Late – Post Victorian and Contemporary Still Life Art and Craft by Women:
A Critical Comparative Analysis
Fine Art (Hons)
Word Count: 7286 words
A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) degree in Fine Art
Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design
University of Dundee 2025
Abstract
This dissertation investigates the relationship between female artists and the subjects of Still Life and Craft. Comparing examples from Late-Post Victorian era and the current contemporary era. Through analysing the constraints put on women in the Victorian era, there can be an understanding of their choice of subject matter and why they were seen as second-rate artists compared to their male counterparts. Which consequently led to the underappreciation of women artists throughout art history leading to feminine works still being undervalued in the contemporary sphere and influencing women’s choice of subject matter today.
This research will be split into three sections each discussing different areas of this issue. The first discussing why women paint florals to decipher whether the work is underappreciated because it is considered feminine or because it was created by a woman. The second discussing women’s connection and confinement to the domestic and how this influences their work and the attitudes towards their work. And the third speaks on the underappreciation of embroidery and craft and how it was used to keep women in their place which henceforth leads to varying attitudes towards craft today.
Overall, this dissertation explores how throughout history the art world has been built to cater to the needs of men. If women were considered the muse and not the artists, they would also be seen as incapable of achieving true greatness, which restricts the careers of women by holding them back and advances the careers of men by keeping women out of the way. Craft and Still Life should not be considered lesser subjects or less worthy and they are only thought of as such because they are the work of women. Therefore, the world of fine art remains male dominated because the ‘feminine’ is undervalued preventing female artists from gaining the recognition and success of their male counterparts.
List of Illustrations
Figures
Fig 1.1 10
Dora Carrington, Dahlias (1927)
Oil on Canvas, 61x51cm
Image courtesy Artnet
Fig 1.2 13
Miranda Boulton, ‘Wildflower Soul II’ (2023)
Oil and acrylic spray paint on canvas, 60x50cm
Image courtesy The Cynthia Corbett Gallery
Fig 1.3 13
Miranda Boulton, ‘Exploring time IV’ (2021)
Oil and acrylic spray paint on canvas, 42x32x2cm
Image Courtesy The Cynthia Corbett Gallery
Fig 2.1 17
Claude Reguet Hirst, A Gentleman’s table (after 1890)
Oil on canvas, 18x32in
Image courtesy National Museum of Women in the Arts
Fig 2.2 20
Cynthia Poole, ‘Deliberate arrangements I’ (2014) and ‘Deliberate arrangements II’ (2015)
Acrylic on canvas, 80 x 100cm each
Image courtesy Plus one Gallery.
Introduction
This dissertation seeks to analyse the work of women artists and their relationship to Still life and Craft. It will compare the work of contemporary and Late – post Victorian women, discussing their similarities and differences. I will achieve this by comparing two Victorian women and two contemporary women. The discussed artists are: Dora Carrington, Claude Reguet Hirst, Miranda Bolton and Cynthia Poole.
The objective of this research is to understand why Victorian women were confined to areas like still life and Craft and why contemporary women still choose these areas when they are not restricted to them. The key issues that will be discussed are: women’s confinement to the domestic, women artists being underappreciated and the discussion of Art versus Craft.
This will be achieved through looking at feminist art histories. Specifically, the ideas of Linda Nochlin (Nochlin, 1971) contrasted to Griselda pollock. (Parker and Pollock, 2021). Their ideas regarding the view of women’s work is what I will be focussing on.
“Differencing the canon [Griselda Pollock] tells you that women have to be seen as different and have their work judged differently, yet ‘Why have there been no great women artists? [Linda Nochlin] says women’s work is not any different to men’s” (Gorrill, 2018)
This shows the differing ideas of Pollock and Nochlin, and these are important to look at when we approach viewing the women’s art. This dissertation will be taking the stance that women’s work needs to be viewed alongside the work of men. With no bias against either gender. That is how gender equality can be achieved. Men and women should not be removed from one another, as that suggests that the qualities of their work are different.
This research is relevant to my art practice because I will be taking inspiration from the work of Victorian women, recreating them and bringing them into a contemporary context. I am choosing this subject because it is what interests me the most, not because I have been forced to like the women who came before me, which is why this research is important to my practice. To understand why women choose to paint flowers today even if they are not confined to it.
This dissertation will be divided into three chapters, each focussing on a different aspect of Still life or Craft. Chapter one: ‘As delicate as a petal’ will discuss why women were confined to painting flowers in the late-post Victorian era and why this contributed to their work being under appreciated. Contrasted to thinking about why women now choose to paint flowers. This will be achieved through discussing the work of Dora Carrington (1893-1932) and Miranda Boulton (1973-present).
Chapter 2: ‘domesticity and women’, discusses women’s confinement to the home and their restrictions from life drawing classes. Comparing pieces by Claude Reguet Hirst (1855-1942) and Cynthia Poole (1956-present) to understand why women painted and paint Still Life, and if it’s connection to the domestic is why still life is underappreciated.
Chapter 3: ‘should women ditch the stitch?’, will discuss women’s relationship to Craft and embroidery. The fact that it was underappreciated because it was considered women’s work and was linked to the domestic. I will be comparing both historical views on embroidery (Von Falke and Gorrill, 2022) to a more contemporary outlook on craft (Grace and Gandolfo, 2014) to see what has changed and understand why women choose to partake in craft today. This dissertation will come from the angle that the Arts and Craft are interchangeable one is not more valuable than the other, that they both demand the same attention.
Chapter 1
As delicate as a petal: Women and their connection to floral still life
To make sense of the relationship between women and floral Still Life, there must first be an understanding of the factors leading to her choice of subject. This was different for women in the Victorian era compared to contemporary women. However, one idea that unites the two is that more “feminine” subject matters – like florals – are considered lesser, (Nochlin, 1971) and women stuck to these “minor fields”. This chapter will go on to discuss whether it is the subject that is considered unworthy or the person painting it. (Parker, 2010, p4) Does knowledge of work being done by a woman weaken the view of the art, sustaining male dominance in the area?
Around the Victorian era there were many societal ideals that put constraints, on all women, artist or not, no matter their class. These women were confined to the home, which represented the control that society, and men had over women. (Digby, 1992) Women were disregarded at the time; many attributed the lack of ‘great women artists’ to women simply not being able to achieve greatness. (Nochlin, 1971) However, women’s confinement to the domestic meant that they served the people in society who could achieve this.
“Another typical example comes from the chairman of an art department who said to a female student‘you’ll never be an artist, you’ll just have babies’ (The rip off file, 1972)” (Parker and Pollock, 2021 p6).
This shows the view that was held of women at the time. Women were believed to be incapable of achieving anything except from having children. That they did not belong outside the domestic sphere. The constraints put on women were controlling them, everything a woman did in her life would have been for the benefit of others, only living to serve. Instead of making art, making babies and looking after her husband’s house.
The restrictions put on women artists in this period allowed male artists to be far more successful. It was physically impossible for women to advance in artistic careers because they could not attend life drawing and had limited subjects. (Nochlin, 1971) To explore these ideas further I will analyse the life and work of Dora Carrington. (1893-1932) Who painted many floral Still Lifes in the post Victorian era.
“Partly this abiding belief in women’s inferiority as artists was because of what they were permitted to paint. Still life, floral subjects in particular, became the remit of artists who, because of their gender, were denied access to essential lessons on anatomy. They excelled in their representations – women in drawing rooms across the country perfected the likeness of a single petal – but for artists who were serious about their craft and eager to professionalise it wasn’t enough.” (Birrell, 2021, p8)
It was not enough for women to excel in the subject of Still Life, their work was disregarded, despite their talent. Still Life was the subject of women, and one could not succeed painting them alone, but these women had no other options. “The excellent flower painter would never gain the visibility of the excellent figure painter.” (Nunn, 2017) Having access to Life drawing classes was essential for artists at the time to advance in their careers and gain acknowledgement for their art. Women could not succeed because the society they were born into was set up to benefit men. These women were held back for the advancement of men, so that they could not get in the way. (Casey, 2016)
The questions that this chapter seeks to answer are:‘is floral still life innately feminine?’ (Nochlin,1971) and ‘why is the word feminine treated like an insult?’. (Cervin, 2013, p45) To deal with these questions, I will firstly discuss a painting by Dora Carrington - ‘Dahlias’ (1927).
Fig 1.1, Dora Carrington, Dahlias (1927), Oil on Canvas, 61x51cm, image courtesy Artnet
When we initially take in this piece by Carrington, we can see that it holds merit beyond simply being pretty. It would be false to say that Carrington and her colleagues were not good at what they did. They were clever women who utilised what was available to them, but despite their talent they did not gain the same recognition as male artists. However, is this because the work appears feminine, or because it was painted by a woman?
“If these works transmit any meaning about gender, then it is an aligning of femininity with activity and skill, innovation and perseverance. Carrington’s flowers are replete with precisely the things femininity is often deprived of in the realm of the symbolic.” (Birrell, 2021, p58)
This shows that something can be feminine but hold merit. Her work is not only aesthetically pleasing but has symbolic meaning. Carrington brings together both skill and femininity, which we have been told throughout art history that women are incapable of doing. (Von Falke and Gorrill 2022). But
why are flowers considered feminine? Flowers are delicate, do women paint them because they too are fragile? They were commonly rendered in watercolour – which is also feminised because it is ‘easier’ for women to handle: “It is likely that Victorian medical experts would also consider the stretching, manoeuvring, and execution of paint upon large canvases, or the carving of enormous sculptures too strenuous and therefore unsuitable for women.” (Gørrill, 2018). Subsequently, women would not have removed themselves from their gendered areas of art. This is why oil painting is masculinised and mediums such as pastels and watercolours were seen as more feminine. This also shows why floral Still Lifes may be considered feminine, because it was seen as something more suitable for women to takepartin,lessstrenuousfortheirdelicatebodiesandnotastrickyfortheir fragile minds to comprehend. (Cowen, 1966)
It could also be argued Floral Still Lifes are considered feminine because it was what women had to partake in? They were conducted indoors, where women were confined to so it was easier to access. The notion that Still Life is something women partake in because of their nature is shown here:
“The painting becomes solely an extension of womanliness and the artist becomes a woman only fulfilling her nature. This effectively removes the paintings and the artists from the field of fine arts.” (Parker and Pollock, 2021, p65)
The paintings that women, like Carrington, produced became extensions of what society thought a woman should be. Just an appendage, something to be admired. This means that if women were painting something that could be admired – like themselves – they were only following their nature. This however removes the work of women from the narrative of fine art, because if something was woman-made and appeared ‘feminine’ it did not deserve validation. This means that if florals are an extension of a women’s femininity, then the subject is only considered innately feminine because of who takes part in it.
Comparing this to contemporary women artists is interesting because women are no longer restricted in subject matter. So, why do some women still choose to paint the ‘feminine’. Through viewing the work of contemporary women and looking at figures detailing what they choose to paint, it is apparent some women do still paint Still life, but the numbers painting different subjects has increased. This is shown in Helen Gørrill’s
book ‘Women Can’t Paint’ through the diagrams she includes to compare the work of men and women in contemporary fine art. The diagrams show that between 2012-2014 only9% of women artistscompared to 14% ofmale artists painted ‘objects’, i.e. Still Life. The most popular subjects for women to paint during this time shifted to people (39%) and abstraction (30%). (Gørrill, 2019, p36) Still Life is now painted more by men that it is by women. This suggests that many women now choose different subjects. This maybe because they worry about their work coming across as feminine’, which is often an insult often thrown at women’s work to diminish their work and difference it from the work of their male counterparts. If something represents femininity it cannot be of any worth. Why is this not the case when men paint Florals? For example, Monet’s Waterlilies, are not criticised for being too feminine. This could show that Florals are not considered ‘feminine’ when portrayed by a man, their work is automatically more accepted because of their gender.
“If women have turned to scenes of domestic life, or of children, so did Jan Steen,ChardinandtheImpressionists – RenoirandMonetaswellasMorisot and Cassatt. In any case, the mere choice of a certain realm of subject matter, or the restriction to certain subjects, is not to be equated with a style, much less with some sort of quintessentially feminine style.” (Nochlin, 1971)
Women’s choice of subject is not inherently feminine, it is because it is painted by a woman that it ‘less worthy’ and is criticised for being too ‘feminine’, not directly because of the subject matter.
One reason women may not paint florals as much is: the risk of people calling their work ‘too feminine’, changing the view of their work and the reactions they receive regarding it. To delve into these ideas further I will be analysing the work of contemporary painter Miranda Boulton, specifically her paintings ‘Wildflower Soul II’ (2023) and ‘Exploring time IV’ (2021):
Fig 1.2, Miranda Boulton, ‘Wildflower Soul II’ (2023) Oil and acrylic spray paint on canvas, 60x50cm. Image courtesy the Cynthia Corbett Gallery
Fig 1.3, Miranda Boulton, ‘Exploring time IV’ (2021), Oil and acrylic spray paint on canvas, 42x32x2cm. Image Courtesy the Cynthia Corbett Gallery.
Boulton’s work is thought provoking because there are nods to traditional depictions of flowers. For example, the flowers are presented in a vase on a table in ‘Wildflower Soul II’ which is often seen in traditional Still Life. Along with the contrasting dark background that can be seen in ‘Exploring time IV’. While including these similarities to traditional Still Life, Boulton has breathed new life into these floral images through making them more abstract and stylised. This shows that some women, like Boulton, are still choosing to paint florals but are bringing them into a contemporary context. It also could be argued that the gestural qualities make these paintings look more masculine because they are heavy in oil paint.
The artist has described her paintings as “Nature Morte flora. Her work is a response to historical references within the genre” (The Cynthia Corbett Gallery, 2024) and that she chooses to portray flowers in her work because “Flowers remind us of the fleeting transient nature of life.” (The Cythia Corbett Gallery, 2024) This explains that Boulton does take inspiration from traditional aspects of the genre and that she chooses florals because of an interest in what flowers represent. Especially how they are linked to our lives and attitudes towards time. Thus, a more traditionally masculine theme, perhaps life and death that often perceived by artists like Damien Hirst. (Delikat, 2017) The important thing to note is that Boulton chooses to depict flowers, it is not a subject that is thrust upon her.
However, this is not the case for all contemporary female artists. There must be a reason that a lot of women have had a genre shift and not as many paint Still Lifes anymore. (Gørrill, 2019, p36) This could simply be because they are no longer restricted to floral Still Life, but it could sadly be the fact that women are worried about the risk of their work being called ‘too feminine’. This is portrayed in an interview with an Artist called Cornelia Parker, she states that:
“Actually I think that it is quite obvious that my work’s made by a woman, when you look at the form and sensibility of it, but it’s not something that I want consciously mine It narrows the way people look at my work and I’d rather the work be opening interpreted as possible” (Perry, 2004, p48)
This artist does not want her gender to be considered when people are viewing her work. This plays into the different ways that people view the work of women. Griselda Pollock and Roszika Parker suggest that women’s work should be judged differently from men’s. (Parker and Pollock, 2021) When Linda Nochlin describes that the only way for there to be equality between the sexes is for work to be viewed side by side and in equal quantities. (Nochlin, 1971). The problem with differencing is that it encourages the idea that women’s work is of a different standard to men’s. This could be a factor in this artist’s fear of her gender being known. There is a risk that her work will be undervalued or treated differently if it is known she is a woman. She also stated in the interview that:
“The toughest response to my degree show came from a young lecturer who said ‘I really like it but don’t you think it’s a bit feminine?” (Perry, 2004, p49)
Women may fear their work being described as feminine because it is used as an insult. This may stop women from continuing in a subject they are interested in – like florals – because they do not want their work to be diminished. This shows that feminine is used as a negative way to describe work and could contribute to the reason that more women are choosing not to paint floral Still Lifes in the contemporary art scene.
Chapter 2
Domesticity and women: their confinement to the home and it’s connection to subject matter.
Another form of still life is the portrayal of the domestic in everyday life. It was the most accessible form of art for women in the late – post Victorian era because they were restricted to the home. (Nochlin, 1988, p86) The patriarchal setting these women had been born into was set up against them stopping them from achieving greatness:
“The practice of women was increasingly determined in the nineteenth century by the consolidation of bourgeois society and it’s ideologies of femininity – the natural essence of womanhood sustained and reproduced through the location of women in the home and identification of women with domesticity.” (Parker, Pollock, 2021, p41)
This shows how society controlled them and how it affected their artistic ambitions. The idea of what was feminine was sustained because women were confined to the domestic. The idea that anything domestic – like the decorative arts, still life and needlework – was feminine would not change. Therefore, the idea of what womanhood was could not change. It was reproduced constantly because women could not escape where society had put her – the home. This controlled her artistic achievements because she could not gain any recognition for her work if she remained painting only domestic scenes.
The confinement of women restricted them from life drawing classes. This stunted their art careers. (Birrell, 2021) These limitations stopped women from achieving ‘greatness’. Although some people would have argued that women were simply not able to do so. Leading to some arguing that women’s work should be judged separately from men’s:
“However, this approach seeks to claim that there is a different kind of greatness for women artists, and this is potentially problematic because it makes the assumption that there are differences in the qualities of artwork made by women and men.” (Gørrill, 2019, p25-26)
From the viewpoint that women’s art should be viewed differently; women are able to be great, but it is not the same greatness achieved by a man. Therefore, is it true greatness? This leads to the assumption that work by
women holds less value. Which can be damaging to young female artists because nothing will motivate them to continue with their practice. If they assume they will not be able to achieve ‘true greatness’ and have the same opportunities as a man, this could affect the way they view their own work. This chapter seeks to analyse women’s connection to the domestic through comparing the work of Victorian artist Claude Reguet Hirst (1855-1942) and contemporary painter Cynthia Poole (1956-present). Whose work both portray scenes from everyday life. Their work appears similar in some aspects, but there are deliberate choices made by Hirst that sets her apart because she did not have any other way of succeeding. (Neal, 2002)
Due to their lack of professional training – in the life drawing room – the Victorian woman would have focussed her energies on painting her surroundings, the home. An example of an artist who did this is Claude Reguet Hirst. Her first works were very typical of women at the time, watercolour studies containing florals or fruit. However, as she progressed her style changed. She continued using watercolours but started to include more masculine items, like smoking accessories in her work. (Neal, 2002) This allowed for her work to be perceived differently from the work of other women – because it gained more attention because of the ‘masculine’ objects that it included. However, she remained within the limited area of Still Life that was seen as acceptable for women.
Fig 2.1, Claude Reguet Hirst, A Gentleman’s table, after 1890, Oil on canvas, 18x32in. Image courtesy National Museum of Women in the Arts
Hirst was tactical when it came to choosing what to include in her Still Life compositions. Through choosing more typically masculine things such as smoking accessories, books or playing cards she was able to gain more attention because it was not something that was classically painted by a female. She was also intentional about how she presented her name when it came to the art world:
“Hirst used the abbreviated version of her given name to gain access to the masculine art world. As one of her contemporaries noted in 1894, ‘Claude Reguet Hirst, who by the way, is generally supposed to be a man…’ It was necessary and successful confusion for Hirst; after all what (male) patron wanted to view masculine smoking paraphernalia depicted by a woman? Too, this gender confusion undoubtedly allowed her work to be evaluated on its merits rather than as the effort of a woman artist”. (Neal, 2002)
Using the shorthand version of her name gave her some access to the masculine led art world, because people assumed that she was a man. This was necessary for a positive perception of her work and to gain recognition, because if it was known that she was a woman her ‘masculine’ Still Lifes would be less successful. This was because men did not want to view something masculine made by a woman, it would have felt backwards and impossible to them. This meant that Hirst’s work could fly under the radar, and it was viewed and credited for it’s merit rather than the efforts of a woman. This is how work should be judged, with unbiased opinion. With no thought to the artist’s gender, because “if men and women are seen as fundamentally different and separate, then equality becomes impossible.” (Gorrill, 2019, p22) However, at the time it was clever of Hirst to manipulate the view of her work, when it was difficult for women to gain any recognition.
Women artists in the past were underappreciated. This could be because of their participation in ‘feminine’ subjects: “Women’s arts have historically been associated with the domestic, with crafts that are on the lowest scale of the art hierarchy.” (Casey, 2016) Anything made by a woman, was therefore undervalued because of it’s connected to the domestic. But women were limited, so could not make their way up the ‘Art Hierarchy’.
Alternatively, it could have been because of the negative view society held of women. It was thought that women could not succeed as artists, that their role was tied to the home. What a woman did at the time would have been to serve a man, and her artistic ambitions did not do this:
“The Pre-Raphaelites primarily equated women with muse, ‘women is not a poet. She is either muse or she is nothing.” (Anderson, 2001)
This shows the harsh image that was held of women. They were viewed as being incapable of creating anything worthwhile except from inspiring men or their art practice. They were permitted to look pretty and inspire men, but they could not achieve greatness themselves. This promoted the idea that women were objects only used to advance the careers of men, this can be seen in ‘Why have there been no great women artists?’ by Linda Nochlin:
“it is all right for a (‘low’ of course) woman to reveal herself naked-as-anobject for a group of men, but forbidden to a woman to participate in the active study and recording of naked-man-as-an-object, or even of a fellow woman.” (Nochlin, 1971)
This furthered the idea that women were only useful if they could do something that benefited men. They could be things of beauty to further the practice of a man, but they were not able to be successful on their own. This shows that women’s artwork was judged differently to the work of a man not only because of their limitations to portraying the domestic setting but because of the view that was held of women at the time. Anything that was seen remotely domestic was not given the same attention, this and the attitude towards women was more about control than anything else.
“The role of women artists has therefore been a contradictory though a strategic one: Women’s practice in art has never been absolutely forbidden, discouraged or refused, but rather contained and limited to its function as the means by which masculinity gains and sustains It’s supremacy in the important sphere of cultural production.” (Osbourne, 1982)
Although there have always been women artists, there have been severe limitations set against them, and while they were not outright discouraged from taking part in artistic hobbies, they were persuaded to take the lighter more dainty side of both genre and materials like watercolours. (Gorrill, 2018) Women were contained in their artistic ambitions as to allow the male artist to succeed more:
“In terms of art, Gilman (1911) stated that men have interfered with the art of women as men hold women at a level of domestic servitude while they themselves reach high levels of achievement.” (Casey, 2016)
If women had the same opportunities as men in the past there would have not been the same control over women and their artistic achievements. This would have damaged the society which was dominated by the masculine.
To compare this to contemporary women who paint the domestic setting the work of Cynthia Poole will be discussed. Her work has similarities to Claude Reguet Hirst’s regarding composition and what she paints. Poole paints things from daily life (Poole,2024), which can be seen in these two pieces:
Fig 2.2, Cynthia Poole, ‘Deliberate arrangements I’ (2014) and ‘Deliberate arrangements II’ (2015). Acrylic on canvas, 80 x 100cm each. Image courtesy Plus one Gallery.
When Cynthia Poole references her artwork she says: “I am mainly interested in the forms, surfaces and signage of everyday things in their normal context. I prefer objects which are plain and functional, their forms not obscured by decoration.” (Poole, 2024) To explore these works by Poole further, I will be looking at them through the lens of Roland Barthes’ ‘Death of the Author’.“For Barthes, authors are always“dead”in the sense that they are not significant and do not control the text we are reading, or the reading process.” (Seymour, 2017, p10). Artwork can also be assessed this way, where what the artist intended is not considered and the artwork can be analysed without interference from the artist.
Looking at both paintings using Barthes’ theory I would say that Poole, like many other contemporary women, is drawn to painting the domestic. However, her interest in the subject is not because it is a ‘gendered subject’
or she feels she must contain herself to the domestic, but because she is interested in her surroundings, not for a deeper or more profound reason. While contemporary women are not restricted to the home, it is evident that scenes from the domestic setting do crop up frequently in the work of modern-day women:
“‘The turn to the domestic’ and the iconography of the ‘home’ has undoubtedly featured prominently in the work of many contemporary women artists.” (Perry, 2004, p8)
This could suggest why Cynthia Poole chooses to paint from daily life. She has an interest for daily life and what surrounds her, but in contrast to Victorian women, this is a choice. Cynthia Poole paints daily life because it interests her, not because it is what she is restricted to. This shows that even though they have freedom of genre women are still painting from the home, but with enjoyment because it is no longer a sign of bondage. (Birrell, 2021, p8)
Women still choose to paint still life, but not any more than men do (Gorrill, 2019, p36) so if it is more equal Still life must no longer represent bondage. Women, like Cynthia Poole are choosing to paint the domestic because of choice, not because of limitations. Therefore, women are connected to the domestic but in the same way as the women who came before them. The choice to paint the domestic setting for contemporary women might still be a difficult choice because for fear of their art being judged differently, if it is obvious it was created by a woman. (Perry, 2004, p48) However, painting still life is now one of many options available to women. Women choosing to paint Still life does not feminise it or mean it demands less attention.
Chapter 3
Should women ditch the stitch? – Women and their relationship to embroidery and the idea of craft
Needlework, embroidery and craft have been associated with women for centuries. This is because of women’s connection to the domestic, it was more accessible for them to take part in because they could do it from the confinement of the home. (Edwards, 2006) This chapter will discuss the low view that society had of embroidery and craft in the late-post Victorian era, and how it kept women in their place. (Von Falke and Gorrill, 2022) Compared to the views on contemporary craft and embroidery. Discussing why some women will not associate themselves with craft because of it’s association with women’s confinement. (Thompson, 2022) I am seeking to argue that ‘Art’ and ‘Craft’ are interchangeable, and one should not hold more value than the other.
The ‘higher’ areas of art in the late-post Victorian era were reserved for men, which meant that women would focus their efforts on the‘lesser’arts, which often included craft, specifically embroidery at the time. Women were bound to the domestic setting, therefore anything made in that area was seen as feminine and deemed ‘lesser’ than other art forms.
“The highest levels of art were then disassociated with any indications of the feminine and instead imbued with masculine values (Collins 1979)” (Edwards, 2006)
This shows that anything feminine, like embroidery, could not have success, which sets men up to succeed while women were set up to fail. The highest levels of art were aligned with ‘masculine’ ideals while anything ‘feminine’ was not deemed art. This was more about control than anything else. To examine the idea of Victorian society’s control over women, I will be referencing “Women’s Aesthetic Mission” by Jacob Von Falke and analysed by Helen Gørrill. (Von Falke and Gørrill, 2022)
Jacob Von Falke wrote this chapter to advise women on their artistic proclivities, his intention may have been to advise but it comes across as criticism of their efforts. “He states clearly that he aims to uncover the ‘limits’ of women’s aesthetic mission” (Von Falke and Gørrill, 2022, p11) When Gørrill analyses this chapter she uncovers that Von Falke had nothing positive to say about women’s artwork, only that it could have been done
better by a man. Von Falke believed that women were biologically inferior. Due to this idea, he had the conception, aligned with society, that women –and their art – needed discipline. It was hold they could have on women, putting them in their place and making them feel inferior, disrupting their artistic aspirations.
Linking back to the idea that women were not artists, simply muse (Anderson, 2001) Von Falke states that women “should be herself the noblest ornament in her ornamented dwelling” (Von Falke and Gørrill, 2022, p31) This again shows the oppression of women. It describes how the ambitions of women were controlled by men. It is not only her worth as an artist that is disregarded and tied to the domestic, but her own personal worth is built on appearance. The most important thing for a woman was to be beautiful and obedientto what society deemedacceptable. Healso does not mask his thoughts on women’s work, but bluntly describes it as bad:
“If I were looking for a collection of bad work, I should only have to enter one of the shops where embroideries are sold, or to remember such an exhibition of women’s artistic work.” (Von Falke and Gørrill, 2022, p33)
He states that to think of bad embroidery one must simply think of the work of women. This suggests not only a hatred for women’s art but a hatred for the gender itself. This need to tear woman down could merely be another sign of a man wanting to feel control over ‘the fairer sex’ as he calls it.
Arguably this negative view of women is the main reason for craft being underappreciated. Craft and embroidery were dominated by women so therefore were not held in the same regard as art made by men.
“When women embroider, it is seen not as art, but entirely as the expression of femininity. And, crucially, it is categorised as craft.” (Parker, 2010, p5)
So therefore, if something expresses femininity it is not considered art? And lowered to the label of ‘craft’. Does this suggest that anything with a hint of feminine energy is disregarded and thought of as lesser? This idea does align with what has already been discussed where florals and Still Life, like embroidery, were reserved for women so therefore were not viewed with the ‘higher levels’ of art, so received less attention. (Edwards, 2006). I would argue that it is wrong to separate art and craft. Just because things like embroidery are created within the domestic realm does not mean they are any less worthy of attention or appreciation.
It is evident that it is more about who makes the artwork that reveals it’s value. (Parker, 2010, p5) Why was needlework, that often had more labour put into it not equal to other areas of fine art? It could be argued that embroidery is only considered less significant because it is connected to women. Would there still be this opinion of embroidery if it was made by men? Probably not, which suggests that the value of a work is solely determined by who makes it:
“Once again shifts of artistic ideology touched and transformed areas of predominantly female practices.” (Parker and Pollock, 2021, p38)
When men start to be more interested in areas that are considered ‘feminine’, things shift and are no longer considered that way. Showing that things are shaped to benefit men. Therefore, things like floral Still Life and embroidery would not be seen as ‘lesser’ arts or ‘craft’, but praised, if they were created by a man rather than a woman. Therefore, displaying that it is who makes the artwork that reveals it’s value and makes it popular.
Embroidery and craft were popular with women not only in late-post Victorian times but currently. The skills that these women had were passed from generation to generation. (Morrell, 1994, p123) many women come to have a love for needlework because of who taught them. The artist speaking about her work here in “Contemporary embroidery – exciting and innovative textile art” by Anne Morrell, mentions that she used embroidery in her practice even though it was not common to do at art school. It could be considered admirable that she chose to partake in a ‘feminine’ subject even though it was different from everyone around her in art school, even if it effected the view on her work.
This leads to a discussion on different attitudes that contemporary woman artists have on activities traditionally considered ‘craft’. One attitude these artists may have is that they avoid traditionally feminine activities because of it’s association with women’s confinement, which is directly connected to the work of Victorian woman and their relationship with craft:
“Domestic handicraft consequently became closely associated with middle-class women’s homebound status, a connection that accounts for both the passionate advocacy and bitter renunciation with which woman described it during the nineteenth century.” (Schaffer, 2011, p6)
Craft came hand in hand with women’s confinement to the domestic setting, which does explain why some women have a complicated relationship with ‘Craft’. Sewing and making things at home represented a way that women could express themselves at the time, but it also represented their isolation. These women were also constantly making things for the benefit of others, not for themselves, which could also explain why women have differing relationships with craft today, as it again puts women in the box of only creating to benefit others and not for their own joy or prosperity. The service of others was above the service of herself. (Thompson, 2022)
Due to craft being linked to the domestic and something that kept women occupied, (Grace and Gandolfo, 2014) It suggests why craftmaking may not align with what some contemporary women artists partake in, because it represents the confinement of past women, and something that was not worth crediting. This is why it may be seen as controversial for women to craft today, even so it was a crucial part of women’s practice in the past and it is often forgotten and not seen as worthy enough to be considered ‘real art’, merely craft. But why can feminism and craft not go hand in hand?
“Feminism has had a complex relationship with craft, certainly some second wave feminists who wanted to free women from the domestic sphere and create opportunities for them to pursue an education and professional work, rejected craft. However, other feminists such as the artists Judy Chicago who used a range of textile crafts in her installation The DinnerParty (1970s), a political work that challenged the omission of women from history, have argued for and continue to argue for the importance of valuing craft and craftmaking practices.” (Grace and Gandolfo, 2014)
Why is it not deemed acceptable for the contemporary women to identify as feminists as well as craftswomen? They are liberated women who should be able to pursue whatever they wish. They can now advance their careers through access to education and the ability to adopt any subject, but this also means that they should be able to choose craft if that is what they desire. The idea that they cannot choose craft does not feel like progress at all. Women should not have to abandon typically feminine activities for the sake of ‘progress’. If we want equality and for all women’s work to be visible, we should not be discriminating against women who have more traditionally feminine crafts, because it does not make their work any less worthy. Craftmaking practices hold skill and value and should not be forgotten about
or disregarded as something women only did in the past because they had no other option.
This leads us to discuss the other attitude that some contemporary women have of craft. Which is that they partake in it because they love it, not conforming to the idea that it is ‘anti-feminist’ and revelling in the subversiveness of their work, pushing against people putting women’s work in boxes, reclaiming feminine activities and doing things because they want to and not because it is expected of them:
“Domesticity was considered “a prison and a constraint” … Others argued that these domestic activities should be used to resist and subvert feminist ideals.” (Thompson, 2022)
Some feminists feel these activities should be left behind because they represent the oppression of past women, but others argue that more domestic activities should be used to resist the notion of being confined to domestic activities. To reclaim the feminine and disturb traditionally female principles.
“They are not willing to live within the ambiguity and paradoxes, but rather take pleasure from the subversiveness of being who they are rather than conforming to the stereotypes of what others may expect.” (Grace and Gandolfo, 2014)
This shows the love that these women have for their craft. They are doing things outside what is expected of them, keeping to their traditionally feminine activities rather than conforming to more ‘progressive’ subject matters. It states here that women took ‘pleasure from the subversiveness of being who they are’ which presents an interesting picture because if this is true both women from the past and the present could be described as subversive. In the past because they were embroidering not only because it was what was expected of them, and they had to be obedient but because it was a way they could be creative and they had a love for their art. (Parker, 2010) In comparison today women are embroidering because they want to not because they have to, even though the opposite is expected of them. (Grace and Gandolfo, 2014) It is odd to see the transitions that have been made and that when women now choose to do what was forced upon them that is now what is considered controversial.
Conclusion
This dissertation set out to discuss the work of woman artists and their relationship to the areas of Still Life and Craft, through comparing the work of late-post Victorian women to contemporary artists. With the outlook that Art and Craft are equal. This is relevant today because it discusses why certain subject matters are chosen and how this relates to the success of an artists. This cannot be discussed without mentioning the need for equality when it comes to viewing the work of both men and women.
This leads to the conclusion that this dissertation makes on differencing. From the two viewpoints – Griselda Pollock’s (Parker and Pollock, 2021) where it is suggested that the work of men and women should be judged separately, and Linda Nochlin’s (Nochlin, 1971) which suggests that there is no difference in quality between the work of men and women and they should therefore be judged side by side. I conclude that there cannot be equality in the art world if the work of men and women is judged separately, as it suggests that there is a difference in quality between the two. Therefore, men and women’s work should not be separated from one another, as this is the only way equality will be achieved. (Gørrill, 2018)
Throughout this research there has been an understanding that in the latepost Victorian period the societal pressures set against women, for example her confinement to the home and her exclusion from the life drawing room did lead to her choice of subject matter (Nochlin, 1988, p86). This therefore led to her underappreciation as an artist, as Still Life and Craft were seen as the work of women (Thomson, 2022) and a sign of ‘thwarted ambition’ (Birrell, 2021, p8). However, these were the only areas that women were able to participate in, which shows that the art world was set up to benefit men. (Casey, 2016) It was also set up this way because it was seen that a woman could not do anything unless it benefitted somebody else, she could be beautiful and obedient and a ‘muse’ (Anderson, 2001) but not be a successful artist herself. Showing why female artists were not able of achieving greatness, at least not the same kind of greatness as their male counterparts.
This leads on to conclusions on why some women may not participate in Still Life or Craft today. One reason that some women do not want to paint from the domestic setting or paint florals is because of concerns about their work coming across as ‘too feminine’ and that being used as an insult. (Perry,
2004, p49) (Cervin, 2013, p45) The reasons why some contemporary women do not want to participate in craft are that – one it is not considered in equal merit to other areas of fine art, despite the labour put in. (Parker, 2010) – the other being that it is representative of the oppression of past women and their confinement to the domestic, and they say it feels anti-feminist to participate in. (Thompson, 2022). Although women do still participate in both areas, for example Miranda Boulton and Cynthia Poole who still choose to paint florals and scenes from the domestic. And many women choose to still participate in Craft. subversively, taking part in it because they love it and not stopping because that is what is expected of them.
In conclusion, there are clear parallels between Late - Post Victorian and Contemporary female artists, comparing coercive restrictions to limit subject matter compared to the latter’s choice to embrace Still Lifes and Craft. The fact that ‘feminine’ is used as a term of derision further demonstrates how the misogynistic, traditional fine art world perpetuated the devaluation of women and their contribution. This situation is further evidenced by the general delta that exists in the financial valuation of female artists work in comparison to their male counterparts. (Bocart, Getsberg and Powell, 2022)
• Anderson, A. (2001) ‘Life into art and art into life: visualising the aesthetic woman or “high art maiden” of the Victorian “renaissance”’, Women’s history review, 10(3), pp. 441–462. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/09612020100200290.
• Birrell, R. (2021) This Dark Country: Women Artists, Still Life and IntimacyintheEarlyTwentiethCentury. London: Bloomsbury.
• Bocart, F.Y.R.P., Gertsberg, M. and Pownall, R.A.J. (2022) ‘An empirical analysis of price differences for male and female artists in the global art market’, Journal of cultural economics, 46(3), pp. 543–565. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10824-020-09403-2.
• Boulton, M (2021) Exploring time IV [Oil and acrylic spray paint on canvas]. Available at: Miranda Boulton, Exploring Time IV , 2021 | Cynthia Corbett Gallery (Accessed: 05/11/2024).
• Boulton, M (2023) Wildflower soul II [Oil and acrylic spray paint on canvas]. Available at: Miranda Boulton, Wildflower Soul II, 2023 | Cynthia Corbett Gallery (thecynthiacorbettgallery.com) (Accessed: 05/11/2024).
• Carrington, D (1927) Dahlias [Oil on canvas]. Available at: Dahlias by Dora Carrington on artnet (Accessed: 05/11/2024).
• Casey, B. (2016) (Women) Artists and the Gender Gap (Museum): An Analysis of Inequality, Invisibility and Underrepresentation, a Case Study at the Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Nebraska. Available at: https://doi.org/info:doi/.
• Cervin, J. (2013). Flowers in a contemporary painting practice (Master's thesis) Available at: DSpace (Accessed: 03/01/2025)
• COWEN, T. (1996) ‘Why Women Succeed, and Fail, in the Arts’, Journal of cultural economics, 20(2), pp. 93–113. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10824-005-3113-8. (Accessed: 03/01/2025)
• Delikat, D.M., 2017. Facing Mortality: Death in the Life and Work of Damien Hirst, Available at: Facing Mortality: Death in the Life and Work of Damien Hirst (Accessed: 03/01/2025)
• Digby, A., (1992) Victorian values and women in public and private. In Proceedings of the British Academy (Vol. 78, pp. 195-215).
• Edwards, C. (2006) '"Home is Where the Art is": Women, Handicrafts and Home Improvements 1750 - 1900', Journal of Design History, Volume 19, Issue 1, pp 11-21. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jdh/epk002
• Gombrich, E.H. (Ernst H. (1995) The story of art. 16th rev ed. London: Phaidon Press.
• Gørrill, H. (2018) ‘Disrupting the Masculine Canon in Fine Art Education: Equal Futures through More Female Role Models’, The International Journal of the Arts in Society: Annual Review, 13(1), pp. 23–33. Available at: https://doi.org/10.18848/18331866/CGP/v13i01/23-33.
• Gørrill, H. (2019) Women can’t paint : gender, the glass ceiling and values in contemporaryart. New York: Bloomsbury Visual Arts.
• Grace, M., & Gandolfo, E. (2014). Narrating complex identities: Contemporary women and craft. Women’s Studies International Forum, 47, 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2014.07.010
• Hessel, K. (2022) The story of art without men. London: Hutchinson Heinemann.
• Hirst, C (after 1890) A Gentleman's Table [Oil on canvas]. Available at: Claude Raguet Hirst | Artist Profile | NMWA (Accessed: 05/11/2024).
• Morrell, A. (1994) Contemporary embroidery : exciting and innovative textile art. Studio Vista.
• Neal, C.C. (2002) ‘Claude Raguet Hirst: Her [Still] Life Story’, Woman’s art journal, 23(1), pp. 11–16. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/1358962.
• Nochlin, L. (1971) 'Why have there been no great women artists?' Available online at: https://www.writing.upenn.edu/library/NochlinLinda_Why-Have-There-Been-No-Great-Women-Artists.pdf (Accessed 23/09/2024)
• Nochlin, L. (1988) Women, art, and power and other essays. Thames & Hudson.
• Nugent, G. (2023) 'Celebrating Woman Artists and Forgetting Feminist Art Histories', Burlington Contemporary, (23 March). Available at: Burlington Contemporary - Articles (Accessed: 02/10/2024)
• Nunn, P. (2017). Problem pictures: women and men in Victorian painting. Routledge.
• Osbourne, C (1982) ‘Old Mistresses: Women, Art and Ideology’ (1982) Feminist review, 12(1), pp. 108–110. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.1982.35.
• Parker, R. (2010) The subversive stitch :embroideryand themaking of the feminine. New ed. London: I. B. Tauris.
• Parker, R. and Pollock, G. (2021) Old mistresses : women, art and ideology. London, England: Bloomsbury Academic.
• Perry, G. (2004) Difference and excess in contemporary art: the visibility of women’s practice. Malden, Mass.; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
• Poole, C (2014/15) Deliberate arrangements I and II [Acrylic on canvas]. Available at: Artist in Focus: Cynthina Poole | Plus One Gallery(Accessed: 05/11/2024).
• Poole, C. (2024) Cynthia Poole. Available at: home - Cynthia Poole (Accessed: 30/10/2024).
• Schaffer, T. (2011). Novel craft: Victorian domestic handicraft and nineteenth-centuryfiction (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Seymour, L. (2017). AMacatanalysisof Roland Barthes’sthe deathof theauthor. Macat.
• The Cynthia Corbett Gallery (2024) Miranda Boulton. Available at: Miranda Boulton - Biography | Cynthia Corbett Gallery (thecynthiacorbettgallery.com) (Accessed: 05/11/2024).
• Thompson, E. (2022). Labour of love: Garment sewing, gender, and domesticity. Women’s Studies International Forum, 90, 102561-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2022.102561
• Von Falke, J. and Gørrill, H. (2022) Woman’s Aesthetic Mission. Independently Published.