Index
1 Origin, evolution and structure of the universe 4 2 The solar system, Earth and the origin of life 12 3 Internal geological processes. Tectonic plates 20 Evaluate. Practise in English 28 4 External geological processes. Landscapes and landform modelling 32 5 The history of Earth 40 6 The cell cycle, gene expression and mutations 48 Evaluate. Practise in English 56 7 Genetics: the inheritance of characters 60 8 Evolution. The history of life on Earth 68 9 The environment and sustainability 76 Evaluate. Practise in English 84
Is the universe expanding?
The universe is expanding and galaxies are moving further apart. Scientific fields in the study of the universe include astronomy (scientists use electromagnetic radiation to study the universe), astrophysics (the application of the laws of physics to astronomy) and cosmology (the study of the nature and origin of universe on a large scale).
➜ Roberto Grosseteste. He thought that the universe began with an initial explosion and expansion. Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity (1915) revolutionised physics: he said time and space were interconnected. Alexander Friedmann and George Lemaître eliminated the cosmological constant in Einstein’s equations and presented several solutions, including the model of an expanding universe.
➜ Vesto Slipher. In 1914 he measured 12 galaxies; 11 of them were moving apart.
➜ Max Planck. He is the father of quantum mechanics.
➜ Edwin Hubble. In 1929 he demonstrated that the universe is expanding. The Hubble-Lemaître Law states that galaxies are moving apart at speeds directly proportional to their distance.
➜ George Gamow et al. In 1948 they developed the Big Bang model.
How can we measure the distance of galaxies?
Scientists can separate light into different wavelengths using a spectroscope. Each chemical element emits a unique spectrum. Edwin Hubble observed that the spectra (1) of distant galaxies (A and B) change to longer wavelengths (red) when the focus is fixed (C): galaxies are moving away at a speed directly proportional to their distance.
We can measure the distance between galaxies using the Cepheid variable. Astronomer Henrietta Leavitt developed this method in 1912. Cepheids are stars with a regular cycle of brightness. The length of each cycle is proportional to its intrinsic brightness. We calculate their distance by comparing their intrinsic brightness and apparent luminosity.
What is the origin, evolution and destiny of the universe?
➜ Classic or standard Big Bang model. At instant t = 0 all the matter and forces were concentrated at a dense and hot point. An ‘explosion’ released them. Space, time and the universe were born. Clouds of H and He formed galaxies and dark matter. There were nine eras: Planck, grand unification, inflationary, electroweak and quark, hadron, lepton, nuclear, atoms and radiation, dark era, star and galaxy formation.
➜ Theory of inflation. At the beginning, the universe was a quantum field, the inflaton. The energy from the inflaton produced photons. Some regions expelled their energy before others. This resulted in the origin of galaxies. From here, the standard Big Bang happened. This theory states that inflaton created different universes.
What could happen: the Big Chill (space expanding and cooling indefinitely), the Big Crunch (a contraction, that may be cyclical), the Big Rip (an accelerated expansion causing everything to evaporate).
What is the Doppler effect?
The cosmological Doppler effect is a change in the colour of the light a galaxy emits when it is moving further apart (to red). This is because space-time is expanding. Galaxies are not really moving. In The conventional Doppler effect, the wavelength is longer when the object is moving away, but shorter when it is moving closer.
1 2
A 1 1 Spectroscope 1 B C 6 UNIT 1
1. Read the following text. Use these words to complete it in your notebook: council, Granada, system, galaxies, astrophysics, observatories, space.
The Institute of ★ of Andalusia (IAA) is a scientific organisation based in ★ . It belongs to the Higher ★ for Scientific Research (CSIC). Research projects include the solar ★ and the formation, structure and evolution of ★ . They also make instruments for astronomical ★ and ★ vehicles.
2. Read and match.
1. Albert Einstein a) He demonstrated that the universe is expanding in 1929.
2. George Gamow b) He measured the distance of 12 galaxies in 1914; 11 were moving away.
3. Max Planck c) He developed the Big Bang model with other scientists in 1948.
4. Vesto Slipher d) His theory of relativity revolutionised physics in 1915. He said time and space are interconnected.
5. Edwin Hubble e) He is the father of quantum mechanics.
4. Play a game of hangman, then complete this sentence in your notebook:
The ★ he ★ r ★ of Qu ★ n ★ u ★ Mechanics explains the characteristics of s ★ a ★ l objects. It describes the behaviour of the ★ le ★ e ★ ta ★ y p ★ rt ★ cl ★ s that make up the ★ t ★ m and the f ★ r ★ e ★ that act on them.
5. Which theory explains bodies with a huge mass? Which theory explains the characteristics of small objects? Tell your partner.
6. Write a short text in your notebook about the Doppler effect. Explain the difference between the two types. Use the words when and but
The universe is expanding
3. Listen to the audio recording. Complete the text in your notebook:
The General ★ of ★ is based on the idea that ★ with a large ★ (for example, ★ ), cause a distortion in space- ★ The ★ of gravity causes gravitational ★ to propagate at the speed of ★ .
7. Read the following text and explain the theory of inflation.
The classical or standard Big Bang theory does not explain why the universe is flat and homogeneous (having a uniform composition) or why galaxies form and group together in cumulus and superclusters.
The theory of inflation answers these questions: the beginning of the universe was not a singularity, but a quantum field. The energy from this field caused a fast expansion of space-time and created a flat and homogeneous universe. Quantum fluctuations caused some regions to expel their energy before others and created irregularities. These created islands of matter. They were the origin of the galaxies.
Big Bang
TIME
Redshift wavelength
galaxy Earth 1 2
Original wavelength Distant
7 Origin, evolution and structure of the universe
14. Read the sentences and choose the correct words. Then, write the complete sentences in your notebook.
a) Stars/Nebulae are clouds of hydrogen, helium, cosmic dust and organic compounds.
b) The Orion/Crab nebula is a region where new stars are forming.
c) The Orion/Crab nebula is the remains of a giant star that exploded.
d) A star that is forming is called a protostar/supergiant.
e) A star/nebula is a sphere of H and He that emits radiant energy.
15. Read the definitions. Write the correct words in your notebook.
a) A cloud of hydrogen, helium, cosmic dust and organic compounds.
b) A sphere of H and He that emits radiant energy from thermonuclear fusion.
c) A ring of stellar gas.
d) The ball-shaped region with Earth at the centre, that we can see.
e) A star formed by carbon.
f) A type of star we use to measure the distance between galaxies.
g) The name of the scientist who invented the method of measuring the distance between galaxies.
16. Read the text. Discuss the questions with a classmate. Write the answers in your notebook.
American astronomer Andrea Mia Ghez won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2020. She shared the prize with Reinhard Genzel and Roger Penrose. They measured the movement of stars in our galaxy, the Milky Way. They discovered a supermassive compact object in the centre of the galaxy, with no light. This dark object played a part in the formation of the Milky Way.
a) What was the massive object? What is its name?
17. Look at the picture below. Investigate. Name parts A-D of a black hole :
18. Listen to the audio recording. Write the missing words in your notebook: Right eye Left eye
How to measure distances to the stars using parallax:
★ is the apparent ★ of a ★ object when you ★ it from two different ★ . We use it to calculate the ★ to a star. To understand the how parallax works, hold up your ★ . Close one ★ and look at it. Now close the other eye and look again. You will see that your thumb appears to move from one ★ to another with respect to objects in the ★ (1).
The difference in variation is ★ in a ★ object (A) than in a ★ object (B). Knowing the radius of the Earth’s orbit (average Earth-Sun distance = 1 ★ unit (au) = 150000000 km) and measuring these ★ or parallaxes, you can find the parallax angles (p) of the ★
You can then determine their ★ from the ★ using simple mathematical calculations (2).
19. Read the following texts. Play this hangman game and write the missing terms in your notebook.
Birth, life and death of a star like the Sun
All H is converted to He. The mass and gravity ★ , the expansion ★ and it transforms into a ★ ★ , until it reaches the ★ temperature that allows the ★ to ★ to form ★ and release ★
The star swells, its outer layers peel off and a ★ of stars forms. There is a ★ smoke called ★ ★ . The core of the red giant transforms into a ★ ★ ★ accumulates in its centre. When all the He is exhausted, it will cool, creating a star of carbon, called a black ★ ★
C D B A
Elements of a black hole
deviation of star B
deviation of star A Earth (June) Earth (December) Parallax angle 1 au 1 au Sun 1 2 B A
Apparent
Apparent
11 Origin, evolution and structure of the universe
The solar system, Earth and the origin of life
UNIT2
What happened during the formation of the solar system?
About 5 billion years ago, the explosion of a supernova formed the solar system. A spinning cloud of dust formed a disk. A concentration of H and He in the core created a protosol. The gas and dust orbiting the core began to form planetesimals.
What are the planets?
The planets are round. They orbit the Sun in the solar system. They have an orbital zone. This means no other object orbits the Sun in their region of space. Most planets have satellites. They move in two ways: rotation and revolution. Types of planets:
➜ Inner or rocky. They are close to the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
➜ Outer. They can be gas giants, with a large envelope of gas and a rocky core (Jupiter and Saturn), or ice giants, that have frozen methane (Uranus and Neptune).
What are the characteristics of the celestial bodies that orbit the Sun?
➜ Mercury. It has no atmosphere, hydrosphere or satellites. It has an iron core.
➜ Venus. It rotates in the opposite direction to the Earth. It has volcanic activity and an atmosphere of CO2
➜ Earth. It has volcanic activity, water and an atmosphere that maintains the temperature. It has a moon.
➜ Mars. It has a thin atmosphere and liquid water under the ice. It had volcanic activity. It has two moons.
➜ Ceres. It may have water and a weak atmosphere. It is a dwarf planet.
➜ Jupiter. It has faint rings and 16 moons. It has an atmosphere with cyclones.
➜ Saturn. It has thousands of rings formed by rocks, dust and ice. It has 18 moons.
➜ Uranus. It rotates horizontally and in the opposite direction to the Earth. It has 15 moons.
➜ Neptune. It has an atmosphere of methane clouds. It has 8 moons.
➜ Pluto. It is covered by frozen water, CH4, N and CO. It has a moon.
➜ Eris. It is similar to Pluto. It has a moon called Dysnomia.
Where are the planets in the solar system?
Ptolemy formulated the geocentric model: the Earth was at the centre of the universe and everything revolved around it.
Corona Chromosphere Photosphere Core Solar spots
Dwarf planet: celestial body with an elliptical orbit around the Sun. There are other objects in its orbital zone.
Plutoids: dwarf planets further from the Sun than Neptune.
Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model: the Earth and planets revolved around the Sun.
1 2 1 3 4 5 8 9 7 6
1 2 6 7 5 4 3 9 8
A B
The Sun is a medium- sized star
14 UNIT 2
Earth (1), Moon (2), Mercury (3), Venus (4), Sun (5), Mars (6), Jupiter (7), Saturn (8) and Stars (9).
How did the Earth and Moon form?
➜ The formation of Earth. It happened 4.6 billion years ago. Collisions from planetesimals (1) and heat from radioactive (2) elements meant the Earth was not solid at first. Then it cooled down. Heavy elements like Ni and Fe sank to the
How did life originate on Earth?
What is the habitable zone?
➜ The formation of the Moon. About 4.5 billion years ago there was a collision between another planet (2) and Earth (1). A large quantity of rocks went into space. Earth’s gravity pulled this material towards it. Finally, the material collected in an orbit around Earth (3) to form the Moon (4).
Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution and destiny of life in the universe. It combines the study of physics, geology, astronomy, chemistry, biology and engineering. Astrobiologists know that life came from molecular interactions. Using telescopes, they have seen organic molecules in interstellar clouds. They know that organic chemistry is universal.
➜ The galactic habitable zone: Region in a galaxy where the existence of life is most probable.
➜ Habitable zone of a star: Region around a star with the conditions necessary for life. The conditions on a planet necessary for life:
➜ Being in the galactic habitable zone, and a favourable distance from a star.
➜ Size and mass are important. It needs sufficient gravity to hold an atmosphere.
➜ Internal dynamics and a magnetosphere to protect it from solar wind; volcanic activity which produces CO
Terraforming means to transform a planet to create the necessary conditions for life. Mars is a possible candidate: it has ice with liquid water below it.
2 5 6 7 3 4 1
2 3 Too cold Orbit of Mars Too hot Orbit of Earth Orbit of Venus Orbit of Mercury Circumstellar habitable zone Galactic habitable zone Sun Mars Earth Venus Mercury
1 2 3 4
16 UNIT 2
The origin of the Moon
What are the theories about the origin of life?
Before the mid-19th century there were two theories about the origin of life: creationism and spontaneous generation. Creationism was the belief that an allpowerful being created all form of life. Spontaneous generation was the belief that simple organisms came from non-living matter.
What is abiogenesis or chemical evolution?
Abiogenesis is the idea that complex life began as organic molecules and developed in several steps: prebiotic synthesis, polymerisation, protocells, cells and life. There are three important hypotheses:
➜ Hydrothermal vents: near the oceanic ridges, water percolates and becomes water vapour. Then it rises and dissolves minerals in the water, creating hydrothermal vents. These mineral deposits are the energy source of underwater ecosystems. Organic molecules use chemosynthesis to convert the minerals into food.
➜ The primordial soup: the primitive atmosphere had very little oxygen and it was reducing. Intense radiation from the Sun formed biomolecules. These dissolved in bodies of water. Volcanic activity heated the water and complex compounds evolved.
➜ Panspermia: this is the theory that organic matter synthesised in interstellar clouds. Life came from outer space, distributed by comets, meteorites and cosmic dust. Scientists have detected organic molecules in interstellar clouds.
How were protocells organised?
Biomolecules formed polymers, including ribozymes, which have genetic information. Chemical reactions formed phospholipids, and these evolved into membranes. These protocells developed a metabolism and evolved into cells.
What was the origin of cellular life?
The primordial soup was enriched by organic matter from hydrothermal vents and from outer space. Chemical reactions caused the ribozymes of protocells to mutate. They evolved, developed a metabolism and synthesised proteins (enzymes). Some produced DNA, to store genetic information. Finally, prokaryotic cells evolved.
How did primitive cells evolve?
How did eukaryotic cells originate?
Lynn Margulis proposed the theory of endosymbiosis. This theory states that organelles evolved as a result of the fusion of two organisms. Each organism contributed a new function.
Ancestral prokaryotic cell
1. The internal membranous systems were probably formed by invaginations.
Early cells obtained energy (nutrition) from cellular metabolism. They used it for the other vital functions, to maintain the homeostasis and evolve.
Primitive anaerobic heterotrophs obtained nutrition from organic molecules through fermentation in the absence of oxygen.
Cyanobacteria and photosynthesis evolved. Chlorophyll converted CO2 into carbohydrates and released O2. This was toxic for anaerobic heterotrophic cells. It accumulated in the troposphere and in the stratosphere (in the form of O3) and modified the composition of the atmosphere.
The O3 layer prevented harmful UV radiation from reaching Earth. Cellular respiration evolved, which released CO2. Aerobic metabolism was more energy efficient and life colonised the surface. Heterotrophs and autotrophs worked together and evolved.
2. Several prokaryotic cells (A) could have been phagocytosed by another (B) and established symbioses (C)
Eukaryotic cell
4
Plasma membrane invaginations
C 1 2 A 18 UNIT 2
Cyanobacteria Aerobic bacteria
What is the structure of Earth’s interior?
To understand the structure of Earth’s interior, we use seismic methods. These record and analyse the propagation of seismic waves.
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of the ground. It can be the result of the movements of tectonic plates. Energy accumulates when plates collide. The sudden release propagates the energy in all directions, in the form of seismic waves.
They are of four types of seismic waves: P and S waves are generated at the focus. When they reach the epicentre, they form surface waves (L or Love waves and R or Rayleigh waves).
Epicentre. Area on the surface above the focus.
Focus or hypocentre. Point inside the Earth where the earthquake starts.
P or primary waves. The first to arrive. They travel through solids and liquids.
Surface waves. Types:
• R or Rayleigh waves.
• L or Love waves.
S or secondary waves. They arrive after the P waves. They only travel through solids.
Seismograms show that seismic waves are reflected: when they reach a medium they can’t pass through, they change direction. The waves are also refracted: they change speed and direction when passing through two different mediums. The speed and direction depend on the properties of the rocks they are travelling through.
Abrupt changes in the speed of seismic waves show the existence of four discontinuities:
➜ The Mohorovicic discontinuity. It has an average depth of 35 km. It is the zone between Earth’s crust and mantle. The crust is less dense than the mantle.
➜ The Repetti discontinuity. At 670 km below the surface. It separates the upper mantle and the lower, more liquid mantle.
➜ The Gutenberg discontinuity. At 2,900 km below the surface. S waves stop travelling here. It is the boundary between a solid and liquid medium (the outer core).
➜ The Weichert-Lehmann discontinuity. At 5,100 km below the surface. S waves can travel here, so the inner core must be solid.
Earth is divided into crust, mantle and core:
➜ Crust. Outermost layer, formed by silicates. Types:
■ Continental. It reaches a depth of 70 km on the continents. The rocks are acidic.
■ Oceanic. It reaches a depth of 12 km. The rocks are very dense.
➜ Mantle. Consists of peridotites. It has areas of phase changes, due to the high pressures:
■ First transition. At a depth of 400 km, olivine becomes spinel.
■ Second transition. In the Repetti discontinuity spinel changes to perovskite. ➜ Core. Composed of iron, nickel, sulphur, silicon and oxygen. The outer core is liquid and inner core is solid, due to the pressure.
1
Oceanic crust Continental crust 0 35 670 2900 5100 6371 km Lower mantle Outer core Inner core Upper mantle Second transition zone First transition zone 22 UNIT 3
Dynamic model of the Earth’s interior
As depth increases, pressure and temperature increase too. This transforms materials into liquids. It creates convection currents. The dynamic model divides the centre of the Earth, or endosphere, into the inner core and outer core.
The inner core is solid, because of the high pressure.
The outer core is liquid and forms convection currents. Heat accumulates in layer D’’. These currents produce the magnetosphere or magnetic field. This deflects solar wind. Layer D’’ separates the core and the mantle. The heat there generates convection currents in the mesosphere. It forms plumes of magma that break the lithosphere, causing hot spots of volcanic activity.
At a depth of between 100 and 300 km, there is a low velocity zone called the asthenosphere. This is in the upper mantle. The lithosphere corresponds to the crust and top part of the upper mantle. It is fragmented into plates.
Do lithospheric plates move?
The Earth’s surface is fragmented into 14 lithospheric or tectonic plates. They fit together like a puzzle. They float on the upper mantle.
Tectonic plates have different types of boundaries. Some are at mid-oceanic ridges. These expel magma and form volcanic rock. This creates new oceanic crust. Other boundaries form subduction zones. This destroys lithosphere and creates volcanoes. Others are at transform faults. These cause seismic activity but not volcanoes.
The theory of plate tectonics says that tectonic plates are in constant motion. This is due to two processes: convection currents and subduction. The internal heat of the Earth causes these geological processes. The theory of plate tectonics explains seismic activity, the formation of volcanoes and mountains, the spreading of the ocean floor and continental drift. Gravity pulls the plates down.
How do earthquakes occur?
An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of the ground. When tectonic plates move, they can collide causing an accumulation of energy. The sudden release propagates the energy in all directions, in the form of seismic waves.
The magnitude is the energy released by the earthquake. We use the Richter scale to measure magnitude. For a major earthquake of 6.9 or above, we use with the moment magnitude (MW). It has a scale of 1 to 9.9.
Intensity is a subjective assessment of the damage an earthquake causes. This depends on population density, type of constructions, type of rock, distance from the epicentre, etc.
How can we mitigate seismic risk?
➜ Prediction: this is not possible. But there are sometimes small tremors first.
➜ Prevention: maps showing areas at risk, evacuation plans, civil protection strategies and rescue plans, earthquake-resistant constructions.
➜ Management: for example, injecting water into a fault. This induces a small earthquake and reduces the risk.
To protect yourself in an earthquake, get underneath a table or near an interior wall. Move away from windows and large objects. Protect your head with your hands. Do not use the lift. Do not go near bridges or petrol stations.
2 3 Intensity: IX VIII VII VI V IV
Internal core
24 UNIT 3
A seismic risk map of Spain shows that Andalusia is a
high-risk area
Convection cells transfer heat from the inner core to the lithosphere
Lithosphere Convection cells
13. Read these sentences about volcanoes. Play hangman to complete them. Then, write the complete sentences in your notebook.
a) A ★ is an opening in the Earth’s crust.
b) Most volcanoes occur around the Ring of ★ in the Pacific Ocean.
c) Volcanoes can form groups of islands called ★ when magma cools and solidifies.
d) At mid-ocean ridges there are effusive lava ★
e) In hot ★ , heat from the mantle causes a plume of magma to rise and break the lithosphere.
f) When magma is viscous, the eruption is ★
14. Read the text about volcanic risk. Complete it using the following words. Then, copy it in your notebook. building, disasters, earthquake, temperature, gases, cone, prevent, eruption, maps, negative, tsunamis, lava. Volcanic eruptions can have a ★ impact on the environment and change the land and water. They are one of the most destructive natural ★ in the world. They can cause fires and generate ★ . They can bury houses in ★ . We can ★ damage to humans by ★ homes at a distance from the volcano. We can also predict a volcanic ★ . Sometimes they cause an ★ first. Or a change in the volcanic ★ . We can also test the ★ of the water. And we can detect the emission of ★ . Volcanic risk ★ show the areas that are most in danger.
House buried by lava (A), tsunami (B), erupting volcano (C) and stone volcano shelter (D)
15. Read the definitions. Write the words.
a) The gradual movement of the continents on the Earth’s surface.
b) A mountain chain on the ocean floor.
c) Model that describes the repeated opening and closing of the oceans.
d) Type of volcanic eruption. There is an effusive flow of lava.
e) Area in the Pacific Ocean where there are a lot of volcanoes.
f) Mountain range formed by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere.
16. Listen to the audio. Complete the text in your notebook.
In ★ 2004, there was a huge ★ in the Indian ★ . It measured more than 9 on the ★ scale. It was a terrible natural ★ . It generated a ★ in Sri Lanka, Thailand and ★ It destroyed ★ and infrastructure. Thousands of people were ★ . Most of them were local people. Others were tourists on ★ . Now these ★ have prevention measures to warn people when they are in danger.
Mount Everest in the Himalayan range was formed by the collision of two continents
17. Put the words in the correct order. Write the sentences in your notebook.
a) Atlantic is The expanding Ocean.
b) eruption An can or be explosive effusive.
c) drift is Continental plate caused by tectonics.
d) risk maps show the at risk Volcanic areas most.
e) ridge is A a on ocean the mountain range floor.
f) the Earth’s A an opening crust volcano in is.
18. Complete this text about the formation of a volcanic rock and an igneous rock. Then, copy the complete text in your notebook.
There are two types of ★ rocks: plutonic rocks and ★ rocks. Plutonic rocks form when ★ cools and solidifies below the surface of the Earth. Volcanic rocks form when ★ comes to the ★ of the Earth and then cools and solidifies. Plutonic rocks have ★ because they solidify slowly. Volcanic rocks do not, because they cool and ★ quickly. About 95% of the Earth’s crust is formed by these rocks. Earth’s moon is also made of igneous rocks.
A C D B 27 Internal geological processes. Tectonic plates
Write the answers in your notebook.
1. Look at the nucleus of this red supergiant star. Investigate and answer: what is the name of the chemical element that is synthesised in each of the layers?
2. This model represents a supercluster of galaxies. Where is the dark matter? What is the role of dark matter in the universe?
3. Look at the graph. Which lines represent each of the possible futures of the Universe?
4. Find the odd one out in each group of words. Justify your answers.
a) Big Bang, Big Rip, Big Chill, Big Crunch.
b) Star, red supergiant, planetary nebula, white dwarf.
5. Read and write True or False. Correct the false sentences.
a) Pluto is in the Oort cloud.
b) Chloroplasts come from ancient cyanobacteria.
c) Meteors are asteroids that enter the Earth’s atmosphere and vaporise.
d) Ribozymes are RNA with catalytic capacity.
6. Read and match.
1) Star
2) Inner
3) Comet
4) Meteor
5) Photosynthesis
6) Mitochondria
7) Dwarf planet
8) Aerobic metabolism
a) Mars
b) Shooting star
c) Sun
d) Ceres
e) Aerobic bacteria
f) Spirochetal bacteria
d) Oort cloud
h) Cyanobacteria
7. Write a sentence about the following concepts: eukaryotes archaea endosymbiosis mitochondria
chloroplasts organelles bacteria
8. Answer the following questions:
a) How did the atmosphere and hydrosphere form on early Earth?
b) What was their role in the process of abiogenesis?
1 2 3 7 8 5 6 4
1 2
A B D Today ? ? Big Bang C Time
2, 3 28 Evaluate
EVALUATE UNITS 1,
9. Name the missing elements on this model of Earth. Indicate their location and characteristics.
13. Belts of earthquakes (●) and volcanoes (▲) coincide on Earth.
10. Read and match.
1) P wave
2) R wave
3) Endosphere
4) Pyroclasts
5) Magnitude
6) Intensity
7) Plume of magma
8) Pericontinental mountain range
9) Philippine islands
a) Epicenter
b) Lapilli
c) Focus
d) Hot spot
e) EMS-98 scale
f) The Andes
g) Magnetosphere
h) Richter scale
i) Island arcs
11. Find the odd one out in each group of words. Justify your answers.
a) Dome, pyroclasts, lapilli, ash.
b) Endosphere, chromosphere, mesosphere, layer D’’.
c) Richter discontinuity, Mohorovicic discontinuity, Repetti discontinuity, Gutenberg discontinuity.
d) Transform fault, mid-ocean ridge, subduction zone, hot spot.
12. Write a sentence in your notebook about these concepts: earthquakes, magnitude, coast, water, marine, tsunamis, seismic waves, propagate.
a) Do you think this is a coincidence?
b) Why are there belts around other areas with very little seismic or volcanic activity?
14. The Cumbre Vieja volcano erupted in 2021, on the island of La Palma. There were different types of eruption, in different episodes. What types were they?
15. Look at the image. Where does this phenomenon happen? What are the geological consequences of this activity?
29 Evaluate
