications include on-line analysis in the mining and mineral processing industry, in the chemical separation industry, for landmine and illicit material detection, and in space missions.

A major analytical method like the β-delayed neutron activation analysis, or NAA, is not described in similar detail because several educational texts on this technology can be readily found elsewhere in the published literature [Bode, 2017; Amiel, 2012; DeSoete et al., 1972; Alfassi, 1990]

Chapter 13 Modern Industry: Development of New Materials Pasquale Fernando Fulvio, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843. E-mail: pfulvio@tamu.edu

Abstract Radiation technology has been applied to develop a plethora of new materials, now in direct commercial use throughout the world. Materials processing and nanomaterials development directly benefit from the use of radiation. Radiation commonly used in metallurgic, ceramic, food, pharmaceutical and electronic industries include electrons, high energy ions in plasmas, neutrons and gamma. These are selected to introduce atomic lattice defects and change mechanical properties, implant ions and atoms to tailor electronic bandgaps in semiconductors and insulators, prepare coatings, create pores for selective filtration membranes, and change synthetic and natural polymer properties in the plastics and wood industries.

Radiation also finds applications in the quality control in sheet and packaging material manufacturing, measuring solid and fluid levels in the food industry, and also finds uses in food, pharmaceutical and in the preservation of historical and archaeological artifacts as an effective and safe antimicrobial treatment.

Chapter 14 Applications

Modern Industry: Non-Nuclear Energy

J. Thereska, International Society for Tracer and Radiation Applications (ISTRA), Vienna, Austria. thereska@gmail.com

P.Brisset, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria. <P.Brisset@iaea.org>

Abstract Relevant target areas for non-nuclear energy applications are defined. Radiation and radioisotope technologies are widely used in petroleum and petrochemical industries as well as in other fossil fuel sources (e.g. coal, natural gas), geothermal, and the renewable sources (hydropower, solar, and wind).

These energy industries derive huge benefits from radiation and radioisotope applications.

Chapter 15 Modern Industry: Personal Care, Conveniences, and Safety Alan E. Waltar, Retired Professor and Chair, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Alan.Waltar@gmail.com

Abstract This chapter provides an overview of how harnessed nuclear radiation serves as a daily servant for our personal care, enjoyed conveniences, and personal safety. In some ways, it is a summary of how the many technical aspects of the remaining chapters of this Section help undergird our access to general health, personal grooming, modern medicine, food and clothing, available transportation, home and garden, and dealing with daily hazards.

Chapter 16—Environmental Protection: Managing Fresh Water Resources U. Saravana Kumar, Isotope Hydrology Section, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100, 1400 Vienna, Austria. U.D.Saravana-Kumar@iaea.org

Md. Arzoo Ansari, Isotope and Radiation Application Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai- 400085, India. arzoo@barc.gov.in

Abstract Fresh water is essential for human life and the demand for potable water is increasing worldwide.

However, anthropogenic activities and natural processes have influenced its quality and the existing quantity. To manage fresh water resources properly, a detailed study is necessary to understand the properties and dynamics of fresh water at regional and local scales. Isotope hydrology is one of the ideal tools that can be used to meet these challenges and has proven its importance to fresh water developers and managers as well as decision makers worldwide.

Measuring the unique isotopes in water provides direct insight into the governing process that controls water distribution and movement in the hydrological system. Many reported hydrological studies have used environmental isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) of water molecules to assess the groundwater quality, the recharge mechanisms, the origin and the water-rock interactions. In addition, the isotopic characterization of atmospheric vapor and precipitation has provided first order constraints on the modern atmospheric hydrological cycle and climate changes. In hydrological studies, stable isotopes such as 13C, 15N, 11B, 34S, etc. provide valuable insights into the reactions within these elements and can act as a pollution tracer in the hydrological systems, while radioactive isotopes such as 3H, 14C, 36Cl, 81Kr, 39Ar, etc., can be used to estimate groundwater residence time and its renewability. It should be noted that isotope hydrology techniques complement the conventional hydrological methods used for water resources studies and, accordingly, their applications should be promoted worldwide to ensure sustainable management of fresh water resources.

Chapter 17 Environmental Protection: The Oceans— Formation and Global Climate Change

GiHoon Hong, Retired President and Professor, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Retired Adjunct Professor, Wayne State University, Former Chair of the London Convention and Protocol on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, Currently GH Institute, Seoul, South Korea. gihoonh@gmail.com

Pavel P. Povinec, Professor, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Comenius University, Bratislava (Slovakia), Retired Head, Radiometrics Laboratory of IAEA in Monaco, Former Head, Department of Nuclear Physics, Comenius University. pavel.povinec@fmph.uniba.sk

Abstract The current oceans are ephemeral in terms of the global change over the past geological history of the earth. The size and position of ocean and land has undergone several cycles of formation and breakup of the super continents with approximately 600 million years of periodicity. Through these tectonic movements, the earth has experienced significant climate change--resulting in extinction of many organisms in the past. It is within this context that the current climate change debate needs to be understood. The primordial radionuclides present at the time of the formation of the earth have shed light on deciphering the hidden evolutionary history of the earth over the billions of years in the past and the more recent climate change since the 1940s, along with anthropogenic radionuclides with known input functions.

Chapter 18 Environmental Protection: The Oceans— Implications of Manmade Radiation

GiHoon Hong, Retired President and Professor, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Retired Adjunct Professor, Wayne State University, Former Chair of the London Convention and Protocol on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, Currently GH Institute, Seoul, South Korea. gihoonh@gmail.com

Pavel P. Povinec, Professor, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Comenius University, Bratislava (Slovakia), Retired Head, Radiometrics Laboratory of IAEA in Monaco, Former Head, Department of Nuclear Physics, Comenius University. pavel.povinec@fmph.uniba.sk

Abstract The oceans and seas cover approximately 72% of the earth’s surface and are interconnected except landlocked seas. Marine transportation provides around 80% of global trade by volume. This ecosystem service amounts to about 50 trillion US dollars per year, more than a half of the total world GDP of 88 trillion US dollars in 2019 (according to the World Bank). Marine transportation is of vital importance to humanity as well as the global economy. All people in the world have an interest in assuring that it is managed so that its quality and resources are not impaired. Once the quality of the oceans and their resources are impaired, the utility of the oceans become sharply reduced. Moreover, the contaminants introduced in one spot are gradually spreading throughout the entire world ocean due to the incessant flow and mixing of ocean waters. Currently, human-caused climate change and air pollution largely from fossil fuel burning, and water pollution from the drainage basins and discharge from point sources of industrial and municipal wastes, remain major global-scale problems. This chapter, pertinent to the scope of this encyclopedia, deals only with the nuclear industry related radioactive substance pollution in the marine environment that are on the sub-femtomolar level concentration (<10-15 mol/L). Humans have added anthropogenic radionuclides to the ocean since 1945 as a result of nuclear weapons testing in the air or at the surface, accidents of nuclear power plants, accidents and losses involving nuclear material at sea, as well as the disposed of wastes emitted from various nuclear and non-nuclear industries. This chapter reviews the contamination of manmade radionuclides in the oceans over the last several decades by various agents including a brief perspective regarding ocean pollution from other power producing sources. The utility of anthropogenic radionuclides present in the ocean was also reviewed as tracers to investigate oceanic processes for various purpose of protection of marine environment ranging from coastal and estuarine pollution and large scale ocean circulation to enhance the understanding climate changes.

Chapter 19 Environmental Protection: Reducing Environmental Pollution

Andrzej G. Chmielewski, Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology, Warsaw. Poland A.Chmielewski@ichtj.waw.pl

Bumsoo Han, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria B.Han@iaea.org

Sunil Sabharwal, India sunsab57@gmail.com

Maria Helena Sampa, IPEN, Sao Paulo, Brazil mhosampa8@yahoo.com.br

Abstract Radiation processing technologies aimed at ensuring the safety of gaseous and liquid effluents discharged to the environment have been developed. It has been demonstrated that radiation processing-based technologies for flue gas treatment (SOX and NOX removal) at coal and oil fired power plants, wastewater purification, and sludge hygienization and biohazards control can be effectively deployed to mitigate environmental degradation. Byproducts of flue gas purification and sludge hygenization are high value fertilizer, which is a great contribution of radiation technology to circular economy scheme implementation. Emerging technologies are now focused to encourage ballast water and ship diesel off-gases treatment to follow recent standards introduced by the International Maritime Organization. Therefore, all these technologies are an important supplement of nuclear technology in preserving a clean environment for our global future.

Chapter 20 Public Safety: Fighting Crime and Terrorism; Border Security

Dr. Gregory W. Patton, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington, USA gw.patton@pnnl.gov

Abstract This chapter reviews risks from unintentional or illicit movement of nuclear and radioactive material out of regulatory control through international border crossing points, summarizes international efforts to build capacity and support border security, and discusses how detection equipment can be used to screen for penetrating radiation at traditional border crossing points.

Chapter 21 Public Safety and Security: Emerging Inspection Techniques—Active Interrogation for Nuclear Materials Dan Strellis, VP Instruments, Rapiscan Systems, Andover, Massachusetts, USA. dstrellis@rapiscansystems.com

B.S. 1993 and M.S. 1994 Nuclear Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; Ph.D. 2001 Nuclear Engineering, University of California, Berkeley

Tsahi Gozani, Retired Sr. VP SAIC, CEO Ancore Corp., Chief Scientist Rapiscan Laboratories.

Currently Government consultant at Gozani Consulting, Playa Vista, CA, USA. tgmaven@gmail.com

BSc 1956 and MSc 1958 Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa; PhD 1962 ETH, Zurich12 Patents, 2 textbooks, 300 articles, Fellow of the American Nuclear Society, 2 “R&D 100” awards, DHS/DNDO Life achievement Citation

Abstract This chapter introduces the reader to emerging technologies for nuclear material detection utilizing active interrogation methods employing X-ray and neutron sources. Active interrogation techniques are differentiated from passive techniques

because they “actively” induce radiation signatures of interest to enable detection of the material. The reader is introduced to the primary signatures used for detection of nuclear material through the fission process, such as prompt and delayed neutrons, and delayed gamma rays, how they are detected and the advantages and disadvantages of their use. Examples of X-ray based and neutron-based active interrogation approaches that have been developed and evaluated are described and their relative merits are presented.

Chapter 22 Public Safety: High Radiation Sources and Alternative Technologies Valeriia N. Starovoitova, Radioisotope Products and Radiation Technology Section, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100, 1400 Vienna, Austria, v.starovoitova@iaea.org

Abstract Radioactive sources are essential for modern life. They are used routinely in healthcare, industry, science, and homeland security. However, while these sources can be helpful, they can become extremely dangerous if misused or mishandled. Numerous safety and security protocols follow sources from their creation to their disposal. However, radioactive material still gets lost or stolen. In such situations people can get injured, panic can be created, and the environment can get contaminated. When possible, alternative non-radioisotopic technologies are introduced to minimize the risks of potential malevolent use of radioactive material.

Chapter 23 Public Safety and Security: Nuclear Forensics

Vitaly Fedchenko, Senior Researcher, European Security Programme STOCKHOLM INTERNATIONAL PEACE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (SIPRI) Email: fedchenko@sipri.org

Abstract Nuclear forensics is the examination of nuclear or other radioactive material, or of evidence that is contaminated with radionuclides, in the context of legal proceedings under international or national law related to nuclear security. It is a scientific discipline that allows one to investigate, and therefore respond to and sometimes even prevent nuclear security events, and ultimately combat nuclear terrorism. This chapter describes the place, role and origins of nuclear forensics, discusses international organizations involved in advancing nuclear forensics, and describes the nuclear forensics process.

Chapter 24 Cultural Heritage Preservation Pablo Vasquez, Researcher and Professor, Radiation Technology Center –CETER, Nuclear and Energy Research Institute – IPEN. Av. Professor Lineu Prestes 2242, 05508-000, São Paulo/SP, Brazil.

Email: pavsalva@usp.br Telephone: +55 11 2810-5931

Maria Luiza Nagai, Researcher, University of São Paulo – USP Av. Professor Lineu Prestes 338, 05508-000, São Paulo/SP, Brazil Email: malunagai@usp.br Telephone: +55 11 3091-3742

Abstract The use of nuclear technology contributes to the preservation of cultural heritage by assisting the recognition of manufacturing techniques, plus determining the composition of materials and restorations interventions through nuclear analytical techniques for identifying compounds and characterizing the material. Cultural assets affected by biodeterioration agents and the deterioration produced intrinsically and by the environment can benefit from the application of ionizing radiation for disinfestation, disinfection and for consolidation of deteriorated materials.

Chapter 25 Global Market for Radiation Applications

Roger H. Bezdek, Ph.D., President, Management Information Services, Inc. Virginia, USA rbezdek@misi-net.com

Abstract This chapter summarizes the myriad global uses of non-energy nuclear technologies and radiation applications, discusses the uses of the technologies and applications in numerous sectors, industries, and end uses, estimates their economic benefits, and presents estimates of the global markets, revenues, and sales growth rates for 13 nuclear technologies. It finds that modern society cannot function without nuclear technologies, that the benefits of these technologies are enormous and ubiquitous, but are largely unknown and unappreciated, and that the global markets for these technologies exceeds USA $500 billion annually and is growing rapidly.